diff options
| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:09:24 -0700 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:09:24 -0700 |
| commit | 24ef582fdf790a5b28ad657d372f7e52b4de93d8 (patch) | |
| tree | be55315c6e064d0f1ebfc8483611a4c71565bb3b /38046-h | |
Diffstat (limited to '38046-h')
| -rw-r--r-- | 38046-h/38046-h.htm | 21610 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38046-h/images/a_with_tack.png | bin | 0 -> 176 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38046-h/images/bracket.png | bin | 0 -> 364 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38046-h/images/bracket2-l.png | bin | 0 -> 233 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38046-h/images/bracket2-l2.png | bin | 0 -> 1027 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38046-h/images/bracket2-r.png | bin | 0 -> 233 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38046-h/images/bracket3-l.png | bin | 0 -> 279 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38046-h/images/bracket3-r.png | bin | 0 -> 276 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38046-h/images/bracket_106a.png | bin | 0 -> 417 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38046-h/images/bracket_106b.png | bin | 0 -> 330 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38046-h/images/gs241.png | bin | 0 -> 4316 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38046-h/images/gs340.png | bin | 0 -> 11546 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38046-h/images/gs341.png | bin | 0 -> 12768 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38046-h/images/gs345.png | bin | 0 -> 11417 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38046-h/images/gs346.png | bin | 0 -> 20688 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38046-h/images/gs347.png | bin | 0 -> 9777 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38046-h/images/gs348a.png | bin | 0 -> 17967 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38046-h/images/gs348b.png | bin | 0 -> 6856 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38046-h/images/gs349.png | bin | 0 -> 16000 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38046-h/images/gs350.png | bin | 0 -> 15339 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38046-h/images/long_bracket_l.png | bin | 0 -> 410 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38046-h/images/med_bracket_l.png | bin | 0 -> 312 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38046-h/images/page_171.png | bin | 0 -> 50090 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38046-h/images/page_172.png | bin | 0 -> 62516 bytes |
24 files changed, 21610 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/38046-h/38046-h.htm b/38046-h/38046-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3c76796 --- /dev/null +++ b/38046-h/38046-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,21610 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" /> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Business English, by Rose Buhlig</title> + <style type="text/css"> + + p {margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + text-indent: 1.25em; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + img {border: 0;} + .tnote {border: dashed 1px; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; padding-bottom: .5em; padding-top: .5em; + padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em;} + ins {text-decoration:none; border-bottom: thin dotted gray;} + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + } /* page numbers */ + .copyright {text-align: center; font-size: 70%;} + .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 15%; text-align: justify;} + .blockquot2{margin-left: 25%; margin-right: 25%; text-align: justify;} + + .bbox {border: solid 2px; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; padding-bottom: .5em; padding-top: .5em; + padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em;} + .small {font-size: 70%;} + .big {font-size: 110%;} + .author {font-size: 120%; text-align: center;} + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + .chaptertitle {text-align: center; font-size: 110%; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 1.5em;} + + .caption {font-weight: bold; font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + + .figleft {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: + 1em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .figright {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .unindent {margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + .right {text-align: right;} + .poem {margin-left: 30%; text-align: left;} + .poem2 {margin-left: 15%; text-align: left;} + .sig {margin-right: 10%; text-align: right;} + .u {text-decoration: underline;} + + .footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align:baseline; + position: relative; + bottom: 0.33em; + font-size: .8em; + text-decoration: none;} + .hang1 {text-indent: -6em; margin-left: 6em;} + + hr.full { width: 100%; + margin-top: 3em; + margin-bottom: 0em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + height: 4px; + border-width: 4px 0 0 0; /* remove all borders except the top one */ + border-style: solid; + border-color: #000000; + clear: both; } + pre {font-size: 85%;} + </style> +</head> +<body> +<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Business English, by Rose Buhlig</h1> +<pre> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre> +<p>Title: Business English</p> +<p> A Practice Book</p> +<p>Author: Rose Buhlig</p> +<p>Release Date: November 18, 2011 [eBook #38046]</p> +<p>Language: English</p> +<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p> +<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUSINESS ENGLISH***</p> +<p> </p> +<h3>E-text prepared by<br /> + Suzanne Lybarger, Brian Janes, Emmy,<br /> + and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> + (http://www.pgdp.net)</h3> +<p> </p> +<hr class="full" /> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[i]</a></span></p> + +<h1>BUSINESS ENGLISH</h1> + +<h2>A PRACTICE BOOK</h2> + +<div class='center'>BY<br /> + +<span class='author'>ROSE BUHLIG</span><br /> + +<span class='small'>TILDEN HIGH SCHOOL, CHICAGO</span><br /> + + +<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> +D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS<br /> +<span class='small'>BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO</span><br /> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[ii]</a></span></p> + + + + +<div class='copyright'> +<span class="smcap">Copyright, 1914,<br /> +By D. C. Heath & Co.</span><br /> +2FI<br /> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span></p> + +<h2>PREFACE</h2> + + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> author of this book and the writer of this preface have +never met. Their respective fields of labor are a thousand miles +apart. Yet such is the force of ideas that many of their thoughts +and sympathies are common.</p> + +<p>Business English! The very name is an anomaly. From a +literary point of view there is no such thing. English is English +whether it be used to express the creations of our imagination, +our aesthetic appreciations, or our daily wants. There is +no magical combination of words, phrases, and sentences that is +peculiar and distinctive to business transactions. Business English +as used in these pages means effective communication, both +oral and written. The author's aim throughout has been to +teach the art of using words in such a way as to make people +think and act. To do this she has applied the principles of literary +composition to the highly complex and ever increasing +problems of our business life. She realizes that business is vital, +and that the problems of commerce are not to be met and +handled with dead forms and stereotyped expressions of legal +blanks.</p> + +<p>To use our language effectively it is necessary to have an +understanding of its elements. Thus the author has very wisely +devoted much space to word-study and English grammar. This +is a field commonly neglected in books on the subject. The +people engaged in business are, on the whole, woefully weak in +the grammar of our language. It is believed that the treatment +herein will be a great aid in correcting this deficiency. If we +have ideas, we must express them in words, and our words +should be so chosen and arranged as not to offend, but to please +and interest. This result can be secured by a systematic study +of Part I.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span></p> + +<p>Part II deals with oral and written composition. Here the +author has arranged her subjects in such a way as to give the +whole a cumulative effect. The method throughout is inductive, +and sufficient examples are always given to warrant the +conclusions drawn. Most textbooks on Business English neglect +the subject of oral English. This book regards the spoken word +as important as the written word.</p> + +<p>If there be any one feature in this textbook more to be commended +than another, it is the exposition in Part III. The +situations arising in many different kinds of business are here +analyzed. The author believes that the way to become a good +business correspondent is, first, to learn what the situation +demands and, second, to practice meeting the demands. We +must know before we write. Given a knowledge of the subject, +we must have much practice in expressing ourselves in such a +way as to make our composition effective. The author meets +this need by supplying many and varied exercises for practice. +These exercises are live, practical, and up-to-date. The problems +to be solved are real, not imaginary. Thus the power to +be gained in meeting these situations and solving these problems +will prove a real asset to those who contemplate a business +career. It is confidently hoped that both teachers and pupils +will find in this work material which will help them to prepare +themselves to meet the many problems and demands of our +growing commercial needs.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +<span class="smcap">Daniel B. Duncan</span><br /> +</div> + +<div> +<span class="smcap">Columbia University</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><i>January, 1914.</i></span><br /> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p> + +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><span class="smcap">Part I—Word Study and Grammar</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' colspan='2'><span class="smcap"><span class='small'>Chapter</span></span> </td><td align='right'><span class="smcap"><span class='small'>Page</span></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>I </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Interesting Words</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>II </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Pronunciation</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>III </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Spelling Rules</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>IV </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Word Analysis</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>V </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Sentence and its Elements</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>VI </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Noun and the Pronoun</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>VII </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Adjective and the Adverb</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>VIII </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Verb</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>IX </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Preposition and the Conjunction</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><br /><span class="smcap">Part II—Composition: Oral and Written</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>X </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Oral English</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XI </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Choosing Subjects</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XII </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Punctuation</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XIII </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Clear Sentence</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_199">199</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XIV </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Paragraph</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XV </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Business Letters</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_229">229</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><br /><span class="smcap">Part III—Composition: Business Practice</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XVI </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Manufacture</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_270">270</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XVII </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Distribution</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_282">282</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XVIII </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Advertising</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_308">308</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XIX </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Real Estate and Insurance</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_321">321</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XX </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Banking</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_332">332</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XXI </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Corporation</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_353">353</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Index</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_369">369</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> +<h2>BUSINESS ENGLISH</h2> + + + + +<h2>PART I—WORD STUDY AND GRAMMAR</h2> + + + + +<h2>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<div class='chaptertitle'>INTERESTING WORDS</div> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Business</span> English is the expression of our commercial life +in English. It is not synonymous with letter writing. To +be sure, business letters are important, but they form only a +part of one of the two large divisions into which the subject +naturally falls.</p> + +<p>First, there is <i>oral expression</i>, important because so many +of our business transactions are conducted personally. +Thousands of salesmen daily move from place to place over +the entire country, earning their salaries by talking convincingly +of the goods that they have to sell. A still greater +number of clerks, salesmen, managers, and officials orally +transact business in our shops, stores, offices, and banks. +Complaints are adjusted; difficulties are disentangled; and +affairs of magnitude are consummated in personal interviews, +the matter under discussion often being thought too +important to be entrusted to correspondence. In every +business oral English is essential.</p> + +<p>Second, there is <i>written expression</i>. This takes account of +the writing of advertisements, circulars, booklets, and prospectuses, +as well as of letters. And in the preparation of +these oral English is fundamental. It precedes and practically +includes the written expression. For example, we +say colloquially that a good advertisement "talks." We +mean that the writer has so fully realized the buyer's point +of view that the words of the advertisement seem to speak +directly to the reader, arousing his interest or perhaps answering<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> +his objection. Oral English is fundamental, too, in the +writing of letters, for most letters are dictated and not written. +The correspondent dictates them to his stenographer or +to a recording machine in the same tone, probably, that he +would use if the customer were sitting before him.</p> + +<p>But in taking this point of view, we should not minimize +the importance of written business English. In a way, it is +more difficult to write well than it is to talk well. In talking +we are not troubled with the problems of correct spelling, +proper punctuation, and good paragraphing. We may even +repeat somewhat, if only we are persuasive. But in writing +we are confronted with the necessity of putting the best +thoughts into the clearest, most concise language, at the +same time obeying all the rules of spelling, punctuation, and +grammar. The business man must be sure of these details +in order to know that his letters and advertising matter are +correct. The stenographer, especially, must be thoroughly +familiar with them, so that she may correctly transcribe +what has been dictated.</p> + +<p>Business English is much the same as any other English. +It consists in expression by means of words, sentences, and +paragraphs. Moreover, they are much the same kind of +words, sentences, and paragraphs that appear in any book +that is written in what is commonly called the literary style. +In a business letter the words are largely those of every day +use, and but few are technical. It is the manner in which +the words are put together, the idea back of the sentence, +that makes the only difference.</p> + +<p>We shall begin the study of business English with a study +of words, for in all expression, whether oral or written, a +knowledge of words, of their meaning and suggestive power, +is fundamental. On the choice of words depends not only +the correctness but also the effectiveness of expression—the +courtesy of a letter, the appeal of an advertisement, the persuasiveness +of a salesman's talk. A mastery of words cannot<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> +be gained at once. Every time one speaks, he must consider +what words will best convey his idea. In this chapter +only the barest beginning of such study can be made. The +exercises show the value of the subject.</p> + +<p>The study of words is interesting because words themselves +are interesting. Sometimes the interest consists in the +story of the derivation. As an example, consider the word +<i>italic</i>. Many words in this book are written in italic to draw +attention to them. Literally the word means "relating to +Italy or its people." It is now applied to a kind of type in +which the letters slope toward the right. The type was +called italic because it was dedicated to the states of Italy +by the inventor, Manutius, about the year 1500. An unabridged +dictionary will tell all about the word.</p> + +<p>The word <i>salary</i> tells a curious story. It is derived from +a Latin word, <i>salarium</i>, meaning "salt money." It was the +name of the money that was given to the Roman soldiers +for salt, which was a part of their pay. Finally, instead of +signifying only the salt money, it came to mean the total +pay.</p> + +<p>Practically all of this information a good dictionary +gives. In other words, a dictionary is a story book containing +not one, but hundreds of thousands of stories. +Whenever possible it tells what language a word came from, +how it got its different meanings, and how those meanings +have changed in the course of time. For it is natural that +words should change just as styles change, names of +ancient things being lost and names for new things being +made. As the objects themselves have gone out of use, +their names have also gone. When a word has gone entirely +out of use, it is marked <i>obsolete</i> in the dictionary. +On the other hand, new inventions must be named. Thus +new words are constantly being added to the language and +the dictionary because they are needed.</p> + +<p>There is a large class of words that we shall not have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> +time to consider. They are called <i>technical</i>. Every profession, +business, or trade has its distinctive words. The +technical words that a printer would use are entirely different +from those which a dentist, a bookkeeper, or a lawyer +would use. You will learn the technical terms of your +business most thoroughly after you enter it and see the use +for such terms.</p> + +<p>None of the words, therefore, that you will be asked to +search out in the dictionary are, strictly speaking, technical. +It is evident that it will do you no good to search out the +words in the dictionary, unless you learn them—unless you +use them correctly in speaking and writing. There is pleasure +in thus employing new material, as everybody knows. Use +your eyes and ears. When you hear a new word, or read one, +focus the mind upon it for a moment until you can retain +a mental picture of its spelling and of its pronunciation. +Then as soon as possible look it up in the dictionary to fix its +spelling, pronunciation, and definition. Do this regularly, +and you will have reason to be proud of your vocabulary.</p> + +<p>An excellent way to increase the number of words that +you know is to read the right kind of books. The careful +study of the words used in the speeches and addresses of +noted men is good practice. The conditions that called +forth the speech were probably important, and the speech +itself interesting, or it would not be preserved. When +a man has an interesting or important message to give, he +usually gives it in clear, exact, simple language. Therefore +the vocabulary that he uses is worth copying. As +for stories, there is a kind that furnishes a wealth of material +that modern authors are constantly using or referring +to, and this is found in stories of the Bible, stories of Greek +and Northern gods and goddesses, stories of the <i>Iliad</i>, the +<i>Odyssey</i>, the <i>Æneid</i>, stories of chivalry—all old stories. +Every one should know them well, because they are the +basis of many allusions in which a single word oftentimes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> +suggests a whole story. The meaning of the word <i>herculean</i>, +for instance, is missed if you do not know the +story of Hercules and know that he was famous for +his strength.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 1</b></div> + +<p><i>Atlas</i> is an interesting word. Originally it was the name of +a Greek god, who carried the world on his shoulders. Then +it is supposed that in the sixteenth century the famous +geographer Mercator prefixed his collection of maps with +the picture of Atlas supporting the world. Thus a collection +of maps in a volume came to be called an <i>atlas</i>. Consult +an unabridged dictionary for the origin of each of the +following:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 1"> +<tr><td align='left'>rival </td><td align='left'>fortune </td><td align='left'>cereal </td><td align='left'>boycott</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>dollar </td><td align='left'>finance </td><td align='left'>china </td><td align='left'>derrick</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bankrupt </td><td align='left'>milliner </td><td align='left'>java </td><td align='left'>mercury</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>cash </td><td align='left'>pullman </td><td align='left'>cashmere </td><td align='left'>colossal</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>mint </td><td align='left'>grocer </td><td align='left'>macadam </td><td align='left'>turbine</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 2</b></div> + +<p>The days of the week and the months of the year are +interesting in their derivation. Monday, for example, +represents the day sacred to the Moon as a deity. Explain +the origin of each of the following:</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 2"> +<tr><td align='left'>Sunday </td><td align='left'>Saturday </td><td align='left'>May </td><td align='left'>October</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Tuesday </td><td align='left'>January </td><td align='left'>June </td><td align='left'>November</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wednesday </td><td align='left'>February </td><td align='left'>July </td><td align='left'>December</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Thursday </td><td align='left'>March </td><td align='left'>August</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Friday </td><td align='left'>April </td><td align='left'>September</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 3</b></div> + +<p>Look up the derivation of the following:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exericise 3"> +<tr><td align='left'>cancel </td><td align='left'>bead </td><td align='left'>ambition </td><td align='left'>hospital</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>pecuniary </td><td align='left'>paper </td><td align='left'>influence </td><td align='left'>pavilion</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>cheat </td><td align='left'>book </td><td align='left'>virtue </td><td align='left'>mackintosh</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>speculation </td><td align='left'>bayonet </td><td align='left'>peevish </td><td align='left'>chapel</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>phaëton </td><td align='left'>tawdry </td><td align='left'>disaster </td><td align='left'>omnibus</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span></p> + + + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 4</b></div> + +<p>Explain the origin of each of the following:</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 4"> +<tr><td align='left'>curfew </td><td align='left'>tulip </td><td align='left'>turquoise </td><td align='left'>good-bye</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>pompadour </td><td align='left'>aster </td><td align='left'>amethyst </td><td align='left'>dismal</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>hyacinth </td><td align='left'>dunce </td><td align='left'>tantalize </td><td align='left'>titanic</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>dandelion </td><td align='left'>humor </td><td align='left'>umbrella </td><td align='left'>volcano</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>dahlia </td><td align='left'>villain </td><td align='left'>sandwich </td><td align='left'>tangle</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>begonia </td><td align='left'>echo </td><td align='left'>lunatic </td><td align='left'>babble</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 5</b></div> + +<p>Name the image that each of the following suggests to +you:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 5"> +<tr><td align='left'>howl </td><td align='left'>sputter </td><td align='left'>rasping </td><td align='left'>munch</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>skim </td><td align='left'>prance </td><td align='left'>clatter </td><td align='left'>trickle</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>squeal </td><td align='left'>click </td><td align='left'>wheeze </td><td align='left'>shuffle</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>moan </td><td align='left'>thud </td><td align='left'>trudge </td><td align='left'>bulge</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>squeak </td><td align='left'>patter </td><td align='left'>chuckle </td><td align='left'>gobble</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>squawk </td><td align='left'>spatter </td><td align='left'>toddling </td><td align='left'>swish</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 6</b></div> + +<p>Bring to class a list of words which, because they are the +names of modern inventions, have come into the language +in modern time.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 7</b></div> + +<p>How many words can you name which might be called the +technical terms of school life, words which always carry with +them a suggestion of the school room? Bring in a list of +twenty such words.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 8</b></div> + +<p>How many words can you name which are used only in +the business world? Bring in a list of twenty such words.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 9</b></div> + +<p>How many words can you name which apply particularly +to money and the payment or non-payment of +money? Bring in a list of twenty or more such words.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER II</h2> + +<div class='chaptertitle'>PRONUNCIATION</div> + + +<p><span class="smcap">We</span> are judged by our speech. If we clip syllables, run +words together, or pronounce them incorrectly, we shall +merit the criticism of being careless or even ignorant. Yet +clear enunciation and correct pronunciation are sometimes +difficult. We learn most words by hearing others say them, +and, if we do not hear the true values given to the different +syllables, we shall find it hard to distinguish the correct +from the incorrect forms. Children whose parents speak a +foreign language usually have to watch their speech with +especial care; Germans, for example, find difficulty in saying +<i>th</i> and Irish people in saying <i>oi</i> as in <i>oil</i>. The exercises in +this chapter are given for the purpose of correcting such +habits. The words in the exercises should be pronounced +repeatedly, until the correct forms are instinctive.</p> + +<p>Train the ear to hear the difference between sounds, as +in <i>just</i> and in <i>jest</i>. Don't slide over the final consonant in +such words as <i>going</i> and <i>reading</i>. Watch words containing +<i>wh</i>. The dictionary tells us that <i>where</i> was originally written +<i>hwar</i>, the <i>h</i> coming before the <i>w;</i> and we still pronounce it +so, although we write the <i>w</i> before the <i>h</i>. The word <i>whether</i> +is of the same kind. The dictionary tells us that it was first +spelled <i>hweder</i>. Such words should be carefully noted and +their pronunciation practiced.</p> + +<p>Then there is the habit of slurring syllables. We may +understand what is meant by the expression "C'm' on" or +"Waja say?", but most of us would prefer not to be included +in the class of people who use either. Correct speech +cannot be mastered without an effort.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span></p> + +<p>In the following exercises watch every vowel and every +consonant so that you may give each one its full value.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 10—Diacritical Marks</b></div> + +<p>Although an <i>a</i> is always written <i>a</i>, it is not always given +the same quality or length of sound. When we discover a +new word, it is important that we know exactly the quality +to give each of the vowels in it. For this purpose <i>diacritical +marks</i> have been invented. They are illustrated in the +following list from Webster's <i>International Dictionary</i>.</p> +<p> </p> + +<div class='tnote'><b>Transcriber's Note:</b> Due to the constraints of HTML, +a letter with a tack above such as +<img src="images/a_with_tack.png" width="26" height="37" alt="a with tack above" title="" /> +cannot be displayed. For this reason [+x] has been used to denote +a letter with a tack above it.</div> +<p> </p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Pronunciation key"> +<tr><td align='right'>ā </td><td align='left'>as </td><td align='left'>in </td><td align='left'>āte, fāte, lāb´or</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>[+a]</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>sen´[+a]te, del´ic[+a]te, [+a]e´rial</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>â</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>câre, shâre, pâr´ent</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>ă</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>ăm, ădd, răn´dom</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>ä</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>ärm, fär, fä´ther</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>ȧ</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>ȧsk, grȧss, pȧss, dȧnce</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>a̠</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>fi´na̠l, in´fa̠nt, guid´ānce</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>a̤</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>a̤ll, a̤we, swa̤rm, ta̤lk</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>ē</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>ēve, mēte, serēne´</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>[+e]</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>[+e]vent´, d[+e]pend´, soci´[+e]ty</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>ĕ</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>ĕnd, mĕt, ĕxcuse´, ĕfface´</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>ẽ</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>fẽrn, hẽr, ẽr´mine, ev´ẽr</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'><i>e</i></td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>re´c<i>e</i>nt, de´c<i>e</i>ncy, pru´d<i>e</i>nce</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>ī</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>īce, tīme, sīght, inspīre´</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>[+i]</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>[+i]dea´, tr[+i]bu´nal, b[+i]ol´ogy</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>ĭ</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>ĭll, pĭn, pĭt´y, admĭt´</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>ō</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>ōld, nōte, ō´ver, prōpose´</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>[+o]</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>[+o]bey´, t[+o]bac´co, sor´r[+o]w</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>ô</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>ôrb, lôrd, ôr´der, abhôr´</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>ŏ</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>ŏdd, nŏt, tŏr´rid, ŏccur´</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>ū</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>ūse, pūre, dū´ty, assūme´</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>[+u]</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>[+u]nite´, ac´t[+u]ate, ed[+u]ca´tion</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>ṳ</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>rṳde, rṳ´mor, intrṳde´</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>ụ</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>fụll, pụt, fụlfill´</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>ŭ</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>ŭp, tŭb, stŭd´y</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>û</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>ûrn, fûr, concûr´</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>y̆</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>pit´y̆, in´jury̆, divin´ity̆</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>o͞o</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>fo͞ol, fo͞od, mo͞on</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>o͝o</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>fo͝ot, wo͝ol, bo͝ok</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>ou</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>out, thou, devour´</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>oi</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>oil, noi´sy, avoid´</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span><br /></p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Pronunciation names"> +<tr><td align='left'>ā is called long <i>a</i>, and is marked with the <i>macron</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ă is called short <i>a</i>, and is marked with the <i>breve</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>â is called caret <i>a</i>, and is marked with the <i>caret</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ä is called Italian <i>a</i>, and is marked with the <i>diaeresis</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ȧ is called short Italian <i>a</i>, and is marked with the <i>dot</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ẽ is called tilde <i>e</i>, and is marked with the <i>tilde</i> or <i>wave</i></td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 11—Vowels</b></div> + +<p>Of the twenty-six letters in the alphabet, how many are +vowels? Name them. What are the other letters called?</p> + +<p>Compare the <i>ă</i> in <i>hat</i> and the <i>ā</i> in <i>hate</i>. Which has +more nearly the sound of <i>a</i> in the alphabet? This is +called the natural or long sound of the vowel. The other +is called the short sound.</p> + +<p>Drop the <i>e</i> from <i>hate</i>. Explain the result.</p> + +<p>Name other monosyllables ending in <i>e</i> and containing the +long <i>a</i> sound.</p> + +<p>Explain the difference in pronunciation between <i>Pete</i>, +<i>pet</i>, <i>ripe</i>, <i>rip</i>, <i>hope</i>, <i>hop</i>, <i>cube</i>, <i>cub</i>.</p> + +<p>Find other monosyllables ending in <i>e</i> and containing a +long vowel that becomes short if the <i>e</i> is dropped.</p> + +<p><b>Monosyllables ending in silent <i>e</i> usually contain a long +vowel sound, which becomes short when the final <i>e</i> is +dropped.</b></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 12</b></div> + +<p>Pronounce carefully the following words containing the +short Italian <i>a:</i></p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Italian short a words"> +<tr><td align='left'>advȧnce</td><td align='left'>clȧss</td><td align='left'>lȧnce</td><td align='left'>plȧster</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>advȧntage </td><td align='left'>contrȧst </td><td align='left'>lȧst</td><td align='left'>pȧstor</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ȧfter</td><td align='left'>enchȧnt</td><td align='left'>mȧsk</td><td align='left'>prȧnce</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bȧsket</td><td align='left'>Frȧnce</td><td align='left'>mȧster</td><td align='left'>rȧfter</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>brȧnch</td><td align='left'>glȧnce</td><td align='left'>mȧstiff </td><td align='left'>shȧft</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>brȧss</td><td align='left'>glȧss</td><td align='left'>pȧss</td><td align='left'>surpȧss</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>chȧff</td><td align='left'>grȧss</td><td align='left'>pȧst</td><td align='left'>tȧsk</td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 13</b></div> + +<p>Pronounce the following carefully, noting each <i>a</i> that is +marked:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span></p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 13"> +<tr><td align='left'>hälf</td><td align='left'>ideȧ</td><td align='left'>cälm</td><td align='left'>audācious</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>pȧth</td><td align='left'>cȧn't</td><td align='left'>āpricot</td><td align='left'>ȧghȧst</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ȧsk</td><td align='left'>cătch</td><td align='left'>mȧdrăs </td><td align='left'>ălgebrȧ</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>fäther </td><td align='left'>v[+a]cātion </td><td align='left'>ăgile</td><td align='left'>forbăde</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>dȧnce</td><td align='left'>extrȧ</td><td align='left'>cȧst</td><td align='left'>trȧnce</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>lȧss</td><td align='left'>cȧsket</td><td align='left'>grȧnt</td><td align='left'>āviātion</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 14</b></div> + +<p>Pronounce the vowel <i>o</i> in the following very carefully. +Don't give the sound <i>feller</i> or <i>fella</i> when you mean <i>fellow</i>.</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 14"> +<tr><td align='left'>fellow</td><td align='left'>swallow</td><td align='left'>theory</td><td align='left'>borrow</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>potato</td><td align='left'>follow</td><td align='left'>position</td><td align='left'>heroism</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>window</td><td align='left'>original</td><td align='left'>factory</td><td align='left'>donkey</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>pillow</td><td align='left'>evaporate </td><td align='left'>ivory</td><td align='left'>memory</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>chocolate </td><td align='left'>mosquito</td><td align='left'>licorice </td><td align='left'>oriental</td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 15</b></div> + +<p>The vowel <i>u</i> needs particular attention. When it is long, +it is sounded naturally, as it is in the alphabet. Do not +say <i>redooce</i> for <i>reduce</i>.</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 15"> +<tr><td align='left'>reduce</td><td align='left'>picture</td><td align='left'>educate</td><td align='left'>figure</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>produce</td><td align='left'>stupid</td><td align='left'>judicial</td><td align='left'>duty</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>conducive</td><td align='left'>student</td><td align='left'>calculate</td><td align='left'>accumulate</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>endure</td><td align='left'>genuine</td><td align='left'>curiosity</td><td align='left'>Tuesday</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>duration</td><td align='left'>induce</td><td align='left'>regular</td><td align='left'>particular</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>singular</td><td align='left'>avenue</td><td align='left'>tune</td><td align='left'>institute</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>nutriment </td><td align='left'>constitution </td><td align='left'>culinary</td><td align='left'>January</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>revenue</td><td align='left'>introduce</td><td align='left'>opportunity </td><td align='left'>manufacture</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 16</b></div> + +<p>Using diacritical marks indicate the value of the vowels +in the following. Try marking them without first consulting +a dictionary. After you have marked them, compare +your markings with those used in a dictionary.</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 16"> +<tr><td align='left'>pupil</td><td align='left'>different </td><td align='left'>diacritical </td><td align='left'>gigantic</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>alphabet </td><td align='left'>several</td><td align='left'>radiating</td><td align='left'>gymnasium</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>natural</td><td align='left'>letter</td><td align='left'>Wyoming</td><td align='left'>system</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>result</td><td align='left'>eraser</td><td align='left'>typical</td><td align='left'>merchant</td></tr> +</table></div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 17</b></div> + +<p>Pronounce carefully, noting that in each word at least +one consonant is silent, and sometimes a vowel as well. +Draw an oblique line through the silent letter or letters in +each.</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 17"> +<tr><td align='left'>through</td><td align='left'>chasten</td><td align='left'>sword</td><td align='left'>island</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>although </td><td align='left'>often</td><td align='left'>fasten</td><td align='left'>daughter</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>wrong</td><td align='left'>soften</td><td align='left'>calf</td><td align='left'>might</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>yacht</td><td align='left'>subtle</td><td align='left'>hasten</td><td align='left'>bouquet</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>gnaw</td><td align='left'>almond</td><td align='left'>naughty</td><td align='left'>honest</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>psalm</td><td align='left'>glisten</td><td align='left'>thumb</td><td align='left'>palm</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>whistle</td><td align='left'>salve</td><td align='left'>should</td><td align='left'>knack</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>salmon</td><td align='left'>chestnut </td><td align='left'>knowledge </td><td align='left'>castle</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>answer</td><td align='left'>folks</td><td align='left'>listen</td><td align='left'>thigh</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>knot</td><td align='left'>right</td><td align='left'>debt</td><td align='left'>honor</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 18</b></div> + +<p>Pronounce the following, paying particular attention to +the vowels. Distinguish between the meanings of the words +in each group.</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='left'>accept</td><td align='left'>bile</td><td align='left'>least</td><td align='left'>prevision</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>except</td><td align='left'>boil</td><td align='left'>lest</td><td align='left'>provision</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>affect</td><td align='left'>carol</td><td align='left'>eleven</td><td align='left'>poor</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>effect</td><td align='left'>coral</td><td align='left'>leaven</td><td align='left'>pure</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>addition </td><td align='left'>descent </td><td align='left'>neither</td><td align='left'>radish</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>edition</td><td align='left'>dissent</td><td align='left'>nether</td><td align='left'>reddish</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>assay</td><td align='left'>emerge</td><td align='left'>pasture </td><td align='left'>sentry</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>essay</td><td align='left'>immerge </td><td align='left'>pastor</td><td align='left'>century</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>baron</td><td align='left'>Francis</td><td align='left'>pillar</td><td align='left'>sit</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>barren</td><td align='left'>Frances</td><td align='left'>pillow</td><td align='left'>set</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>been</td><td align='left'>jest</td><td align='left'>point</td><td align='left'>wrench</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bean</td><td align='left'>just</td><td align='left'>pint</td><td align='left'>rinse</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>gist</td></tr> +</table></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 19</b></div> + +<p>Enunciate the consonant sounds carefully in the following. +Distinguish between the meanings of the words in each +group.</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 19"> +<tr><td align='left'>acts</td><td align='left'>close</td><td align='left'>treaties</td><td align='left'>rows</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ax</td><td align='left'>clothes</td><td align='left'>treatise</td><td align='left'>rouse</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>advice </td><td align='left'>crossed </td><td align='left'>princes</td><td align='left'>rues</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>advise</td><td align='left'>across</td><td align='left'>princess </td><td align='left'>ruse</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>alms</td><td align='left'>formerly</td><td align='left'>prince</td><td align='left'>either</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>elms</td><td align='left'>formally </td><td align='left'>prints</td><td align='left'>ether</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bodice</td><td align='left'>grays</td><td align='left'>price</td><td align='left'>running</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bodies</td><td align='left'>grace</td><td align='left'>prize</td><td align='left'>ruin</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>cease</td><td align='left'>lose</td><td align='left'>recent</td><td align='left'>walking</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>seize</td><td align='left'>loose</td><td align='left'>resent</td><td align='left'>walk in</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>chance</td><td align='left'>plaintive</td><td align='left'>sects</td><td align='left'>weather</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>chants</td><td align='left'>plaintiff </td><td align='left'>sex</td><td align='left'>whether</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>does</td><td align='left'>pair</td><td align='left'>news</td><td align='left'>worst</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>dose</td><td align='left'>payer</td><td align='left'>noose</td><td align='left'>worsted (yarn)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>doze</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 20</b></div> + +<p>Pronounce the following, making sure that each syllable is +correct. Guard against slurring the words in the last column.</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 20"> +<tr><td align='left'>been</td><td align='left'>such</td><td align='left'>barrel</td><td align='left'>Did you?</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>gone</td><td align='left'>put</td><td align='left'>faucet</td><td align='left'>Don't you?</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>to</td><td align='left'>with</td><td align='left'>suburb</td><td align='left'>Go on.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>for</td><td align='left'>tiny</td><td align='left'>hearth</td><td align='left'>Our education</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>aunt</td><td align='left'>and</td><td align='left'>nothing </td><td align='left'>You are</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>far</td><td align='left'>poem</td><td align='left'>office</td><td align='left'>You're not</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>our</td><td align='left'>catch</td><td align='left'>peril</td><td align='left'>We're coming</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>kept</td><td align='left'>toward</td><td align='left'>forbade</td><td align='left'>They're coming</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>says</td><td align='left'>donkey</td><td align='left'>spirit</td><td align='left'>What did you say?</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>rid</td><td align='left'>again</td><td align='left'>semi</td><td align='left'>Where are you going?</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>since</td><td align='left'>against </td><td align='left'>scared</td><td align='left'>Where have you been?</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>sleek </td><td align='left'>honest</td><td align='left'>saucy</td><td align='left'>I want to go.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>creek</td><td align='left'>savage</td><td align='left'>turnip</td><td align='left'>I'm going to go.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>where </td><td align='left'>swept</td><td align='left'>roof</td><td align='left'>To-morrow morning</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>boil</td><td align='left'>velvet</td><td align='left'>proof</td><td align='left'>Next month</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>hoist</td><td align='left'>direct</td><td align='left'>hydrant</td><td align='left'>Last Saturday</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 21</b></div> + +<p>Enunciate carefully:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 21"> +<tr><td align='left'>salary</td><td align='left'>gentleman</td><td align='left'>supple</td><td align='left'>gymnasium</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>because</td><td align='left'>library</td><td align='left'>subtle</td><td align='left'>perspiration</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ideal</td><td align='left'>wrestle</td><td align='left'>italic</td><td align='left'>clapboards</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>suite</td><td align='left'>vessel</td><td align='left'>insect</td><td align='left'>cupboard</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>thirty</td><td align='left'>friendship</td><td align='left'>orchid</td><td align='left'>archangel</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>tomato</td><td align='left'>judgment</td><td align='left'>hovel</td><td align='left'>candelabra</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>grimy</td><td align='left'>cowardice</td><td align='left'>several</td><td align='left'>extraordinary</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>patron</td><td align='left'>miserable</td><td align='left'>pumpkin</td><td align='left'>civilization</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>omelet</td><td align='left'>guarantee</td><td align='left'>accurate</td><td align='left'>horseshoe</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>hundred</td><td align='left'>gelatine</td><td align='left'>guardian</td><td align='left'>laboratory</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>coupon</td><td align='left'>glycerine</td><td align='left'>delinquent </td><td align='left'>tenacious</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>awkward</td><td align='left'>paraffine</td><td align='left'>secretary</td><td align='left'>measure</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>hurrah</td><td align='left'>portrait</td><td align='left'>audacious</td><td align='left'>February</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>pigeon</td><td align='left'>mercantile </td><td align='left'>conquer</td><td align='left'>cellar</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>history </td><td align='left'>juvenile</td><td align='left'>conquest</td><td align='left'>perfect</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>diamond</td><td align='left'>thousand</td><td align='left'>congress</td><td align='left'>grandmother</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>asylum</td><td align='left'>overalls</td><td align='left'>licorice</td><td align='left'>generally</td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 22</b></div> + +<p>Be especially careful of the sounds <i>th</i> and <i>wh</i>. Add no +syllable to a word and omit none. Consult a dictionary +for any word below about which you are not certain:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 22"> +<tr><td align='left'>when</td><td align='left'>length</td><td align='left'>diphthong</td><td align='left'>generally</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>where</td><td align='left'>strength</td><td align='left'>diphtheria </td><td align='left'>forget</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>while</td><td align='left'>height</td><td align='left'>anesthetic</td><td align='left'>recognize</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>wharf</td><td align='left'>width</td><td align='left'>betrothal</td><td align='left'>hungry</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>which</td><td align='left'>depth</td><td align='left'>theory</td><td align='left'>geography</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>wheel</td><td align='left'>there</td><td align='left'>theme</td><td align='left'>instead</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>wheeze</td><td align='left'>them</td><td align='left'>arithmetic</td><td align='left'>isolated</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>why</td><td align='left'>eleventh </td><td align='left'>bathe</td><td align='left'>writing</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>whiff</td><td align='left'>twelfth</td><td align='left'>lathe</td><td align='left'>kettle</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>whence</td><td align='left'>thought</td><td align='left'>believe</td><td align='left'>language</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>whet</td><td align='left'>throat</td><td align='left'>bronchitis</td><td align='left'>leisure</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>what</td><td align='left'>wreaths</td><td align='left'>government </td><td align='left'>volume</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>whale</td><td align='left'>paths</td><td align='left'>courteous</td><td align='left'>column</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>wheat</td><td align='left'>months</td><td align='left'>different</td><td align='left'>always</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>wheedle</td><td align='left'>mouths</td><td align='left'>engine</td><td align='left'>once</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>whelp</td><td align='left'>myths</td><td align='left'>English</td><td align='left'>twice</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>whimper</td><td align='left'>breadths</td><td align='left'>surprise</td><td align='left'>arctic</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>whip</td><td align='left'>moths</td><td align='left'>deaf</td><td align='left'>Italian</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>whit</td><td align='left'>bath</td><td align='left'>children</td><td align='left'>picture</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>whither </td><td align='left'>earth</td><td align='left'>cruel</td><td align='left'>often</td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 23—Homonyms</b></div> + +<p>A homonym is a word having the same sound as another +but differing from it in meaning. Use each of the following +in a sentence to show its meaning.</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="exercise 23"> +<tr><td align='left'>aloud</td><td align='left'>draft</td><td align='left'>fowl</td><td align='left'>principal</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>allowed</td><td align='left'>draught</td><td align='left'>foul</td><td align='left'>principle</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ascent</td><td align='left'>faint</td><td align='left'>gate</td><td align='left'>peal</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>assent</td><td align='left'>feint</td><td align='left'>gait</td><td align='left'>peel</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>aught</td><td align='left'>canvas</td><td align='left'>great</td><td align='left'>quire</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ought</td><td align='left'>canvass</td><td align='left'>grate</td><td align='left'>choir</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bad</td><td align='left'>cereal</td><td align='left'>hew</td><td align='left'>seen</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bade</td><td align='left'>serial</td><td align='left'>hue</td><td align='left'>scene</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bale</td><td align='left'>cession</td><td align='left'>kernel</td><td align='left'>soul</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bail</td><td align='left'>session</td><td align='left'>colonel </td><td align='left'>sole</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>berry</td><td align='left'>cite</td><td align='left'>leased</td><td align='left'>strait</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bury</td><td align='left'>site</td><td align='left'>least</td><td align='left'>straight</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>boy</td><td align='left'>coarse</td><td align='left'>lesser</td><td align='left'>stair</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>buoy</td><td align='left'>course</td><td align='left'>lessor</td><td align='left'>stare</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>by</td><td align='left'>compliment </td><td align='left'>mite</td><td align='left'>sweet</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>buy</td><td align='left'>complement</td><td align='left'>might</td><td align='left'>suite</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>council </td><td align='left'>feign</td><td align='left'>miner</td><td align='left'>there</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>counsel</td><td align='left'>fain</td><td align='left'>minor</td><td align='left'>their</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>current</td><td align='left'>flour</td><td align='left'>need</td><td align='left'>wood</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>currant</td><td align='left'>flower</td><td align='left'>knead</td><td align='left'>would</td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 24</b></div> + +<p>Do the same with the following:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 24"> +<tr><td align='left'>aisle</td><td align='left'>clause</td><td align='left'>kill</td><td align='left'>sail</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>isle</td><td align='left'>claws</td><td align='left'>kiln</td><td align='left'>sale</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>awl</td><td align='left'>climb</td><td align='left'>key</td><td align='left'>ring</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>all</td><td align='left'>clime</td><td align='left'>quay</td><td align='left'>wring</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>base</td><td align='left'>draught </td><td align='left'>lie</td><td align='left'>serge</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bass</td><td align='left'>draft</td><td align='left'>lye</td><td align='left'>surge</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>blew</td><td align='left'>dew</td><td align='left'>medal</td><td align='left'>sole</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>blue</td><td align='left'>due</td><td align='left'>meddle</td><td align='left'>soul</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bough</td><td align='left'>done</td><td align='left'>peer</td><td align='left'>shone</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bow</td><td align='left'>dun</td><td align='left'>pier</td><td align='left'>shown</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bread</td><td align='left'>dual</td><td align='left'>pore</td><td align='left'>steel</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bred</td><td align='left'>duel</td><td align='left'>pour</td><td align='left'>steal</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bear</td><td align='left'>flue</td><td align='left'>profit</td><td align='left'>stationary</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bare</td><td align='left'>flew</td><td align='left'>prophet </td><td align='left'>stationery</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bridal</td><td align='left'>freeze</td><td align='left'>quarts</td><td align='left'>wade</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bridle</td><td align='left'>frieze </td><td align='left'>quartz</td><td align='left'>weighed</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>capital </td><td align='left'>guilt</td><td align='left'>rest</td><td align='left'>wave</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>capitol</td><td align='left'>gilt</td><td align='left'>wrest</td><td align='left'>waive</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ceiling</td><td align='left'>heard</td><td align='left'>root</td><td align='left'>wrap</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>sealing</td><td align='left'>herd</td><td align='left'>route</td><td align='left'>rap</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 25—Syllabication</b></div> + +<p>What is a syllable?</p> + +<p>Choose a word and notice that every vowel sound in it +makes a syllable. Therefore, you never have two vowels +in one syllable unless the two are pronounced as one sound.</p> + +<p>In pronouncing notice carefully to which syllable a consonant +belongs; as in <i>dif-fer-ent</i>, <i>beau-ti-fy</i>, <i>dai-sy</i>.</p> + +<p>Divide the following words into syllables. If you cannot +decide with which syllable a consonant belongs, consult a +dictionary.</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Frist list exercise 25"> +<tr><td align='left'>paper</td><td align='left'>grocer</td><td align='left'>rotate</td><td align='left'>mystery</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>tomato</td><td align='left'>erect</td><td align='left'>repeat</td><td align='left'>regular</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>vinegar </td><td align='left'>polish </td><td align='left'>general </td><td align='left'>arithmetic</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>If a syllable, especially an accented syllable, ends in a +vowel, what is usually the length of the vowel?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span></p> + +<p>If the syllable ends in a consonant, what is usually the +length of the vowel of the syllable?</p> + +<p>When a consonant is doubled, the division is usually made +between the two letters; as,</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="part two exercise 25"> +<tr><td align='left'>blot-ter</td><td align='left'>skip-ping </td><td align='left'>remit-tance</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>neces-sary </td><td align='left'>throt-tle</td><td align='left'>span-ning</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>As a rule, a prefix constitutes one syllable; as,</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table three exercise 25"> +<tr><td align='left'>pro-long</td><td align='left'>pre-fer</td><td align='left'>con-stant</td><td align='left'>de-fect</td><td align='left'>ad-mit</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>re-ceive </td><td align='left'>se-lect </td><td align='left'>dis-trust </td><td align='left'>e-merge </td><td align='left'>im-merse</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>As a rule, a suffix constitutes one syllable; as,</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table four exercise 25"> +<tr><td align='left'>labor-er</td><td align='left'>soft-ly</td><td align='left'>beauti-fy</td><td align='left'>selec-tion</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>mole-cule </td><td align='left'>revolution-ist </td><td align='left'>percent-age </td><td align='left'>fanat-ic</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>When two or more letters together give one sound, they +must not be divided; as,</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table five exercise 25"> +<tr><td align='left'>math-ematics </td><td align='left'>ex-change </td><td align='left'>paragraph-ing </td><td align='left'>abolish-ing</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bow-ing</td><td align='left'>toil-ing</td><td align='left'>nation-al</td><td align='left'>gra-cious</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Can a word of one syllable be divided?</p> + +<p>Do not divide a syllable of one letter from the rest of the +word. The division <i>ever-y</i> is wrong.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 26</b></div> + +<p>Divide the following words into syllables, using the suggestions +given in the preceding exercise:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 26"> +<tr><td align='left'>accountant</td><td align='left'>dissatisfaction </td><td align='left'>manufacturer</td><td align='left'>reference</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>advertisement</td><td align='left'>economy</td><td align='left'>material</td><td align='left'>repeatedly</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>anecdote</td><td align='left'>employment</td><td align='left'>mechanical</td><td align='left'>salesman</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>annually</td><td align='left'>energetic</td><td align='left'>neighborhood </td><td align='left'>security</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>application</td><td align='left'>environment</td><td align='left'>occupation</td><td align='left'>separate</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>automobile</td><td align='left'>especially</td><td align='left'>opportunity</td><td align='left'>signature</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>beginning</td><td align='left'>establishment</td><td align='left'>organized</td><td align='left'>specification</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>collection</td><td align='left'>expenditure</td><td align='left'>permanent</td><td align='left'>stenography</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>comparison</td><td align='left'>factory</td><td align='left'>preparation</td><td align='left'>suburban</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>competent</td><td align='left'>furniture</td><td align='left'>president</td><td align='left'>superintend</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>confirmation</td><td align='left'>illustration</td><td align='left'>quotation</td><td align='left'>systematic</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>consequence</td><td align='left'>impression</td><td align='left'>realize</td><td align='left'>telephone</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>correspondence </td><td align='left'>improvement</td><td align='left'>receptacle</td><td align='left'>treasurer</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>counterfeit</td><td align='left'>judgment</td><td align='left'>recognition</td><td align='left'>unanimous</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>customer</td><td align='left'>machinist</td><td align='left'>recommend</td><td align='left'>unusual</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 27—Accent</b></div> + +<p>What is accent?</p> + +<p>Divide into syllables, indicate the accent, and pronounce +the following:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 27"> +<tr><td align='left'>expand</td><td align='left'>volume</td><td align='left'>defect</td><td align='left'>interesting</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>mischievous </td><td align='left'>usually</td><td align='left'>incomparable </td><td align='left'>theatre</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>exquisite</td><td align='left'>tedious</td><td align='left'>hospitable</td><td align='left'>generally</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>column</td><td align='left'>inquiry </td><td align='left'>impious</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>In the following words the meaning changes with the +accent. Use each word in a sentence to show its meaning.</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 27 part 2"> +<tr><td align='left'>ob´ject</td><td align='left'>subject</td><td align='left'>contrast </td><td align='left'>desert</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ob-ject´</td><td align='left'>insult</td><td align='left'>protest</td><td align='left'>extract</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>tor´ment</td><td align='left'>essay</td><td align='left'>conflict</td><td align='left'>compact</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>tor-ment´ </td><td align='left'>transfer </td><td align='left'>compound</td><td align='left'>survey</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' colspan='3'>minute (notice the vowel change)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' colspan='3'>refuse (notice the consonant change)</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>Bring to class a list of words that you have heard mispronounced +in your classes. Be sure that you can pronounce +them correctly.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 28</b></div> + +<p>The following words are frequently mispronounced. Divide +them into syllables, mark the accent, and pronounce +carefully.</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 28"> +<tr><td align='left'>municipal</td><td align='left'>exquisite </td><td align='left'>champion</td><td align='left'>accurately</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>interesting </td><td align='left'>gondola</td><td align='left'>inquiry</td><td align='left'>Genoa</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>influence</td><td align='left'>finance</td><td align='left'>inexplicable </td><td align='left'>alias</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>illustrate</td><td align='left'>deficit</td><td align='left'>despicable</td><td align='left'>expert</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>inventory</td><td align='left'>pretense</td><td align='left'>mischievous</td><td align='left'>impious</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>alternate</td><td align='left'>dirigible</td><td align='left'>perfume</td><td align='left'>detail</td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2> + +<div class='chaptertitle'>SPELLING RULES</div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 29—Plurals of Nouns</b><br /><br /></div> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 29"> +<tr><td align='left'>(<i>a</i>) </td><td align='left'>dress, dresses</td><td align='left'>(<i>b</i>) </td><td align='left'>chair, chairs</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>splash, splashes</td><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>wave, waves</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>business, businesses</td><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>book, books</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>church, churches</td><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>pencil, pencils</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>fox, foxes</td><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>paper, papers</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The usual way of forming the plural of English nouns is +illustrated by the words in column (<i>b</i>) above. What is it?</p> + +<p>If you add <i>s</i> to the singular form <i>dress</i>, could you distinguish +the pronunciation of the plural from the pronunciation +of the singular? Does this suggest a reason for adding <i>es</i> +to form the plural?</p> + +<p>How many syllables must you use to pronounce the +plural of fox? Does this suggest another reason for adding +<i>es</i> to form the plural?</p> + +<p>Every word that ends in a sibilant or hissing sound (<i>ch</i>, +<i>s</i>, <i>sh</i>, <i>ss</i>, <i>x</i>, <i>z</i>) forms its plural like <i>fox</i>. Give several illustrations.</p> + +<p><b>Rule 1.—Nouns regularly form the plural by adding <i>s</i>, +but those ending in a sibilant must add<i>es</i>.</b></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 30</b></div> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 30"> +<tr><td align='left'>(<i>a</i>) </td><td align='left'>lady, ladies</td><td align='left'>(<i>b</i>) </td><td align='left'>valley, valleys</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>ally, allies</td><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>alley, alleys</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>soliloquy, soliloquies </td><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>journey, journeys</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Name five words belonging to group (<i>a</i>) above. Does a +vowel or a consonant precede the <i>y</i> in each case?</p> + +<p>Name other words belonging to the group (<i>b</i>) above. Does +a vowel or a consonant precede the <i>y</i> in each case?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></p> + +<p><b><a name="Rule_2" id="Rule_2"></a>Rule 2.—Nouns ending in <i>y</i> preceded by a consonant +(and nouns ending in <i>quy</i>) form the plural by changing <i>y</i> +to <i>i</i> and adding <i>es</i>.</b></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 31—Words ending in o</b><br /><br /></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 31"> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'>(<i>a</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>potato, potatoes</td><td align='left'>hero, heroes</td><td align='left'>mulatto, mulattoes</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>tomato, tomatoes </td><td align='left'>buffalo, buffaloes </td><td align='left'>cargo, cargoes</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>negro, negroes</td><td align='left'>echo, echoes</td><td align='left'>motto, mottoes</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'>(<i>b</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>solo, solos</td><td align='left'>piano, pianos</td><td align='left'>memento, mementos</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>halo, halos</td><td align='left'>lasso, lassos</td><td align='left'>canto, cantos</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>zero, zeros</td><td align='left'>quarto, quartos </td><td align='left'>soprano, sopranos</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>stilletto, stillettos </td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The older English words ending in <i>o</i> form the plural by +adding <i>es</i>, as in potatoes; those more recently taken into +the language form the plural by adding <i>s</i>, as in quartos.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 32—Nouns in f and fe</b></div> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 31 part 2"> +<tr><td align='left'>leaf, leaves</td><td align='left'>calf, calves</td><td align='left'>wife, wives</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>loaf, loaves </td><td align='left'>sheaf, sheaves </td><td align='left'>shelf, shelves</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>half, halves</td><td align='left'>wolf, wolves</td><td align='left'>elf, elves</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>life, lives</td><td align='left'>beef, beeves</td><td align='left'>wharf, wharves (or wharfs)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>self, selves </td><td align='left'>knife, knives</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>With the exception of the words given above, nouns ending +in an <i>f</i> sound form the plural in the regular way; as,</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 31 part 3"> +<tr><td align='left'>hoof, hoofs</td><td align='left'>scarf, scarfs </td><td align='left'>beliefs, beliefs</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>chief, chiefs </td><td align='left'>reef, reefs</td><td align='left'>grief, griefs</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 33—Irregular Plurals</b></div> + +<p>Some nouns form their plural by a change of vowel; as,</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 31 part 4"> +<tr><td align='left'>man</td><td align='left'>men</td><td align='left'>foot</td><td align='left'>feet</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>woman </td><td align='left'>women </td><td align='left'>tooth </td><td align='left'>teeth</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>goose</td><td align='left'>geese </td><td align='left'>mouse </td><td align='left'>mice</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>A few words retain the old time plural <i>en;</i> as,</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 31 part 5"> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='4'>brother brethren</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>child </td><td align='left'>children </td><td align='left'>ox </td><td align='left'>oxen</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span></p> + +<p>A few words are the same in both singular and plural; as,</p> + +<div class='center'> +sheep, trout, deer<br /> +</div> + +<p>Some nouns have two plurals which differ in meaning; as,</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 31 part 6"> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Singular </i></td><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Plural</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>brother </td><td align='left'>brothers</td><td align='left'>brethren</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>penny</td><td align='left'>pennies </td><td align='left'>pence</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>pea</td><td align='left'>peas</td><td align='left'>pease</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>die</td><td align='left'>dies</td><td align='left'>dice</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Consult a dictionary for the difference in meaning between +the two plurals of each word.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 34—Compound Nouns</b><br /><br /></div> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 34 part 1"> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Singular</i> </td><td align='center'><i>Plural</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>brother-in-law</td><td align='left'>brothers-in-law</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>father-in-law</td><td align='left'>fathers-in-law</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>court-martial</td><td align='left'>courts-martial</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>commander-in-chief </td><td align='left'>commanders-in-chief</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>man-of-war</td><td align='left'>men-of-war</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>major general</td><td align='left'>major generals</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>goose quill</td><td align='left'>goose quills</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bill of fare</td><td align='left'>bills of fare</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>spoonful</td><td align='left'>spoonfuls</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>cupful</td><td align='left'>cupfuls</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><b>Rule 3.—Compound nouns usually add the sign of the +plural to the fundamental part of the word.</b></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—In <i>spoonfuls</i> the thought is of one spoon many times full.</p> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Plural of Letters and Figures</b></div> + +<p><b>Rule 4.—Letters and figures form the plural by adding +the apostrophe (') and <i>s;</i> as,</b></p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 34 part 2"> +<tr><td align='left'>a </td><td align='left'>a's </td><td align='left'>3</td><td align='left'>3's</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>w</td><td align='left'>w's</td><td align='left'>5 </td><td align='left'>5's</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>The same rule applies to the plural of words which ordinarily +have no plural; as,</p> + +<div class='center'> +Don't use so many <i>and's</i> and <i>if's</i>.<br /> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 35—Foreign Plurals</b></div> + +<p>Some nouns derived from foreign languages retain their +original plural. The following are in common use.</p> + +<p>Consult a dictionary for their pronunciation and definition.</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 35 part 1"> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Singular</i></td><td align='center'><i>Plural</i> </td><td align='center'><i>Singular</i> </td><td align='center'><i>Plural</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>crisis</td><td align='left'>crises</td><td align='left'>stratum</td><td align='left'>strata</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>thesis</td><td align='left'>theses</td><td align='left'>radius</td><td align='left'>radii</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>hypothesis </td><td align='left'>hypotheses </td><td align='left'>parenthesis </td><td align='left'>parentheses</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>focus</td><td align='left'>foci</td><td align='left'>synopsis</td><td align='left'>synopses</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>datum</td><td align='left'>data</td><td align='left'>basis</td><td align='left'>bases</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>alumnus</td><td align='left'>alumni</td><td align='left'>automaton</td><td align='left'>automata</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>alumna</td><td align='left'>alumnae</td><td align='left'>analysis</td><td align='left'>analyses</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>oasis</td><td align='left'>oases</td><td align='left'>nucleus</td><td align='left'>nuclei</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>axis</td><td align='left'>axes</td><td align='left'>phenomenon </td><td align='left'>phenomena</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>genus</td><td align='left'>genera</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Some words admit of two plurals, one the foreign plural, +and one the regular English plural; as,</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 35 part 2"> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Singular</i> </td><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Plural</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>beau</td><td align='left'>beaux</td><td align='left'>beaus</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>formula </td><td align='left'>formulae</td><td align='left'>formulas</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>vertex</td><td align='left'>vertices</td><td align='left'>vertexes</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>index</td><td align='left'>indices</td><td align='left'>indexes</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>cherub</td><td align='left'>cherubim </td><td align='left'>cherubs</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>seraph</td><td align='left'>seraphim</td><td align='left'>seraphs</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bandit</td><td align='left'>banditti</td><td align='left'>bandits</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Consult a dictionary to see whether there is any difference +of meaning between the two plurals of these words.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 36—The Formation of Participles</b></div> + + +<p> <br /></p> +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 36 part 1"> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Rap</i>, <i>rapping</i>, <i>rapped</i> </td><td align='left'><i>Reap</i>, <i>reaping</i>, <i>reaped</i></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><i>Rap</i> is a monosyllable ending in a single consonant preceded +by a single vowel. The final consonant in such words +is doubled before a suffix beginning with a vowel is added.</p> + +<p>In <i>reap</i> the final consonant is not doubled because it is +preceded by two vowels.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span></p> + +<p>Make the participles of the following verbs:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 36 part 2"> +<tr><td align='left'>chat</td><td align='left'>lap</td><td align='left'>suit</td><td align='left'>step</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>cheat </td><td align='left'>leap</td><td align='left'>sit</td><td align='left'>steep</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>rot</td><td align='left'>train </td><td align='left'>sop</td><td align='left'>trot</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>root</td><td align='left'>trim</td><td align='left'>soap </td><td align='left'>treat</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p> <br /></p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 36 part 3"> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Trap</i>, <i>trapping</i>, <i>trapped</i> </td><td align='left'><i>Track</i>, <i>tracking</i>, <i>tracked</i></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Why is the final consonant in <i>trap</i> doubled before <i>ing</i> or +<i>ed</i> is added?</p> + +<p>The final consonant in <i>track</i> is not doubled because <i>track</i> +ends with two consonants.</p> +<p> <br /></p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 36 part 4"> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Pin</i>, <i>pinning</i> </td><td align='left'><i>Pine</i>, <i>pining</i></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><i>Pine</i> drops the silent <i>e</i> because the tendency in English +is to drop endings that are not needed for pronunciation +before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel.</p> + +<p>Form the participles of the following verbs:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 36 part 6"> +<tr><td align='left'>knot </td><td align='left'>rob</td><td align='left'>flop</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>note</td><td align='left'>robe</td><td align='left'>elope </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>deal</td><td align='left'>swim</td><td align='left'>quit</td><td align='left'>(<i>u</i> is not here a vowel)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>clap</td><td align='left'>strike </td><td align='left'>crawl</td><td align='left'>(<i>w</i> is here a vowel)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>stop</td><td align='left'>oil</td><td align='left'>wax</td><td align='left'>(<i>x</i> equals <i>cks</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>peal</td><td align='left'>rush</td><td align='left'>bow</td><td align='left'>(<i>w</i> is here a vowel)</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 37</b></div> + +<p>Exercise 36 applies also to words of more than one syllable +accented on the last syllable, if they retain the accent on +the same syllable after the suffix is added. Thus we have</p> + +<p><b>Rule 5.—Monosyllables or words accented on the last +syllable, ending in a single consonant preceded by a single +vowel, double the final consonant before adding a suffix +beginning with a vowel.</b></p> + +<p>Form participles from the following words that are accented +on the last syllable:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span></p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 37 part 1"> +<tr><td align='left'>prefer</td><td align='left'>intervene </td><td align='left'>escape</td><td align='left'>expel</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>refer</td><td align='left'>reveal</td><td align='left'>acquire</td><td align='left'>contain</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>occur</td><td align='left'>repeal</td><td align='left'>secure</td><td align='left'>forbid</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>permit</td><td align='left'>pursue</td><td align='left'>conceal </td><td align='left'>incur</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>interfere </td><td align='left'>erase</td><td align='left'>arrange</td><td align='left'>forget</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>retain</td><td align='left'>control</td><td align='left'>acquit</td><td align='left'>repel</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Form participles from the following words not accented +on the last syllable:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 37 part 2"> +<tr><td align='left'>benefit </td><td align='left'>travel</td><td align='left'>marvel</td><td align='left'>shelter</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>revel</td><td align='left'>answer </td><td align='left'>exhibit </td><td align='left'>render</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>quarrel</td><td align='left'>profit</td><td align='left'>shovel</td><td align='left'>limit</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Words in which the accent changes do not double the final +consonant before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel; as,</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 37 part 3"> +<tr><td align='left'>confer </td><td align='left'>conference </td><td align='left'>infer</td><td align='left'>inference</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>refer</td><td align='left'>reference</td><td align='left'>prefer </td><td align='left'>preferable</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Explain why the final consonant is <i>not</i> doubled in each of +the following words:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 37 part 4"> +<tr><td align='left'>neglect </td><td align='left'>neglecting</td><td align='left'>lean</td><td align='left'>leaning</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>prefer</td><td align='left'>preference </td><td align='left'>select</td><td align='left'>selecting</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>creep</td><td align='left'>creeping</td><td align='left'>receipt </td><td align='left'>receipting</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>wonder</td><td align='left'>wondering</td><td align='left'>answer</td><td align='left'>answering</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 38</b></div> + +<p><b>Rule 6.—In forming the present participle of verbs ending +in <i>y</i>, retain the <i>y</i> before adding <i>ing;</i> as,</b></p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 38 part 1"> +<tr><td align='left'>study</td><td align='left'>studying</td><td align='left'>obey</td><td align='left'>obeying</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>carry </td><td align='left'>carrying </td><td align='left'>convey </td><td align='left'>conveying</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>pity</td><td align='left'>pitying</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>In forming the perfect participle, if in the present tense the +<i>y</i> is preceded by a consonant, the <i>y</i> is changed to <i>i</i> and <i>ed</i> +added; if the <i>y</i> is preceded by a vowel, the <i>y</i> is retained; as,</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 38 part 2"> +<tr><td align='left'>study </td><td align='left'>studied </td><td align='left'>carry </td><td align='left'>carried </td><td align='left'>pity </td><td align='left'>pitied</td></tr> +</table></div> +<div class='unindent'><br />but</div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 38 part 3"> +<tr><td align='left'>obey </td><td align='left'>obeyed </td><td align='left'>convey </td><td align='left'>conveyed</td></tr> +</table></div> +<p>Compare with <a href="#Rule_2">Rule 2</a>.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 39</b></div> + +<p><b>Rule 7.—In words containing a long <i>e</i> sound spelled +either <i>ie</i> or <i>ei</i>, <i>ei</i> follows <i>c;</i> <i>ie</i> follows one of the other consonants; +as,</b></p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 39"> +<tr><td align='center'><i>ei</i> </td><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>ie</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>deceive</td><td align='left'>relieve</td><td align='left'>siege</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>perceive</td><td align='left'>believe </td><td align='left'>yield</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>receive</td><td align='left'>belief</td><td align='left'>grief</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>conceive </td><td align='left'>chief</td><td align='left'>field</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>conceit</td><td align='left'>priest</td><td align='left'>piece</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>receipt</td><td align='left'>niece</td><td align='left'>wield</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>reprieve</td><td align='left'>lien</td></tr> +</table></div> +<p><i>Exceptions.</i>—Either, neither, weird, seize, leisure.</p> + +<p>The following couplet may help in remembering when to +write <i>ie</i> and when to write <i>ei:</i></p> + +<div class='poem'> +When the letter <i>c</i> you spy,<br /> +Put the <i>e</i> before the <i>i</i>.<br /> +</div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 40—The Pronunciation of <i>c</i> and <i>g</i></b></div> + +<p>The letter <i>c</i> is pronounced sometimes like <i>s</i> and sometimes +like <i>k</i>.</p> + +<p>What sound does <i>c</i> have before <i>a?</i> Illustrate.</p> + +<p>Before <i>e?</i> Illustrate.</p> + +<p>Before <i>i?</i> Illustrate.</p> + +<p>Before <i>o?</i> Illustrate.</p> + +<p>Before <i>u?</i> Illustrate.</p> + +<p>Before <i>y?</i> Illustrate.</p> + +<p>If <i>c</i> is pronounced like <i>k</i>, it is called hard and is marked <i>[\c]</i>.</p> + +<p>If <i>c</i> is pronounced like <i>s</i>, it is called soft and is marked <i>ç</i>. The +mark used to indicate the soft <i>c</i> is called the <i>cedilla</i>.</p> + +<p>Make a statement telling when <i>c</i> is hard and when it is +soft.</p> + +<p>What sound does <i>g</i> have before each of the vowels, as +in <i>game</i>, <i>gone</i>, <i>gymnasium</i>, <i>Gunther</i>, <i>gentle?</i></p> + +<p><b>Rule 8.—<i>C</i> and <i>g</i> usually are soft before <i>e</i>, <i>i</i>, and <i>y</i>.</b><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 41</b></div> + +<p>Words ending in silent <i>e</i>, according to Rule 5, drop the +<i>e</i> before a suffix beginning with a vowel. Exceptions occur +when the <i>e</i> is needed to preserve the soft sound of <i>c</i> and <i>g</i>. +Tell why <i>e</i> is dropped in <i>encouraging</i> and retained in +<i>courageous</i>.</p> + +<p>In words containing <i>dg</i>, as in <i>judge</i> and <i>lodge</i>, the <i>d</i> gives +the <i>g</i> the soft sound, and there is no need to retain the <i>e</i> +before adding a suffix, as in <i>judgment</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Rule 9.—Words ending in silent <i>e</i> usually drop the <i>e</i> +before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel, unless the +<i>e</i> is needed to preserve the pronunciation; as after soft <i>c</i> +and <i>g</i>, when the suffix begins with <i>a</i> or <i>o</i>.</b></p> + +<p>Tell why the <i>e</i> is retained before the suffix in the following:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 41 part 1"> +<tr><td align='left'>noticeable </td><td align='left'>damageable </td><td align='left'>pronounceable </td><td align='left'>outrageous</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>courageous </td><td align='left'>peaceable</td><td align='left'>serviceable</td><td align='left'>manageable</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Tell why the <i>e</i> is dropped before adding the suffix in the +following:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 40 part 2"> +<tr><td align='left'>managing</td><td align='left'>curable</td><td align='left'>erasure</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>besieging </td><td align='left'>admirable</td><td align='left'>realization</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>receiving</td><td align='left'>obliging</td><td align='left'>precedence</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>perseverance </td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The fact that <i>c</i> has two different sounds causes a slight +peculiarity in words ending in <i>c</i>. Final <i>c</i> has the sound of +<i>k</i>. When words end in <i>c</i>, the letter <i>k</i> is usually added before +a suffix beginning with either <i>e</i>, <i>i</i>, or <i>y</i>, to show that <i>c</i> is not +pronounced like <i>s;</i> as,</p> + +<div class='center'> +frolic frolicked frolicking<br /> +</div> + +<p>If the <i>k</i> is not added, the <i>c</i> changes its pronunciation; as,</p> + +<div class='center'> +public publicity<br /> +</div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 42</b></div> + +<p>It follows by inference from Rule 9 that words ending in +silent <i>e</i> retain the <i>e</i> before a suffix beginning with a consonant; +as,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span></p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 42"> +<tr><td align='left'>move</td><td align='left'>movement</td><td align='left'>disgrace </td><td align='left'>disgraceful</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>defense</td><td align='left'>defenseless </td><td align='left'>fate</td><td align='left'>fateful</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>arrange </td><td align='left'>arrangement</td><td align='left'>fierce</td><td align='left'>fiercely</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>noise</td><td align='left'>noiseless</td><td align='left'>manage</td><td align='left'>management</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>severe</td><td align='left'>severely</td><td align='left'>rude</td><td align='left'>rudeness</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><i>Exceptions.</i>—Truly, duly, wisdom, awful, wholly.</p> + +<p>Bring to class a list of twenty words that retain the final +<i>e</i> before a suffix beginning with a consonant.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 43</b></div> + +<p>What spelling rule does each of the following words +illustrate?</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 43"> +<tr><td align='left'>advantageous </td><td align='left'>gigantic </td><td align='left'>boxes</td><td align='left'>admittance</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>mimicking</td><td align='left'>piece</td><td align='left'>libraries </td><td align='left'>occurrence</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>arrangement</td><td align='left'>receipt</td><td align='left'>keys</td><td align='left'>acquittal</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 44—Abbreviations</b></div> + +<p>Write abbreviations for the months of the year. Are +there any that should not be abbreviated?</p> + +<p>The abbreviations for the states and territories are:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 44"> +<tr><td align='left'>Alabama, Ala.</td><td align='left'>Maryland, Md.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Arizona, Ariz.</td><td align='left'>Massachusetts, Mass.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Arkansas, Ark.</td><td align='left'>Michigan, Mich.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>California, Cal.</td><td align='left'>Minnesota, Minn.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Colorado, Colo.</td><td align='left'>Mississippi, Miss.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Connecticut, Conn.</td><td align='left'>Missouri, Mo.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Delaware, Del.</td><td align='left'>Montana, Mont.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>District of Columbia, D.C. </td><td align='left'>Nebraska, Nebr.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Florida, Fla.</td><td align='left'>Nevada, Nev.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Georgia, Ga.</td><td align='left'>New Hampshire, N.H.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Idaho, Idaho</td><td align='left'>New Mexico, N. Mex.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Illinois, Ill.</td><td align='left'>New York, N.Y.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Indiana, Ind.</td><td align='left'>New Jersey, N.J.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Iowa, Ia.</td><td align='left'>North Carolina, N.C.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Kansas, Kans.</td><td align='left'>North Dakota, N. Dak.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Kentucky, Ky.</td><td align='left'>Ohio, O.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Louisiana, La.</td><td align='left'>Oklahoma, Okla.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>Maine, Me.</td><td align='left'>Oregon, Ore.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Pennsylvania, Pa.</td><td align='left'>Utah, Utah</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Philippine Islands, P.I. </td><td align='left'>Vermont, Vt.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Porto Rico, P.R.</td><td align='left'>Virginia, Va.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>South Carolina, S.C.</td><td align='left'>Washington, Wash.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>South Dakota, S.D.</td><td align='left'>Wisconsin, Wis.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Tennessee, Tenn.</td><td align='left'>West Virginia, W. Va.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Texas, Tex.</td><td align='left'>Wyoming, Wyo.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—It is much better to write the full name rather than the +abbreviation whenever the former would make the address clearer, +especially as regards similar abbreviations, such as Cal. and Colo.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 45—Abbreviations of Commercial Terms</b></div> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 45"> +<tr><td align='left'>A 1, first class</td><td align='left'>doz., dozen</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>@, at</td><td align='left'>E. & O.E., errors and omissions excepted</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>acct., account</td><td align='left'>ea., each</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>adv., advertisement </td><td align='left'>e.g., for example</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>agt., agent</td><td align='left'>etc., and so forth</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>a.m., forenoon</td><td align='left'>exch., exchange</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>amt., amount</td><td align='left'>ft., foot</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>app., appendix</td><td align='left'>f.o.b., free on board</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>atty., attorney</td><td align='left'>gal., gallon</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>av., average</td><td align='left'>i.e., that is</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>avoir., avoirdupois</td><td align='left'>imp., imported</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bal., balance</td><td align='left'>in., inches</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bbl., barrel</td><td align='left'>inst., this month (instant)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>B/L, bill of lading</td><td align='left'>Jr., junior</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bldg., building</td><td align='left'>kg., keg</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>B/S, bill of sale</td><td align='left'>lb., pound</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bu., bushel</td><td align='left'>ltd., limited</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>C.B., cash book</td><td align='left'>mdse., merchandise</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>C., hundred</td><td align='left'>mem., memorandum</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>coll., collection, collector </td><td align='left'>mo., month</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Co., company</td><td align='left'>M.S. (MSS)., manuscript</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>C.O.D., cash on delivery</td><td align='left'>mtg., mortgage</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>cr., creditor</td><td align='left'>N.B., take notice</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>cwt., hundredweight</td><td align='left'>no., number</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>D., five hundred</td><td align='left'>O.K., all right</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>dept., department</td><td align='left'>per, by</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>disc., discount</td><td align='left'>p.m., afternoon</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>do., ditto</td><td align='left'>%, per cent</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>dr., debtor, debit</td><td align='left'>St., street</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>pkg., package</td><td align='left'>str., steamer</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>pp., pages</td><td align='left'>ult., last month</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>pr., pair</td><td align='left'>U.S.M., United States Mail</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>pc., piece</td><td align='left'>viz., namely</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>pk., peck</td><td align='left'>vol., volume</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>prox., next month</td><td align='left'>W/B, way bill</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>pt., pint</td><td align='left'>wt., weight</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Sr., senior</td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<div class='chaptertitle'>WORD ANALYSIS</div> + + +<p>To learn English words thoroughly we must spend some +thought on the way in which they are made up, on the language +from which they have been derived, and on the changes +in meaning made by adding prefixes and suffixes. Three +important influences in building the English have been the +Anglo-Saxon, the Greek, and the Latin languages. The +simplest words in the language are Anglo-Saxon. The following +exercises illustrate how words have been multiplied +by Anglo-Saxon prefixes and suffixes.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 46</b></div> + +<p>Name as many words as you can that make use of each +of the following prefixes. Give only such as are recognizable +English words without the prefix.</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 46"> +<tr><td align='left'><i>a</i>—aboard</td><td align='left'><i>mis</i>—misjudge</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>be</i>—becalm</td><td align='left'><i>un</i>—unknown</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>fore</i>—foretell </td><td align='left'><i>up</i>—uproot</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Give the meaning of each of the prefixes used above.</p> + +<p>What part of speech does each prefix make?</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 47</b></div> + +<p>Using the following Teutonic suffixes, form English words. +Be careful that the root taken alone is an English word.</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 47"> +<tr><td align='left'><i>dom</i>—kingdom</td><td align='left'><i>ness</i>—goodness</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>hood</i>—manhood </td><td align='left'><i>ship</i>—friendship</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>What does each suffix mean?</p> + +<p>What part of speech does it make?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 48</b></div> + +<p>As above, form words using the following suffixes:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 48"> +<tr><td align='left'><i>en</i>—darken</td><td align='left'><i>ful</i>—fearful</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>en</i>—golden</td><td align='left'><i>ly</i>—smoothly</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>ish</i>—sweetish</td><td align='left'><i>like</i>—childlike</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>less</i>—fearless </td><td align='left'><i>some</i>—lonesome</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Define each suffix.</p> + +<p>What part of speech does it make?</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 49—Greek Roots</b></div> + +<p>Below is given a list of common Greek roots with the +English meaning of each. Form words using one or more of +the roots for each word, and define the words you make. +For instance, give the meaning of <i>telephone</i>, <i>telegraph</i>, and +<i>monarch</i>.</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 49"> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Greek</i> <i>English</i></td><td align='left'><i>Greek</i> <i>English</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>phon</i>—hear</td><td align='left'><i>chron</i>—time</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>tele</i>—far</td><td align='left'><i>cycl</i>—circle</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>graph</i>—write</td><td align='left'><i>geo</i>—earth</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>scop</i>—see</td><td align='left'><i>polit</i>—government</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>micro</i>—small</td><td align='left'><i>cra</i>—rule</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>mono</i>—one</td><td align='left'><i>demo</i>—people</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>arch</i>—chief</td><td align='left'><i>hydro</i>—water</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>metr</i>—measure</td><td align='left'><i>poly</i>—many</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>baro</i>—pressure, weight </td><td align='left'><i>pluto</i>—riches</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>How many names of modern inventions have you made?</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 50</b></div> + +<p>What words belonging to your vocabulary end in the +following suffixes? Choose only such as have an English +word for the root.</p> + +<div class='center'><b>Adjective Suffixes</b></div> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1. <i>able</i>, <i>ible</i>—able to be, fit to be</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;"><i>Readable</i>, fit to be read.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">2. <i>al</i>, <i>eal</i>, <i>ial</i>—relating to, having to do with</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3. <i>ant</i>, <i>ent</i>—being, inclined to</span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4. <i>ate</i>—having the quality of, inclined to</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5. <i>ic</i>—like, relating to</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6. <i>ive</i>—relating to, of the nature of, belonging to</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">7. <i>ory</i>, <i>ary</i>—relating to</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8. <i>ous</i>—full of, abounding in</span><br /> +</div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Verb Suffixes</b></div> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1. <i>ate</i>—to make</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">2. <i>fy</i>, <i>ify</i>—to make</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3. <i>ise</i>, <i>ize</i>—to make</span><br /> +</div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Noun Suffixes</b></div> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1. <i>age</i>—condition, act, collection of</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">2. <i>ance</i>, <i>ancy</i>, <i>ence</i>, <i>ency</i>—state of being</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3. <i>ary</i>, <i>ory</i>—one who, place where, that which</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4. <i>ant</i>, <i>ent</i>—one who</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5. <i>ist</i>, <i>ite</i>—one who</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6. <i>ion</i>, <i>sion</i>, <i>tion</i>—act of, state of being</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">7. <i>ity</i>, <i>ty</i>—quality of being</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8. <i>ment</i>—that which, act or state of being</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">9. <i>or</i>, <i>er</i>, <i>ar</i>—one who</span><br /> + +10. <i>try</i>—state of<br /> + +11. <i>tude</i>, <i>itude</i>—condition of being<br /> + +12. <i>ure</i>—condition of being, that which<br /> +</div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 51</b></div> + +<p>The following is a list of the more commonly used Latin +prefixes:</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 51"> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1. <i>a</i>, <i>ab</i>—away from</span></td><td align='left'>16. <i>intro</i>—toward the inside</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">2. <i>ad</i>—toward</span></td><td align='left'>17. <i>mono</i>—one</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3. <i>ante</i>—before</span></td><td align='left'>18. <i>non</i>—not</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4. <i>anti</i>—against</span></td><td align='left'>19. <i>ob</i>—in the way of, against</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5. <i>bi</i>—two, twice</span></td><td align='left'>20. <i>per</i>—through</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6. <i>circum</i>—around</span></td><td align='left'>21. <i>pre</i>—before</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">7. <i>con</i>—together with, against </span></td><td align='left'>22. <i>post</i>—after</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8. <i>contra</i>—against</span></td><td align='left'>23. <i>pro</i>—before</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">9. <i>de</i>—from, apart from, down from </span></td><td align='left'>24. <i>re</i>—again, back</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>10. <i>dis</i>—apart, not</td><td align='left'>25. <i>semi</i>—half, partly</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>11. <i>dia</i>—through</td><td align='left'>26. <i>se</i>—away from</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>12. <i>ex</i>—out of</td><td align='left'>27. <i>sub</i>—under, below</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>13. <i>in</i>, <i>en</i>—into</td><td align='left'>28. <i>super</i>—above, more than</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;"><i>en</i>—to cause to be</span></td><td align='left'>29. <i>trans</i>—across</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>14. <i>in</i>, <i>un</i>—not</td><td align='left'>30. <i>uni</i>—one</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>15. <i>inter</i>—between</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 52</b></div> + +<p>Analyze the following words, telling prefix, root, suffix, +part of speech, and meaning:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 52"> +<tr><td align='left'>business</td><td align='left'>package</td><td align='left'>truthfulness</td><td align='left'>unsuccessful</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>useless</td><td align='left'>anteroom</td><td align='left'>workmanlike</td><td align='left'>agreement</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>prefix</td><td align='left'>monotone</td><td align='left'>nervousness</td><td align='left'>uniformity</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>beautify</td><td align='left'>breakage</td><td align='left'>disrespectful </td><td align='left'>misguidance</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>semicircle </td><td align='left'>pleasant</td><td align='left'>perfection</td><td align='left'>crystallize</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>kingship</td><td align='left'>sameness </td><td align='left'>progressive</td><td align='left'>precaution</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>incase</td><td align='left'>subway</td><td align='left'>undeniable</td><td align='left'>imaginary</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>enrich</td><td align='left'>disown</td><td align='left'>displeasure</td><td align='left'>supernatural</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>pianist</td><td align='left'>readmit</td><td align='left'>endurance</td><td align='left'>melodious</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bicycle</td><td align='left'>adjuster </td><td align='left'>reaction</td><td align='left'>interlineal</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 53</b></div> + +<p>When the prefixes <i>ad</i>, <i>con</i>, and <i>in</i> are used to form English +words, the final consonant of each is often changed to the +initial consonant of the root to which it is joined.</p> + +<p><i>Ad</i> assumes the forms <i>ab</i>, <i>ac</i>, <i>af</i>, <i>ag</i>, <i>al</i>, <i>an</i>, <i>ap</i>, <i>ar</i>, <i>as</i>, <i>at</i>, +assimilating the <i>d</i> with the first letter of the word to which +it is prefixed; as,</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 53 part 1"> +<tr><td align='left'>ab-breviate </td><td align='left'>al-literation </td><td align='left'>ar-rest</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ac-cept</td><td align='left'>al-lot</td><td align='left'>as-sign</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ac-cumulate </td><td align='left'>an-nex</td><td align='left'>as-sist</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>af-fect</td><td align='left'>an-nounce</td><td align='left'>at-tract</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>af-flict</td><td align='left'>ap-position</td><td align='left'>at-tribute</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ag-gregate</td><td align='left'>ap-prove</td><td align='left'>at-tune</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><i>Con</i> assumes the forms <i>col</i>, <i>cor</i>, <i>com</i>, by assimilation; it +takes the form <i>com</i> before <i>p;</i> and it drops the <i>n</i> before a +vowel; as,</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 53 part 2"> +<tr><td align='left'>col-lateral </td><td align='left'>com-mercial </td><td align='left'>com-pose</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>col-lect</td><td align='left'>cor-relate</td><td align='left'>co-operate</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>com-mission </td><td align='left'>cor-respond</td><td align='left'>co-ordinate</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>In</i> assumes the forms <i>il</i>, <i>im</i>, <i>ir</i>, by assimilation and takes +the form of <i>im</i> before <i>p</i>.</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 53 part 3"> +<tr><td align='left'>il-lusion </td><td align='left'>im-migrate </td><td align='left'>ir-ruption </td><td align='left'>im-port</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 54—Peculiar Adjective Endings</b></div> + +<p>The suffixes <i>able</i> and <i>ible</i> are sometimes troublesome +because it is difficult to know which ending to write. As +a rule, if the new word was made from another English word, +the ending is <i>able</i>, as <i>blamable</i>. The words ending in <i>ible</i> +are derived from the Latin, and, as a rule, the ending cannot +easily be separated from the root and still leave the latter +an English word. Examples are:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 54 part 1"> +<tr><td align='left'>divisible </td><td align='left'>intelligible </td><td align='left'>digestible </td><td align='left'>audible</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>visible</td><td align='left'>permissible</td><td align='left'>flexible</td><td align='left'>incredible</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>possible</td><td align='left'>terrible</td><td align='left'>horrible</td><td align='left'>indelible</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The suffixes <i>ant</i> and <i>ent</i> must also be carefully noted. No +rule can be given for using one rather than the other. Whenever +in doubt, consult a dictionary. Note the following:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 54 part 2"> +<tr><td align='center'><i>ant</i> </td><td align='center'><i>ent</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>important</td><td align='left'>independent</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>pleasant</td><td align='left'>convalescent</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>triumphant </td><td align='left'>competent</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>luxuriant</td><td align='left'>convenient</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>stagnant</td><td align='left'>confident</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>The endings <i>eous</i> and <i>ious</i>, where <i>e</i> and <i>i</i> are often confused, +are illustrated in the following:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 54 part 3"> +<tr><td align='center'><i>eous</i> </td><td align='center'><i>ious</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>hideous</td><td align='left'>delirious</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>miscellaneous </td><td align='left'>impious</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>courteous</td><td align='left'>studious</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The endings <i>cious</i> and <i>tious</i> are shown in the following:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 54 Part 4"> +<tr><td align='center'><i>cious</i> </td><td align='center'><i>tious</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>conscious</td><td align='left'>fictitious</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>precious</td><td align='left'>superstitious</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>delicious</td><td align='left'>cautious</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>gracious</td><td align='left'>ambitious</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>suspicious </td><td align='left'>nutritious</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p> + +<p>The endings <i>gious</i> and <i>geous</i> are illustrated in the following:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 54 part 5"> +<tr><td align='center'><i>gious</i> </td><td align='center'><i>geous</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>religious </td><td align='left'>courageous</td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 55—Peculiar Noun and Verb Endings</b></div> + +<p>Nouns in <i>ance</i> and <i>ence:</i></p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 55 part 1"> +<tr><td align='center'><i>ance</i> </td><td align='center'><i>ence</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>acceptance</td><td align='left'>intelligence</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>appearance</td><td align='left'>reference</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>annoyance</td><td align='left'>patience</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>acquaintance </td><td align='left'>negligence</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>remittance</td><td align='left'>diligence</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ignorance</td><td align='left'>residence</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>Nouns in <i>sion</i>, <i>cion</i>, and <i>tion:</i></p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 55 part 2"> +<tr><td align='center'><i>sion</i> </td><td align='center'><i>cion</i> </td><td align='center'><i>tion</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>exclusion </td><td align='left'>coercion</td><td align='left'>acquisition</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>aversion</td><td align='left'>suspicion </td><td align='left'>precaution</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Verbs in <i>ise</i>, <i>yze</i>, and <i>ize:</i></p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 55 part 3"> +<tr><td align='center'><i>ise</i> </td><td align='center'><i>yze</i> </td><td align='center'><i>ize</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>advise</td><td align='left'>analyze</td><td align='left'>baptize</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>supervise </td><td align='left'>paralyze </td><td align='left'>recognize</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Verbs in <i>ceed</i>, <i>sede</i>, and <i>cede:</i></p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 55 part 4"> +<tr><td align='center'><i>ceed</i> </td><td align='center'><i>sede</i> </td><td align='center'><i>cede</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>exceed</td><td align='left'>supersede </td><td align='left'>concede</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>proceed </td><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>intercede</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>succeed</td><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>precede</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 56</b></div> + +<p>What other words can you form from the following? +Explain what prefixes or suffixes you use in each case and +what part of speech you form.</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 56"> +<tr><td align='left'>success</td><td align='left'>consider</td><td align='left'>real</td><td align='left'>change</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>please</td><td align='left'>doubt</td><td align='left'>publish</td><td align='left'>attend</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>occur</td><td align='left'>apply</td><td align='left'>regular</td><td align='left'>satisfy</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>emphasize </td><td align='left'>industry</td><td align='left'>operate</td><td align='left'>assess</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>second</td><td align='left'>busy</td><td align='left'>practice </td><td align='left'>resist</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>expense</td><td align='left'>distribute </td><td align='left'>organ</td><td align='left'>define</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>depend</td><td align='left'>locate</td><td align='left'>work</td><td align='left'>sense</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>attract</td><td align='left'>install</td><td align='left'>desire</td><td align='left'>preside</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>effect</td><td align='left'>vital</td><td align='left'>count</td><td align='left'>sign</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 57</b></div> + +<p>There are many words the meanings of which are easily +confused. The spelling and the definitions of such must be +mastered. Analysis in this exercise and in the one following +does not require separation into prefix, root, and suffix, but it +necessitates a careful study of the words, first, to note the +difference in spelling; second, to consult a dictionary, if +necessary, for the difference in meaning.</p> + +<p>Define each word clearly.</p> + +<p>Use each in a sentence to illustrate its meaning.</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 57"> +<tr><td align='left'>accept—except</td><td align='left'>common—mutual</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>add—annex</td><td align='left'>complementary—complimentary</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>advice—advise</td><td align='left'>continual—continuous</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>affect—effect</td><td align='left'>contraction—abbreviation</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>after—afterward</td><td align='left'>contradiction—denial</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ascend—assent</td><td align='left'>currant—current</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>assure—promise</td><td align='left'>defective—deficient</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>attain—obtain</td><td align='left'>deprecate—depreciate</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>benefit—advantage</td><td align='left'>effective—efficient</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>brief—concise</td><td align='left'>eligible—illegible</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>center—middle</td><td align='left'>eminent—prominent</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>claim—maintain</td><td align='left'>expect—hope</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>combine—combination </td><td align='left'>intelligent—intelligible</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 58</b></div> + +<p>As above, define each word carefully and use it in a sentence +to illustrate its meaning.</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 58"> +<tr><td align='left'>healthful—healthy</td><td align='left'>proficient—efficient</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>inventory—invoice</td><td align='left'>proscribe—prescribe</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>invite—invitation</td><td align='left'>purpose—propose</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>last—latest</td><td align='left'>quiet—quite</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>later—latter</td><td align='left'>recommend—recommendation</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>liable—likely—apt</td><td align='left'>refer—allude</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>loose—lose</td><td align='left'>repair—fix</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>need—want</td><td align='left'>requirement—requisite—requisition</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>perspective—prospective </td><td align='left'>respectfully—respectively</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>positive—definite</td><td align='left'>scarcely—hardly</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>practicable—practical</td><td align='left'>stationary—stationery</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>precede—proceed</td><td align='left'>therefore—accordingly</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>principal—principle </td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>500 SPELLING WORDS</b></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 1</b></div> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 1"> +<tr><td align='left'>business </td><td align='left'>losing</td><td align='left'>surprising </td><td align='left'>height</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>receive</td><td align='left'>loosely</td><td align='left'>Saturday</td><td align='left'>depth</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>believe</td><td align='left'>across</td><td align='left'>Wednesday</td><td align='left'>eighth</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>wholly</td><td align='left'>whether</td><td align='left'>excellent</td><td align='left'>daily</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>obliged</td><td align='left'>describe</td><td align='left'>exercise</td><td align='left'>earnest</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 2</b></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 2"> +<tr><td align='left'>attached</td><td align='left'>decision</td><td align='left'>probable</td><td align='left'>seize</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>attacked</td><td align='left'>buying</td><td align='left'>usable</td><td align='left'>siege</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>gentlemen</td><td align='left'>studying </td><td align='left'>salable</td><td align='left'>friend</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>although</td><td align='left'>relying</td><td align='left'>desirable </td><td align='left'>Messrs.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>thoroughly </td><td align='left'>occasion</td><td align='left'>honorable</td><td align='left'>nickel</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 3</b></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 3"> +<tr><td align='left'>disappoint</td><td align='left'>knew</td><td align='left'>acquittal</td><td align='left'>stopped</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>disappear</td><td align='left'>design</td><td align='left'>occurrence </td><td align='left'>referred</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>disapprove </td><td align='left'>forty</td><td align='left'>compelling</td><td align='left'>planned</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>disagree</td><td align='left'>fourth</td><td align='left'>beginning</td><td align='left'>swimming</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>anxious</td><td align='left'>purpose </td><td align='left'>permitted</td><td align='left'>submitted</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 4</b></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 4"> +<tr><td align='left'>all right </td><td align='left'>persuade</td><td align='left'>Norwegian</td><td align='left'>variety</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>already</td><td align='left'>pursued</td><td align='left'>possession</td><td align='left'>prairie</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>tongue</td><td align='left'>prepared</td><td align='left'>accumulate</td><td align='left'>neighbor</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>separate</td><td align='left'>repaired</td><td align='left'>dissatisfy </td><td align='left'>soldier</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>crystal</td><td align='left'>necessary </td><td align='left'>dissolve</td><td align='left'>shoulder</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 5</b></div> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 5"> +<tr><td align='left'>their</td><td align='left'>awkward</td><td align='left'>opportunity </td><td align='left'>scheme</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>advise</td><td align='left'>mucilage</td><td align='left'>development</td><td align='left'>schedule</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>advice</td><td align='left'>familiar</td><td align='left'>statistics</td><td align='left'>accurately</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>laboratory </td><td align='left'>peculiar </td><td align='left'>accidental</td><td align='left'>efficient</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>until</td><td align='left'>similar</td><td align='left'>competent</td><td align='left'>Spaniard</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span></p> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 6</b></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 6"> +<tr><td align='left'>policy</td><td align='left'>patient</td><td align='left'>merchandise </td><td align='left'>conscious</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>rough</td><td align='left'>ancient</td><td align='left'>mercantile</td><td align='left'>precious</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>disease</td><td align='left'>partial</td><td align='left'>scarcity</td><td align='left'>suspicion</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>balance</td><td align='left'>facial</td><td align='left'>indebted</td><td align='left'>physician</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>decease </td><td align='left'>ambitious </td><td align='left'>estimate</td><td align='left'>caution</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 7</b></div> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 7"> +<tr><td align='left'>ascend</td><td align='left'>noticeable</td><td align='left'>vengeance </td><td align='left'>emergency</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>assent</td><td align='left'>serviceable</td><td align='left'>address</td><td align='left'>compliance</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>minute</td><td align='left'>manageable</td><td align='left'>salary</td><td align='left'>reference</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>conceal</td><td align='left'>exchangeable </td><td align='left'>currency</td><td align='left'>apparel</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>immense </td><td align='left'>advantageous</td><td align='left'>withhold</td><td align='left'>typical</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 8</b></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 8"> +<tr><td align='left'>edition</td><td align='left'>especially</td><td align='left'>appreciate </td><td align='left'>imitate</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>addition</td><td align='left'>pamphlet</td><td align='left'>essential</td><td align='left'>initial</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>identify</td><td align='left'>illustrate </td><td align='left'>eligible</td><td align='left'>official</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>illegal</td><td align='left'>February</td><td align='left'>legible</td><td align='left'>curtain</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>nuisance </td><td align='left'>punctual</td><td align='left'>illegible</td><td align='left'>adjacent</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 9</b></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 9"> +<tr><td align='left'>later</td><td align='left'>crystallize </td><td align='left'>lieutenant</td><td align='left'>lenient</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>latter</td><td align='left'>neutralize</td><td align='left'>anthracite</td><td align='left'>naphtha</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>weighed</td><td align='left'>conceit</td><td align='left'>bituminous</td><td align='left'>liquid</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>destroy</td><td align='left'>catarrh</td><td align='left'>rheumatism</td><td align='left'>gauge</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>indelible </td><td align='left'>colonel</td><td align='left'>influential </td><td align='left'>sieve</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 10</b></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 10"> +<tr><td align='left'>duly</td><td align='left'>interfered</td><td align='left'>analyze</td><td align='left'>attorneys</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>durable</td><td align='left'>transferred </td><td align='left'>analysis</td><td align='left'>specialty</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>mutual</td><td align='left'>reconcile</td><td align='left'>paralyze </td><td align='left'>sympathy</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bargain</td><td align='left'>accidental</td><td align='left'>banana</td><td align='left'>campaign</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>misspell </td><td align='left'>irregular</td><td align='left'>molasses</td><td align='left'>mattress</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 11</b></div> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 11"> +<tr><td align='left'>ached</td><td align='left'>designate</td><td align='left'>vicinity</td><td align='left'>recognize</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>social</td><td align='left'>available</td><td align='left'>guardian</td><td align='left'>technical</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>forfeit</td><td align='left'>adequately</td><td align='left'>celebrate </td><td align='left'>hygiene</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>opposite </td><td align='left'>subordinate </td><td align='left'>porcelain</td><td align='left'>angel</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>parallel</td><td align='left'>sufficient</td><td align='left'>poultice</td><td align='left'>angle</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span></p> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 12</b></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 12"> +<tr><td align='left'>society</td><td align='left'>associate</td><td align='left'>rumored</td><td align='left'>remittance</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>sirloin</td><td align='left'>definitely</td><td align='left'>courtesy</td><td align='left'>remuneration</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>laborer</td><td align='left'>spherical</td><td align='left'>obstinacy </td><td align='left'>restaurant</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>visitor</td><td align='left'>commercial</td><td align='left'>financial</td><td align='left'>government</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>souvenir </td><td align='left'>permissible </td><td align='left'>sapphire</td><td align='left'>acquaintance</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 13</b></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 13"> +<tr><td align='left'>quite</td><td align='left'>appropriate</td><td align='left'>convenient</td><td align='left'>knowledge</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>least</td><td align='left'>distinguish </td><td align='left'>exaggerate</td><td align='left'>principal, <i>a</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>written </td><td align='left'>mysterious</td><td align='left'>confidential </td><td align='left'>stationary, <i>a</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>among</td><td align='left'>appearance</td><td align='left'>endeavoring</td><td align='left'>judgment</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>psalm</td><td align='left'>conference</td><td align='left'>immediately</td><td align='left'>implement</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 14</b></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 14"> +<tr><td align='left'>assure</td><td align='left'>greatly</td><td align='left'>embarrassment </td><td align='left'>auxiliary</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>expect</td><td align='left'>grateful</td><td align='left'>organization</td><td align='left'>conciliate</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>prompt</td><td align='left'>deserve</td><td align='left'>advertisement </td><td align='left'>principle, <i>n</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>eliminate</td><td align='left'>bureau</td><td align='left'>assessment</td><td align='left'>stationery, <i>n</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>illuminate </td><td align='left'>deficient </td><td align='left'>accommodate</td><td align='left'>parenthesis</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 15</b></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 15"> +<tr><td align='left'>coupon</td><td align='left'>indispensable </td><td align='left'>measure</td><td align='left'>proprietor</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>length</td><td align='left'>innumerable</td><td align='left'>condemn</td><td align='left'>transient</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>vehicle</td><td align='left'>investigate</td><td align='left'>security </td><td align='left'>persistent</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>customer</td><td align='left'>incandescent</td><td align='left'>liniment</td><td align='left'>signature</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>costumer </td><td align='left'>effervescent</td><td align='left'>mosquito</td><td align='left'>mischievous</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 16</b></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 16"> +<tr><td align='left'>canal</td><td align='left'>company's</td><td align='left'>repetition</td><td align='left'>sulphur</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>channel </td><td align='left'>real estate </td><td align='left'>abbreviated </td><td align='left'>benefited</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>liquid</td><td align='left'>equivalent</td><td align='left'>unabridged</td><td align='left'>unanimous</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>recent</td><td align='left'>assignment</td><td align='left'>assurance</td><td align='left'>itemize</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>trough</td><td align='left'>extravagant</td><td align='left'>pneumatic</td><td align='left'>calcimine</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 17</b></div> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 17"> +<tr><td align='left'>precede</td><td align='left'>freight</td><td align='left'>authority</td><td align='left'>leisure</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>proceed</td><td align='left'>achieve</td><td align='left'>mortgage</td><td align='left'>neuralgia</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>procession </td><td align='left'>between</td><td align='left'>specimen</td><td align='left'>dyspepsia</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>precision</td><td align='left'>imagine </td><td align='left'>solicitor</td><td align='left'>substantial</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>extinguish </td><td align='left'>autumn</td><td align='left'>coöperates </td><td align='left'>passenger</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span></p> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 18</b></div> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 18"> +<tr><td align='left'>merely</td><td align='left'>mechanical</td><td align='left'>preliminary</td><td align='left'>omitted</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>cashier</td><td align='left'>permanent</td><td align='left'>miscellaneous </td><td align='left'>omission</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>urgent</td><td align='left'>prominent</td><td align='left'>subscription</td><td align='left'>committee</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>hesitate</td><td align='left'>precaution </td><td align='left'>incredible</td><td align='left'>commission</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>anchored </td><td align='left'>interval</td><td align='left'>anticipation</td><td align='left'>precisely</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 19</b></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 19"> +<tr><td align='left'>specify</td><td align='left'>preparation</td><td align='left'>athletics</td><td align='left'>deceit</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>equity</td><td align='left'>coincidence</td><td align='left'>excursion</td><td align='left'>receipt</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>accrue</td><td align='left'>irresolute</td><td align='left'>suggestion </td><td align='left'>obstacle</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>concrete </td><td align='left'>vaccination </td><td align='left'>courageous</td><td align='left'>promissory</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>summary</td><td align='left'>glycerine</td><td align='left'>concession</td><td align='left'>compulsory</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 20</b></div> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 20"> +<tr><td align='left'>deficit</td><td align='left'>sceptical</td><td align='left'>anniversary </td><td align='left'>rhythm</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>mansion</td><td align='left'>conscience</td><td align='left'>presumption</td><td align='left'>rhubarb</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>mention</td><td align='left'>interruption</td><td align='left'>guaranteed</td><td align='left'>fatigue</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>reckoned </td><td align='left'>approximately </td><td align='left'>prejudice</td><td align='left'>synopsis</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>license</td><td align='left'>avoirdupois</td><td align='left'>privilege</td><td align='left'>emphatic</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 21</b></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 21"> +<tr><td align='left'>scholar</td><td align='left'>Elkhart</td><td align='left'>industrious</td><td align='left'>collision</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>scissors</td><td align='left'>Memphis</td><td align='left'>hideous</td><td align='left'>delusion</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>career</td><td align='left'>Niagara</td><td align='left'>artificial</td><td align='left'>oxygen</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>sincere</td><td align='left'>Raleigh </td><td align='left'>cantaloupe</td><td align='left'>martyr</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>chiffonier </td><td align='left'>Oregon</td><td align='left'>unscrupulous </td><td align='left'>apology</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 22</b></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 22"> +<tr><td align='left'>receipt</td><td align='left'>Cincinnati</td><td align='left'>sovereign</td><td align='left'>chemical</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>welfare</td><td align='left'>Des Moines </td><td align='left'>committee</td><td align='left'>frontier</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>feigned </td><td align='left'>Decatur</td><td align='left'>ingredients </td><td align='left'>fulfilled</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>chord</td><td align='left'>Dubuque</td><td align='left'>counterfeit</td><td align='left'>facsimile</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>scythe</td><td align='left'>Alleghany</td><td align='left'>responsible</td><td align='left'>identical</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 23</b></div> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="23"> +<tr><td align='left'>exceed</td><td align='left'>Paducah</td><td align='left'>foreign</td><td align='left'>Cheyenne</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>succeed</td><td align='left'>Eau Claire </td><td align='left'>solemnity</td><td align='left'>metallic</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>secede</td><td align='left'>Peoria</td><td align='left'>assassinate </td><td align='left'>nauseated</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>immigrant </td><td align='left'>Savannah</td><td align='left'>pneumonia</td><td align='left'>invariably</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>emigrant</td><td align='left'>Manila</td><td align='left'>diphtheria</td><td align='left'>injurious</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span></p> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 24</b></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 24"> +<tr><td align='left'>adoption</td><td align='left'>Minneapolis</td><td align='left'>fraudulent</td><td align='left'>mahogany</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>scientific</td><td align='left'>Indianapolis </td><td align='left'>negligence</td><td align='left'>corduroy</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>guidance</td><td align='left'>Syracuse</td><td align='left'>diligence</td><td align='left'>Schenectady</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>syllable</td><td align='left'>Milwaukee</td><td align='left'>ridiculous</td><td align='left'>duplicate</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fort Wayne </td><td align='left'>Valparaiso</td><td align='left'>comparative </td><td align='left'>reënforce</td></tr> +</table></div> +<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 25</b></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 25"> +<tr><td align='left'>Duluth</td><td align='left'>Massachusetts</td><td align='left'>preferable </td><td align='left'>periodical</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Missouri</td><td align='left'>Connecticut</td><td align='left'>preferred</td><td align='left'>insertion</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wisconsin </td><td align='left'>enthusiastic</td><td align='left'>publicity</td><td align='left'>excursion</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>luxurious </td><td align='left'>acknowledgment </td><td align='left'>prevailing</td><td align='left'>plateau</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>twelfth</td><td align='left'>professional</td><td align='left'>damageable</td><td align='left'>tragedy</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER V</h2> + +<div class='chaptertitle'>THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS</div> + + +<p>In the preceding chapters we have seen words as they +are used singly. We studied their pronunciation and the +way in which they were formed to express a definite meaning. +In this chapter we shall begin a review of grammar, +a study of words not according to their pronunciation or +their definition, but according to their use as they are +arranged with other words to express complete ideas. The +simplest group into which words are thus arranged is the +sentence, consisting of two important parts, the subject +and the predicate. The subject is the part about which +something is told, and the predicate is the part that tells +about the subject; as,</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="subject and predicate"> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Subject</i> </td><td align='center'><i>Predicate</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>The sun </td><td align='left'>shines brightly</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>There are several different kinds of sentences, named +according to the meaning which they express. They are +as follows:</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +The <i>declarative</i> sentence states a fact.<br /> +The <i>interrogative</i> sentence asks a question.<br /> +The <i>imperative</i> sentence commands or entreats.<br /> +The <i>exclamatory</i> sentence expresses deep feeling.<br /> +</div> + +<div class='center'><br /><i>Illustrations</i></div> + +<div> +<i>Declarative:</i> John closed the door.<br /> +<i>Interrogative:</i> Did John close the door?<br /> +<i>Imperative:</i> Close the door.<br /> +<i>Exclamatory:</i> What a noise the door made!<br /> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span></p> + +<p>Sentences are classified, also, according to their structure +or form. If a sentence has one subject and one predicate, +it is a <i>simple</i> sentence. If it is made up of two independent +parts, it is a <i>compound</i> sentence. If it has one independent +part and one or more dependent parts, each of which contains +a subject and a predicate of its own, the sentence is +<i>complex</i>. The independent part of the sentence is called a +<i>principal clause</i>, and the dependent part is called a <i>subordinate +clause</i>. A <i>phrase</i> is also a dependent part of a +sentence, but it differs from a subordinate clause in that +it contains no subject or predicate. Both phrases and +subordinate clauses are used as parts of speech, as nouns, +adjectives, or adverbs. Thus we have the following definitions:</p> + +<p>A <i>simple</i> sentence contains one principal clause.</p> + +<p>A <i>compound</i> sentence contains two or more principal +clauses.</p> + +<p>A <i>complex</i> sentence contains one principal clause and one +or more subordinate clauses.</p> + +<p>A <i>phrase</i> is a group of related words used as a part of +speech. (See <a href="#Exercise_68">Exercises 68</a> and <a href="#Exercise_69">69</a>.)</p> + +<p>A <i>clause</i> is a group of words containing a subject and a +predicate. A subordinate clause is used as a part of speech. +It usually has an introductory word to distinguish it from +a principal clause. (See <a href="#Exercise_71">Exercise 71</a>.)</p> + +<div class='center'><br /><i>Illustrations</i></div> + +<div class='hang1'><i>Simple sentence:</i> To-day most of the world's big questions are +business questions.</div> + +<div class='hang1'><i>Complex sentence:</i> The view <i>that</i> business is only humdrum routine +and sordid money-making needs revising, <i>since</i> +most of the world's big questions are business questions.</div> + +<div class='hang1'><i>Compound sentence:</i> Many people still belittle business, calling +it humdrum routine and sordid money-making, <i>but</i> +this view needs revising.</div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='hang1'><i>Phrase:</i> (<i>a</i>) <i>of</i> the world's big questions.<br /> +(<i>b</i>) <i>calling</i> it humdrum routine and sordid +money-making.<br /> +</div> +<div class='hang1'><i>Subordinate clause:</i> (<i>a</i>) <i>that</i> business is only humdrum routine and +sordid money-making.<br /> +(<i>b</i>) <i>since</i> most of the world's big questions are +business questions.<br /> +</div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 59</b></div> + +<p>Write two of each of the following kinds of sentences: +<i>a.</i> Declarative, <i>b.</i> Interrogative, <i>c.</i> Imperative, <i>d.</i> Exclamatory.</p> + +<p>Examine each of the sentences below and tell</p> + +<p><i>a.</i> Whether it is simple, complex, or compound.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> Its subject and its predicate.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> Its phrases and its subordinate clause (if there are any).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Your subscription expires with this issue.</p> + +<p>2. This special offer will continue until the tenth of November.</p> + +<p>3. The last shipment of castings that you made to us is decidedly +unsatisfactory.</p> + +<p>4. Your imitation typewritten letters have greatly assisted +us in the sale of our property, and we thank you for calling our +attention to them.</p> + +<p>5. The advertised poster was sent to you to-day in a special +tube.</p> + +<p>6. Without doubt you will be interested in the booklet which +we enclose.</p> + +<p>7. The machine which is standing there has just been repaired.</p> + +<p>8. The wheel that holds the type may be changed in an instant +by the operator.</p> + +<p>9. Whenever he wishes, the operator may write in different +sizes of type on the same sheet of paper.</p> + +<p>10. Many of our styles have been copied exactly from the best +designs that have recently been displayed in the Parisian exhibits.</p> + +<p>11. Why are the department stores acquiring motor wagons?</p> + +<p>12. One reason is the economy of the motor wagon.</p> + +<p>13. Economy does not entirely explain the keenness which +department stores are displaying in acquiring motor wagons.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span></p> + +<p>14. In such establishments the quick delivery of merchandise +is a necessity.</p> + +<p>15. The best means of transportation must be employed, or a +loss of trade will follow.</p> + +<p>16. Any one can cite examples that prove that faults in delivery +cause a loss of trade.</p> + +<p>17. Machine service develops fewer errors than horse service +(develops).</p> + +<p>18. The area which department stores serve is being greatly +increased from year to year, and not even the establishment of +the parcel post has avoided the necessity for sending package +merchandise too far distant for conveyance by horses.</p> + +<p>19. Electric machines usually make the house-to-house package +deliveries, and gasoline trucks, besides hauling furniture, +transfer large loads from the store or warehouse to the distributing +stations.</p> + +<p>20. In one store each transfer truck is loaded twice daily with +fifty trunks containing parcels.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 60—Sentence Errors</b></div> + +<p><b>S. 1.</b> <span class="smcap">The Baby Blunder.</span>—In writing, one of the +most elementary forms of correctness is shown in the proper +division into sentences. The ability instinctively to end a +sentence at the right place is called the "sentence sense." +Students who do not possess it or who have not learned +the difference between sentences, subordinate clauses, and +phrases frequently make the mistake of setting off too +much or too little for one sentence. For example, they run +two sentences together as one; as,</p> + +<p><i>Wrong:</i> Motor wagons are economical, department stores of +all large cities are acquiring them.</p> + +<p>The sentence, as written above, contains one form of the +sentence error—one of the worst possible mistakes in +writing. It is sometimes called the <i>comma fault</i> or the +<i>baby blunder</i>. For brevity we shall call it <i>S 1</i> (sentence error +number one). <i>Motor wagons are economical</i> is a principal +clause. <i>Department stores of all large cities are acquiring them</i> +is also a principal clause. Two such clauses may not stand<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> +in the same sentence separated only by a comma. To correct, +divide into two sentences; as,</p> + +<p><i>Right:</i> Motor wagons are economical. Department stores of +all large cities are acquiring them.</p> + +<p>Sometimes the thought in the two principal clauses is +closely connected. In that case they may be put into the +same sentence, provided they are properly connected or +separated. Use a comma <i>plus</i> a coördinate conjunction (as +<i>and</i>, <i>or</i>, <i>but</i>) to connect them, or a semicolon (;) to separate +them.</p> + +<p>Be particularly careful of the conjunctive adverbs <i>so</i>, <i>then</i>, +<i>therefore</i>, <i>thus</i>, <i>also</i>, <i>still</i>, <i>otherwise</i>, <i>however</i>, <i>hence</i>, <i>consequently</i>, +<i>moreover</i>, <i>nevertheless</i>. When they are used to join +the principal clauses of a compound sentence, a comma is +not sufficient punctuation between the clauses. A semicolon +or a comma and a coördinate conjunction must be +used.</p> + +<p><i>Wrong:</i> He had been a good customer, so they were sorry to +lose his trade.</p> + +<p><i>Right:</i> He had been a good customer; so they were sorry to +lose his trade.</p> + +<p><i>Right:</i> He had been a good customer, and so they were sorry +to lose his trade.</p> + +<p><b>S. 2.</b>—The first form of the sentence error (<i>S 1</i>) is made +by using too much for one sentence. The second form (<i>S 2</i>) +is made by using too little. It consists in writing a subordinate +clause or a phrase as a sentence; as,</p> + +<p>1. <i>Wrong:</i> I told her I would attend to the matter at my +earliest convenience. <i>Probably on my way from work in the evening.</i></p> + +<p>2. <i>Wrong:</i> His doctor advised him to go to Arizona. <i>Which +he decided to do.</i></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 61</b></div> + +<p>Each sentence should express one complete thought. +Some of the following are really two sentences (<i>S 1</i>), and +some are only parts of sentences (<i>S 2</i>). Correct each, naming +the mistake.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. You will find the booklet interesting it is also instructive.</p> + +<p>2. Up to last January he was a salesman for Colgate & Co. +since then he has opened a business of his own.</p> + +<p>3. I didn't know you had come, when did you arrive?</p> + +<p>4. Did any one take the newspaper, I left it here only a +moment ago.</p> + +<p>5. I shall take my vacation in September have you had yours?</p> + +<p>6. I must go now good-bye I'll see you on Saturday.</p> + +<p>7. The opening sentence held the man's attention, he read +it again and again.</p> + +<p>8. I'll have to run to catch the train, otherwise I shall be +late for work.</p> + +<p>9. The advertisement is attractive, still it has not paid well.</p> + +<p>10. We wished to reduce office drudgery therefore we installed +adding and addressing machines.</p> + +<p>11. These problems all require a knowledge of square root for +example, take the fourth.</p> + +<p>12. Do you expect to come home for Christmas or shall you +stay in New York I don't remember now which you said.</p> + +<p>13. First I read a statement that recommended the bonds then +I read an article that condemned them without question the result +was that I didn't know what to do.</p> + +<p>14. One-half of the statements are here, the others are in the +safe.</p> + +<p>15. If your name is not correct on this envelope, please notify +us we wish to insure your receiving our bulletin regularly.</p> + +<p>16. The supply of fruit was greater than the demand, that is +why fruit was cheap.</p> + +<p>17. Flies are dangerous. Especially in a sick room from which +they carry germs to others.</p> + +<p>18. In the country the trees were loaded with fruit, their +branches had to be propped so that they would not break.</p> + +<p>19. When he was twenty-three years of age, Richard T. Crane, +the late millionaire head of the immense Crane Manufacturing +Company, came to Chicago, he started a brass foundry, which +grew into the present giant establishment.</p> + +<p>20. We spent last summer in the Bitter Root Valley we camped +within view of Willoughby Falls.</p> + +<p>21. I want to congratulate you on your appointment I heard +of it only yesterday.</p> + +<p>22. It surely was not I whom you saw I wonder who it could +have been.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span></p> + +<p>23. Not one of us has a salary of three thousand dollars so we +do not worry over the income tax.</p> + +<p>24. Please send me the booklet you offered in the Business +Magazine, I'd also like particulars of your advertised discount +sale of typewriters.</p> + +<p>25. Sooner or later shingles are sure to warp and curl, thus +they pull out the nails and allow the rain to beat in, furthermore, +shaded shingles soon rot and allow the water to soak through.</p> + +<p>26. This sealing and stamping machine is endorsed by business +men in all our large cities nevertheless it is not expensive.</p> + +<p>27. If you wish to prove the excellence of our paper, just tear +off a corner of this sheet then tear off a corner of your present +letterhead with a magnifying glass examine both torn edges.</p> + +<p>28. The superior paper will show long, linen fibers the poorer, +on the other hand, will have short, woody fibers.</p> + +<p>29. When a German army is on the march, it stops every +twenty minutes for a rest. Experiments having shown that a +soldier can cover more ground when he is given this period of +relaxation.</p> + +<p>30. Two thousand convicts will be released according to a +plan worked out by the governor; five hundred will be given their +freedom at once, and, if the plan is a success one thousand five +hundred others will be released. One-half their wages of fifty +cents a day to go to their families and one-half to the penitentiary +fund. If they leave the state or commit any crime while they +are on parole, to serve the balance of their term and an extension +of time. They will be put to work on roads and bridges the counties +need several thousand such laborers but cannot pay union +prices.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 62</b></div> + +<p>Rewrite the following, dividing into sentences:</p> + +<div class='center'><br />1</div> + +<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir: + +<p>There is no safer way to invest money than in a good first +mortgage on city real estate by a good mortgage we mean one that +is properly drawn and with such security as absolutely insures +the holder against loss we have made a specialty of first mortgage +loans, and we offer investors the benefit of our wide experience +in such matters we investigate properties frequently and keep +investors informed on their investment we look after all details<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> +and collections without extra charge you will find it to your +interest to consult us.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Yours truly,<br /> +</div></div> + +<div class='center'><br />2</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Stick to your legitimate business do not go out into outside +operations few men have brains enough for more than one business +to dabble in stocks, to put a few thousand dollars into a mine, +a few more into a manufactory, and a few more into an invention +is enough to ruin any man be content with fair returns do not +become greedy do not think that men are happy in proportion +as they are rich and therefore do not aim too high be content with +moderate wealth make friends a time will come when all the money +in the world will not be worth to you as much as one staunch +friend.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />3</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Sacramento City is a great commercial center its wholesale +and jobbing business extends hundreds of miles to the north, +south, west, and east it is fast becoming a substantial manufacturing +center large six and eight story buildings are rapidly taking +the place of the old two story structures a new city hall has +just been completed which cost $150,000 and a new court house +$1,000,000 the city has recently issued bonds amounting to +$800,000 for new schools scarcely a week passes without recording +some new enterprise all the main highways are macadamized +so that automobile travel is possible every day of the year and +the farmer can haul his produce to market at a minimum cost +market conditions are good and any class of produce finds ready +sale at remunerative prices.—(From an advertisement.)</p></div> + +<p>Classify the sentences that you have formed in the foregoing +exercise:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="instructions"> +<tr><td align='left'>1. According to meaning.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>2. According to form.</td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 63—Parts of Speech</b></div> + +<p>There are eight different kinds of words called parts of +speech, which are used to make sentences. They are as +follows:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span></p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Names of words"> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Noun:</i> The <i>horse</i> is brown.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Pronoun:</i> <i>He</i> is the best horse of all.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Verb:</i> He <i>galloped</i> to town.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Adjective:</i> The <i>brown</i> horse is my favorite.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Adverb:</i> He runs <i>swiftly</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Preposition:</i> We shall ride <i>to</i> town.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Conjunction:</i> The night is clear <i>and</i> cold.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Interjection:</i> <i>Oh!</i> My horse stumbled.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Thus a <i>noun</i> names something. A word that stands for +a noun is a <i>pronoun</i>. Sometimes a different part of speech +is used like a noun, and for the time being it becomes a noun. +The <i>verb</i> is a very important part of speech, since without it +there can be no sentence. The verb makes an assertion, +asks a question, or gives a command. <i>Adjectives</i> are words +that belong to or describe nouns or pronouns. Adverbs go +with or modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. <i>Prepositions</i> +and <i>conjunctions</i> connect. Prepositions join their +objects to other words in the sentence; conjunctions join +words, phrases, or clauses. An <i>interjection</i>, such as the +exclamation <i>oh</i>, is used without having grammatical relation +to any other word in the sentence. A preposition always +takes an object, the preposition and its object making a +<i>phrase</i>. Grouping this information, we have:</p> + + + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='left' rowspan='8'><span class="smcap">Parts of Speech</span></td><td align='left' rowspan='8'><img src="images/bracket.png" width="18" height="300" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td><td align='left'><i>Nouns</i> are names of persons and things.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Pronouns</i> are substitutes for nouns.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Verbs</i> make assertions, ask questions, or give commands.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Adjectives</i> modify nouns and pronouns.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Adverbs</i> modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. <br />They usually answer the questions <i>how?</i> <i>when?</i> <i>where?</i> <i>why?</i> <i>to what degree?</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Prepositions</i> join object nouns or pronouns to other words in the sentence.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Conjunctions</i> join words, phrases, and clauses.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Interjections</i> are independent words used as exclamations.</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>A word is not always the same part of speech. We may +say, "Did you <i>starch</i> the clothes?" in which case <i>starch</i> is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> +a verb. A grocer may say, "The <i>starch</i> in these packages is +always clean." In this sentence <i>starch</i> is a noun. The +part of speech depends entirely on the way the word is used.</p> + +<p>In the following, name the part of speech of each word in +italic. Judge by the way the word is used in the sentence.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p> 1. The desks have <i>green</i> pads.</p> + +<p> 2. <i>Green</i> is a restful color.</p> + +<p> 3. In the valley is a <i>mill</i>, which grinds <i>flour</i>. It is a <i>flour</i> +mill.</p> + +<p> 4. I saw him <i>stretch</i> out his hand.</p> + +<p> 5. The <i>stretch</i> of <i>waste</i> land amazed him.</p> + +<p> 6. Europeans say that Americans <i>waste</i> more than they use.</p> + +<p> 7. One of our great problems is how to lessen <i>waste</i>.</p> + +<p> 8. After the stormy <i>night</i>, the <i>day</i> dawned bright and clear.</p> + +<p> 9. He has been working <i>night</i> and <i>day</i>.</p> + +<p>10. The old man went <i>home</i> sad and weary.</p> + +<p>11. <i>Home</i> is the best place in the world.</p> + +<p>12. We must <i>fine</i> you for such an offense.</p> + +<p>13. Your <i>fine</i> is five dollars.</p> + +<p>14. We use <i>fine</i> sand in our concrete.</p> + +<p>15. I can talk <i>better</i> than I can write.</p> + +<p>16. John wrote the <i>better</i> circular.</p> + +<p>17. Talking will not <i>better</i> the matter.</p> + +<p>18. Young people should learn to respect their <i>betters</i>.</p> + +<p>19. Suddenly there was a <i>pause</i> in the music.</p> + +<p>20. Did you see those men <i>pause?</i></p> + +<p>21. He was our guide for he knew the <i>ins</i> and <i>outs</i> of the +place.</p> + +<p>22. Have you ever been <i>in</i> the house?</p> + +<p>23. Where are you going—<i>in</i> or <i>out?</i></p> + +<p>24. <i>Good</i> apples are expensive.</p> + +<p>25. The <i>good</i> of the people is our first consideration.</p> + +<p>26. I shall not go <i>if</i> it rains.</p> + +<p>27. What is the use of saying <i>if?</i></p> + +<p>28. I <i>like</i> to see her just <i>like</i> this, for in <i>like</i> mood I do not +know her <i>like</i>.</p> + +<p>29. <i>Little</i> drops of water make the mighty ocean.</p> + +<p>30. I can do <i>little</i> of the work until the typewriter is repaired.</p> + +<p>31. Do not <i>belittle</i> your work.</p> + +<p>32. She studies too <i>little</i>.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 64</b></div> + +<p>Each of the following may be used as different parts of +speech. Write sentences illustrating as many uses as possible +for each word.</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 64"> +<tr><td align='left'>sound </td><td align='left'>paper </td><td align='left'>dress </td><td align='left'>ring</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>light</td><td align='left'>shoe</td><td align='left'>box</td><td align='left'>dawn</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ride</td><td align='left'>long</td><td align='left'>ink</td><td align='left'>curb</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>iron</td><td align='left'>warm</td><td align='left'>walk</td><td align='left'>use</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>hear</td><td align='left'>cold</td><td align='left'>rule</td><td align='left'>cement</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 65</b></div> + +<p>Tell which of the words in italic are adjectives and which +are adverbs. Remember that an adjective goes with a noun +or pronoun; an adverb with another adverb, an adjective, or +a verb, and usually answers the question <i>how?</i> <i>when?</i> <i>where?</i> +<i>why?</i> <i>how much?</i> or <i>how long?</i></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p> 1. You are walking too <i>fast</i>.</p> + +<p> 2. Send perishable articles by <i>fast</i> freight.</p> + +<p> 3. He has been a <i>well</i> man since he has stopped working +indoors.</p> + +<p> 4. He writes very <i>well</i>.</p> + +<p> 5. The fire is <i>bright</i>.</p> + +<p> 6. It burns <i>brightly</i>.</p> + +<p> 7. That is a <i>very poor</i> reason.</p> + +<p> 8. The berries look <i>good</i>, but they taste <i>sour</i>.</p> + +<p> 9. They are not <i>good</i> berries.</p> + +<p>10. The sun shone <i>brilliant</i> above us. (Compare with <i>brilliantly</i>.)</p> + +<p>11. The bookkeeper looks <i>angry</i>.</p> + +<p>12. He looked at us <i>angrily</i>.</p> + +<p>13. The flowers are <i>sweet</i>.</p> + +<p>14. They smell <i>sweet</i>. (May we say, <i>The flowers smell sweetly?</i>)</p> + +<p>15. Act <i>frankly</i>, speak <i>gently</i>.</p> + +<p>16. Let your actions be <i>frank</i>, your speech <i>gentle</i>.</p> + +<p>17. Laborers complain that they have to work <i>too hard</i>.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 66</b></div> + +<p>Change the following adjectives to adverbs. In each +case use both parts of speech in sentences.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span></p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 66"> +<tr><td align='left'>cold</td><td align='left'>sure</td><td align='left'>polite</td><td align='left'>courteous</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>smooth </td><td align='left'>exact</td><td align='left'>precise </td><td align='left'>easy</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bitter</td><td align='left'>bad</td><td align='left'>extreme</td><td align='left'>nice</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>loud</td><td align='left'>general </td><td align='left'>honest</td><td align='left'>glad</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 67</b></div> + +<p>Tell which of the Words in italic are prepositions and which +are adverbs. Remember that a preposition begins a phrase. +It must be followed by an object.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. He is the best man <i>in</i> the office.</p> + +<p>2. John was leaving as I came <i>in</i> this evening.</p> + +<p>3. He did not have his coat <i>on</i>.</p> + +<p>4. It was hanging <i>over</i> his arm.</p> + +<p>5. He stood <i>on</i> the top step several minutes, wondering whether +he should wear the coat.</p> + +<p>6. The handle fell <i>off</i> as I took the cup <i>off</i> the shelf.</p> + +<p>7. The aeroplane flies <i>over</i> the city.</p> + +<p>8. I am going <i>over</i> to the factory.</p></div> + +<p>Write sentences using <i>above</i>, <i>across</i>, <i>down</i>, <i>up</i>, <i>underneath</i> +both as adverbs and as prepositions.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_68" id="Exercise_68"></a>Exercise 68—Prepositional Phrases</b></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><i>Illustrations</i></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Adjective:</i> The opinions <i>of some people</i> must be taken with +caution.</p> + +<p><i>Adverb:</i> We shall return <i>within a year</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Noun:</i> <i>From New York to San Francisco</i> is a long trip.</p></div> + +<p>What part of speech is each of the italicized phrases below? +Remember that an adjective modifies a noun; an adverb +modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The waves are rolling in, white <i>with foam</i>.</p> + +<p>2. A million dollars was invested <i>in the business</i>.</p> + +<p>3. I will abide <i>on thy right side</i> and keep the bridge <i>with thee</i>.</p> + +<p>4. <i>In summer</i> milk soon turns sour.</p> + +<p>5. I have come <i>for help</i>.</p> + +<p>6. The people <i>on the bridge</i> cheered <i>for hours</i>.</p> + +<p>7. He threw up his hat <i>for joy</i>.</p> + +<p>8. <i>On the table before them</i> stood a deer roasted whole.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span></p> + +<p>9. We shall stay here <i>until spring</i>.</p> + +<p>10. We came <i>in sight of the king's palace</i>.</p> + +<p>11. We drove <i>to the factory</i> today <i>with the superintendent</i>.</p> + +<p>12. He works <i>from sunrise to sunset</i>.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_69" id="Exercise_69"></a>Exercise 69</b></div> + +<p>The phrase introduced by a preposition is the most common. +A list of prepositions follows. They should be learned.</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 69"> +<tr><td align='left'>about</td><td align='left'>before</td><td align='left'>except</td><td align='left'>toward</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>above</td><td align='left'>behind</td><td align='left'>for</td><td align='left'>under</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>aboard</td><td align='left'>below</td><td align='left'>from</td><td align='left'>underneath</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>across</td><td align='left'>beneath</td><td align='left'>in</td><td align='left'>until</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>after</td><td align='left'>beside</td><td align='left'>into</td><td align='left'>up</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>against</td><td align='left'>between</td><td align='left'>of</td><td align='left'>upon</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>along</td><td align='left'>betwixt</td><td align='left'>on</td><td align='left'>with</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>amid</td><td align='left'>beyond</td><td align='left'>over</td><td align='left'>within</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>amidst</td><td align='left'>but (except) </td><td align='left'>past</td><td align='left'>without</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>among</td><td align='left'>by</td><td align='left'>through</td><td align='left'>to the extent of</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>around</td><td align='left'>concerning</td><td align='left'>throughout </td><td align='left'>from under</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>athwart </td><td align='left'>down</td><td align='left'>till</td><td align='left'>according to</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>at</td><td align='left'>during</td><td align='left'>to</td><td align='left'>except for</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Write three sentences containing prepositional <i>adjective</i> +phrases.</p> + +<p>Prepositional <i>adverbial</i> phrases may express the following +ideas:</p> + +<div class="blockquot">Time, telling <i>when</i> something happened.<br /> + +Place, telling <i>where</i> something happened.<br /> + +Manner, telling <i>how</i> something happened.<br /> + +Means, telling <i>how</i> something happened.<br /> + +Cause or purpose, telling <i>why</i> something happened.<br /> + +Degree, telling <i>how long</i> something lasted; <i>how far</i> it went; +<i>how much</i> it cost, etc.<br /> + +Agent, telling <i>by whom</i> it was done.<br /> + +Accompaniment, telling <i>with whom</i> it was done.</div> + +<p>Write a sentence containing a prepositional phrase telling:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Excercise 69 part 2"> +<tr><td align='left'>1. when</td><td align='left'>6. how far</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>2. where</td><td align='left'>7. how much</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>3. why</td><td align='left'>8. by whom</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>4. in what way </td><td align='left'>9. with whom</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>5. how long</td><td align='left'>10. by what means</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 70</b></div> + +<p>Name all the prepositional phrases in <a href="#Exercise_179">Exercise 179</a>, explaining +whether they are adjective or adverbial.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_71" id="Exercise_71"></a>Exercise 71—The Clause</b></div> + +<p>A <i>subordinate clause</i>, like a phrase, is a group of words used +as a part of speech, the chief difference being that a clause +must have a subject and a predicate. Clauses are introduced</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'><p>1. By <i>relative pronouns:</i><br /></p></div> + +<div class='center'>who, whose, whom, which, what, that</div> + +<div class='blockquot2'><p>2. By <i>subordinate conjunctions:</i><br /></p></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Excercise 70"> +<tr><td align='left'>when</td><td align='left'>because</td><td align='left'>than</td><td align='left'>unless</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>where</td><td align='left'>since</td><td align='left'>provided</td><td align='left'>till</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>while</td><td align='left'>if</td><td align='left'>whereas</td><td align='left'>until</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>as</td><td align='left'>as soon as</td><td align='left'>wherever </td><td align='left'>before</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>as if</td><td align='left'>as long as</td><td align='left'>whether</td><td align='left'>after</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>though</td><td align='left'>in order that </td><td align='left'>why</td><td align='left'>for</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>although </td><td align='left'>lest</td><td align='left'>that</td><td align='left'>whenever</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><i>Illustrations</i></div> + + + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Adjective"> +<tr><td align='left' rowspan='3'><span class="smcap">Adjective</span>: </td><td align='left' rowspan='3'><img src="images/bracket2-l.png" width="10" height="50" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td><td align='left'> A lamp that <i>smokes</i></td><td align='left' rowspan='3'><img src="images/bracket2-r.png" width="10" height="50" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td><td align='left' rowspan='3'> is a torture to a student.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> A <i>smoking</i> lamp</td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Adverb"> +<tr><td align='left' rowspan='4'><span class="smcap">Adverb</span>: </td><td align='left' rowspan='4'><img src="images/bracket3-l.png" width="8" height="75" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td><td align='left'> <i>When she was good</i> </td><td align='left' rowspan='4'><img src="images/bracket3-r.png" width="8" height="75" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td><td align='left' rowspan='2'>she was very, very good.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>Sometimes</i></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>When she was bad</i></td><td align='left' rowspan='2'>she was horrid.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>Sometimes</i></span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Does the clause or the simple adverb give the more definite +idea?</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='left' rowspan='2'><span class="smcap">Noun</span>: I know </td><td align='left' rowspan='2'><img src="images/bracket2-l.png" width="10" height="50" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td><td align='left'><i>where he lives</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>the house</i>.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Write three sentences illustrating adjective clauses, three +illustrating adverbial clauses, and three illustrating noun +clauses.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 72</b></div> + +<p>Name all the clauses in <a href="#Exercise_179">Exercises 179</a>, <a href="#Exercise_185">185</a>, and <a href="#Exercise_186">186</a>. +Explain the use of each.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 73</b></div> + +<p>Write sentences using each of the following words to +introduce a phrase, and to introduce a clause.</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 73"> +<tr><td align='left'>1. after</td><td align='left'>3. for</td><td align='left'>5. until</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>2. before </td><td align='left'>4. since </td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Remember that just as a preposition must be followed by +an <i>object</i> to form a phrase, a conjunction must be followed +by a <i>subject</i> to form a clause.</p> + +<div class='center'><br /><i>Illustration</i></div> + + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 73"> +<tr><td align='left' rowspan='2'>I have not seen him <i>since</i> </td><td align='left' rowspan='2'><img src="images/bracket2-l.png" width="10" height="50" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td><td align='left'> <i>Christmas</i>.—<span class="smcap">Object.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>he</i> went away.—<span class="smcap">Subject.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 74</b></div> + +<p>Name the complete subject in the following. Then name +the simple subject, explaining by what elements—words, +phrases, or clauses—it is modified.</p> + +<p>Name the complete predicate. Then name the simple +predicate, explaining by what elements the verb is modified.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Modern business cannot be carried on by old-fashioned +methods.</p> + +<p>2. When a man engages in business, he buys or sells.</p> + +<p>3. The great routes of trade have changed from time to time.</p> + +<p>4. Your order will be filled within a few days.</p> + +<p>5. Both blanks were properly filled out at the time.</p> + +<p>6. Means of travel have developed from the slowly moving +caravan to the palatial railway coach.</p> + +<p>7. Commerce originated when one human being demanded +something which had to be supplied by some one else.</p> + +<p>8. The latest American and European styles will be displayed +in our new millinery department, which will be formally opened +on the first of March.</p> + +<p>9. The prosperity of nations rests very largely on the six +inches of soil between the surface and the subsoil of the territory.</p> + +<p>10. One of the greatest losses to the Ohio farm lands in the +floods of 1913 came about because the water took off the top<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> +soil from the hillside and valleys and carried the vegetable material +with it.</p> + +<p>11. The conserving of the top soil is one of the greatest problems +in national prosperity.</p> + +<p>12. We trust that shipment about September 8 will be satisfactory +to you, as it is the best that we can do under the circumstances.</p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER VI</h2> + +<div class='chaptertitle'>THE NOUN AND THE PRONOUN</div> + + +<p><span class="smcap">For</span> the plural of nouns see <a href="#CHAPTER_III">Chapter III</a>.</p> + +<p>The classes to which nouns belong are distinguished as +follows:</p> + +<p>A <i>common</i> noun is the name given to an object to denote +the class to which it belongs; as, <i>book</i>, <i>man</i>.</p> + +<p>A <i>proper</i> noun is the name given to a particular object to +distinguish it from others of the same class; as, <i>Mary</i>, <i>Republicans</i>, +<i>England</i>. Proper nouns should always be capitalized.</p> + +<p>A <i>collective</i> noun is a name which in the singular denotes +a collection. It is usually plural in idea but singular in use; +as, <i>congregation</i>, <i>crowd</i>.</p> + +<p>An <i>abstract</i> noun is the name denoting a quality of an +object; as, <i>power</i>, <i>purity</i>, <i>strength</i>.</p> + +<p>A <i>verbal</i> noun is the name of an action. As its name +suggests, it is made from a verb; as, <i>Sweeping</i> is good +exercise.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_75" id="Exercise_75"></a>Exercise 75</b></div> + +<p>In the following sentences supply necessary capital letters. +Explain why the same word in one expression needs a capital +and in another does not.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. I have just taken out an endowment policy in the northwestern +mutual life insurance company.</p> + +<p>2. There are many mutual life insurance companies in the +country.</p> + +<p>3. His refusing the terms was practically a declaration of +independence.</p> + +<p>4. On the fourth of July we celebrate the signing of the declaration +of independence, the first step in the revolutionary war.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span></p> + +<p>5. Mexico has had many revolutionary wars.</p> + +<p>6. And king Arthur said, "The king who fights his people +fights himself."</p> + +<p>7. When does the bank close?</p> + +<p>8. I have an account with the first national bank.</p> + +<p>9. This is the first national bank that was ever established in +this country.</p></div> + +<p>Explain to which class each noun in the foregoing sentences +belongs. Be particularly careful to distinguish between +common and proper nouns.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 76—Pronouns</b></div> + +<p>The different classes of pronouns are distinguished as +follows:</p> + +<p>The <i>personal</i> pronoun is used in place of the name of a +person or thing. The pronoun of the <i>first</i> person indicates +the speaker, the pronoun of the <i>second</i> person indicates the +person spoken to, and the pronoun of the <i>third</i> person indicates +the person spoken of. They are declined as follows:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 76 part 1"> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><i>First person</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> <i>Singular</i> </td><td align='center'><i>Plural</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Nom.</i></td><td align='left'>I</td><td align='left'>we</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Poss.</i> </td><td align='left'>my, mine</td><td align='left'>our, ours</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Obj.</i></td><td align='left'>me</td><td align='left'>us</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><br /><i>Second person</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Nom.</i></td><td align='left'>you (thou)</td><td align='left'>you (ye)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Poss.</i> </td><td align='left'>your, yours (thy, thine) </td><td align='left'>your, yours</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Obj.</i></td><td align='left'>you (thee)</td><td align='left'>you</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>In modern usage <i>you</i> is used for both the singular and the +plural, but the verb that goes with <i>you</i> is always plural.</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 76 part 2"> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='4'><i>Third person</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='center' colspan='3'><i>Singular</i></td><td align='center'><i>Plural</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'><i>Masc.</i></td><td align='left'><i>Fem.</i></td><td align='left'> <i>Neut.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Nom.</i></td><td align='left'>he</td><td align='left'>she</td><td align='left'>it</td><td align='left'>they</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Poss.</i> </td><td align='left'>his</td><td align='left'>her, hers </td><td align='left'>its </td><td align='left'>their, theirs</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Obj.</i></td><td align='left'>him </td><td align='left'>her</td><td align='left'>it</td><td align='left'>them</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The forms <i>mine</i>, <i>thine</i>, <i>yours</i>, <i>hers</i>, <i>ours</i>, <i>theirs</i>, and sometimes +<i>his</i> are possessive case in form, but nominative or objective case +in use. That pencil is <i>mine</i> really means, That pencil is <i>my</i> pencil. +<i>Mine</i> is used as a substitute for a possessive pronoun and the noun it +modifies.</p></div> + +<p>The personal pronouns compounded with <i>self</i> are of two +kinds:</p> + +<p>1. <i>Emphatic</i> pronouns; as,</p> + +<div class='center'> +The buyer <i>himself</i> told me.<br /> +</div> + +<p>2. <i>Reflexive</i> pronouns, referring back to the subject and +at the same time being in the objective case; as,</p> + +<div class='center'> +John slipped and hurt <i>himself</i>.<br /> +</div> + +<p>The <i>relative</i> pronoun is so called because it relates or refers +to another word, called its antecedent, to which it joins the +clause that it introduces. The relative pronouns are <i>who</i>, +<i>which</i>, <i>what</i>, <i>that;</i> and the compound relatives are <i>whoever</i>, +<i>whosoever</i>, <i>whichever</i>, <i>whichsoever</i>, <i>whatever</i>, <i>whatsoever</i>.</p> + +<p>They are declined as follows:</p> + + +<div class='center'><i>Singular and Plural</i></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 76 part 3"> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Nom.</i></td><td align='left'>who</td><td align='left'>which</td><td align='left'>whoever</td><td align='left'>whosoever</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Poss.</i> </td><td align='left'>whose </td><td align='left'>of which </td><td align='left'>whosever </td><td align='left'>whosesoever</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Obj.</i></td><td align='left'>whom</td><td align='left'>which</td><td align='left'>whomever</td><td align='left'>whomsoever</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><i>That</i>, <i>what</i>, <i>whichever</i>, <i>whichsoever</i>, <i>whatever</i>, and <i>whatsoever</i> +are not declined. They have the same form in the +nominative and objective cases, and are not used in the +possessive case.</p> + +<p><i>What</i> is peculiar in that it never has an antecedent +expressed, but itself stands for both antecedent and relative. +It is called the <i>double relative</i>. Compare the following:</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 76 part 4"> +<tr><td align='left'>I did not hear <i>the words that</i> he said.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I did not hear <i>that which</i> he said.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I did not hear <i>what</i> he said.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><i>That</i> is called the restrictive relative, because it limits or +restricts its antecedent to the meaning expressed in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> +clause introduced by <i>that</i>. A restrictive clause is one, therefore, +that is needed to make the meaning of the sentence +clear. Compare the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Non-restrictive:</i> John Brown, <i>who</i> has no disease, needs no +physician.</p> + +<p><i>Restrictive:</i> He <i>that</i> hath no disease needs no physician.</p></div> + +<p>Notice that a restrictive, or necessary, clause is not separated +from the rest of the sentence by commas.</p> + +<p><i>Who</i> and <i>which</i> are sometimes used with restrictive force; +as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Those <i>who</i> have finished their work may leave. (Not everybody.)</p> + +<p>2. Have you read the book <i>which</i> he recommended? (He recommended +but one.)</p></div> + +<p><i>Interrogative</i> pronouns are used in asking questions. They +are <i>who</i>, <i>which</i>, <i>what</i>. <i>Who</i> refers to persons; <i>which</i> refers +to persons or things, and is used to distinguish one object +from another; <i>what</i> refers to things. They are declined as +follows:</p> + +<div class='center'> +<i>Singular and Plural</i></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 76 part 5"> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Nom.</i></td><td align='left'>who</td><td align='left'>which</td><td align='left'>what</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Poss.</i> </td><td align='left'>whose </td><td align='left'>(of which) </td><td align='left'>(of what)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Obj.</i></td><td align='left'>whom</td><td align='left'>which</td><td align='left'>what</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The interrogative pronouns <i>which</i> and <i>what</i> are frequently +used as adjectives. In this case they are called <i>pronominal +adjectives</i>. Compare:</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Excercise 76 part 5"> +<tr><td align='left'>Pronoun: <i>Which</i> of these hats do you prefer?</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Adjective: <i>Which</i> hat do you prefer?</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The <i>demonstrative</i> pronouns are <i>this</i> and <i>that</i> with their +plurals <i>these</i> and <i>those</i>. They are always used to point out, +or demonstrate, the noun to which they refer. <i>This</i> and +<i>these</i> are used for objects near at hand, or recently named; +<i>that</i> and <i>those</i> are used for objects far away, or not recently +named.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span></p> + +<p>The demonstrative pronouns are frequently used as adjectives; +as,</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 76 part 6"> +<tr><td align='left'>Pronoun: <i>That</i> is my book.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Adjective: <i>That</i> book is mine.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><i>Indefinite</i> pronouns refer to objects or persons, but do not +define or limit them. The indefinite pronouns are <i>each</i>, +<i>every</i>, <i>either</i>, <i>neither</i>, <i>one</i>, <i>none</i>, <i>other</i>, <i>another</i>, <i>few</i>, <i>all</i>, <i>many</i>, +<i>several</i>, <i>some</i>, <i>each other</i>, <i>one another</i>, and the compounds +<i>any one</i>, <i>some one</i>, <i>every one</i>, <i>something</i>, <i>nothing</i>. Indefinite +pronouns are frequently used as adjectives. <i>Each</i>, <i>every</i>, +<i>either</i>, <i>one</i>, <i>another</i>, <i>any one</i>, <i>some one</i>, <i>every one</i>, whether they +are used as pronouns or as adjectives, are singular in number. +If another pronoun is used to refer to one of them, it must +be in the singular number.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 77—Classes of Pronouns</b></div> + +<p>In the following sentences, explain which pronouns represent +the person speaking, which represent the person spoken +to, and which represent the person spoken of. Tell which +pronouns ask questions; which are used as adjectives; +which are used to connect subordinate clauses to the word +for which they stand. If the antecedent is expressed, point +it out.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Who is talking?</p> + +<p>2. The man who is speaking is the head of the credit department.</p> + +<p>3. If you are going, get ready.</p> + +<p>4. Which is the better piece of cloth?</p> + +<p>5. This is the better piece of cloth.</p> + +<p>6. The one who wishes to succeed must exercise great care in his work.</p> + +<p>7. He that would succeed must work.</p> + +<p>8. Many men fail because of laziness.</p> + +<p>9. What did you say?</p> + +<p>10. Can you guess whom I saw?</p> + +<p>11. He himself told us.</p> + +<p>12. A cousin of ours is coming to town.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span></p> + +<p>13. The man whose life is above criticism need fear no one.</p> + +<p>14. Whoever lives the truth need fear no criticism.</p> + +<p>15. I wish you would remove those files.</p> + +<p>16. Ink that is thick makes illegible writing.</p> + +<p>17. What paper should I destroy?</p> + +<p>18. I cannot understand what any one is saying.</p> + +<p>19. This is not my umbrella. It is yours.</p> + +<p>20. No friend of his would talk in that way.</p> + +<p>21. This is no book of theirs; it belongs to us.</p> + +<p>22. Whatsoever he saith unto you, do it.</p> + +<p>23. I shall ask whomever I see.</p> + +<p>24. Each of us has his work assigned.</p> + +<p>25. Every boy has his work assigned.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 78</b></div> + +<p>In the following sentences <i>he</i>, <i>his</i>, <i>they</i>, <i>their</i>, <i>them</i>, <i>it</i>, or +<i>its</i> should be inserted. Give the reason for your choice.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. No man is allowed to leave —— desk untidy.</p> + +<p>2. Every one must put —— tools away before leaving the +shop.</p> + +<p>3. Every office worker is required to be in —— place at +eight-thirty every morning.</p> + +<p>4. In my business a person must learn to make up —— mind +quickly.</p> + +<p>5. It was cold this morning. Every one wore —— wraps.</p> + +<p>6. Every clerk must do —— own work.</p> + +<p>7. If an employee has ideas for the improvement of the business, +—— is requested to report —— suggestions to the superintendent.</p> + +<p>8. The superintendent is anxious to have every workman +feel that —— (has, have) a definite place in the organization, +and that if —— (does not, don't) do —— work, the business +will suffer.</p> + +<p>9. No goods will be accepted unless —— (are, is) in good +condition.</p> + +<p>10. Every newspaper is anxious to increase —— classified +advertising.</p> + +<p>11. No one cares to see —— friends frown.</p> + +<p>12. Every one must agree that —— (has, have) —— faults.</p> + +<p>13. Not one of the banks had —— deposits decreased.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span></p> + +<p>14. Will any one let me take —— umbrella?</p> + +<p>15. Every one says that —— had a delightful evening.</p> + +<p>16. Who was it said I had —— book?</p> + +<p>17. Does each state pay over a part of —— taxes to the federal +government?</p> + +<p>18. Every one will find in the current publications a wealth +of information applicable to —— specific needs, much of which +—— will wish to file for easy reference, no matter in what department +of the world's work —— interest centers.</p> + +<p>19. If any one could tell beforehand when —— opportunities +would arrive, —— might be ready to grasp each as —— came.</p> + +<p>20. If every one here would follow the directions that —— +(has, have) received, —— would make fewer mistakes in shipments.</p> + +<p>21. Any one who wishes may give —— opinion.</p> + +<p>22. No one need expect to leave before —— work is finished.</p> + +<p>23. Every one in the office took —— vacation early this year +except me.</p> + +<p>24. Each of the twenty banks sent —— representative to the +meeting.</p> + +<p>25. On applying for a position, each man is given a blank +that —— must fill out carefully, making —— answers as definite +as possible.</p></div> + +<p>Some of the following are right, and some are wrong. +Correct those that are wrong, explaining why they are +wrong.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Neither one of them know what they are expected to do.</p> + +<p>2. Applicant after applicant handed in their names.</p> + +<p>3. If any one has a complaint to make, he should report it +in writing to the superintendent.</p> + +<p>4. Have either of the stenographers finished their letters?</p> + +<p>5. I wish everybody would do their own work and let me do +mine.</p> + +<p>6. Each man did his work faithfully.</p> + +<p>7. Has neither the carpenter nor the plumber yet brought +his tools?</p> + +<p>8. Every one of the clerks must hand their report to the head +bookkeeper before five o'clock.</p> + +<p>9. One of them must have neglected to hand in his report.</p> + +<p>10. Man after man yesterday promised me that they'd be on +hand to work this morning, and not one of them showed themselves.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 79</b></div> + +<p>In the following exercise, tell which of the italicized pronouns +introduce restrictive, and which introduce non-restrictive +clauses:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. This is the best bargain <i>that</i> we have ever offered.</p> + +<p>2. This is Mr. Burton, <i>whose</i> work I recommended to you.</p> + +<p>3. The city <i>that</i> I enjoyed most was Quebec.</p> + +<p>4. I enjoyed walking on the old wall <i>that</i> still surrounds the +town.</p> + +<p>5. The club to <i>which</i> I belong will hold a meeting next week.</p> + +<p>6. The club <i>that</i> I belong to will hold a meeting next Monday.</p> + +<p>7. All those <i>whose</i> daily work showed an improvement were +given an increase in salary.</p> + +<p>8. The horse <i>that</i> ran away belonged to my partner.</p> + +<p>9. The greatest man is he <i>who</i> feels himself the least.</p> + +<p>10. An old story tells us that when Caesar, <i>who</i> was a great +Roman emperor, returned from a conquest <i>which</i> has ever since +been famous, he brought back to Rome a formula <i>that</i> has revolutionized +the world. It was a formula for making soap, and was +considered one of the greatest treasures <i>that</i> was captured during +the campaign. Caesar immediately saw the value <i>that</i> it would +have in the eyes of the world, and he forced the soap-makers to +reveal their secret.</p> + +<p>11. The garrison is a handful of invalid soldiers, <i>whose</i> principal +duty is to guard some of the outer towers.</p> + +<p>12. This is the gentleman <i>whom</i> we met in Boston.</p> + +<p>13. Mr. Carter, <i>who</i> was a member of our Boston firm, will +take charge of our city sales.</p> + +<p>14. We honestly believe that our latest Style Book, <i>which</i> +goes with this letter, offers you more for every dollar <i>that</i> you +spend than you can get elsewhere.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_80" id="Exercise_80"></a>Exercise 80—Case</b></div> + +<p>Case is that modification of a noun or a pronoun which +denotes its relation to other words in the sentence. There +are three cases: the <i>nominative</i>, the <i>objective</i>, and the <i>possessive</i>. +Although nouns are used in all three cases, no change +of form occurs except in the possessive case.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span></p> + +<p>The <i>nominative</i> case is used in the following ways:</p> + +<p>1. The principal use of the nominative case is as <i>subject</i> +of the sentence; as,</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exerise 80 part 1"> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Noun:</i> </td><td align='left'>The <i>business</i> is prosperous.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Pronoun:</i> </td><td align='left'><i>It</i> has been established for five years.</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>2. Sometimes a noun or pronoun is used to complete the +meaning of such verbs as <i>be</i>, <i>become</i>, <i>seem</i>, <i>appear</i>, <i>taste</i>, <i>feel</i>. +Such a noun is in the nominative case, and is called a <i>predicate +nominative</i>, or a <i>subjective complement;</i> as,</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 80 part 2"> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Noun:</i></td><td align='left'>Mr. Brown is the <i>manager</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>He seems a <i>gentleman</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Pronoun:</i> </td><td align='left'>I think it is <i>she</i>.</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>3. A noun in <i>apposition</i> with another noun in the nominative +case is also in the nominative case; as,</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Excercise 80 part 3"> +<tr><td align='left'>Mr. Brown, <i>the manager</i>, is very capable.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>The man to whom you should apply is Mr. Brown, <i>the manager</i>.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>4. Sometimes a noun or a pronoun is used in direct address +or in an exclamation, without having any grammatical +relation to the rest of the sentence. It is then said to be +<i>nominative independent;</i> as,</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 80 part 4"> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Mr. Brown</i>, a gentleman wishes to speak to you.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>A <i>strike!</i> Why are they declaring a strike?</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>You!</i> I thought you were in South America.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>5. Sometimes a noun or pronoun is used with a participle +to express an adverbial relation. Such a noun is in the +nominative case, and is called <i>nominative absolute</i>, because +it has no grammatical relation to any other part of the +sentence; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Mr. Brown</i> having gone, we told the gentleman to see Mr. +Jones.</p> + +<p><i>He</i> being the guide, we asked no questions.</p></div> + +<p>It is much better to use a clause to express such an idea; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>As Mr. Brown had gone, we told the gentleman to see Mr. +Jones.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span></p> + +<p>Write a sentence containing a noun and one containing a +pronoun in each of the following uses of the nominative case:</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +1. Subject.<br /> +2. Predicate Nominative.<br /> +</div> + +<p>Write a sentence containing a noun used</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +1. In direct address.<br /> +2. In exclamation.<br /> +3. In apposition with another noun in the nominative case.<br /> +</div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 81—The Objective Case</b></div> + +<p>A noun or a pronoun may be used in the objective case +in the following ways:</p> + +<p>1. Direct object of a transitive verb; as,</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +I have a good <i>position</i>.<br /> +Do you know <i>him?</i><br /> +</div> + +<p>2. Object of a preposition; as,</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +I have just returned from the <i>library.</i><br /> +Bring the book to <i>me</i>.<br /> +</div> + +<p>3. Indirect object of such verbs as <i>ask</i>, <i>give</i>, <i>teach</i>, showing +the person for whom or to whom the action is done; as,</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +She brought <i>her mother</i> some flowers.<br /> +I gave <i>her</i> singing lessons.<br /> +</div> + +<p>4. A noun as <i>second object</i> after verbs of <i>making</i>, <i>choosing</i>, +<i>calling</i>, <i>electing;</i> as,</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +They chose John <i>secretary</i>.<br /> +</div> + +<p>5. A noun in <i>apposition</i> with another objective; as,</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +Send your report to the secretary, <i>John Wilson</i>.<br /> +</div> + +<p>6. Adverbial modifier; as,</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +We are going <i>home</i>. +</div> + +<p>Write a sentence containing a noun and one containing a +pronoun in each of the following uses of the objective case:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span></p> + +<div class='blockquot'> +1. Direct object of a transitive verb.<br /> +2. Indirect object.<br /> +3. Object of a preposition.<br /> +</div> + +<p>Write a sentence containing a noun used as</p> + +<div class='blockquot'> +1. Adverbial objective.<br /> +2. Second object.<br /> +3. Appositive of another noun in the objective case.<br /> +</div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_82" id="Exercise_82"></a>Exercise 82—The Possessive Case</b></div> + +<p>To form the possessive case of nouns add an <i>apostrophe</i> +and <i>s</i> to all singular nouns, and to all plural nouns that do +not end in <i>s;</i> if a plural <i>noun</i> ends in <i>s</i> add only an apostrophe; +as, <i>child's</i>, <i>children's</i>, <i>boys'</i>.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Exception.</i>—When, in long words, the additional <i>s</i> in the +singular would cause a disagreeable sound, some writers use +only the apostrophe; as,</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +We awaited the <i>princess's</i> decision.<br /> +We awaited the <i>princess'</i> decision.</div></div> + +<p>It is often better in such cases to use a phrase; as,</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +We awaited the decision <i>of the princess</i>.<br /> +</div> + +<p>Thus, an <i>of</i> phrase may be used instead of the possessive +case. In speaking of an inanimate object one should use it +instead of the apostrophe and <i>s;</i> as, <i>the top of the mountain</i>. +However, we use such expressions as <i>last year's prices</i>.</p> + +<p>When, as in the name of a firm, two or more nouns are +taken together with the idea of common possession, the sign +of the possessive is added to the last noun only. If separate +possession is implied, the sign of the possessive is added to +each noun; as,</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +Have you seen <i>Wilson & King's</i> new building?<br /> +This is <i>Mary and Helen's</i> room.<br /> +Is this <i>Mary's or Helen's</i> coat?<br /> +</div> + +<p>A noun or pronoun is in the possessive case before a verbal +noun; as,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span></p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +I prefer to have <i>John's</i> studying done before dinner.<br /> +I prefer to have <i>his</i> studying done before dinner.<br /> +</div> + +<p>Write sentences expressing relation between the words +in the following pairs. Use one of them in the possessive +case or use an <i>of</i> phrase, whichever seems better.</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 82"> +<tr><td align='left'>the manager, desk </td><td align='left'>city, harbor</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>desk, top drawer</td><td align='left'>proprietor, private office</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>book, cover</td><td align='left'>typewriter, keys</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>city, mayor</td><td align='left'>ledger, first page</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Bring to class five incorrect possessive phrases taken from +advertisements. Explain and correct the mistakes.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 83</b></div> + +<p>Which of the italicized words would you use? Why?</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Have you heard of <i>Mr. Bennett</i>, <i>Mr. Bennett's</i> being +appointed chairman of the meeting?</p> + +<p>2. It will probably delay <i>him</i>, <i>his</i> coming here.</p> + +<p>3. I don't understand <i>him</i>, <i>his</i> refusing to accept the position.</p> + +<p>4. We have heard a great deal of <i>him</i>, <i>his</i> making a success +of photography.</p> + +<p>5. The man's industry has resulted in <i>him</i>, <i>his</i> gaining fame.</p> + +<p>6. Will you sign this permit for <i>us</i>, <i>our</i> visiting the factory?</p> + +<p>7. What do you say to <i>us</i>, <i>our</i> making some candy?</p> + +<p>8. I am very sorry that <i>me</i>, <i>my</i> interrupting you yesterday +delayed your work.</p> + +<p>9. The machine is in excellent condition. There is no reason +for <i>it</i>, <i>its</i> needing any repair.</p> + +<p>10. <i>Everybody</i>, <i>everybody's</i> being on time is absolutely necessary.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 84</b></div> + +<p>Each of the following sentences is incorrect because the +sign of the possessive case has been omitted. Insert the +apostrophe or the apostrophe and <i>s</i>, wherever either is +needed.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. There is a new boys school in our town.</p> + +<p>2. James brother John is our new bookkeeper.</p> + +<p>3. For entrance to this course three years work in mathematics +and one years work in German are required.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span></p> + +<p>4. This new building will be occupied by J. M. Hopkins mail +order department.</p> + +<p>5. The superintendents inspection was thorough.</p> + +<p>6. The trouble will be in John agreeing to the proposition.</p> + +<p>7. All applications for help should be made to the Womens +Committees.</p> + +<p>8. The employees rest rooms are on the sunny side of the +building.</p> + +<p>9. Our fifteen years experience in selling bonds has convinced +us that investments paying a low rate of interest are the safest.</p> + +<p>10. In to-days mail I received a very large order from Graham +& Moore's successors.</p> + +<p>11. Jones Brothers new store is on the corner of Madison +Street.</p> + +<p>12. Last month sales show an increase of two thousand dollars.</p> + +<p>13. Everybodys business is nobodys business.</p> + +<p>14. It is when to-morrows burden is added to the burden of +to-day that the weight is more than a man can bear.</p> + +<p>15. The present governor was the peoples choice.</p> + +<p>16. I prefer Tennysons poems to Longfellows.</p> + +<p>17. I have read both Longfellow and Tennysons poems.</p> + +<p>18. I bought the book at Barlow and Companys new store.</p> + +<p>19. We are going to insist on Mary taking a long vacation +this year.</p> + +<p>20. I have had the pleasure of staying at both your friends +houses.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 85—The Apostrophe</b></div> + +<p>Some of the following sentences are right, and some are +wrong. Correct those that are wrong, explaining why +they are wrong.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The man who's coming this way is Mr. Burton.</p> + +<p>2. Whose coat is that?</p> + +<p>3. The man who's place you are taking has been with this +firm for twenty years.</p> + +<p>4. The next one whose to give a report is the treasurer.</p> + +<p>5. The next one whose report we must hear is the treasurer.</p> + +<p>6. Don't you think it's too early to start?</p> + +<p>7. He is a ladies tailor.</p> + +<p>8. Remember your to let us know at once who's elected.</p> + +<p>9. Its too late now to change its wording.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span></p> + +<p>10. Mr. Jones' house is being repaired.</p> + +<p>11. The Joneses' house is being repaired.</p> + +<p>12. There coming as fast as their horse will bring them.</p> + +<p>13. I think you're typewriter needs cleaning.</p> + +<p>14. Your coming too, are'nt you?</p> + +<p>15. Every business has it's problems.</p> + +<p>16. The Bon Ton has a big sale in mens' and womens' coat's.</p> + +<p>17. Why, it's March! No wonder their having a sale.</p> + +<p>18. We shall give you a special discount if you will send your +dealer's name.</p> + +<p>19. Most of the dealer's advertise very little.</p> + +<p>20. It's just a year ago since we received your last order.</p> + +<p>21. Its not willingness we lack; it's time.</p> + +<p>22. If you use our safety device, you may leave you're window +open with security, and you will arise refreshed, ready for a big +days work.</p> + +<p>23. Lets take our vacation when they take their's.</p> + +<p>24. I think we shall have to take our's in August. Two of us +must stay during July, for the work will not do it's self, you know.</p> + +<p>25. In any explanation it should be the writers purpose to so +describe his good's that the reader will desire them. A good +salesman never shows a necktie in a box. He takes it out and +with a deft twist forms it's length into a four-in-hand over his +finger. The customer then sees not only the scarf, it's color and +its weave, but he sees it in it's relation to himself, as it will look +when it's tied.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 86</b></div> + +<p>Supply <i>who</i> or <i>whom:</i></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. —— did you take me for?</p> + +<p>2. The shipping clerk, —— I consider responsible for the +mistake, must go.</p> + +<p>3. The shipping clerk, —— I feel certain is responsible for +the mistake, must go.</p> + +<p>4. —— is it?</p> + +<p>5. —— shall I say called?</p> + +<p>6. —— do you wish to see?</p> + +<p>7. —— did you say was elected?</p> + +<p>8. He is the one —— every one thought should be elected.</p> + +<p>9. Choose the one —— you think will give the best service.</p> + +<p>10. Choose the one —— you think you can trust.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span></p> + +<p>11. She asked me —— did it.</p> + +<p>12. —— do you think is the best salesman in the firm?</p> + +<p>13. —— do you regard as the best salesman in the firm?</p> + +<p>14. —— was that —— you were talking to?</p> + +<p>15. He is the one —— I was speaking about.</p> + +<p>16. —— do we play next week?</p> + +<p>17. He is a workman —— can be trusted.</p> + +<p>18. He is a workman upon —— you can depend.</p> + +<p>19. This letter comes from Robert, —— we all know very well.</p> + +<p>20. This letter comes from Robert, —— we all know writes +good letters.</p> + +<p>21. —— do you consider to be most capable? [The subject +of the infinitive <i>to be</i> must be in the objective case.]</p> + +<p>22. This booklet was written by the man —— Mr. Bardon +considers [to be] the best correspondent in our office.</p> + +<p>23. He is the one —— every one believes to be worthy of the +highest honors.</p> + +<p>24. The critic —— every one thought gave the most truthful +account of the performance is a man of great culture.</p></div> + +<p>Supply <i>whoever</i> or <i>whomever:</i></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Give the book to —— needs it.</p> + +<p>2. Give it to —— you think best.</p> + +<p>3. —— I send can be trusted.</p> + +<p>4. Send me —— is there.</p> + +<p>5. Send me —— you find there.</p> + +<p>6. —— reaches the line first will receive the cup.</p> + +<p>7. The cup will be given to —— reaches the lines first.</p> + +<p>8. In the country lane he spoke to —— he met.</p> + +<p>9. —— you choose may compete for the prize.</p> + +<p>10. —— you bring is welcome.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 87</b></div> + +<p>Read the following sentences, using one of the forms in +italic. Be able to give a reason for your choice.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. <i>He</i>—<i>him</i> and <i>I</i>—<i>me</i> are going camping next summer.</p> + +<p>2. It is a question that refers to you and <i>I</i>—<i>me</i>.</p> + +<p>3. It is a question between you and <i>I</i>—<i>me</i>.</p> + +<p>4. I am sure that it was <i>she</i>—<i>her</i>.</p> + +<p>5. I am sure that we saw you and <i>he</i>—<i>him</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span></p> + +<p>6. <i>We</i>—<i>us</i> boys are going camping.</p> + +<p>7. Will you go camping with <i>we</i>—<i>us</i> boys?</p> + +<p>8. <i>They</i>—<i>them</i> and their cousins are going camping.</p> + +<p>9. We bought a large piece of ground so that my brother +and <i>I</i>—<i>me</i> could have a garden.</p> + +<p>10. It was bought for <i>he</i>—<i>him</i> and <i>I</i>—<i>me</i>.</p> + +<p>11. Is that <i>he</i>—<i>him</i> entering the gate? Yes, that is <i>he</i>—<i>him</i>.</p> + +<p>12. <i>Who</i>—<i>whom</i> should I meet at the station but old Mr. +McGregor, <i>who</i>—<i>whom</i> I had not seen for several years.</p> + +<p>13. If I were <i>he</i>—<i>him</i>, I should start at once.</p> + +<p>14. There is no need of <i>him</i>—<i>his</i> staying any longer.</p> + +<p>15. He does not work so rapidly as <i>I</i>—<i>me</i>.</p> + +<p>16. Mary and <i>she</i>—<i>her</i> work in the same office.</p> + +<p>17. There is no danger of <i>me</i>—<i>my</i> failing.</p> + +<p>18. Please let <i>she</i>—<i>her</i> and <i>I</i>—<i>me</i> do the work together.</p> + +<p>19. There is no use of <i>us</i>—<i>our</i> trying any more.</p> + +<p>20. <i>Us</i>—<i>our</i> giving up now will spoil everything.</p> + +<p>21. My mother objected to <i>me</i>—<i>my</i> going.</p> + +<p>22. Why did you insist upon <i>us</i>—<i>our</i> coming to-day?</p> + +<p>23. I hardly think it is <i>he</i>—<i>him</i> <i>who</i>—<i>whom</i> is to blame.</p> + +<p>24. I should like to be <i>she</i>—<i>her</i>.</p> + +<p>25. <i>They</i>—<i>them</i> that do wrong shall be punished.</p> + +<p>26. <i>They</i>—<i>them</i> that do wrong I shall punish.</p> + +<p>27. <i>He</i>—<i>him</i> that is your friend you can call upon in your +hour of need.</p> + +<p>28. <i>He</i>—<i>him</i> that is your friend will respond to your call.</p> + +<p>29. The manager praised both the bookkeepers and <i>we</i>—<i>us</i> +girls.</p> + +<p>30. Was it you who called? Yes, it was <i>I</i>—<i>me</i>.</p> + +<p>31. It surely was not <i>I</i>—<i>me</i> whom you saw.</p> + +<p>32. He reproved us both but <i>I</i>—<i>me</i> more than <i>she</i>—<i>her</i>.</p> + +<p>33. Are you sure it's <i>I</i>—<i>me</i> whom he appointed?</p> + +<p>34. If it's really <i>I</i>—<i>me</i> who was appointed, I'm sure I should +have been notified.</p> + +<p>35. I'm sure it can't be <i>I</i>—<i>me</i>.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_88" id="Exercise_88"></a>Exercise 88—<i>Same</i> as a Pronoun</b></div> + +<p>One of the worst constructions found in business letters +of today is the use of <i>same</i> as a pronoun. The word may +be an adjective or a noun but never a pronoun.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Wrong:</i> Will you please fill out the enclosed blank and return +<i>same</i> as soon as possible?</p> + +<p><i>Right:</i> Will you please fill out the enclosed blank and return +<i>it</i> as soon as possible?</p></div> + +<p>In each of the following sentences substitute a noun or +a pronoun for <i>same:</i></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Will you not send us a check by Friday so that we may +use same for our pay roll on Saturday?</p> + +<p>2. Do you wish to bid for our cinder output this year? We +have a sample car that we shall be glad to have you inspect if you +think you will have any use for same.</p> + +<p>3. We have no use for the material this year, but we thank +you for giving us an opportunity to bid for same.</p> + +<p>4. If you are dissatisfied with the machine, return same at +our expense.</p> + +<p>5. You state that you sent us an order on June 10, but we +cannot find any trace of same.</p> + +<p>6. We are in the market for two dozen Standard clothes +wringers, and we should be glad to receive your lowest price on +same.</p> + +<p>7. We have given you credit for this amount and desire to +thank you for your promptness in sending same.</p> + +<p>8. We have your letter of November 6 and thank you for same.</p> + +<p>9. If you think you can use this type of machine, we shall +be glad to send you same on ten days' trial.</p> + +<p>10. We have decided to use your machine if you will give us a +satisfactory guarantee as to strength, efficiency, and freedom from +leaks. As soon as possible let us hear from you in regard to same.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 89—Nouns and Pronouns Incorrectly Used</b></div> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Wrong</i></td><td align='center'><i>Right</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>1. We saw <i>lots</i> of curious things.</td><td align='left'>We saw <i>a number</i> of curious things.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>2. Do you know that <i>party?</i></td><td align='left'>Do you know that <i>man?</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>3. I stayed at home the <i>balance</i> of the day.</td><td align='left'>I stayed at home the <i>rest</i> of the day.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>4. What <i>business</i> have you to go?</td><td align='left'>What <i>right</i> have you to go?</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>5. The dress will be done in a <i>couple</i> of days.</td><td align='left'>The dress will be done in a <i>few</i> days.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>6. I'll walk a <i>piece</i> with you.</td><td align='left'>I'll walk a <i>short distance</i> with you.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>7. Did you get a <i>raise</i> in pay?</td><td align='left'>Did you get an <i>increase</i> in pay?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>8. I'll send you a <i>postal</i>.</td><td align='left'>I'll send you a <i>postal card</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>9. Christmas is still a long <i>ways</i> off.</td><td align='left'>Christmas is still a long <i>way</i> off.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>10. What <i>line</i> of business are you in now?</td><td align='left'>What <i>kind</i> of business are you in now?</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>11. If you expect to open a grocery, let me give you a little advice <i>along that line</i>. </td><td align='left'>If you expect to open a grocery, let me give you a little advice <i>on the subject</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>12. Have you anything new in the neckwear <i>line?</i></td><td align='left'>Have you any new neckwear?</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>13. I have a <i>date</i> with the dentist.</td><td align='left'>I have an <i>appointment</i> with the dentist.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>14. Have you a <i>date</i> for this evening?</td><td align='left'>Have you an <i>engagement</i> for this evening?</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>15. He always does his work in good <i>shape</i>.</td><td align='left'>He always does his work <i>well</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>16. That is a good <i>write-up</i> on the tariff.</td><td align='left'>That is a good <i>article</i> on the tariff.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>17. <i>Yourself</i> and friends are invited.</td><td align='left'><i>You</i> and your friends are invited.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>18. Don't <i>they</i> have street cars in your town?</td><td align='left'>Are there no street cars in your town?</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>19. <i>It</i> said in this morning's paper that the traffic men would strike.</td><td align='left'>This morning's paper said that the traffic men would strike.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>20. The book <i>what</i> he advised is not fiction.</td><td align='left'>The book <i>that</i> he advised is not fiction.</td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER VII</h2> + +<div class='chaptertitle'>THE ADJECTIVE AND THE ADVERB</div> + + +<p><span class="smcap">As</span> a rule, adverbs present more difficulty than do adjectives. +Careless pupils frequently use an adjective when an +adverb is necessary; as,</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Adjective, adverb part 1"> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Wrong:</i> </td><td align='left'>He solved the problem very <i>quick</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Right:</i> </td><td align='left'>He solved the problem very <i>quickly</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Wrong:</i> </td><td align='left'>This is <i>real</i> good candy.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Right:</i> </td><td align='left'>This is <i>really</i> (or <i>very</i>) good candy.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Until the habit of correct usage is formed, every sentence +must be watched. When a word modifies a verb, an adjective, +or an adverb, another adverb must be used, and an +adjective may not correctly be substituted. As a rule, +adverbs express the following ideas:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Adjective, Adverb"> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Time:</i> </td><td align='left' colspan='2'>We arrived <i>early</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Place:</i> </td><td align='left' colspan='2'>We have been <i>here</i> since January.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Manner:</i> </td><td align='left' colspan='2'>He walked <i>steadily</i> onward.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Cause:</i> </td><td align='left' colspan='2'><i>Why</i> did you refuse the offer?</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Degree:</i> </td><td align='left' colspan='2'>I am <i>very much</i> surprised.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Number:</i> </td><td align='left' colspan='2'>I did it <i>once</i> not <i>twice</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Assertion:</i> </td><td align='left' rowspan='2'><img src="images/bracket2-r.png" width="10" height="50" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td><td align='left' rowspan='2'>I do <i>not</i> agree.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Denial:</i></td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Adverb modifying a verb: See how <i>slowly</i> the man walks!</p> + +<p>Adverb modifying an adjective: The weather has been <i>extremely</i> +warm.</p> + +<p>Adverb modifying an adverb: He dictates <i>very</i> rapidly.</p></div> + +<p>It must be remembered, however, that verbs of the +senses—<i>taste</i>, <i>feel</i>, <i>look</i>, <i>smell</i>, <i>sound</i>, and the like—are +sometimes almost equal in meaning to the verb <i>be</i>. In<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> +that case, they are followed by adjectives and not by +adverbs; as,</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Adjective, adverb continued"> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Adjective:</i> </td><td align='left'>He looked <i>angry</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Adverb:</i> </td><td align='left'>He looked <i>angrily</i> at us.</td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 90</b></div> + +<p>Name the adjectives in the following selection, explaining +with what noun each belongs.</p> + +<p>Name the adverbs, explaining what part of speech each +modifies.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Since 1904 the number of live cattle exported from this country +has been steadily growing smaller. Exports of dressed beef +have also shrunk to such insignificant proportions that the United +States is no longer an important factor in the foreign markets +for beef. Often has it been said that the competition of cheap +Argentine beef has deprived us of foreign markets. It would +be more nearly true to say that foreigners buy the inferior article +only because we cannot supply them with all they want of the best +grade. Take, for instance, the Englishman's willingness to pay +considerably more for American corn-fed beef than for Argentine.</p> + +<p>The raising of cattle is important, also, from the standpoint +of the leather business. Obviously, with a 21 per cent increase +in population in each decade, many more shoes are necessary. +Automobile and other industries are making constantly increasing +demands for leather. Shoes cannot become cheaper in the +face of increased demand and diminished supply. Too much +depends upon the cattle industry for us to allow it to wane.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 91</b></div> + +<p>Which of the italicized words should you use in the following, +and why?</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Why do you walk so <i>slow</i>—<i>slowly?</i></p> + +<p>2. Speak <i>louder</i>—<i>more loudly</i>.</p> + +<p>3. I cannot explain why he spoke so <i>gentle</i>—<i>gently</i>.</p> + +<p>4. The automobile was going very <i>swift</i>—<i>swiftly</i>.</p> + +<p>5. The well has been dug very <i>deep</i>—<i>deeply</i>.</p> + +<p>6. He is not <i>near</i>—<i>nearly</i> so tall as you are.</p> + +<p>7. Are you cutting that <i>even</i>—<i>evenly?</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span></p> + +<p>8. She does pen and ink sketches <i>beautiful</i>—<i>beautifully</i>.</p> + +<p>9. Why can't I grow <i>quicker</i>—<i>more quickly?</i></p> + +<p>10. I feel <i>bad</i>—<i>badly</i> this morning.</p> + +<p>11. Can you do all I have asked? <i>Easy</i>—<i>easily</i>.</p> + +<p>12. She does her work <i>good</i>—<i>well</i>.</p> + +<p>13. She does her work <i>fine</i>—<i>finely</i>.</p> + +<p>14. I am <i>real</i>—<i>very much</i> surprised to see you.</p> + +<p>15. He became <i>real</i>—<i>very</i> angry.</p> + +<p>16. I'm afraid it's not <i>near</i>—<i>nearly</i> big enough.</p> + +<p>17. She works twice as <i>quick</i>—<i>quickly</i> as you do.</p> + +<p>18. He <i>sure</i>—<i>surely</i> is a good speaker. He seems <i>sure</i>—<i>surely</i> +of himself.</p> + +<p>19. Are you going? <i>Sure</i>—<i>surely?</i></p> + +<p>20. He says he is <i>near</i>—<i>nearly</i> starved.</p> + +<p>21. He worked <i>steady</i>—<i>steadily</i> all morning. The others did +not work <i>near</i>—<i>nearly</i> so hard.</p> + +<p>22. I am speaking as <i>serious</i>—<i>seriously</i> as I can.</p> + +<p>23. The orange tastes <i>bitter</i>—<i>bitterly</i>.</p> + +<p>24. Don't you think he has been acting <i>queer</i>—<i>queerly?</i></p> + +<p>25. The coat is finished <i>nice</i>—<i>nicely</i>.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_92" id="Exercise_92"></a>Exercise 92</b></div> + +<p>Explain the proper position of the italicized adverbs in +the following sentences. Remember that an adverb must +stand as closely as possible to the word that it modifies, but +remember also that an infinitive, although made up of two +parts, is <i>one</i> word and should not be split by an adverb.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. I <i>merely</i> want the Milwaukee list of customers.</p> + +<p>2. You <i>almost</i> write like her.</p> + +<p>3. Your writing is like hers <i>almost</i>.</p> + +<p>4. I can <i>not</i> find one of the papers I had on the desk.</p> + +<p>5. He told me to <i>carefully</i> add the figures in the column.</p> + +<p>6. I expect to <i>quickly</i> finish my dictation.</p> + +<p>7. I don't <i>even</i> understand the first problem in the lesson.</p> + +<p>8. Don't say you don't <i>ever</i> expect to go to school again.</p> + +<p>9. All the statements are <i>not</i> on my desk.</p> + +<p>10. He promised to <i>quickly</i> settle the matter.</p> + +<p>11. I wish you to <i>clearly</i> understand the situation.</p> + +<p>12. I <i>only</i> have two more items to enter.</p> + +<p>13. I <i>only</i> expect to take a short vacation this year. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span></p> +<p>14. He <i>only</i> spoke of two causes of the loss in trade.</p> + +<p>15. I <i>only</i> decided to take the Western instead of the Eastern +trip at the last moment.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 93—Comparison</b></div> + +<p>Adjectives are compared so as to express different degrees +of quality. There are three degrees of comparison, the <i>positive</i>, +the <i>comparative</i>, and the <i>superlative</i>. When the object +modified or described by the adjective is not compared with +another, the first or <i>positive</i> degree is used. When two +objects are compared, the second or <i>comparative</i> degree is +used to denote more or less of the quality expressed by the +adjective. When several objects are compared, the <i>superlative</i> +degree of the adjective is used to express the highest +or the lowest possible degree of the adjective.</p> + +<p>The usual method of comparing an adjective is to add +<i>er</i> to the positive to form the comparative, and <i>est</i> to form +the superlative. Frequently, however, especially for an +adjective of two or more syllables, the comparative is formed +by prefixing <i>more</i> or <i>less</i> to the positive, and the superlative +by prefixing <i>most</i> or <i>least</i>. Besides the adjectives in +these two classes there are some which do not follow any +regular method and must, therefore, be watched a little +more closely.</p> + +<p>The following table illustrates the different methods of +comparison:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 93 part 1"> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Positive</i> </td><td align='center'><i>Comparative</i> </td><td align='center'><i>Superlative</i> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bright</td><td align='left'>brighter</td><td align='left'>brightest</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>dangerous</td><td align='left'>more dangerous </td><td align='left'>most dangerous</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>beautiful </td><td align='left'>more beautiful</td><td align='left'>most beautiful</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>good</td><td align='left'>better</td><td align='left'>best</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bad</td><td align='left'>worse</td><td align='left'>worst</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ill</td><td align='left'>worse</td><td align='left'>worst</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Be careful to avoid using a double sign for the comparative +degree; as,</p> + +<div class='center'> +<i>Wrong:</i> This writing is <i>more neater</i> than yours.<br /> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span></p> + +<p>Some adverbs are also compared; as,</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Adverbs compared"> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Positive</i></td><td align='left'><i>Comparative</i></td><td align='center'><i>Superlative</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>well</td><td align='left'>better</td><td align='left'>best</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>quickly </td><td align='left'>more quickly </td><td align='left'>most quickly</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Some adjectives and adverbs cannot be compared because +the positive degree in itself expresses a complete or <i>absolute</i> +meaning; as,</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Absolute adverbs and adjectives"> +<tr><td align='left'>absolute,-ly </td><td align='left'>eternal</td><td align='left'>perfect</td><td align='left'>sufficient</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>circular</td><td align='left'>extreme</td><td align='left'>perpendicular </td><td align='left'>supreme</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>continual</td><td align='left'>faultless</td><td align='left'>perpetual</td><td align='left'>unanimous</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>dead</td><td align='left'>full</td><td align='left'>right</td><td align='left'>unique</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>decisive</td><td align='left'>impossible </td><td align='left'>round</td><td align='left'>universal</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>empty</td><td align='left'>incurable</td><td align='left'>square</td><td align='left'>white</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Compare those of the following adjectives that may be +compared. Explain why some do not admit of comparison.</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="compared or not"> +<tr><td align='left'>great</td><td align='left'>spotless </td><td align='left'>expensive</td><td align='left'>wise</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>tall</td><td align='left'>dear</td><td align='left'>parallel</td><td align='left'>high</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>desirable </td><td align='left'>east</td><td align='left'>old</td><td align='left'>new</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>honorable</td><td align='left'>early</td><td align='left'>exclusive </td><td align='left'>blank</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 94</b></div> + +<p>In the following exercise, select the correct one of the two +italicized forms. Remember that the comparative degree is +used in comparing two objects, the superlative in comparing +three or more.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. I had three pens. I have lost the <i>better</i>—<i>best</i> one.</p> + +<p>2. I have two clerks. John is the <i>older</i>—<i>oldest</i>.</p> + +<p>3. Of the two colors, I think the tan is the <i>more</i>—<i>most</i> +becoming to you.</p> + +<p>4. You are the <i>taller</i>—<i>tallest</i> of all the boys.</p> + +<p>5. Of two professions, choose the <i>more</i>—<i>most</i> honorable.</p> + +<p>6. He is the <i>faster</i>—<i>fastest</i> workman in the shop.</p> + +<p>7. Which of your hands is the <i>cleaner</i>—<i>cleanest?</i></p> + +<p>8. Which do you like <i>better</i>—<i>best</i>, skating or sleighing?</p> + +<p>9. Which of your eyes has the <i>better</i>—<i>best</i> vision?</p> + +<p>10. Of all the shops, she likes Leslie's <i>better</i>—<i>best</i>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span></p> +<p>11. Which is <i>more</i>—<i>most</i> durable, serge or broadcloth?</p> + +<p>12. Which tree lives <i>longer</i>—<i>longest</i>, the poplar or the elm?</p> + +<p>13. Which is the <i>best</i>—<i>better</i> policy, honesty or dishonesty?</p> + +<p>14. He is the <i>wittier</i>—<i>wittiest</i> one in the class.</p> + +<p>15. He is the <i>wittier</i>—<i>wittiest</i> boy in the class. There is only +one boy in the class besides him.</p> + +<p>16. Of our twenty salesmen, he is considered <i>better</i>—<i>best</i> +because he is <i>quicker</i>—<i>quickest</i> witted than any other.</p> + +<p>17. You should not mention the two men in one breath. The +<i>former</i>—<i>first</i> is famous and the <i>latter</i>—<i>last</i> infamous.</p> + +<p>18. Which of you two do you think deserves <i>more</i>—<i>most</i> +praise?</p> + +<p>19. Which of you two deserves <i>less</i>—<i>least</i> praise?</p> + +<p>20. Which of you two can run the <i>faster</i>—<i>fastest?</i></p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 95</b></div> + +<p>Remember that the double negative is wrong; as,</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +<i>Wrong:</i> I haven't no paper.<br /> +<i>Right:</i> I have no paper.<br /> +</div> + +<p>Correct any of the following sentences that contain this +mistake:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. None of them didn't come.</p> + +<p>2. I couldn't do the problem neither.</p> + +<p>3. This paper isn't very good, I don't think.</p> + +<p>4. Couldn't you find no better pen?</p> + +<p>5. I didn't choose none of them.</p> + +<p>6. I don't see nothing to complain of.</p> + +<p>7. He couldn't hardly see across the street.</p> + +<p>8. We didn't find the paper nowhere.</p> + +<p>9. They can't scarcely believe the report.</p> + +<p>10. She couldn't stay with us only a few minutes.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 96—Fewer, Less</b></div> + +<p><i>Fewer</i> refers to a smaller number by counting, <i>less</i> refers +to a smaller quantity by measuring. Insert the correct word:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. You are making —— mistakes each day.</p> + +<p>2. I am having —— difficulty in writing shorthand.</p> + +<p>3. There are —— houses on this street than I had thought.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span></p> + +<p>4. The farther inland we went the —— signs of habitation we +saw.</p> + +<p>5. Each year there is —— opportunity for an uneducated man +to rise.</p> + +<p>6. Each year there are —— opportunities for the uneducated +man to rise.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Most, Almost</b></div> + +<p><i>Most</i> refers to quantity or number; <i>almost</i> means <i>not +quite</i>. Insert the correct word:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>7. —— people enjoy their work.</p> + +<p>8. I have —— finished the course in stenography.</p> + +<p>9. —— European cities are beautiful.</p> + +<p>10. —— all European cities are beautiful.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Real, Very</b></div> + +<p><i>Real</i> is an adjective meaning <i>actual;</i> <i>very</i> is an adverb +of degree. Insert the correct word:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>11. I'm —— glad to see you.</p> + +<p>12. Is your comb —— amber?</p> + +<p>13. The men of the Titanic were —— heroes.</p> + +<p>14. He is a —— good soloist.</p> + +<p>15. She is —— entertaining in conversation; it was a —— +pleasure to meet her.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 97—Adjectives and Adverbs Incorrectly Used</b></div> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Wrong</i></td><td align='center'><i>Right</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 1. I don't like <i>those</i> kind of pens.</td><td align='left'>I don't like <i>that</i> kind of pens.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 2. What sort of <i>a</i> course are you taking?</td><td align='left'>What sort of course are you taking?</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 3. His statements made me <i>mad</i>.</td><td align='left'>His statements made me <i>angry</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 4. Yours <i>respectively</i>.</td><td align='left'>Yours <i>respectfully</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'>(Consult a dictionary for the correct use of <i>respectively</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 5. Do you want <i>in?</i></td><td align='left'>Do you want <i>to come in?</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 6. Go <i>some place</i> with me.</td><td align='left'>Go <i>somewhere</i> with me.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 7. My father is <i>some</i> better.</td><td align='left'>My father is <i>somewhat</i> better.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 8. He comes <i>every once in a while</i>.</td><td align='left'>He comes <i>occasionally</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> 9. Did you recognize the girl who drove <i>past?</i> </td><td align='left'>Did you recognize the girl who drove <i>by?</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>10. The two are <i>both</i> alike.</td><td align='left'>The two are alike.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>11. He is <i>liable</i> to come any minute.</td><td align='left'>He is <i>likely</i> to come at any minute.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>12. That ring has a <i>funny</i> design.</td><td align='left'>That ring has an <i>odd</i> design.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>13. I'd <i>sooner</i> stay at home.</td><td align='left'>I'd <i>rather</i> stay at home.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>14. Are you <i>most</i> ready?</td><td align='left'>Are you <i>almost</i> ready?</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>15. I'm <i>kind of</i> sleepy.</td><td align='left'>I'm <i>rather</i> sleepy.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>16. What <i>size</i> hat do you wear?</td><td align='left'>What <i>sized</i> hat do you wear?</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>17. <i>This here</i> book is the one I wish.</td><td align='left'><i>This</i> book is the one I wish.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>18. He spoke <i>angry like</i>.</td><td align='left'>He spoke <i>angrily</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>19. His ideas are <i>no</i> good.</td><td align='left'>His ideas are <i>worthless</i> (or <i>not good</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>20. He <i>seldom ever</i> makes a mistake.</td><td align='left'>He <i>seldom</i> (<i>hardly ever</i>) makes a mistake.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>21. I didn't work <i>any</i> last night.</td><td align='left'>I didn't work <i>at all</i> last night.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>22. I walked <i>this</i> far yesterday.</td><td align='left'>I walked <i>as far as this</i> yesterday.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>23. I want to see you <i>badly</i>.</td><td align='left'>I want to see you <i>very much</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>24. He sells insurance <i>on the side</i>.</td><td align='left'><i>In addition to his other business</i> he sells insurance.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>25. Don't talk <i>out loud</i>.</td><td align='left'>Don't talk <i>aloud</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>26. She is <i>very</i> disappointed.</td><td align='left'>She is <i>very much</i> disappointed.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'>(Before a perfect participle <i>too</i> or <i>very</i> may not be used without the addition of the adverb <i>much</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>27. She is a <i>cute</i> (or <i>cunning</i>) child.</td><td align='left'>She is a <i>pretty</i> child.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'>(Look up the words <i>cute</i> and <i>cunning</i> in a dictionary)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>28. He was lying face <i>down</i> on the grass.</td><td align='left'>He was lying face <i>downward</i> on the grass.</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER VIII</h2> + +<div class='chaptertitle'>THE VERB</div> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Verbs</span> may be <i>transitive</i> or <i>intransitive</i>.</p> + +<p>A verb is transitive when it needs an object to complete +its meaning; that is, when the action passes over (Latin, +<i>transire</i>, to pass over) from the subject or doer to the object +or receiver; as,</p> + +<div class='center'> +He <i>hit</i> the ball.<br /> +</div> + +<p>A verb is intransitive when it needs no object to complete +its meaning; as,</p> + +<div class='center'> +The crowd <i>cheered</i>.<br /> +</div> + +<p>Some intransitive verbs require a predicate noun or pronoun +in the nominative case, or an adjective, to complete +their meaning. They are the verbs <i>be</i>, <i>become</i>, <i>appear</i>, +<i>seem</i>, <i>feel</i>, <i>taste</i>, <i>look</i>, <i>smell;</i> as,</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Instransitive verbs"> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Adjective:</i> The berries taste <i>sour</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Noun:</i> John is my <i>brother</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Pronoun:</i> It is <i>I</i>.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Such verbs are sometimes called <i>copulatives</i>.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 98</b></div> + +<p>Tell whether each verb in the following sentences is transitive +or intransitive and whether it is followed by a noun +or a pronoun in the nominative or the objective case or by a +complementary adjective.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Primitive people have left traces of very early commercial +relations.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> +</p> +<p>2. Explorers visited the Ohio valley and found articles of +remote manufacture.</p> + +<p>3. Checks and drafts are great conveniences to the business +man.</p> + +<p>4. The United States Supreme Court made a decision that +labor unions are punishable under trust penalties.</p> + +<p>5. A labor union is different from a trust.</p> + +<p>6. This is the opinion of the labor leader.</p> + +<p>7. What is your opinion?</p> + +<p>8. The total value of merchandise sent to Latin-America from +the United States exceeds that supplied by any other single +country.</p></div> + +<p>Write three sentences illustrating transitive verbs.</p> + +<p>Write three sentences illustrating intransitive verbs.</p> + +<p>Write three sentences illustrating copulative verbs.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 99—Voice</b></div> + +<p>Voice is that property of the verb that shows whether the +subject acts or is acted upon. If the subject acts, the verb +is in the <i>active voice</i>. If the subject is acted upon, the verb +is in the <i>passive voice</i>. Every sentence containing a transitive verb must have the following parts:</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 99"> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Agent</i>(doer)</td><td align='center'><i>Action</i></td><td align='center'><i>Receiver</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>The runaway horse</td><td align='left'> injured </td><td align='left'>John.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>When the sentence is in the order shown above, the subject +is the agent, and the verb expresses the action of the +agent. When the sentence is written in this order, the +verb is said to be in the <i>active voice</i>.</p> + +<p>However, without changing the meaning of the sentence, +we may change the order of the ideas; thus,</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 99 part 2"> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Receiver</i></td><td align='center'><i>Action</i></td><td align='center'><i>Agent</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>John</td><td align='left'> was injured </td><td align='left'>by the runaway horse.</td></tr> +</table></div> +<p>The receiver of the action has become the subject, and the +agent has become part of the predicate, being expressed in +the phrase <i>by the runaway horse</i>. When the sentence is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> +expressed in this order, the subject receiving or "suffering" +the action, the verb is said to be in the <i>passive voice</i>. Only +transitive verbs, therefore, may be changed to the passive +voice.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—There are certain intransitive verbs that sometimes have +a preposition so closely connected with them that the two are treated +almost like a transitive verb, and may be made passive; as,</p></div> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +<i>Active:</i> The audience laughed <i>at</i> the speaker.<br /> +<i>Passive:</i> The speaker was laughed <i>at</i> by the audience.<br /> +</div> + +<p>Write five sentences in the active voice.</p> + +<p>Change them to the passive voice.</p> + +<p>In the sentences that you have written, is the active form +of the verb or the passive form better? Which is more direct +in its wording? Which, then, is the better form to use +regularly?</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 100—Number and Person</b></div> + +<p>The number of the verb is decided by the number of the +subject. If the subject is a singular noun, or a pronoun that +stands for a singular noun, it requires a singular verb; if +the subject is plural, it requires a plural verb. As a rule, +there is no difference between the singular and the plural +forms of the verb except in the form for the third person +singular; as,</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 100 part 1"> +<tr><td align='left'>I say</td><td align='left'>We say</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>You say </td><td align='left'>You say</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>He says</td><td align='left'>They say</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>But as the third person of the verb is the one most often +used, it must be carefully noted.</p> + +<p>The following subjects of verbs are singular and require +a singular verb to accompany them:</p> + +<p>1. A collective noun that denotes a group of objects +acting as one thing; as,</p> + +<div class='center'> +The crowd <i>is</i> scattering.<br /> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span></p> + +<p>2. A group of words which, like a collective noun, is +plural in form but singular in meaning; as,</p> + +<div class='center'> +Thirty dollars <i>is</i> what I paid for the ring.<br /> +</div> + +<p>3. A singular noun modified by <i>every</i>, <i>each</i>, <i>one</i>, <i>no</i>, +<i>many a;</i> or the pronouns <i>each</i>, <i>everybody</i>, <i>either</i>, <i>neither</i>, +and <i>none</i> when it means <i>not one;</i> as,</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +Each of us <i>has</i> his lesson.<br /> +Many an opportunity <i>has</i> been wasted.<br /> +Everybody <i>is</i> here now.<br /> +</div> + +<p>4. Singular<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> nouns or pronouns joined by <i>or</i>, <i>either—or</i>, +<i>neither—nor;</i> as,</p> + +<div class='center'> +Either John or his father <i>is</i> coming.<br /> +</div> + +<p>5. Two nouns joined by <i>and</i>, denoting one person or +thing; as,</p> + +<div class='center'> +The bookkeeper and stenographer <i>is</i> an expert.<br /> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—If two persons are meant, the article should be repeated +before the second noun.</p></div> + +<p>The following subjects of verbs are plural and require +plural verbs:</p> + +<p>1. A collective noun denoting plurality; that is, +referring to the individuals that compose the group; as,</p> + +<div class='center'> +The class <i>are</i> all studious.<br /> +</div> + +<p>2. A compound subject joined by <i>and</i>, when the +objects joined are different; as,</p> + +<div class='center'> +The door and the window <i>are</i> both open.<br /> +</div> + +<p>3. The pronoun <i>you</i>, though it may denote only one +person; as,</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +<i>Right:</i> You <i>were</i> right.<br /> +<i>Wrong:</i> You <i>was</i> right.<br /> +</div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span></p> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 101</b></div> + +<p>In the following sentences, decide which of the italicized +forms is correct. Give the reason for your choice.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Two dollars <i>is</i>—<i>are</i> too much for you to pay.</p> + +<p>2. Bread and butter <i>is</i>—<i>are</i> what I prefer to eat.</p> + +<p>3. Bread and butter <i>is</i>—<i>are</i> both sold here.</p> + +<p>4. His opinion and mine <i>is</i>—<i>are</i> different.</p> + +<p>5. The majority of the class <i>is</i>—<i>are</i> present.</p> + +<p>6. The class <i>is</i>—<i>are</i> dismissed.</p> + +<p>7. The congregation <i>is</i>—<i>are</i> asked to remain a few minutes +after the close of the service.</p> + +<p>8. The community <i>is</i>—<i>are</i> rapidly changing.</p> + +<p>9. A few of the books <i>was</i>—<i>were</i> given to me.</p> + +<p>10. There <i>was</i>—<i>were</i> forty people present.</p> + +<p>11. The secretary and treasurer <i>was</i>—<i>were</i> asked to read +<i>his</i>—<i>their</i> report.</p> + +<p>12. One-third of the office <i>was</i>—<i>were</i> late this morning because +the cars were not running.</p> + +<p>13. He <i>don't</i>—<i>doesn't</i> understand what I mean.</p> + +<p>14. If the quality and the price <i>is</i>—<i>are</i> right, buy.</p> + +<p>15. There <i>come</i>—<i>comes</i> a crowd of people.</p> + +<p>16. The library with its thousands of books <i>was</i>—<i>were</i> destroyed +by fire.</p> + +<p>17. There <i>don't</i>—<i>doesn't</i> seem to be much difference between +the two.</p> + +<p>18. The whole system of filing and indexing <i>is</i>—<i>are</i> wrong.</p> + +<p>19. Safety as well as success <i>is</i>—<i>are</i> at stake.</p> + +<p>20. The state of public affairs <i>calls</i>—<i>call</i> for quick action.</p> + +<p>21. Many a man <i>has</i>—<i>have</i> neglected golden opportunities.</p> + +<p>22. Many men <i>has</i>—<i>have</i> neglected golden opportunities.</p> + +<p>23. The committee <i>has</i>—<i>have</i> given <i>its</i>—<i>their</i> report.</p> + +<p>24. Our team <i>was</i>—<i>were</i> beaten.</p> + +<p>25. One of us surely <i>is</i>—<i>are</i> mistaken.</p> + +<p>26. Every one <i>was</i>—<i>were</i> happy when Tom was elected +president.</p> + +<p>27. Tom and James <i>is</i>—<i>are</i> going skating.</p> + +<p>28. Tom with his brother James <i>is</i>—<i>are</i> going skating.</p> + +<p>29. The only thing I have not prepared for dinner <i>is</i>—<i>are</i> +the potatoes. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span></p> +<p>30. Fifty feet of sidewalk <i>was</i>—<i>were</i> laid to-day.</p> + +<p>31. None of the boys <i>is</i>—<i>are</i> studying stenography.</p> + +<p>32. Neither Tom nor his brother <i>is</i>—<i>are</i> studying stenography.</p> + +<p>33. Both Tom and his brother <i>is</i>—<i>are</i> stenographers.</p> + +<p>34. Every one <i>is</i>—<i>are</i> interested in the cost of living.</p></div> + +<p>In the last sentence above substitute one of the following +for <i>every one</i>, using the correct form of the verb with each:</p> + +<div class="blockquot2">each of us; everybody; all of us; several people; both of +the men; neither of the men; neither Mary nor John; +Mary and John; our club; our class; the nation; not only +Europe but America; Europe as well as America; the +nation as well as several of the larger cities</div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_102" id="Exercise_102"></a>Exercise 102—Tense</b></div> + +<p>The tense of the verb indicates the time of the action. +There are three primary tenses, indicating action in the +<i>present</i>, the <i>past</i>, and the <i>future</i>. Each of these tenses has +also a <i>perfect</i> tense, which, represents the action as being +perfect or complete in the present, the past, and the future.</p> + +<p>The <i>present</i> tense is the simplest form. It denotes that +the action takes place now; as,</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 102 part 1"> +<tr><td align='left'>I write</td><td align='left'>We write</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>You write </td><td align='left'>You write</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>He writes</td><td align='left'>They write</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class='unindent'><br />To be more exact, we may indicate that the action is continuing +in the present time, and then we say,<br /><br /></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 102 part 2"> +<tr><td align='left'>I am writing</td><td align='left'>We are writing</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>You are writing </td><td align='left'>You are writing</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>He is writing</td><td align='left'>They are writing</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class='unindent'><br />This is called the <i>present progressive</i> tense.</div> + +<p>It may be that you wish to be emphatic, and you say,</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 102 part 3"> +<tr><td align='left'>I do write</td><td align='left'>We do write</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>You do write</td><td align='left'>You do write</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>He does write </td><td align='left'>They do write</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class='unindent'><br />This is called the <i>emphatic present</i> tense.</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span></p> + +<p>The <i>past</i> tense indicates that the action took place in past +time; as,</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 102 part 4"> +<tr><td align='left'>I wrote</td><td align='left'>We wrote</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>You wrote </td><td align='left'>You wrote</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>He wrote</td><td align='left'>They wrote</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class='unindent'><br />or, the <i>past progressive;</i> as,<br /><br /></div> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 102 part 5"> +<tr><td align='left'>I was writing</td><td align='left'>We were writing</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>You were writing </td><td align='left'>You were writing</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>He was writing</td><td align='left'>They were writing</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class='unindent'><br />or, the <i>past emphatic;</i> as,<br /><br /></div> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 102 part 6"> +<tr><td align='left'>I did write</td><td align='left'>We did write</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>You did write </td><td align='left'>You did write</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>He did write</td><td align='left'>They did write</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The emphatic form is used only in the present and the +past tenses.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>The <i>future</i> tense denotes that the action will take place +at some future time. It is formed by using <i>shall</i> or <i>will</i> +with the simplest form of the verb; as,</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 102 part 7"> +<tr><td align='left'>I shall write</td><td align='left'>We shall write</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>You will write </td><td align='left'>You will write</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>He will write</td><td align='left'>They will write</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='unindent'><br />The progressive form is not common. It is<br /><br /></div> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 102 part 8"> +<tr><td align='left'>I shall be writing</td><td align='left'>We shall be writing</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>You will be writing </td><td align='left'>You will be writing</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>He will be writing</td><td align='left'>They will be writing</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The three perfect tenses are formed by using the verb +<i>have</i> with the perfect participle of the verb.</p> + +<p>The <i>present perfect</i> tense denotes that the action is complete +at the present time. It is formed by the present tense +of <i>have</i> and the perfect participle of the verb; as,</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 102 part 9"> +<tr><td align='left'>I have written</td><td align='left'>We have written</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>You have written </td><td align='left'>You have written</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>He has written</td><td align='left'>They have written</td></tr> +</table></div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span></p> + +<div class='unindent'><br />The progressive form is,<br /><br /></div> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 102 part 10"> +<tr><td align='left'>I have been writing</td><td align='left'>We have been writing</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>You have been writing </td><td align='left'>You have been writing</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>He has been writing</td><td align='left'>They have been writing</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The <i>past perfect</i> denotes that the action was completed +in past time. It is formed by using the past tense of <i>have</i> +and the perfect participle of the verb; as,</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 102 part 11"> +<tr><td align='left'>I had written</td><td align='left'>We had written</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>You had written </td><td align='left'>You had written</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>He had written</td><td align='left'>They had written</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class='unindent'><br />The progressive form is,<br /><br /></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 102 part 12"> +<tr><td align='left'>I had been writing</td><td align='left'>We had been writing</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>You had been writing </td><td align='left'>You had been writing</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>He had been writing</td><td align='left'>They had been writing</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The <i>future perfect</i> tense denotes that the action will be +completed at some future time. It is formed by the future +of <i>have</i> and the perfect participle of the verb; as,</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 102 part 13"> +<tr><td align='left'>I shall have written</td><td align='left'>We shall have written</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>You will have written </td><td align='left'>You will have written</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>He will have written</td><td align='left'>They will have written</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class='unindent'><br />The progressive form is rarely used. It is<br /><br /></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 102 part 14"> +<tr><td align='left'>I shall have been writing</td><td align='left'>We shall have been writing</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>You will have been writing </td><td align='left'>You will have been writing</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>He will have been writing</td><td align='left'>They will have been writing</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Giving all forms singular and plural, first, second, and +third persons of each tense constitutes the <i>conjugation</i> of a +verb. Giving one person in each tense constitutes the +<i>synopsis</i> of the conjugation.</p> + +<p>The following is a synopsis of all the tenses of the +active voice in the first person singular number of the verb +<i>write<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>:</i></p> + + +<div class='center'><span class="smcap">Active Voice</span><br /></div> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Tense"> +<tr><td align='left' rowspan='14'><span class="smcap">Tense</span></td> +<td align='left' rowspan='14'><img src="images/long_bracket_l.png" width="10" height="400" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td> +<td align='left' rowspan='8'><i>Primary</i></td> +<td align='left' rowspan='8'><img src="images/med_bracket_l.png" width="8" height="200" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td> +<td align='left' rowspan='3'><i>Present</i></td> +<td align='left' rowspan='3'><img src="images/bracket2-l2.png" width="10" height="80" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td> +<td align='left'>I write (simple form)</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>I am writing (progressive form)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I do write (emphatic form)</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left' rowspan='3'><i>Past</i></td> +<td align='left' rowspan='3'><img src="images/bracket2-l2.png" width="10" height="80" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td> +<td align='left'>I wrote (simple)</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>I was writing (progressive)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I did write (emphatic)</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left' rowspan='2'><i>Future</i></td><td align='left' rowspan='2'><img src="images/bracket2-l.png" width="10" height="50" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td><td align='left'>I shall write (simple)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I shall be writing (progressive)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' rowspan='6'><i>Perfect<br />or<br />Secondary</i> </td><td align='left' rowspan='6'><img src="images/med_bracket_l.png" width="8" height="200" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td><td align='left' rowspan='2'><i>Present Perfect</i></td><td align='left' rowspan='2'><img src="images/bracket2-l.png" width="10" height="50" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td><td align='left'>I have written (simple)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I have been writing (progressive)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' rowspan='2'><i>Past Perfect</i></td><td align='left' rowspan='2'><img src="images/bracket2-l.png" width="10" height="50" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td><td align='left'>I had written (simple)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I had been writing (progressive)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' rowspan='2'><i>Future Perfect</i></td> +<td align='left' rowspan='2'><img src="images/bracket2-l.png" width="10" height="50" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td> +<td align='left'>I shall have written (simple)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I shall have been writing (progressive)</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 103</b></div> + +<p>Conjugate the following in the active voice:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Simple past tense of <i>walk</i>.</p> + +<p>2. Present progressive tense of <i>walk</i>.</p> + +<p>3. Present perfect of <i>drive</i>. (See <a href="#Exercise_108">Exercise 108</a> for the principal +parts.)</p> + +<p>4. Present perfect progressive of <i>drive</i>.</p> + +<p>5. Future progressive of <i>ride</i>.</p> + +<p>6. Past of <i>ride</i>.</p> + +<p>7. Present progressive of <i>ride</i>.</p> + +<p>8. Past emphatic of <i>ride</i>.</p> + +<p>9. Past perfect of <i>ride</i>.</p> + +<p>10. Present perfect progressive of <i>ride</i>.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span></p> + +<p>Give a synopsis of the progressive tenses of <i>begin</i>, using +<i>he</i> as the subject.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 104—Shall and Will</b></div> + +<p>The auxiliary verbs used to form the future tenses are +<i>shall</i> and <i>will</i>. The two must be carefully distinguished +because they denote different ideas, according to the person +with which they are used. The rule is, to express simple +future time, use <i>shall</i> in the first person, <i>will</i> in the second +and third persons.</p> + +<p>The future tense of the verb <i>walk</i> is conjugated as follows:</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 104 part 1"> +<tr><td align='left'>I shall walk</td><td align='left'>We shall walk</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>You will walk </td><td align='left'>You will walk</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>He will walk</td><td align='left'>They will walk</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>This is the form to use when you expect the action to +take place naturally.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, instead of letting things take their +natural course as they do in the simple future, you may +force them to take place. You may, for example, be determined +to walk, or determined to make some one else walk. +In that case the use is reversed; as,</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 104 part 2"> +<tr><td align='left'>I will walk</td><td align='left'>We will walk</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>You shall walk </td><td align='left'>You shall walk</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>He shall walk</td><td align='left'>They shall walk</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>This form is used whenever the speaker has authority to +bring about the action indicated by the verb.</p> + +<p>In questions of the first person always use <i>shall</i>. In +questions of the second and third persons use the same +form that you expect in the answer; as,</p> + +<div class="center"><i>Shall</i> you be at home to-morrow? I <i>shall</i>.</div> + +<p>In the following sentences insert <i>shall</i> or <i>will</i>, giving the +reason for your choice:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. I —— finish the work by three o'clock, I think.</p> + +<p>2. To-morrow he —— feel sorry for this; I vow it. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span></p> +<p>3. I am sorry, but I —— not be able to finish the work before +next week.</p> + +<p>4. —— you finish your business course in February or in +June? I —— finish in June, I think.</p> + +<p>5. —— he finish in February? No, he —— finish in June.</p> + +<p>6. The foreman declares he —— not have another chance.</p> + +<p>7. He —— see his mistake when it is too late.</p> + +<p>8. They —— surely be at the station to meet me.</p> + +<p>9. I'm afraid you —— be kicked if you go near that horse.</p> + +<p>10. If he doesn't take the examination, he —— fail.</p> + +<p>11. I am determined that I —— win.</p> + +<p>12. I —— sail probably on the fifteenth.</p> + +<p>13. He —— be twenty-one to-morrow.</p> + +<p>14. I —— go in spite of him.</p> + +<p>15. —— you go by train, do you think?</p> + +<p>16. I —— be greatly obliged if you —— send the book at once.</p> + +<p>17. I promise you John —— know his lesson to-morrow.</p> + +<p>18. —— you be at home this evening?</p> + +<p>19. —— the train be on time?</p> + +<p>20. —— the store be open this evening?</p></div> + +<p>Conjugate the future and future perfect tenses of the +following verbs:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 104 part 3"> +<tr><td align='left'>drive </td><td align='left'>see</td><td align='left'>go</td><td align='left'>run </td><td align='left'>sweep</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ride</td><td align='left'>choose </td><td align='left'>sing </td><td align='left'>eat</td><td align='left'>sell</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 105—Should and Would</b></div> + +<p><i>Should</i> and <i>would</i> are the past tenses of <i>shall</i> and <i>will</i> +and, in general, express the same ideas as do <i>shall</i> and <i>will</i>, +except that <i>should</i> sometimes means <i>ought;</i> as,</p> + +<div class="center">You <i>should</i> not speak in that way.</div> + +<p><i>Would</i>, also, sometimes indicates an action that occurs +frequently; as,</p> + +<div class="center">She <i>would</i> often sit at the window all the morning.</div> + +<p>The use of <i>should</i> and <i>would</i> in indirect statements and +questions is sometimes puzzling. First of all, decide whether +<i>shall</i> or <i>will</i> would be used in the direct form of the sentence.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> +If the direct form uses <i>shall</i>, use <i>should</i> in the indirect; if +the direct uses <i>will</i>, use <i>would</i> in the indirect; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot2"><p><i>Direct:</i> The market <i>will</i> improve.</p> + +<p><i>Indirect:</i> He said that the market <i>would</i> improve.</p></div> + +<p>In conditional clauses (<i>if</i>), use <i>should</i> for all persons.</p> + +<p>Insert <i>should</i> or <i>would</i>.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. If I knew his address, I —— send him a telegram.</p> + +<p>2. He promised that he —— not make the mistake again. +(The direct form would read, I will not —— )</p> + +<p>3. I promised that I —— not make the mistake again.</p> + +<p>4. You promised that you —— not make the mistake again.</p> + +<p>5. Do you think that I —— go?</p> + +<p>6. I —— if I were you.</p> + +<p>7. I —— think he —— know better than to apply for that +position.</p> + +<p>8. John said that, no matter what we thought, he —— not go.</p> + +<p>9. If you —— decide to accept the offer, let me know at +once.</p> + +<p>10. I am sorry he did that. He —— not, of course.</p> + +<p>11. If I —— see him, I'd let him know.</p> + +<p>12. If he —— come during my absence, ask him to wait.</p> + +<p>13. I —— think you would be more careful.</p> + +<p>14. Let me know if you —— not be able to come.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 106</b></div> + +<p>Change the italicized verbs to past tense, future, present +perfect, past perfect, future perfect. Wherever necessary, +add sufficient to make the meaning of the tense clear; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Present:</i> The manager <i>is now</i> in his office.</p> + +<p><i>Past:</i> The manager <i>was</i> in his office <i>a few minutes ago</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Future:</i> The manager <i>will be</i> in his office <i>to-morrow at ten o'clock</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Present Perfect:</i> The manager <i>has been</i> in his office <i>all the morning</i>. +(It is still morning.)</p> + +<p><i>Past Perfect:</i> The manager <i>had been</i> in his office <i>only a few +moments when the president arrived</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Future Perfect:</i> <i>In about five minutes</i> the manager <i>will have been</i> +in the president's office <i>exactly three hours</i>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span></p> +<p>1. The cashier <i>opens</i> the safe in the morning.</p> + +<p>2. The mechanic <i>earns</i> good wages.</p> + +<p>3. The buyer <i>leaves</i> to-night.</p> + +<p>4. The bookkeeper <i>makes</i> out the statements.</p> + +<p>5. The correspondent <i>writes</i> the booklets.</p> + +<p>6. The advertising manager <i>approves</i> the copy.</p> + +<p>7. The adding machine <i>is broken</i>.</p> + +<p>8. The chief clerk <i>attends</i> to the incoming mail.</p> + +<p>9. The superintendent <i>visits</i> the factory every day.</p> + +<p>10. The salesman <i>is selling</i> five thousand dollars' worth of goods +a week.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_107" id="Exercise_107"></a>Exercise 107</b></div> + +<p>The present tense is used to indicate general truths—things +true in past time and still true. Omit the incorrect +form in the following sentences:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. What did you say <i>is</i>—<i>was</i> the meaning of the term <i>bona +fide?</i></p> + +<p>2. What <i>was</i>—<i>is</i> the name of that book that you enjoyed +so much?</p> + +<p>3. Didn't you know that the lion <i>is</i>—<i>was</i> called the king of +beasts?</p> + +<p>4. They told me that the legal rate of interest at present <i>is</i>-<i>was</i> +six per cent.</p> + +<p>5. Have you ever heard him try to prove that black <i>is</i>—<i>was</i> +white?</p> + +<p>6. What <i>is</i>—<i>was</i> the name of the banker who lectured to +us yesterday?</p> + +<p>7. I never could remember what the important products of +my county <i>are</i>—<i>were</i>.</p> + +<p>8. The advocate of Equal Suffrage argued that mothers +<i>need</i>—<i>needed</i> the ballot to protect their children.</p> + +<p>9. She said that a democracy <i>is</i>—<i>was</i> a government of the +people, by the people, and for the people, and that women <i>are</i>-<i>were</i> +people as well as men.</p> + +<p>10. The speaker asserted that this country <i>needs</i>—<i>needed</i> a +tariff to protect home industries.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_108" id="Exercise_108"></a>Exercise 108—Principal Parts</b></div> + +<p>No one can be certain of using the correct form of a verb +unless he knows the principal parts. Some verbs are regular;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> +that is, they form their past tense and their perfect participle +by adding <i>ed</i> to the present tense; as,</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 108 part 1"> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Present</i></td><td align='left'><i>Past</i></td><td align='left'><i>Perfect Participle</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>walk </td><td align='left'>walked </td><td align='left'>walked</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Some verbs, however, are very irregular, having a different +form for each of the principal parts. A list of such verbs +follows:</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 108 part 2"> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Present</i></td><td align='left'><i>Past</i></td><td align='left'><i>Perfect Participle</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>arise</td><td align='left'>arose</td><td align='left'>arisen</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>awake</td><td align='left'>awoke or awaked </td><td align='left'>awaked</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>be</td><td align='left'>was</td><td align='left'>been</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bear (carry) </td><td align='left'>bore</td><td align='left'>borne</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>beat</td><td align='left'>beat</td><td align='left'>beaten</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>become</td><td align='left'>became</td><td align='left'>become</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>begin</td><td align='left'>began</td><td align='left'>begun</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bid</td><td align='left'>bade</td><td align='left'>bidden</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bite</td><td align='left'>bit</td><td align='left'>bitten</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>blow</td><td align='left'>blew</td><td align='left'>blown</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>break</td><td align='left'>broke</td><td align='left'>broken</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>choose</td><td align='left'>chose</td><td align='left'>chosen</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>come</td><td align='left'>came</td><td align='left'>come</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>do</td><td align='left'>did</td><td align='left'>done</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>draw</td><td align='left'>drew</td><td align='left'>drawn</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>drink</td><td align='left'>drank</td><td align='left'>drunk</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>drive</td><td align='left'>drove</td><td align='left'>driven</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>eat</td><td align='left'>ate</td><td align='left'>eaten</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>fall</td><td align='left'>fell</td><td align='left'>fallen</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>fly</td><td align='left'>flew</td><td align='left'>flown</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>forbid</td><td align='left'>forbade</td><td align='left'>forbidden</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>forsake</td><td align='left'>forsook</td><td align='left'>forsaken</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>freeze</td><td align='left'>froze</td><td align='left'>frozen</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>give</td><td align='left'>gave</td><td align='left'>given</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>go</td><td align='left'>went</td><td align='left'>gone</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>grow</td><td align='left'>grew</td><td align='left'>grown</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>hide</td><td align='left'>hid</td><td align='left'>hidden</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>know</td><td align='left'>knew</td><td align='left'>known</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>lie (to rest) </td><td align='left'>lay</td><td align='left'>lain</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ride</td><td align='left'>rode</td><td align='left'>ridden</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ring</td><td align='left'>rang</td><td align='left'>rung<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>rise</td><td align='left'>rose</td><td align='left'>risen</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>run</td><td align='left'>ran</td><td align='left'>run</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>see</td><td align='left'>saw</td><td align='left'>seen</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>shake</td><td align='left'>shook</td><td align='left'>shaken</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>show</td><td align='left'>showed</td><td align='left'>shown</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>shrink</td><td align='left'>shrank</td><td align='left'>shrunk</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>sing</td><td align='left'>sang</td><td align='left'>sung</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>slay</td><td align='left'>slew</td><td align='left'>slain</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>slide</td><td align='left'>slid</td><td align='left'>slidden</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>sow</td><td align='left'>sowed</td><td align='left'>sown</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>speak</td><td align='left'>spoke</td><td align='left'>spoken</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>spring</td><td align='left'>sprang</td><td align='left'>sprung</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>steal</td><td align='left'>stole</td><td align='left'>stolen</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>strive</td><td align='left'>strove</td><td align='left'>striven</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>swear</td><td align='left'>swore</td><td align='left'>sworn</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>swell</td><td align='left'>swelled</td><td align='left'>swelled, swollen</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>swim</td><td align='left'>swam</td><td align='left'>swum</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>take</td><td align='left'>took</td><td align='left'>taken</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>tear</td><td align='left'>tore</td><td align='left'>torn</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>throw</td><td align='left'>threw</td><td align='left'>thrown</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>wear</td><td align='left'>wore</td><td align='left'>worn</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>weave</td><td align='left'>wove</td><td align='left'>woven</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>write</td><td align='left'>wrote</td><td align='left'>written</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 109</b></div> + +<p>Some verbs, though irregularly formed, have the past +tense and perfect participle alike. A list of such verbs +follows:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 109 part 1"> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Present</i></td><td align='left'><i>Past</i></td><td align='left'><i>Perfect Participle</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bend</td><td align='left'>bent</td><td align='left'>bent</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>behold</td><td align='left'>beheld</td><td align='left'>beheld</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>beseech </td><td align='left'>besought</td><td align='left'>besought</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bind</td><td align='left'>bound</td><td align='left'>bound</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bleed</td><td align='left'>bled</td><td align='left'>bled</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bless</td><td align='left'>blessed, blest</td><td align='left'>blessed, blest</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bring</td><td align='left'>brought</td><td align='left'>brought</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>build</td><td align='left'>built</td><td align='left'>built</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>burn</td><td align='left'>burned, burnt</td><td align='left'>burned, burnt<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>buy</td><td align='left'>bought</td><td align='left'>bought</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>catch</td><td align='left'>caught</td><td align='left'>caught</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>cling</td><td align='left'>clung</td><td align='left'>clung</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>clothe</td><td align='left'>clothed, clad</td><td align='left'>clothed, clad</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>creep</td><td align='left'>crept</td><td align='left'>crept</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>deal</td><td align='left'>dealt</td><td align='left'>dealt</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>dig</td><td align='left'>dug</td><td align='left'>dug</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>dream</td><td align='left'>dreamed, dreamt </td><td align='left'>dreamed, dreamt</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>dwell</td><td align='left'>dwelt</td><td align='left'>dwelt</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>flee</td><td align='left'>fled</td><td align='left'>fled</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>grind</td><td align='left'>ground</td><td align='left'>ground</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>hang</td><td align='left'>hung, hanged</td><td align='left'>hung, hanged</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>have</td><td align='left'>had</td><td align='left'>had</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>hear</td><td align='left'>heard</td><td align='left'>heard</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>hold</td><td align='left'>held</td><td align='left'>held</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>kneel</td><td align='left'>knelt</td><td align='left'>knelt</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>lay</td><td align='left'>laid</td><td align='left'>laid</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>lead</td><td align='left'>led</td><td align='left'>led</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>leap</td><td align='left'>leapt</td><td align='left'>leapt</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>lend</td><td align='left'>lent</td><td align='left'>lent</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>pay</td><td align='left'>paid</td><td align='left'>paid</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>say</td><td align='left'>said</td><td align='left'>said</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>shine</td><td align='left'>shone</td><td align='left'>shone</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>sit</td><td align='left'>sat</td><td align='left'>sat</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>sleep</td><td align='left'>slept</td><td align='left'>slept</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>sling</td><td align='left'>slung</td><td align='left'>slung</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>speed</td><td align='left'>sped</td><td align='left'>sped</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>spin</td><td align='left'>spun</td><td align='left'>spun</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>stand</td><td align='left'>stood</td><td align='left'>stood</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>sting</td><td align='left'>stung</td><td align='left'>stung</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>strike</td><td align='left'>struck</td><td align='left'>struck</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>string</td><td align='left'>strung</td><td align='left'>strung</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>sweep</td><td align='left'>swept</td><td align='left'>swept</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>swing</td><td align='left'>swung</td><td align='left'>swung</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>teach</td><td align='left'>taught</td><td align='left'>taught</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>think</td><td align='left'>thought </td><td align='left'>thought</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>weep</td><td align='left'>wept</td><td align='left'>wept</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>win</td><td align='left'>won</td><td align='left'>won</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>wind</td><td align='left'>wound</td><td align='left'>wound</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>wring</td><td align='left'>wrung</td><td align='left'>wrung</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 110</b></div> + +<p>Some verbs have all three forms alike. A list of such +follows:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 110"> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Present</i> </td><td align='left'><i>Past</i></td><td align='left'><i>Perfect Participle</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bet</td><td align='left'>bet</td><td align='left'>bet</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>burst</td><td align='left'>burst</td><td align='left'>burst</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>cast</td><td align='left'>cast</td><td align='left'>cast</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>cost</td><td align='left'>cost</td><td align='left'>cost</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>cut</td><td align='left'>cut</td><td align='left'>cut</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>hit</td><td align='left'>hit</td><td align='left'>hit</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>hurt</td><td align='left'>hurt</td><td align='left'>hurt</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>knit</td><td align='left'>knit</td><td align='left'>knit</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>let</td><td align='left'>let</td><td align='left'>let</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>put</td><td align='left'>put</td><td align='left'>put</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>rid</td><td align='left'>rid</td><td align='left'>rid</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>set</td><td align='left'>set</td><td align='left'>set</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>shed</td><td align='left'>shed</td><td align='left'>shed</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>spread</td><td align='left'>spread </td><td align='left'>spread</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>sweat</td><td align='left'>sweat</td><td align='left'>sweat</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>wet</td><td align='left'>wet</td><td align='left'>wet</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 111</b></div> + +<p>Choose the correct form of the italicized words below, and +give the reason for your choice.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. If it <i>don't</i>—<i>doesn't</i> fit you, we shall alter it.</p> + +<p>2. I <i>knew</i>—<i>knowed</i> I was right.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Aren't</i>—<i>ain't</i> you glad we came?</p> + +<p>4. <i>Ain't</i>—<i>isn't</i> he well?</p> + +<p>5. We <i>done</i>—<i>did</i> the right thing.</p> + +<p>6. <i>Let</i>—<i>leave</i> the book on the table.</p> + +<p>7. <i>Let</i>—<i>leave</i> me do as I planned.</p> + +<p>8. Mary has <i>broke</i>—<i>broken</i> her arm.</p> + +<p>9. My mother has <i>gone</i>—<i>went</i> to Boston.</p> + +<p>10. Where <i>was</i>—<i>were</i> you yesterday?</p> + +<p>11. When the dinner bell <i>rang</i>—<i>rung</i>, we all <i>come</i>—<i>came</i> +running in.</p> + +<p>12. He <i>don't</i>—<i>doesn't</i> know what you said.</p> + +<p>13. To what hospital have they <i>taken</i>—<i>took</i> him?</p> + +<p>14. I <i>saw</i>—<i>seen</i> him a few minutes ago.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span></p> +<p>15. I <i>saw</i>—<i>seen</i> him yesterday.</p> + +<p>16. I should <i>have</i>—<i>of</i> brought my book.</p> + +<p>17. My winter coat is <i>wore</i>—<i>worn</i> out.</p> + +<p>18. Have you ever <i>rode</i>—<i>ridden</i> in an aeroplane?</p> + +<p>19. I have <i>shown</i>—<i>showed</i> you all the styles I have.</p> + +<p>20. <i>Don't</i>—<i>doesn't</i> it seem odd that he <i>don't</i>—<i>doesn't</i> come?</p> + +<p>21. She <i>don't</i>—<i>doesn't</i> remember you.</p> + +<p>22. We <i>began</i>—<i>begun</i> the work yesterday.</p> + +<p>23. I'm afraid my foot is <i>froze</i>—<i>frozen</i>.</p> + +<p>24. We <i>ran</i>—<i>run</i> all the way.</p> + +<p>25. I've <i>shook</i>—<i>shaken</i> him three times, but he <i>don't</i>—<i>doesn't</i> +awake.</p> + +<p>26. The bell <i>rang</i>—<i>rung</i> just before you entered.</p> + +<p>27. She <i>sang</i>—<i>sung</i> very well.</p> + +<p>28. He <i>swam</i>—<i>swum</i> all yesterday morning.</p> + +<p>29. Why <i>don't</i>—<i>doesn't</i> some one tell John that his coat is +<i>tore</i>—<i>torn?</i></p> + +<p>30. <i>Don't</i>—<i>doesn't</i> mother know that the vase is <i>broke</i>—<i>broken?</i></p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 112—Troublesome Verbs</b></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Lie, Lay</b></div> + +<p><i>Lie</i> is intransitive; <i>lay</i> is transitive. <i>Lie</i> signifies <i>to rest;</i> +<i>lay</i>, <i>to place</i>. Insert the correct form in the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. He told me to —— the book on the table. It —— there +now.</p> + +<p>2. I —— all day waiting for help to arrive.</p> + +<p>3. Where did you —— the purse?</p> + +<p>4. I —— it on your desk.</p> + +<p>5. I have —— the letters on your desk.</p> + +<p>6. They told me to —— down. I —— down for about two +hours.</p> + +<p>7. As I wished to bleach the clothes, I —— them on the grass.</p> + +<p>8. —— the bundle down and listen to me.</p> + +<p>9. You will probably find your cap ——ing where it has —— +since you dropped it.</p> + +<p>10. They let the field —— fallow.</p> + +<p>11. How long has it —— fallow?</p> + +<p>12. Yesterday he —— on the grass almost all day.</p> + +<p>13. The hunter —— still and watched.</p> + +<p>14. He —— his gun beside him and waited.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span></p> +<p>15. It will —— undisturbed till morning.</p> + +<p>16. —— down awhile before dinner.</p> + +<p>17. I don't know how long he has —— here.</p> + +<p>18. He let his tools —— in the rain.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 113—Troublesome Verbs</b></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Sit, Set</b></div> + +<p><i>Sit</i> is intransitive and signifies <i>to rest</i>. <i>Set</i> is transitive +and means <i>to place</i>. Insert the correct form:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. I have —— the ferns in the rain.</p> + +<p>2. —— down for a few minutes.</p> + +<p>3. She drew up a chair and —— down, while we were ——ting +down the probable expenses of the new house.</p> + +<p>4. Why don't you —— us a good example?</p> + +<p>5. ——ting the table is not strenuous enough for one who +has been ——ting all day.</p> + +<p>6. The hen is ——ting on her eggs.</p> + +<p>7. The man is ——ting out trees.</p> + +<p>8. —— still; I'll go.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Fly, Flow, Flee</b></div> + +<p>Remember that birds <i>fly;</i> rivers <i>flow;</i> hunted creatures +<i>flee</i>.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>9. Still the river —— on its accustomed course.</p> + +<p>10. Every autumn the birds —— south.</p> + +<p>11. The birds have not yet —— away.</p> + +<p>12. The deer —— before the dogs.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Rise, Raise</b></div> + +<p><i>Rise</i> is intransitive; <i>raise</i> is transitive.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>13. I have been trying all morning to —— this window.</p> + +<p>14. I set the bread to ——.</p> + +<p>15. He will surely —— in his profession.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Teach, Learn</b></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>16. Will you —— me how to play tennis?</p> + +<p>17. I thought you had —— how to play tennis.</p> + +<p>18. I —— (past tense) her the new system of filing.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span></p> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>May, Can</b></div> + +<p><i>May</i> signifies permission; <i>can</i> denotes possibility.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>19. —— I use your book?</p> + +<p>20. —— you write shorthand?</p> + +<p>21. —— I go with you?</p> + +<p>22. My mother says that I —— go with you.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Might, Could</b></div> + +<p><i>Might</i> is the past tense of <i>may</i>, and <i>could</i> is the past +tense of <i>can</i>.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>23. He said that I —— go.</p> + +<p>24. He —— do the work if he wished.</p> + +<p>25. Did you say I —— use your typewriter?</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 114—Accept, Except</b></div> + +<p><i>Accept</i> means <i>to receive</i>. <i>Except</i> as a verb means <i>to exclude;</i> +as a preposition it means <i>with the exception of</i>. Insert +the correct form in the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Did you —— the position? Yes, no one applied for it —— me.</p> + +<p>2. I have no other reason for not ——ing your invitation —— that +I shall not be in the city.</p> + +<p>3. —— Mary all ——ed the invitation.</p> + +<p>4. He would not —— the money —— on one condition.</p> + +<p>5. Why do you —— him from the general offer that you are +making?</p> + +<p>6. I agree with you —— on one point.</p> + +<p>7. He ——ed the rebuke in silence.</p> + +<p>8. We were forced to —— their conditions.</p> + +<p>9. He said he would not —— the money —— that he knew +he could return it.</p> + +<p>10. You have answered everything —— what I asked you.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 115—Affect, Effect</b></div> + +<p><i>Affect</i> means <i>to influence</i>. It is always a verb. <i>Effect</i> as +a verb means <i>to bring to pass;</i> as a noun it means <i>result</i>. +Insert the correct form in the following sentences:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. His opinion does not —— the case. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span></p> + +<p>2. How does war —— trade?</p> + +<p>3. His walking has had a good —— upon his health.</p> + +<p>4. The ruling did not —— the wholesale dealers, but it had +a big —— upon us.</p> + +<p>5. What —— did the loss have upon him?</p> + +<p>6. The failure of the bank ——ed the small depositors but +had no —— upon the big business men.</p> + +<p>7. The —— of the law has been startling because of the +number of people ——ed by it.</p> + +<p>8. They ——ed the consolidation, but thereby produced a +bad —— upon the price of their stock.</p> + +<p>9. The accident seriously ——ed his nervous system. In +fact, the —— of the fall is only gradually disappearing.</p> + +<p>10. Did the celebrated physician really —— a cure?</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 116—Lose, Loose</b></div> + +<p><i>Lose</i> is a verb, while <i>loose</i> is usually an adjective. The two +should be carefully distinguished. Insert the correct form:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. I have a note book with —— leaves.</p> + +<p>2. Aren't you afraid you will —— some of the —— leaves of +that book?</p> + +<p>3. Be careful that you don't —— that —— bolt.</p> + +<p>4. Do you remember that you had warned me that I'd —— the +—— button on my coat? I did —— it not five minutes +afterward.</p> + +<p>5. One of the hinges of the door has become ——.</p> + +<p>6. Do not —— the —— change in that pocket.</p> + +<p>7. He will —— the parcel as the cord is ——.</p> + +<p>8. Did you —— the —— leaf journal?</p> + +<p>9. She may —— the money, as the clasp of her purse is ——.</p> + +<p>10. I keep my —— journal paper together by a rubber band +so that there will be no chance of ——ing it.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 117—Had ought</b></div> + +<div class='blockquot2'><br /> +<i>Wrong:</i> We had ought to go.<br /> +<i>Right:</i> We ought to go.<br /> +<i>Wrong:</i> We had ought to have gone.<br /> +<i>Right:</i> We ought to have gone.<br /> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span></p> + +<p>Correct the following sentences:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. I had ought to have studied harder.</p> + +<p>2. You ought to do it, hadn't you?</p> + +<p>3. Hadn't you ought to have gone?</p> + +<p>4. Yes, I had ought to have gone yesterday.</p> + +<p>5. Do you think I had ought to have accepted?</p> + +<p>6. He had ought to come to-morrow.</p> + +<p>7. The tickets had ought to have come from the printer's +yesterday.</p> + +<p>8. We had not ought to stay out so late.</p> + +<p>9. You had ought to wear your coat.</p> + +<p>10. He had ought to have become naturalized.</p> + +<p>11. You had ought to have washed the dishes before you went +out.</p> + +<p>12. You had ought to take an umbrella.</p> + +<p>13. You had ought to have heard what she said.</p> + +<p>14. We hadn't ought to disagree.</p> + +<p>15. You ought to have invested, hadn't you?</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 118</b></div> + +<p>Conjugation of the verb <i>be</i> in the</p> + +<div class='center'><span class="smcap">Indicative Mode</span><br /><br /></div> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 118 part 1"> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Present Tense</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Singular</i></td><td align='left'><i>Plural</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I am</td><td align='left'>We are</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>You are</td><td align='left'>You are</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>He is</td><td align='left'>They are</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Past Tense</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I was</td><td align='left'>We were</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>You were</td><td align='left'>You were</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>He was</td><td align='left'>They were</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Future Tense</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I shall be</td><td align='left'>We shall be</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>You will be</td><td align='left'>You will be</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>He will be</td><td align='left'>They will be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Present Perfect Tense</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I have been</td><td align='left'>We have been</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>You have been</td><td align='left'>You have been</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>He has been</td><td align='left'>They have been</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Past Perfect Tense</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I had been</td><td align='left'>We had been</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>You had been</td><td align='left'>You had been</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>He had been</td><td align='left'>They had been</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Future Perfect Tense</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I shall have been</td><td align='left'>We shall have been</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>You will have been </td><td align='left'>You will have been</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>He will have been</td><td align='left'>They will have been</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The verb <i>be</i> is used to form the progressive tenses of the +active voice (See <a href="#Exercise_102">Exercise 102</a>) and the simple tenses of +the passive voice; as,</p> + +<div class='center'><span class="smcap">Passive Voice</span><br /><br /></div> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 118 part 2"> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Present Tense</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>Singular</i></td><td align='left'> <i>Plural</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I am followed</td><td align='left'>We are followed</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>You are followed</td><td align='left'>You are followed</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>He is followed</td><td align='left'>They are followed</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Past Tense</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I was followed</td><td align='left'>We were followed</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>You were followed</td><td align='left'>You were followed</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>He was followed</td><td align='left'>They were followed</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Future Tense</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I shall be followed</td><td align='left'>We shall be followed</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>You will be followed</td><td align='left'>You will be followed</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>He will be followed</td><td align='left'>They will be followed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Present Perfect Tense</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I have been followed</td><td align='left'>We have been followed</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>You have been followed </td><td align='left'>You have been followed</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>He has been followed</td><td align='left'>They have been followed</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Past Perfect Tense</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I had been followed</td><td align='left'>We had been followed</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>You had been followed</td><td align='left'>You had been followed</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>He had been followed</td><td align='left'>They had been followed</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Future Perfect Tense</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I shall have been followed</td><td align='left'>We shall have been followed</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>You will have been followed </td><td align='left'>You will have been followed</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>He will have been followed</td><td align='left'>They will have been followed</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>If we add the progressive form wherever it may be used, +we have the following synopsis of the indicative mood:</p> + +<div class='center'><span class="smcap">Passive Voice</span><br /><br /></div> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="More on tenses"> +<tr><td align='left' rowspan='11'><span class='smcap'>Tenses</span></td><td align='left' rowspan='11'><img src="images/bracket_106a.png" width="10" height="230" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td><td align='left' rowspan='7'><i>Primary</i></td><td align='left' rowspan='7'><img src="images/bracket_106b.png" width="10" height="145" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td><td align='left' rowspan='2'><i>Present</i></td><td align='left'>I am followed (simple)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I am being followed (progressive)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' rowspan='2'><i>Past</i></td><td align='left'>I was followed (simple)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I was being followed (progressive)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Future</i></td><td align='left'>I shall be followed</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' rowspan='3'><i>Perfect</i></td><td align='left' rowspan='3'><img src="images/bracket2-l2.png" width="10" height="80" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td><td align='left'><i>Present Perfect</i></td><td align='left'>I have been followed</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Past Perfect</i></td><td align='left'>I had been followed</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Future Perfect</i></td><td align='left'>I shall have been followed</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 119</b></div> + +<p>Conjugate the following in the passive voice:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Simple present of <i>pay</i>.</p> + +<p>2. Progressive past of <i>pay</i>.</p> + +<p>3. Present perfect of <i>throw</i>.</p> + +<p>4. Future of <i>praise</i>.</p> + +<p>5. Past perfect of <i>forget</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span></p> + +<p>6. Progressive present of <i>choose</i>.</p> + +<p>7. Past progressive of <i>choose</i>.</p> + +<p>8. Future of <i>choose</i>.</p> + +<p>9. Future perfect of <i>choose.</i></p> + +<p>10. Past perfect of <i>choose</i>.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 120</b></div> + +<p>Supply the verb forms indicated. Use the active unless +the passive is definitely called for.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The vegetables (present perfect of <i>lie</i>) in water all the +morning.</p> + +<p>2. Rumors (past progressive passive of <i>spread</i>) far and wide +that Germany would fight England.</p> + +<p>3. I thought the gingham (past perfect passive of <i>shrink</i>) +before the dress (past passive of <i>made</i>).</p> + +<p>4. I am afraid my ear (present progressive of <i>freeze</i>).</p> + +<p>5. Is it true that your ring (present perfect passive of <i>steal</i>)?</p> + +<p>6. A sudden storm (past of <i>arise</i>) yesterday afternoon, and a +little boy (past passive of <i>drown</i>) in the river where he and several +of his companions (past perfect progressive of <i>swim</i>) since noon.</p> + +<p>7. I (present perfect of <i>speak</i>) of the matter to no one.</p> + +<p>8. I suppose that it (present perfect passive of <i>break</i>).</p> + +<p>9. I must (present perfect of <i>show</i>) him twenty different styles, +but he (past of <i>choose</i>) none of them, for as soon as I (past of <i>show</i>) +him one, he (past of <i>shake</i>) his head.</p> + +<p>10. She (past progressive of <i>wring</i>) out the clothes when the +door bell (past of <i>ring</i>).</p> + +<p>11. I am afraid my purse (present passive of <i>lose</i>).</p> + +<p>12. The knight (past of <i>say</i>) that he (past perfect of <i>decide</i>) +(infinitive of <i>follow</i>) the quest.</p> + +<p>13. I thought I (past perfect of <i>bring</i>) you the morning paper.</p> + +<p>14. He (past of <i>swim</i>) the river twice yesterday.</p> + +<p>15. There he stood (present participle of <i>ring</i>) the dinner bell.</p> + +<p>16. His coat (present perfect passive of <i>wet</i>) through more +than once.</p> + +<p>17. The trip (past of <i>cost</i>) him a hundred dollars.</p> + +<p>18. I (past of <i>see</i>) the superintendent yesterday, but he said +that there (present of <i>be</i>) no vacancies at present.</p> + +<p>19. They (past of <i>lay</i>) the clippings on the desk, and then they +(past of <i>sit</i>) down.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span></p> + +<p>20. As he (past of <i>speak</i>), he (past progressive of <i>shake</i>) from +head to foot.</p> + +<p>21. The clouds (past of <i>lie</i>) low on the horizon.</p> + +<p>22. The building in which I work (present perfect passive of +<i>burn</i>).</p> + +<p>23. Your employer (present perfect <i>deal</i>) fairly with you.</p> + +<p>24. I (present perfect of <i>have</i>) the same position for three +years.</p> + +<p>25. I (future of <i>lend</i>) him no money.</p> + +<p>26. The floor (past passive of <i>lay</i>) by an expert workman.</p> + +<p>27. The beads (past passive of <i>string</i>) on a waxed thread.</p> + +<p>28. He (present perfect of <i>throw</i>) the whole office into confusion.</p> + +<p>29. Before he came forward, he (past of <i>set</i>) the child down.</p> + +<p>30. After the storm, leaves and twigs (past progressive of <i>lie</i>) +thick upon the roads.</p> + +<p>31. He (past of <i>drive</i>) to town yesterday. He (future of <i>go</i>) +again to-morrow.</p> + +<p>32. The dictionary (present progressive of <i>lie</i>) on the table +where you (past of <i>lay</i>) it.</p> + +<p>33. The dog (past of <i>lay</i>) the bone down, and then he (past of +<i>lie</i>) down.</p> + +<p>34. He (past of <i>set</i>) the chair by the window and then (past of +<i>sit</i>) down.</p> + +<p>35. I think we (future of <i>see</i>) him as we pass, for he usually +(present of <i>lie</i>) on a couch by the window.</p> + +<p>36. The snow (past perfect progressive of <i>fall</i>) for several +hours and now (past of <i>lie</i>) deep on every path.</p> + +<p>37. Everything (present perfect passive of <i>lay</i>) in readiness.</p> + +<p>38. (Present participle of <i>lie</i>) in the hammock, he soon fell +asleep.</p> + +<p>39. I saw the man (present participle of <i>lie</i>) on the ground.</p> + +<p>40. After he (past perfect of <i>lie</i>) there a few minutes, he suddenly +(past of <i>sit</i>) up.</p> + +<p>41. The biplane, which (past perfect progressive of <i>lie</i>) in the +hangar since it (past perfect passive of <i>raise</i>) from the water in +which it (past perfect of <i>lie</i>) for two weeks, (past of <i>rise</i>) up over +the city.</p> + +<p>42. Large crowds (past progressive of <i>sit</i>) on the fields, (present +participle of <i>wait</i>) for the aeroplane (infinitive of rise).</p> + +<p>43. Many people (past perfect of <i>set</i>) tents on the field during +the night and now (past progressive of <i>get</i>) a good view of the flight.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span></p> + +<p>44. All eyes (past progressive of <i>turn</i>) toward the aeroplane, +which (past progressive of <i>rise</i>) steadily.</p> + +<p>45. The biplane (past of <i>rise</i>) until it (past perfect of <i>rise</i>) about +five hundred feet above the tallest building; then it (past passive +of <i>raise</i>) about fifty feet more to get it out of an air current that +(past progressive of <i>raise</i>) one end of it.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 121—Infinitives and Participles</b></div> + +<p><i>Infinitives</i> are verb forms that are used as nouns, as adjectives, +or as adverbs. <i>Participles</i> are verb forms that are +used as adjectives. Thus at the same time each acts as two +parts of speech. As verbs both have the meaning of the +verbs from which they are made; both have tense and voice; +both may be modified by adverbial expressions; and, if they +are made from transitive verbs, both may take objects.</p> + +<div class='center'><b>The Participle</b></div> + +<p>The tenses and voices of the participle are as follows:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Participle"> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Active Voice</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Present</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Simple</i></td><td align='left'><i>Progressive</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>selling</td><td align='center'>——</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Perfect</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>having sold</td><td align='left'>having been selling</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Passive Voice</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Present</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>being sold</td><td align='center'>——</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Perfect</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>having been sold </td><td align='center'>——</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The participle frequently introduces a phrase. Usually +the phrase is used like an adjective; occasionally it is used +like a noun (sometimes called the <i>gerund</i> phrase).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot2"><p><i>Adjective:</i> <i>Seeing your perplexity</i>, I'll offer a suggestion. +(Notice the punctuation.)</p> + +<p><i>Noun</i>(Gerund): <i>Playing tennis</i> is good exercise.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><b>The Infinitive</b></div> + +<p>The infinitive is distinguished by the word <i>to</i>, either +expressed or understood. The tenses and voices of the +infinitive are as follows:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Infinitive"> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Active Voice</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Present</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <i>Simple</i></td><td align='left'> <i>Progressive</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>to sell</td><td align='left'>to be selling</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Perfect</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>to have sold</td><td align='left'>to have been selling</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Passive Voice</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Present</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>to be sold</td><td align='center'>——</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Perfect</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>to have been sold </td><td align='center'>——</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The infinitive is often used to introduce a phrase; as,</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +<i>Noun:</i> <i>To get to the top of the hill</i> was a difficult matter.<br /> +<i>Adverb:</i> I went <i>to buy the sugar</i>.<br /> +<i>Adjective:</i> It's a drawing <i>to be proud of</i>.<br /> +</div> + +<p>Grouping all the facts that we have thus far learned about +phrases, and expressing them in diagram form, we have the +following:</p> + +<p>Phrases may be classified:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="phrases"> +<tr><td align='left'><i>According to Form</i></td><td align='left'><i>According to Use</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Prepositional</td><td align='left'>Adverbial</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Participial (Gerund) </td><td align='left'>Adjective</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Infinitive</td><td align='left'>Noun</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span></p> + +<p>The prepositional and infinitive phrases may have all three +uses; the participial phrase has two—adjective and noun +(gerund).</p> + + +<div class='center'><b>Variety of Expression</b><a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></div> + +<p>Phrases are important because, like clauses, they help us +to vary the form of our sentences. They help us, above all, +to avoid the childish <i>so</i> habit. Thus, instead of <i>They wished +to make the ice smooth so they flooded the pond</i>, we may use, +for example:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Subordinate clause:</i> Because (as, since) they wished to make the +ice smooth, they flooded the pond.</p> + +<p><i>Participial phrase:</i> Wishing to make the ice smooth, they +flooded the pond.</p> + +<p><i>Infinitive phrase:</i> To make the ice smooth, they flooded the pond.</p> + +<p><i>Gerund phrase:</i> Flooding the pond made the ice smooth.</p> + +<p><i>Prepositional phrase modifying noun subject:</i> The flooding of +the pond made the ice smooth.</p></div> + + +<p>Recast each of the following sentences in at least two of +the ways shown above:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. They wished to finish the work so they stayed till six +o'clock.</p> + +<p>2. John hoped to arrive before the others so he started early.</p> + +<p>3. He saw that the cars were not running so he walked so he +would be on time.</p> + +<p>4. They needed some gasoline so they had to stop at a garage.</p> + +<p>5. He wished to make a tool chest so he bought some lumber.</p> + +<p>6. They saw that he liked to read so they gave him several +books.</p> + +<p>7. She wished to make a good appearance at the party so she +bought a new dress.</p> + +<p>8. He was in a hurry so he walked fast.</p> + +<p>9. We were afraid that we'd be late so we ran.</p> + +<p>10. The campers thought they'd like a fire so they gathered a +quantity of dry leaves and wood.</p> + +<p>11. I was very tired when I reached home so I couldn't go to +the lecture.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span></p> + +<p>12. The work was difficult so it took three hours to finish it.</p> + +<p>13. The clock needed repairing so he took it to a jeweler's.</p> + +<p>14. The coat did not fit so she sent it back.</p> + +<p>15. She didn't know where to take the train so she asked a +policeman.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 122—Mode</b></div> + +<p>Mode is the form of the verb that indicates the manner of +expressing the thought. The <i>modes</i>, or <i>moods</i>, that every +one should be able to distinguish are the <i>indicative</i> and the +<i>subjunctive</i>. If the verb indicates a fact, we say it is in the +indicative mode; if it expresses a supposition, a doubt, a +statement contrary to fact, or a wish, we say it is in the +subjunctive mode.</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="subjunctive mode"> +<tr><td align='left'>You <i>are</i> good.</td><td align='left'>(A fact—indicative.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I wish I <i>were</i> good. </td><td align='left'>(Contrary to fact, a wish—subjunctive.)</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>In form the indicative and the subjunctive differ in the +present and the past tenses of the verb <i>to be</i>, as follows:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 122 part 2"> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='4'><b>Indicative of <i>be</i></b></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Present</i> </td><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Past</i> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I am</td><td align='left'>We are</td><td align='left'>I was</td><td align='left'>We were</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>You are </td><td align='left'>You are</td><td align='left'>You were </td><td align='left'>You were</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>He is</td><td align='left'>They are </td><td align='left'>He was</td><td align='left'>They were</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='4'><b>Subjunctive of <i>be</i></b></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Present</i> </td><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Past</i> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>If I be</td><td align='left'>If we be</td><td align='left'>If I were</td><td align='left'>If we were</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>If you be </td><td align='left'>If you be</td><td align='left'>If you were </td><td align='left'>If you were</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>If he be</td><td align='left'>If they be </td><td align='left'>If he were</td><td align='left'>If they were</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Other verbs in the subjunctive mode do not end in <i>s</i> in +the third person singular number, but use the same form +as the other persons in the singular number; as, <i>if he go</i>, <i>if +she walk</i>.</p> + +<p><i>If</i>, <i>though</i>, <i>although</i>, or <i>lest</i> usually introduce the subjunctive +form.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span></p> + +<p>In modern English, the use of the subjunctive is becoming +rare except in the past and past perfect tenses in statements +contrary to fact, and in wishes, which are really +statements contrary to fact; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. If I were a king (but I'm not), I'd see that my laws were +obeyed.</p> + +<p>2. I wish I were a king! (but I'm not).</p> + +<p>3. If I had been careful, my work would be good. (I was not +careful.)</p> + +<p>4. I wish I had been careful! (I was not.)</p></div> + +<p>Notice that the verb is in the past or in the past perfect +tense.</p> + +<p>There are some careful writers who still use the present +subjunctive to show a <i>possibility;</i> as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Lest he start too late, remind him again that he must meet the +4:15 train.</p></div> + +<p>In the following sentences, which form is better? May +any of the sentences use either form?</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. I wish I <i>was</i>—<i>were</i> rich.</p> + +<p>2. If I <i>was</i>—<i>were</i> you, I should go at once.</p> + +<p>3. If his work <i>was</i>—<i>were</i> exact, he would have no trouble in +holding a position.</p> + +<p>4. If it <i>was</i>—<i>were</i> true, why didn't you say so?</p> + +<p>5. If he <i>was</i>—<i>were</i> a millionaire, he could not have been +more lavish.</p> + +<p>6. If such a thing <i>was</i>—<i>were</i> possible, our government would +be no government.</p> + +<p>7. If the election <i>was</i>—<i>were</i> postponed, we should have been +informed.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 123</b></div> + +<p>Insert <i>was</i> or <i>were</i> in each of the following sentences, in +each case giving a reason for your choice. Remember that +the indicative <i>was</i> is used to denote a statement of fact +in the past time, and the subjunctive <i>were</i> (singular and +plural) is used to denote a possibility, something that is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> +supposed to be true, or a statement entirely contrary to +fact, as in a wish.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. I wish I —— going with you.</p> + +<p>2. As he —— not well, he could not go.</p> + +<p>3. If he —— well, he could go.</p> + +<p>4. If he —— attentive in class, he would not fail.</p> + +<p>5. They treated me as if I —— one of the family.</p> + +<p>6. When I —— in the South I visited New Orleans.</p> + +<p>7. Suppose she —— your guest, how would you entertain her?</p> + +<p>8. He would appear very tall —— it not for the breadth of +his shoulders.</p> + +<p>9. We decided that if it —— still raining by seven o'clock, +we should not go.</p> + +<p>10. If our strawberries —— ripe, I'd give you some.</p> + +<p>11. If the package —— left yesterday, as you say, it must +have been while I —— not at home.</p> + +<p>12. If he —— late yesterday, he must start earlier to-day.</p> + +<p>13. If every man —— honest, business life would be very +pleasant.</p> + +<p>14. I saw that he —— not interested.</p> + +<p>15. If he —— not interested, he surely looked as if he ——.</p> + +<p>16. —— I certain that the bonds —— safe, I should invest in +them.</p> + +<p>17. As the tablecloth —— stained, we laid it on the grass to +bleach it.</p> + +<p>18. If that stained tablecloth —— mine, I'd try bleaching it.</p> + +<p>19. If I —— as interested in farming as you are, I'd buy a +farm.</p> + +<p>20. If her work —— best, why didn't she get the higher salary?</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 124—Verbs Incorrectly Used</b></div> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 124"> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Wrong</i> </td><td align='center'><i>Right</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>1. <i>Let</i> the book on the table.</td><td align='left'><i>Leave</i> the book on the table.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>2. <i>Leave</i> me go with you.</td><td align='left'><i>Let</i> me go with you.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>3. Don't <i>blame it on</i> me.</td><td align='left'>Don't <i>accuse</i> me.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>4. Do you <i>carry</i> stationery?</td><td align='left'>Do you <i>sell</i> stationery?</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>5. The child <i>aggravates</i> me.</td><td align='left'>The child <i>irritates</i> me.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>6. Please <i>except</i> my invitation.</td><td align='left'>Please <i>accept</i> my invitation.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>7. Where have you <i>located?</i></td><td align='left'>Where have you <i>settled?</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'>(<i>Locate</i> is a transitive verb.)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>8. I <i>expect</i> you are very busy.</td><td align='left'>I <i>suppose</i> you are very busy.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>9. I <i>disremember</i> seeing him.</td><td align='left'>I <i>don't remember</i> seeing him.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>10. Do you <i>mind</i> where you saw it?</td><td align='left'>Do you <i>remember</i> where you saw it?</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>11. Where are you <i>stopping?</i></td><td align='left'>Where are you <i>staying?</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>12. Did you <i>extend an invitation</i> to him?</td><td align='left'>Did you <i>invite</i> him?</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>13. This clock needs <i>fixing</i>.</td><td align='left'>This clock needs <i>repairing</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>14. I should <i>admire</i> to go.</td><td align='left'>I should <i>like</i> to go.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>15. I'd <i>love</i> to go.</td><td align='left'>I'd <i>like</i> to go.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>16. He didn't <i>show up</i> on time.</td><td align='left'>He didn't <i>appear</i> on time.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>17. I <i>had</i> a strange thing <i>happen</i> to me yesterday.</td><td align='left'>A strange thing <i>happened</i> to me yesterday.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>18. I didn't <i>get to go</i>.</td><td align='left'>I <i>was unable to go</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>19. <i>Loan</i> me your pencil.</td><td align='left'><i>Lend</i> me your pencil.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'>(<i>May I borrow your pencil?</i> is correct. <i>Loan</i> is a noun.)<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>20. I <i>can't seem</i> to understand that problem.</td><td align='left'>I <i>seem unable</i> to understand that problem.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>21. I don't <i>take any stock</i> in such schemes.</td><td align='left'>I <i>have no confidence</i> in such schemes.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>22. How do you <i>size up</i> the situation?</td><td align='left'>What <i>do you think</i> of the situation?</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>23. I <i>beg to state</i>. . . .</td><td align='left'>Omit.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'>(This expression has been so overdone in business letters<br />that it should be avoided)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>24. He <i>dove</i> off the pier.</td><td align='left'>He <i>dived</i> off the pier.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>25. He <i>claims</i> that he was deceived.</td><td align='left'>He <i>asserts</i> (maintains) that he was deceived.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>26. <i>Can</i> I take your pencil?</td><td align='left'><i>May</i> I take your pencil?</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>27. We expect to <i>get up</i> a club.</td><td align='left'>We expect to <i>organize</i> a club.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>28. Did you notice how that show window was <i>got up?</i> </td><td align='left'>Did you notice how that show window was <i>decorated?</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>29. It is <i>going on</i> ten o'clock.</td><td align='left'>It is <i>almost</i> ten o'clock.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>30. He said <i>to go</i> at once.</td><td align='left'>He said <i>that we should go</i> at once.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The secretary's daily report will be found an excellent +means of securing variety of expression in pupils' writing. A different +pupil is elected each Monday to act as the secretary of the class for +the ensuing week, his duty being to report each day the doings of the +class on the preceding day. The conditions are that not more than +one <i>and</i> be used in each report and not more than one sentence begin +with the subject.</p></div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span></p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>CHAPTER IX</h2> + +<div class='chaptertitle'>THE PREPOSITION AND THE CONJUNCTION</div> + + +<div class='center'><b>Prepositions</b></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">It</span> is important in the study of prepositions to observe +that there are certain words that are followed by certain +prepositions. To change the preposition is to convey a +different meaning from the one that the speaker intended, +or to convey no meaning at all. A partial list of such words +with their appropriate prepositions follows:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Prepositions"> +<tr><td align='left'>accompanied</td><td align='left'>with </td><td align='left'>anything having no life</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>accompanied</td><td align='left'>by</td><td align='left'>anything having life</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>acquit</td><td align='left'>of</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>accuse</td><td align='left'>of</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>adapted</td><td align='left'>to</td><td align='left'>a thing</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>adapted</td><td align='left'>for</td><td align='left'>a course, because of one's nature</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>adapted</td><td align='left'>from</td><td align='left'>an author</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>agree</td><td align='left'>to</td><td align='left'>a plan or proposition</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>agree</td><td align='left'>with</td><td align='left'>a person</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>agree</td><td align='left'>upon</td><td align='left'>something that must be decided</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>angry</td><td align='left'>at</td><td align='left'>a thing</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>angry</td><td align='left'>with</td><td align='left'>a person</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>compare</td><td align='left'>with</td><td align='left'>to bring out similar qualities</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>compare</td><td align='left'>to</td><td align='left'>without analyzing</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>comply</td><td align='left'>with</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>confer</td><td align='left'>on</td><td align='left'>meaning to give to</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>confer</td><td align='left'>with</td><td align='left'>meaning to talk to</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>confide</td><td align='left'>in</td><td align='left'>meaning to put faith in</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>confide</td><td align='left'>to</td><td align='left'>meaning to commit to one's keeping</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>conform</td><td align='left'>to</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>correspond</td><td align='left'>to, with</td><td align='left'>a thing, denoting similarity</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>correspond</td><td align='left'>with</td><td align='left'>meaning to write to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>different</td><td align='left'>from</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>dependent</td><td align='left'>on</td><td align='left'>a person</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>dependent</td><td align='left'>for</td><td align='left'>a thing</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>independent</td><td align='left'>of</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>disappointed </td><td align='left'>in</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>employed</td><td align='left'>at</td><td align='left'>a certain place or salary</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>employed</td><td align='left'>in</td><td align='left'>a certain kind of business</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>employed</td><td align='left'>by</td><td align='left'>a certain person or company</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>enter</td><td align='left'>upon</td><td align='left'>duties</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>enter</td><td align='left'>at</td><td align='left'>a door</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>followed</td><td align='left'>by</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>influence</td><td align='left'>over, upon</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>expect</td><td align='left'>of</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>participate </td><td align='left'>in</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>profit</td><td align='left'>by</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>remonstrate</td><td align='left'>against </td><td align='left'>a thing</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>remonstrate</td><td align='left'>with</td><td align='left'>a person</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 125</b></div> + +<p>Insert the correct preposition in the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. I shall comply —— your request.</p> + +<p>2. The chairman came upon the platform accompanied —— the +speaker.</p> + +<p>3. He took a walk accompanied —— his dog.</p> + +<p>4. The lecture will be accompanied —— stereopticon views.</p> + +<p>5. Strikes are usually accompanied —— riots.</p> + +<p>6. The years of prosperity were followed —— years of famine.</p> + +<p>7. He was accused —— theft, but was acquitted —— the +accusation.</p> + +<p>8. She is well adapted —— the position that is open.</p> + +<p>9. An electric iron is especially adapted —— summer use.</p> + +<p>10. The selection was adapted —— Irving.</p> + +<p>11. This cloth is well adapted —— summer clothing because +it is very light in weight.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span></p> + +<p>12. I agree —— you that the plan is impracticable.</p> + +<p>13. Let us agree now —— a place to spend our summer vacation.</p> + +<p>14. That is not a proposition —— which I shall agree.</p> + +<p>15. It is silly to be angry —— an inanimate object.</p> + +<p>16. Don't be angry —— a person because he tells you your +faults.</p> + +<p>17. His report corresponds in all respects —- yours.</p> + +<p>18. Mr. Giles suggested that you would be glad to have us +correspond —— you concerning our new bond issues.</p> + +<p>19. I shall confer —— my lawyer.</p> + +<p>20. The public has conferred a great honor —— him.</p> + +<p>21. One should always profit —— his experiences.</p> + +<p>22. The new device is entirely different —— the old.</p> + +<p>23. I am employed —— a fairly large salary —— a business +that is growing daily.</p> + +<p>24. All employees must conform —— the rules.</p> + +<p>25. I am confiding —— you because I know that I can trust +you.</p> + +<p>26. She confided her child —— the care of her brother.</p> + +<p>27. She is dependent —— her brother —— support.</p> + +<p>28. You can have an influence for good —— him.</p> + +<p>29. I have remonstrated —— the change several times.</p> + +<p>30. Perhaps he will change his plans if we remonstrate —— him +at once.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 126—Prepositions Incorrectly Used</b></div> + +<p>Each of the incorrect sentences given below contains an +unnecessary preposition. When the meaning of "Where +are you going?" is entirely clear, there is nothing gained +by saying "Where are you going <i>to?</i>" Omit such superfluous +prepositions.</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Wrong use of prepositions"> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Wrong</i> </td><td align='center'><i>Right</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>1. I took it off <i>of</i> the shelf.</td><td align='left'>I took it off the shelf.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>2. I shall accept <i>of</i> your hospitality.</td><td align='left'>I shall accept your hospitality.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>3. Where are you <i>at?</i></td><td align='left'>Where are you?</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>4. Where are you going <i>to?</i></td><td align='left'>Where are you going?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>5. It is a building <i>of from</i> twenty to thirty stories in height. </td><td align='left'>It is a building twenty to thirty stories in height.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>6. Look out <i>of</i> the window.</td><td align='left'>Look out the window.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>7. John copies <i>after</i> his father in everything.</td><td align='left'>John copies his father in everything.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>8. I am wondering <i>about</i> what I should do.</td><td align='left'>I am wondering what I should do.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>9. I shall consult <i>with</i> my lawyer.</td><td align='left'>I shall consult my lawyer.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>10. He sat opposite <i>to</i> me.</td><td align='left'>He sat opposite me.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>11. I shall leave later <i>on</i>.</td><td align='left'>I shall leave later.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><b><i>and</i> for <i>to</i></b></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>12. I shall try <i>and</i> go.</td><td align='left'>I shall try <i>to</i> go.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><b><i>of</i> for <i>have</i></b></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>13. I might <i>of</i> gone.</td><td align='left'>I might <i>have</i> gone.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><b>The wrong preposition</b></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>14. He fell <i>in</i> the water.</td><td align='left'>He fell <i>into</i> the water.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>15. She died <i>with</i> diphtheria.</td><td align='left'>She died <i>of</i> diphtheria.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>16. Divide the work <i>between</i> the four of us. </td><td align='left'>Divide the work <i>among</i> the four of us.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'>(<i>Between</i> may be used in speaking of only two persons or things)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>17. It will be done <i>inside</i> of an hour.</td><td align='left'>It will be done <i>within</i> an hour.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>18. Are you angry <i>at</i> me?</td><td align='left'>Are you angry <i>with</i> me?</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><b>Preposition must be used</b></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>19. It's no use to try.</td><td align='left'>It's <i>of</i> no use to try.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>20. My sister stayed home.</td><td align='left'>My sister stayed <i>at</i> home.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>21. Why do you act that way?</td><td align='left'>Why do you act <i>in</i> that way?</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>22. We left the third of June.</td><td align='left'>We left <i>on</i> the third of June.</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 127</b></div> + +<p>The object of a preposition is always in the objective case. +Some people have great difficulty in recognizing that in such +expressions as <i>for you and me</i>, the pronoun <i>me</i> is as much +the object of the preposition <i>for</i> as the pronoun <i>you</i>. Both<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> +words must be in the objective case. It is incorrect to say +<i>for you and I</i>.</p> + +<p>In the following sentences omit the incorrect italicized +form:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The invitation is for father and <i>I</i>—<i>me</i>.</p> + +<p>2. Every one has finished his work except <i>he</i>—<i>him</i> and <i>I</i>—<i>me</i>.</p> + +<p>3. It's a question that you and <i>I</i>—<i>me</i> must decide; it refers +to you and <i>I</i>—<i>me</i> alone.</p> + +<p>4. Girls like you and <i>she</i>—<i>her</i> should have a good influence +over the others.</p> + +<p>5. All but you and <i>I</i>—<i>me</i> have left.</p> + +<p>6. He did it for you and <i>I</i>—<i>me</i>.</p> + +<p>7. No one objected but <i>they</i>—<i>them</i> and <i>we</i>—<i>us</i>.</p> + +<p>8. She sat opposite you and <i>I</i>—<i>me</i>.</p> + +<p>9. They were sitting near you and <i>I</i>—<i>me</i>.</p> + +<p>10. We expect you to return with mother and <i>I</i>—<i>me</i>.</p> + +<p>11. He wanted my brother and <i>I</i>—<i>me</i> to go into business +with his brother and <i>he</i>—<i>him</i>.</p> + +<p>12. Neither <i>she</i>—<i>her</i> nor her sister have I seen for several +months.</p> + +<p>13. My companion and <i>I</i>—<i>me</i> took up the trail of the bear +at once. For some distance it led <i>he</i>—<i>him</i> and <i>I</i>—<i>me</i> over +the soft, yielding carpet of moss and pine needles, and the footprints +were quite easily made out.</p> + +<p>14. <i>He</i>—<i>him</i> and <i>I</i>—<i>me</i> had, of course, to keep a sharp lookout +ahead and around for the grizzly.</p> + +<p>15. All are going on the excursion except <i>he</i>—<i>him</i> and <i>I</i>—<i>me</i>.</p> + +<p>16. <i>He</i>—<i>him</i> and <i>I</i>—<i>me</i> went fishing.</p> + +<p>17. The rule applies to <i>we</i>—<i>us</i> all—the manager, <i>they</i>—<i>them</i> +who keep books, you, and <i>I</i>—<i>me</i>.</p> + +<p>18. She beckoned to my companion and <i>I</i>—<i>me</i>.</p> + +<p>19. The letter was to be read by the president or <i>I</i>—<i>me</i>.</p> + +<p>20. He did it for the sake of my father and <i>I</i>—<i>me</i>.</p> + +<p>21. We study Shakespeare with her sister and <i>she</i>—<i>her</i>.</p> + +<p>22. <i>She</i>—<i>her</i> and her sister went to the lecture with my sister +and <i>I</i>—<i>me</i>.</p> + +<p>23. They sent for <i>she</i>—<i>her</i> and <i>I</i>—<i>me</i>, not you and <i>he</i>—<i>him</i>.</p> + +<p>24. The program was arranged by the president and <i>I</i>—<i>me</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span></p> + +<p>25. They found that his father and <i>he</i>—<i>him</i> had already left.</p> + +<p>26. Mother is going to buy a birthday present to-day for <i>she</i>—<i>her</i> +and <i>I</i>—<i>me</i>.</p> + +<p>27. The play is interesting not only to you older people but to +<i>we</i>—<i>us</i> younger ones also.</p> + +<p>28. They expected the work to be done by <i>she</i>—<i>her</i> and <i>I</i>—<i>me</i>.</p> + +<p>29. The dispute between his neighbor and <i>he</i>—<i>him</i> over their +lot line was settled by the surveyors this morning.</p> + +<p>30. He wants to speak to you and <i>I</i>—<i>me</i>.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 128—Than, as</b></div> + +<p><i>Than</i> and <i>as</i> are not prepositions but conjunctions. They +are used to introduce subordinate clauses. Usually the +clause is incomplete, but the omitted part is easily understood +from the preceding clause and must be supplied +to show the case of the noun or the pronoun that is +expressed; as,</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +<i>Right:</i> She is as tall as I [am].<br /> +<i>Right:</i> She is taller than he [is].<br /> +<i>Right:</i> I should invite you rather than her [than I should invite her].<br /> +</div> + + +<p>Use the correct one of the italicized pronouns in the following +sentences:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. I'll agree that he is richer than <i>I</i>—<i>me</i>, but riches are not +everything.</p> + +<p>2. I shall send her rather than <i>he</i>—<i>him</i>.</p> + +<p>3. No one felt sorrier than <i>she</i>—<i>her</i>.</p> + +<p>4. No one knows more about an automobile than <i>he</i>—<i>him</i>.</p> + +<p>5. You are more capable of doing the work than <i>he</i>—<i>him</i>.</p> + +<p>6. We were nearer the goal than you or <i>he</i>—<i>him</i>.</p> + +<p>7. You finished the work almost as quickly as <i>she</i>—<i>her</i>.</p> + +<p>8. She writes fully as well as <i>he</i>—<i>him</i>.</p> + +<p>9. The manager said he would rather send me than <i>he</i>—<i>him</i>.</p> + +<p>10. I secured a position sooner than <i>she</i>—<i>her</i>.</p> + +<p>11. It seems to me that they ought to go rather than <i>we</i>—<i>us</i>.</p> + +<p>12. I am surprised that you arrived sooner than <i>they</i>—<i>them</i>.</p> + +<p>13. They should have elected him rather than <i>I</i>—<i>me</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span></p> + +<p>14. I am not so well-fitted as <i>he</i>—<i>him</i> to hold the position.</p> + +<p>15. You are more popular than <i>he</i>—<i>him</i>.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 129—Correlatives</b></div> + +<p>There are certain conjunctions, called <i>correlatives</i>, that +are used in pairs. They are</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 128 correlatives"> +<tr><td align='left'>both—and</td><td align='left'>as—as, so—as</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>either—or</td><td align='left'>not only—but also</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>neither—nor </td><td align='left'>whether—or</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>so—that</td><td align='left'>such—as</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><i>Illustrations</i></div> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 128 illustrations"> +<tr><td align='left'>Both—and</td><td align='left'>He has both skill and energy.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Either—or</td><td align='left'>I shall leave either Monday or Tuesday.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Neither—nor</td><td align='left'>I can neither sing nor play.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>So—that</td><td align='left'>It rained so hard that we stayed at home.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>As—as</td><td align='left'>We shall come as early as we can.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>So—as</td><td align='left'>She is not so tall as you are.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'>(Used in negative expressions.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Not only—but also </td><td align='left'>We saw not only Mr. Brown but his wife also.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Whether—or</td><td align='left'>Whether I return to work or stay at home depends on my mother's health.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Such—as</td><td align='left'>We shall buy only such goods as we think we can sell.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Be very careful not to use the correlative <i>so as</i> incorrectly for <i>so that</i>. +<i>So as</i> is used in negative expressions of comparison; <i>so that</i> is used +to express result.</p></div> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +<i>Wrong:</i> We went early <i>so as</i> we could get good seats.<br /> +<i>Right:</i> We went early <i>so that</i> we could get good seats.<br /> +</div> + +<p>In the illustrations given above, notice that the correlatives +always join two similar or <i>coördinate</i> expressions. It is +important that they be placed each immediately before one +of the two coördinate expressions.</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +<i>Wrong:</i> I <i>neither</i> can sing nor play.<br /> +<i>Right:</i> I can <i>neither</i> sing nor play.<br /> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span></p> + +<p>Recast the following sentences, placing the correlative +conjunctions before coördinate expressions:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Either you ordered it late or not at all.</p> + +<p>2. He said he neither had money nor time.</p> + +<p>3. We not only bought the books you wished but the games +also.</p> + +<p>4. We like the place in which we live both on account of its +quietness and its pleasant surroundings.</p> + +<p>5. I shall either go to Quebec or Montreal.</p> + +<p>6. Either he must spray his trees or expect no fruit.</p> + +<p>7. I neither like the appearance of the shop nor the attitude +of the clerks.</p> + +<p>8. They did it both for the sake of your brother and you.</p> + +<p>9. This sample not only is much darker but heavier also.</p> + +<p>10. They are barred who neither can read nor write.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 130—Either—or, Neither—nor</b></div> + +<p>These conjunctions are correctly used in speaking of two +things only. Care must be taken to use <i>or</i> with <i>either</i> and +<i>nor</i> with <i>neither</i>. In comparing three or more things use +<i>any of them</i>, <i>none of them</i>, or <i>no</i>.</p> + +<p>In the following sentences use only the correct italicized +forms:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Neither effort <i>nor</i>—<i>or</i> money was spared in the undertaking.</p> + +<p>2. I have considered planting maple, oak, and elm trees, +but <i>neither</i>—<i>none</i> of them seems to grow well in this climate.</p> + +<p>3. We do not believe in <i>either</i> enduring oppression <i>nor</i>—<i>or</i> +killing the oppressor. We believe in arbitration.</p> + +<p>4. He has <i>no</i>—<i>neither</i> time, patience, <i>nor</i>—<i>or</i> energy.</p> + +<p>5. If you ask me which of the three I prefer, I'll be frank +and tell you I like <i>neither</i>—<i>none</i> of them.</p> + +<p>6. Three courses will be given in the subject this year; you +may take <i>either</i>—<i>any</i> one of them.</p> + +<p>7. I had already passed three branch roads, but <i>neither</i>—<i>none</i> +of them had looked familiar to me.</p> + +<p>8. I hardly think he accepted <i>any</i>—<i>either</i> of the two offers +he received.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span></p> + +<p>9. Neither the doctor <i>or</i>—<i>nor</i> his wife was at home.</p> + +<p>10. Both the books look shop-worn. I'll take <i>neither</i>—<i>none</i>.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 131—Except, Without, Unless</b></div> + +<p><i>Except</i> and <i>without</i> are prepositions, and are used, therefore, +to introduce phrases; <i>unless</i> is a conjunction, and is +used to introduce a clause.</p> + +<p>In the following sentences insert the correct form, giving +a reason for your choice:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. —— you leave at once, you will miss your train.</p> + +<p>2. I cannot learn to swim, —— some one teaches me.</p> + +<p>3. I cannot learn to swim —— a teacher.</p> + +<p>4. No one could do the work —— me.</p> + +<p>5. John expects to learn —— studying.</p> + +<p>6. John will discover that he cannot win promotion —— he +works hard.</p> + +<p>7. No one can learn how to spell —— first learning how to +observe.</p> + +<p>8. No one will learn to spell —— he learns to observe.</p> + +<p>9. No one will succeed —— he has energy and patience.</p> + +<p>10. No one will succeed —— energy and patience.</p> + +<p>11. You cannot succeed in any way —— by seizing each opportunity +as it comes.</p> + +<p>12. It is impossible to grow beautiful flowers —— the soil is +good.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 132—Like, as</b></div> + +<p><i>Like</i> is followed by a noun or pronoun in the objective case. +<i>As</i> is a conjunction and introduces a clause, and is therefore +followed by a verb. <i>Like</i> is not a conjunction and therefore +may not be substituted for <i>as</i> or <i>as if</i>.</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +<i>Wrong:</i> I wish I could play <i>like</i> you can.<br /> +<i>Right:</i> I wish I could play <i>as</i> you can.<br /> +</div> + +<p>Insert the correct word in the following sentences:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The picture looks just —— you.</p> + +<p>2. I haven't a voice —— my brother's.</p> + +<p>3. I cannot sing —— my brother can.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span></p> + +<p>4. He walks just —— you do.</p> + +<p>5. I hope you will all enjoy the trip —— I did.</p> + +<p>6. For pleasure and exercise I think there is no game —— +tennis.</p> + +<p>7. He said that the town looked just —— it had when he was +a boy.</p> + +<p>8. I cut the paper just —— you said I should.</p> + +<p>9. He talks —— his father.</p> + +<p>10. He has the same sort of drawl —— his father [has].</p> + +<p>11. She was there —— you said she would be.</p> + +<p>12. They worked —— beavers.</p> + +<p>13. He looked —— a tramp.</p> + +<p>14. To give the stitch the proper twist throw the thread over +the needle —— I do.</p> + +<p>15. He walks —— he were lame.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 133—As—as, So—as</b></div> + +<p>Use <i>as</i>—<i>as</i> in stating equality; use <i>so</i>—<i>as</i> in negative +comparisons.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. You will find the new clerks fully —— courteous as were +the old.</p> + +<p>2. You will not find the new clerks —— courteous as were the +old.</p> + +<p>3. Elms do not grow —— well in this climate as do poplars.</p> + +<p>4. We did not carry —— much advertising this year as we +did last year, and we find that our receipts are smaller.</p> + +<p>5. Under our system of individual instruction a student may +advance —— rapidly as his ability permits.</p> + +<p>6. You are not —— tall as your sister.</p> + +<p>7. I do not seem to learn languages —— easily as mathematics.</p> + +<p>8. This house is not —— large as the other.</p> + +<p>9. He is —— active as he was twenty years ago.</p> + +<p>10. He is not —— active as he was twenty years ago.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 134—Miscellaneous Blunders</b></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>To, Too, Two</b></div> + +<p><i>To</i> is a preposition; <i>too</i> is an adverb, and means <i>excessively</i> +or <i>also;</i> <i>two</i> is a numeral adjective. Insert the correct +form in each of the following sentences:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The —— sisters discovered that it was —— late for the +4:15 train.</p> + +<p>2. It is —— dark in that corner; come —— the light.</p> + +<p>3. He spends —— much time in dreaming, —— little in +working.</p> + +<p>4. He would have done better if he had not given —— little +heed —— the advice of his —— older brothers.</p> + +<p>5. —— more hours were passed in the all —— weary task of +waiting.</p> + +<p>6. It was —— cold —— stay out more than —— hours.</p> + +<p>7. You may go ——, but don't stay —— long.</p> + +<p>8. —— stay there for —— weeks would be —— tiresome.</p> + +<p>9. The doctor said that the —— men were —— sick —— go +home alone, and I thought so ——.</p> + +<p>10. About —— hours ago I met Mary who said that she was +going —— the country ——.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>There, Their</b></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>11. —— are seven brothers in —— family.</p> + +<p>12. —— books are —— on the table.</p> + +<p>13. —— is no doubt that —— knowledge of mathematics is +greater than —— knowledge of English.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Were, Where</b></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>14. —— have you been?</p> + +<p>15. —— you ever on a farm —— alfalfa is grown?</p> + +<p>16. —— —— you when the report was read?</p> + +<p>17. I was just —— you ——.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Of, Have</b></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>18. You should —— read more distinctly.</p> + +<p>19. I could —— done the work if I had had more —— the +necessary tools.</p> + +<p>20. If I had tried harder, I might —— done the work better.</p></div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span></p> + +<h2>PART II—COMPOSITION: ORAL AND +WRITTEN</h2> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2> + +<div class='chaptertitle'>ORAL ENGLISH</div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_135" id="Exercise_135"></a>Exercise 135</b></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Retell</span> a story that you know or one that the instructor +has read to you. See if you can tell the whole story in fairly +long sentences without using a single <i>and</i>. You will be +allowed to use three <i>and's</i>. As soon as you say the third, +you must take your seat. Let the class keep count.</p> + +<p>The story may be an anecdote, a fable, or any other short +incident that can easily be told in one or two minutes. You +probably have read many such or have heard your father and +your mother tell them. A joke that can be told in two or +three sentences will not be long enough.</p> + +<p>The excessive use of <i>and</i> spoils the telling of many stories. +It is a mistake to think that the gap between the end of +one sentence and the beginning of the next appears as great +to the listener as it does to us as we are deliberating what +to say next. To avoid the gap we bridge the two sentences +with <i>and</i>. Its use in this way is hardly ever necessary if we +think out a sentence to the end before we begin to speak it. +When we have finished the thought, we should finish the +sentence without trying to bind it artificially to the next +one. The sentences will be bound together if the thought +of one grows out of the thought of the preceding one.</p> + +<p>If the unfolding of the idea does not seem sufficient to tie +the parts, there are better expressions to use than <i>and</i>. +There are short expressions like <i>in this way</i>, <i>likewise</i>, <i>moreover</i>, +<i>thus</i>, <i>therefore</i>, <i>besides</i>, <i>as might be expected</i>, and <i>too</i>. Another<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> +way to avoid <i>and</i> is to change the form of the sentence: +(1) better than the form, "I opened the window <i>and saw</i>," +is, "<i>Opening</i> the window, I saw;" (2) better than "I am +going to the store <i>and buy</i> some sugar," is, "I am going to +the store <i>to buy</i> some sugar;" (3) better than "There was +a boy <i>and his name</i> was John," is, "There was a boy <i>whose</i> +name was John;" (4) better than "I reached home <i>and +found</i> that my cousin had arrived," is, "<i>When</i> I reached +home, I found that my cousin had arrived." In place of +<i>and</i>, therefore, we may use (1) participles, (2) infinitives, +(3) relative pronouns, and (4) subordinate conjunctions.</p> + +<p>Above all, avoid <i>and everything</i>, as in, "I washed the +dishes and swept the floor and everything." To try thus to +complete an idea that is already complete shows childishness.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 136</b></div> + +<p>Very likely in telling the story as suggested above you +found yourself frequently using the word <i>so</i> to connect two +sentences. Perhaps, too, you used <i>why</i> to begin sentences.</p> + +<p>Now tell one of your own experiences, being careful not +to use <i>and</i>, <i>so</i>, or <i>why</i>. Introduce as much conversation as +possible. What, if any, is the advantage of telling a story +in the first person? Why is it good to introduce conversation?</p> + +<p>In your conversation make use of several of the following +words:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 136"> +<tr><td align='left'>replied</td><td align='left'>whispered</td><td align='left'>spoke</td><td align='left'>inquired</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>answered</td><td align='left'>agreed</td><td align='left'>cried</td><td align='left'>explained</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>asked</td><td align='left'>exclaimed</td><td align='left'>shouted</td><td align='left'>remarked</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>questioned</td><td align='left'>repeated</td><td align='left'>continued </td><td align='left'>suggested</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>promised</td><td align='left'>maintained </td><td align='left'>objected</td><td align='left'>rejoined</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>interrupted </td><td align='left'>quoted</td><td align='left'>returned</td><td align='left'>added</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 137</b></div> + +<p>Far too many boys and girls pay but little regard to +the matter of choosing the word that will give the exact<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> +meaning that they wish to convey. In order to lend force +to their words they have formed the habit of speaking +in superlatives; like the girl who said, "We had a perfectly +grand time, but I'm so beastly tired now that I'm +nearly dead," and yet she showed no evidence of suffering.</p> + +<p>Isn't it a pity that our beautiful English language should +be so degraded in common usage that it loses all its force +and meaning? Instead of convincing people that she really +was tired, the girl quoted above made herself ridiculous by +her exaggeration. Yet isn't the quotation a fair example of +the speech of many boys and girls? Surely everything +about us is not either grand or beastly. The habit thus +formed is difficult to break, but it must be broken if we wish +to speak our language correctly.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>Make a list of the slang phrases that you have acquired. +For each one substitute a good English expression.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>The reason we must watch our oral English closely is that +it is in our conversation that our habits of speech are formed. +The expressions we use then we unconsciously employ when +we are writing or talking to the class. If we are accustomed +to use considerable slang when we speak, we shall have +difficulty in eliminating it from our writing or in finding a +good word to express the idea for which we usually use slang. +As a rule, slang and extravagant expressions of all kinds are +used to serve such a variety of meanings that the use of them +tends to limit the vocabulary to these expressions. Consider +slang something undesirable and stop using it.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 138</b></div> + +<p>Look up the words in each of the following groups. You +will notice that there is a resemblance of meaning between +all the words of each group, but that there is also a shade of +difference in meaning that distinguishes each word from its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> +companions. Discover that shade of difference. Use each +word in a sentence.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Lovely, beautiful, pretty, handsome.</p> + +<p>2. Awful, terrible, horrible, dreadful, fearful.</p> + +<p>3. Nice, pleasant, delightful, dainty, fine, agreeable.</p> + +<p>4. Grand, imposing, splendid, impressive.</p> + +<p>5. Love, like, adore, admire, revere.</p> + +<p>6. Smart, clever, bright, quick-witted.</p> + +<p>7. Fierce, ferocious, wild.</p> + +<p>8. Guess, think, suppose, imagine.</p> + +<p>9. Hate, dislike, despise, abhor, detest.</p> + +<p>10. Scholar, student, pupil.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 139</b></div> + +<p>Carelessness in speaking frequently results in wordiness, +since the speaker in an effort to be clear or forceful repeats +the idea two or three times. Such speech is tiresome. In +each of the following sentences there are too many words to +express the idea. See how many you can omit and yet preserve +the meaning. Sometimes the sentence needs revision.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. I haven't got any time.</p> + +<p>2. Where does he live at?</p> + +<p>3. Don't stand up; there's a chair.</p> + +<p>4. The woman she had an accident.</p> + +<p>5. You had ought to take more exercise.</p> + +<p>6. I was just going to go.</p> + +<p>7. I excuse you because you are a new beginner.</p> + +<p>8. I can finish the work in three days' time.</p> + +<p>9. The offices are both alike in all respects.</p> + +<p>10. He engaged the both of us.</p> + +<p>11. We applied to Mr. Abbot, he being the manager.</p> + +<p>12. My mind often reverts back to the time when I began in +business.</p> + +<p>13. That high building that is going up on Twelfth Street is +going to be twenty stories high when it is finished.</p> + +<p>14. From his appearance he looked to be in very poor circumstances.</p> + +<p>15. He is afraid of the results that will ensue if he follows the +course that he has planned.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span></p> + +<p>16. The present state of affairs that is now confronting the +public has become what it now is because the citizens are not +public spirited.</p> + +<p>17. The reason why I was not at work yesterday was because +I was not feeling as well as I might.</p> + +<p>18. I shall never forget the terrible sights that I saw the time +that I witnessed the street car collision.</p> + +<p>19. I have been debating in my mind whether I ought to accept +the offer.</p> + +<p>20. He was a mere little child when he first began to work +in the mine.</p> + +<p>21. Mix together both the butter and the sugar, and rub the +two of them to a cream.</p> + +<p>22. The two pieces of cloth are just exactly the same in every +way.</p> + +<p>23. You will find this chair equally as comfortable as the +other.</p> + +<p>24. He said that when he started in his business that he had +almost no capital at all.</p> + +<p>25. It was the office of Morgan & Son where I got my +experience.</p> + +<p>26. China is undergoing a vast change at the present time.</p> + +<p>27. At about the age of fourteen years he left his home town.</p> + +<p>28. They did it gladly and willingly.</p> + +<p>29. He always shows great deference and respect when he +speaks to those who are in authority.</p> + +<p>30. He is the proprietor and owner of the News.</p> + +<p>31. You can easily get the training that will make you a competent +and efficient high-salaried trained man.</p> + +<p>32. For sale, a large, commodious house, arranged with every +convenience to make it comfortable.</p> + +<p>33. We are making all the necessary improvements that are +needed.</p> + +<p>34. I went to high school to take up stenography.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_140" id="Exercise_140"></a>Exercise 140—Making a Speech</b></div> + +<p>One of the most profitable exercises to cultivate clear +thinking and consequent clear expression is the making of +speeches, usually spoken of as oral themes. In this exercise +a pupil stands before the class to talk upon a subject<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> +about which he has thought, but upon which he has written +nothing. He has two objects in view. First, he must +choose those facts that will make his subject clear and interesting +to his audience. Second, he must deliver them well; +that is, he must stand in a good position before the class, +use good grammar, no slang, and enunciate so that every +one in the room can understand him. If his speech is to be +longer than one paragraph, he should have an outline prepared, +in which each division is clearly indicated, as well +as the important details within each division.</p> + +<p>In making a speech, the best way is to start with a clear +statement of the subject. Suppose you take (9) below. +You might begin, "I am going to talk of a street car transfer. +First, I shall tell you how it looks; and second, how it is +used. Then first, a street car transfer—(describe it fully). +In the second place, it is used—(give details)." After you +have explained fully, to show that you have said all you +intend to say, finish with a sentence of conclusion. <i>Therefore</i>, +<i>consequently</i>, <i>for these reasons</i>, <i>thus we may see</i>, are +instances of words which may be used to begin a sentence +of conclusion.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>Use each of the following questions as the subject for a +speech. Answer each question clearly and completely. Use +illustrations to show exactly what you mean.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. What does it mean to be a hero?</p> + +<p>2. What does it mean to be successful?</p> + +<p>3. What does it mean to be unfortunate?</p> + +<p>4. What does it mean to be generous?</p> + +<p>5. What does it mean to be lenient?</p> + +<p>6. What does it mean to be mercenary?</p> + +<p>7. What does it mean to be diffident?</p> + +<p>8. What does it mean to be penurious?</p> + +<p>9. What is a street car transfer? How does it look and how +is it used?</p> + +<p>10. What occupation do you wish to follow, and why? What +preparations are you making?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span></p> + +<p>11. Why do we have a smoke ordinance?</p> + +<p>12. Why must buildings have fire escapes?</p> + +<p>13. Why do the farmers of Kansas insure their barns against +cyclones?</p> + +<p>14. What is fire insurance?</p> + +<p>15. Why is ventilation important?</p> + +<p>16. Why do so many immigrants come to this country?</p> + +<p>17. Why do cities grow?</p> + +<p>18. Why was the steam engine an important invention?</p> + +<p>19. Why was the telephone an important invention?</p> + +<p>20. What is the principle of vaccination?</p> + +<p>21. What is the principle of anti-toxin?</p> + +<p>22. Of what good is the trade union to the laborer?</p> + +<p>23. Why does the employer object to the union?</p> + +<p>24. What is a monopoly?</p> + +<p>25. What is meant by a corner in wheat?</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 141</b></div> + +<p>In your neighborhood you have frequently noticed a lawn +and a garden that are very poorly kept, the garden needing +weeding and the lawn both weeding and mowing. Imagine +that you go to the owner to make him a proposition. You +know the man slightly, and you have heard that he has a +quick temper. Know exactly what work you will offer to +do and how often you will do it. Be careful of your first +sentences. Let them be especially courteous, so that you +may not offend the gentleman by suggesting that he does +not take care of his property. Tell him frankly that you +would like to earn some money.</p> + +<p>In this exercise the class will represent the owner. Moreover, +they will watch carefully so that they may point out +to the speaker wherein his speech was not quite courteous +or not quite clear.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 142</b></div> + +<p>From one of the newspapers cut an advertisement of a +position for which you think you can apply. Bring the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> +advertisement with you and convince the class that you +are fitted for the position.</p> + +<p>In this exercise you must be exact. Choose an advertisement +for a kind of work about which you know something. +If you have ever had any experience that would fit you for +the position, do not fail to tell of it, since experience counts +for much in the employer's estimate of an applicant.</p> + +<p>Let the class judge whether the speaker has been convincing +and whether he has shown the properly courteous +attitude toward an employer. Let them ask themselves +such questions as: Is he alert in his manner? Does he make +one feel that he is capable? Does he stand and talk as if +he has confidence in himself? Is he too meek? Does he +seem over-confident? Let each be able to offer suggestions +for improvement.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 143</b></div> + +<p>Imagine that you are an agent. Choose an article that is +especially useful to housekeepers. Try to sell it to the class, +or choose an individual member to whom you wish to sell +it. Bring a sample with you for the purpose of demonstrating +its usefulness.</p> + +<p>As in the preceding exercise the speaker must strive to +be convincing. He must know all there is to be known about +the article that he is demonstrating. If it is at all possible, +he should have used it in order that he may explain exactly +how it is operated and why it is better than a similar article +that the housekeeper probably is at present using.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 144</b></div> + +<p>You wish to start a business and need a certain amount of +money. Try to convince the instructor or a selected pupil +that you need it.</p> + +<p>Be sure that you are able to tell definitely the kind of business +for which you wish the money, where you will start the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> +business, why you think that this particular location is good, +when you will be able to return the money, and what security +you can give.</p> + +<p>Don't make the mistake of choosing something too big +for a boy or a girl to carry through. Perhaps the following +will be suggestive:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. A newspaper stand.</p> + +<p>2. A miniature truck farm in the empty lot next door.</p> + +<p>3. A pop corn wagon.</p> + +<p>4. A fruit cart or stand.</p> + +<p>5. A shoe shining stand.</p> + +<p>6. Raising ferns or flowers for sale.</p> + +<p>7. Buying vegetables from a farmer and selling them to housewives.</p> + +<p>8. Printing business cards and blotters on a small press.</p> + +<p>9. Making place cards.</p> + +<p>10. Making valentines.</p> + +<p>11. Painting holiday postal cards or fancy cards for Christmas, +Easter, Thanksgiving, and the like.</p> + +<p>12. Printing on postal cards pretty scenes that you have +photographed perhaps in your town or at a summer resort.</p> + +<p>13. Making and selling cakes, doughnuts, and the like.</p> + +<p>14. Selling crocheted or embroidered articles.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 145—Elements of Success</b></div> + +<p>Prepare a short speech on each of the following. Wherever +possible make your statements clear and forceful by +using illustrations or examples.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Cheerfulness helps to bring success.</p> + +<p>2. The habit of neatness is an asset.</p> + +<p>3. The habit of punctuality is a necessity.</p> + +<p>4. He was not promoted because he watched the clock.</p> + +<p>5. He was not promoted because his excuse was always, "I +forgot."</p> + +<p>6. He was not promoted because he learned nothing from his +mistakes.</p> + +<p>7. He was not promoted because he was always grumbling.</p> + +<p>8. He was not promoted because he was content to be a +second-rate man.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span></p> + +<p>9. He was not promoted because he ruined his ability by +half-doing things.</p> + +<p>10. He was not promoted because he did not learn to act on +his own judgment.</p> + +<p>11. One to-day is worth two to-morrows.</p> + +<p>12. Experience is an expensive teacher.</p> + +<p>13. Be not simply good—be good for something.</p> + +<p>14. Not failure, but low aim, is crime.</p> + +<p>15. To be successful one must have confidence in himself.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 146</b></div> + +<p>As in the preceding exercise prepare a speech on each of +the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. A dishonest person cannot succeed.</p> + +<p>2. There is no excuse for discouragement.</p> + +<p>3. You may secure a position through another's influence, +but you keep it through your own merit.</p> + +<p>4. There is always room at the top.</p> + +<p>5. There is no such thing as luck.</p> + +<p>6. The proper attitude toward an employer is one of deference.</p> + +<p>7. A business woman should dress simply.</p> + +<p>8. Perseverance is the key to success.</p> + +<p>9. To accomplish much one must work systematically.</p> + +<p>10. It is possible to cultivate a good memory.</p> + +<p>11. The ability to converse is a business asset.</p> + +<p>12. The habit of exaggeration is dangerous.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 147—Successful Men and Women</b></div> + +<p>How can one measure the success of men or women? +Is it by the money they make? the land they acquire? the +fame they win? the good they do? By what means have +they won success? Was it through favorable circumstances? +strength of character? favoritism? physical strength? mental +energy? daring? doing what they thought was right in spite +of opposition? or simply doing nothing and waiting for +success to come?</p> + +<p>Study the life and character of one or more of the following. +Have they gained what you consider success? What qualities<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> +of character do you recognize in them? Would you care to +be like any of them?</p> + +<p>Make a list of the habits that you recognize in their life +and in the way they worked.</p> + +<p>Make a list of the characteristics of the ones that you study.</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 147"> +<tr><td align='left'>Florence Nightingale</td><td align='left'>Frances Willard</td><td align='left'>Bismarck</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>David Maydole</td><td align='left'>Ella Flagg Young</td><td align='left'>Gladstone</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>R. L. Stevenson</td><td align='left'>Helen Gould Shepard </td><td align='left'>Marshall Field</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Booker T. Washington </td><td align='left'>Jane Addams</td><td align='left'>Carnegie</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Captain Scott</td><td align='left'>Napoleon</td><td align='left'>J. Pierpont Morgan</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Mary Antin</td><td align='left'>Franklin</td><td align='left'>Edison</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Daniel Boone</td><td align='left'>Lincoln</td><td align='left'>Roosevelt</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Mary Lyon</td><td align='left'>Nathan Hale</td><td align='left'>Goethals</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 148—Debating</b></div> + +<p>A very great asset in business is the ability to see the +truth or the falsity of a statement, and to advance proofs +for or against it. This ability we shall try to acquire through +the practice of debating; that is, through the making of +speeches in which students take opposite sides of the same +subject, trying by the presentation of facts and illustrations +to prove that the side which they represent is the correct +one. The statement that is thus argued is called a <i>proposition</i>.</p> + +<p>Debating is excellent practice because it teaches not only +clear-cut reasoning, but also forceful expression. If a debater +fails to make any of his several arguments convincing, +if he introduces irrelevant matter, or, though he has prepared +strong proofs, if he expresses them in incorrect English, +the result will be poor. In working out a debate, therefore, +observe the following carefully:</p> + +<div class='blockquot'> +<p>1. Know your subject thoroughly. If you have insufficient +knowledge, you cannot be convincing.</p> + +<p>2. Understand your point of view exactly and explain it +clearly. If you and your opponent have different ideas of +the word <i>trust</i>, for example, you can never argue on a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> +subject that concerns the trusts. Define your position first +of all.</p> + +<p>3. After you have gathered your facts, study them as a +whole. What three arguments, let us say, stand out clearly +in your mind as being irrefutable because of the strong +proofs you have to back them? These are the ones that you +should use; the rest will probably be of little value. Plan +to give the weakest of the three first, so that your argument +will gain force as you advance.</p> + +<p>4. Work out the details of each argument. A mere statement +of each is not enough. It must be supported by many +facts and illustrations.</p> + +<p>5. Prepare an outline. It will show you whether your +arguments follow each other clearly, whether you have so +arranged them as to secure climax. (See <a href="#Exercise_152">Exercise 152</a>.)</p> + +<p>6. In talking, follow the plan explained in <a href="#Exercise_140">Exercise 140</a>, +being especially careful in conclusion to summarize the +proofs that you have presented.</p></div> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>The conclusions that you reach in your arguments must +be based upon statements that are true. In the following, +some of the statements are false, and therefore the conclusions +based upon them are false. Point out wherein +the falsity consists. In others of the following, irrelevant +matter has been introduced. Point it out, explaining why +it is irrelevant.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. We shall forget a great many facts that we learn at school. +Therefore it is useless to learn them.</p> + +<p>2. Oil should be used instead of water in sprinkling our +streets, because oil does not evaporate so quickly as water, and +so does not allow the dust to rise. Moreover, as the street must +be cleaned before the oil is laid, there is less dust to rise. When +the oil lies on the streets, it is very sticky, and clings to everyone's +shoes. In this way it is tracked into the houses and stores, +making everything dirty. Therefore I think the streets should +be oiled instead of being watered.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span></p> + +<p>3. Half of the keys would not work on the typewriter that I +used yesterday. This machine will work no better, as it is made +by the same company.</p> + +<p>4. Last year September was very warm, and the winter was +extreme. This year September has been very warm, and therefore +the winter will be extreme.</p> + +<p>5. My cousin never went to high school, and when he went +to work he earned eight dollars a week. I have gone to high +school for one year. Therefore I shall receive more than eight +dollars a week when I go to work.</p> + +<p>6. When you are working, your employer will never ask you +the definition of a noun. Therefore it is unnecessary to know +any grammar.</p> + +<p>7. Every one should be punctual in doing his work. If he is +punctual, he will be promoted and earn a larger salary. Money +is a very important item in this world, but it is not everything. +A person must be satisfied with his work so that he can do it +cheerfully; otherwise he will not succeed. Therefore I think +every one ought to be on time.</p> + +<p>8. The day is either sunny or it is not sunny. To-day is not +sunny; therefore it is sunny.</p> + +<p>9. It always rains when I wear new shoes. I am wearing new +shoes; therefore it will rain to-day.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 149</b></div> + +<p>Find three reasons for each of the following propositions. +State them concisely, reserving the strongest for the last.</p> + +<p>As above, find three reasons against each of the following.</p> + +<p>Expand one of the reasons that you advanced for one of +the propositions given below. Using your statement as +the opening sentence, develop it into a paragraph by explanations +and illustrations.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The high school should have the same session as the +grades.</p> + +<p>2. The high school session should begin at eight o'clock and +close at one, with no recess for luncheon.</p> + +<p>3. Final examinations shall be abolished.</p> + +<p>4. Every high school should teach manual training.</p> + +<p>5. Every high school should offer business courses.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span></p> + +<p>6. Every high school pupil should receive a business training.</p> + +<p>7. Stenography (or bookkeeping) is a more important study +than wood-working.</p> + +<p>8. If a pupil fails in the first semester of a subject, he should +be allowed to try the second without repeating the first.</p> + +<p>9. A pupil should not be expected to learn a lesson that he +does not enjoy.</p> + +<p>10. Moving picture shows do more harm than good.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 150</b></div> + +<p>Let three or four pupils write upon the blackboard three +arguments in support of the same one of the following propositions. +Then let the class choose from all the arguments +given those three or four that they think are best, giving in +each case reasons for their choice.</p> + +<p>In the same way let them work out the negative of the +same proposition.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Every city should have a public park in the business +district.</p> + +<p>2. The large department stores should be abolished and +smaller stores, selling only one kind of commodity, established.</p> + +<p>3. The mail order house should be abolished.</p> + +<p>4. It is bad business policy to conduct cut-price sales.</p> + +<p>5. The newspapers are the greatest educators of the time.</p> + +<p>6. Billboard advertisements destroy the beauty of a city.</p> + +<p>7. Women should be allowed to vote.</p> + +<p>8. Labor unions are a benefit to the public.</p> + +<p>9. All government should be conducted on the civil service +plan.</p> + +<p>10. Underselling a competitor ruins trade.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 151</b></div> + +<p>One or two weeks in advance let the class choose three +members for each side of one of the following propositions. +On the day of the debate let the rest of the class act as judges +to decide which side has presented the most convincing arguments +in the best English.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. It is better to be a farm hand than a factory employee.</p> + +<p>2. Every girl should prepare herself to earn her own living.</p> + +<p>3. Trusts should be regulated, not abolished.</p> + +<p>4. Strikes should be considered illegal.</p> + +<p>5. Advertising has increased the cost of living. (See <a href="#Exercise_152">Exercise +152</a>.)</p> + +<p>6. Communism would lower the cost of living.</p> + +<p>7. The business of a city should not be centralized.</p> + +<p>8. Labor troubles are brought about because the poor ape the +rich.</p> + +<p>9. Contentment is better than wealth.</p> + +<p>10. Tariff increases the cost of living.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_152" id="Exercise_152"></a>Exercise 152—Outline for a Debate</b></div> + +<p>Choose two or four members of the class to develop each +side of the following debate. Wherever possible, definite +figures should be used.</p> + +<p><i>Resolved</i>, <span class="smcap">That Advertising has Increased the Cost of +Living</span>.</p> + +<div class='center'><i>Affirmative</i></div> + +<div class='blockquot'> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">I. Modern advertising is world-wide in extent.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(<i>a</i>) Practically all classes of articles are now extensively advertised.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(1) Food stuffs; e.g., breakfast foods.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(2) Clothing; e.g., men's suits.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(3) Luxuries; e.g., automobiles.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(4) Investments; e.g., real estate.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(<i>b</i>) Every possible medium is used.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(1) Newspapers.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(2) Magazines.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(3) Billboards and street cars.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(4) Circulars and booklets.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">II. An enormous amount of money is spent in advertising.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(<i>a</i>) The use of advertising agencies is growing more widespread.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(1) One agency has made the statement that it has nine men whose salaries amount to $227,000 annually.</span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 2em;">(<i>b</i>) More and more companies are engaging advertising managers.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(1) They draw large salaries.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 6em;">(<i>x</i>) In many cases, $10,000 annually.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(<i>c</i>) Advertising rates are very high; for example,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(1) The rate for a certain magazine is $1000 a page per issue.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(2) Metropolitan newspapers charge as high a rate as $500 a page per issue.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(<i>d</i>) Many advertisers use each issue of a number of mediums, making the cost run to an enormous total; for example,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(1) <i>Cream of Wheat</i> is advertised in every issue of almost every magazine.</span><br /> +III. The consumer pays for the advertising.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(<i>a</i>) The price that the consumer pays for an article must cover the cost of production and the expense of distribution, leaving</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 5em;">fair margins of profit, since</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(1) The manufacturer will no longer produce if his profit ceases.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(2) He is not willing to take the cost of advertising from his profit in manufacturing.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(3) The dealer will not take the advertising cost from his own profit.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">IV. Advertising increases prices.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(<i>a</i>) The cost of manufacture and the expense of distribution have been steadily lowered, and yet prices of articles have steadily</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 5em;">advanced; therefore</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(1) The rise is not due to the cost of manufacture.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(2) Nor to the expense of distribution.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(<i>b</i>) Competition necessitates an increased amount of advertising.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(1) If one firm begins to advertise, its competitors, for self-protection, must follow suit.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(<i>c</i>) Competitive advertising raises expenses above the point where there is a fair profit at the old price.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(1) For a given kind of goods there is usually a certain volume of business, which grows with population.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(2) If all the firms competing in those goods increase their expenses by advertising, they must raise prices to make the same</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 5em;">profit as previously.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(<i>d</i>) Advertised articles cost more than the unadvertised.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(1) Bulk rolled oats vs. package rolled oats.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(2) Bulk pickles and relishes vs. advertised brands.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(3) Bulk macaroni vs. package goods.</span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><i>Negative</i></div> + +<div class='blockquot'> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">I. The present increased advertising is the result of normal growth.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>a</i>) Multiplied manufactures necessarily multiply advertisements.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(1) Every day new products are being put on the market.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(2) No product has the chance of a sale until it is known.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(3) In the present scope of community life the advertisement is the most convenient means of acquainting consumers with</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 5.5em;">new products.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>b</i>) Any unusual increase in advertising has a reasonable explanation.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(1) Automobile advertising has increased as the automobile has replaced the wagon and carriage, because of</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 6.5em;">(<i>x</i>) Greater convenience.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 6.5em;">(<i>y</i>) Lower operating cost.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(2) Prepared breakfast food advertising has increased as these foods have replaced cooked foods, because of</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 6.5em;">(<i>x</i>) Greater convenience.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">II. Increased advertising is done on the scale of old prices.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>a</i>) Merchants dare not raise prices to make the consumer pay for the advertising, since</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(1) They must compete with manufacturers who do not advertise and who have no overhead advertising expense.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>b</i>) The most widely advertised articles are the inexpensive necessary accessories.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(1) Food products.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(2) Soaps and soap powders.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(3) Toilet articles.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>c</i>) They have not advanced in price.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(1) Quaker Oats.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(2) Ivory Soap; Sapolio.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(3) Mennen's Talcum Powder.</span><br /> +III. Widespread advertising works to the advantage, not the disadvantage, of the consumer.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>a</i>) It gives new opportunities</span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(1) To compare values.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(2) To buy to the best advantage; for example,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 6.5em;">(<i>x</i>) In advertised bargain sales.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>b</i>) It reduces the cost of production and the selling expense, thu tending to lower the price.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(1) By increasing sales, it reduces the cost per article.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 6.5em;">(<i>x</i>) Maximum purchasing power means minimum cost to the manufacturer.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(2) In taking the place of salesmen, it reduces expenses, thus lowering the price; for example,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 6.5em;">(<i>x</i>) In mail order firms.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(3) Therefore the advertising expense is unimportant in influencing a higher price.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">IV. The most marked price advances have been in the unadvertised necessaries of life.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>a</i>) In breadstuffs.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(1) Less in quantity for higher prices than formerly.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>b</i>) In meats and poultry.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(1) An advance of from 25 per cent to 100 per cent and more.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>c</i>) In butter and eggs.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(1) An advance similar to that shown in meats and poultry.</span><br /> +</div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 153—Additional Subjects for Debates</b></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The wages of women should be the same as those of men in +the same occupation.</p> + +<p>2. The government should grant old age pensions.</p> + +<p>3. Employers should be liable for the life and health of employees.</p> + +<p>4. The boycott is a legitimate method of obtaining employees' +demands.</p> + +<p>5. National expositions do not benefit the cities in which +they are held.</p> + +<p>6. Railroad combination lowers rates.</p> + +<p>7. Piece-work should be prohibited by law.</p> + +<p>8. National party lines should be discarded in municipal +elections.</p> + +<p>9. City governments should be allowed to decide their problems +without intervention of the state legislature.</p> + +<p>10. Municipal offices should be appointive and not elective.</p> + +<p>11. The commission form of government is best for large cities.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span></p> + +<p>12. Immigration is the cause of municipal evils.</p> + +<p>13. A personal property tax cannot be levied with fairness.</p> + +<p>14. The United States should not further extend its colonial +dependencies.</p> + +<p>15. The President should be elected by a direct vote of the +people.</p> + +<p>16. Ex-presidents of the United States should become life +members of the Senate.</p> + +<p>17. The President and the Vice-President should be prohibited +from taking part in political campaigns.</p> + +<p>18. The United States should subsidize a merchant marine.</p> + +<p>19. Foreign-built ships, owned by Americans, should be granted +the privilege of American register.</p> + +<p>20. The governors of states should not have the power to pardon.</p> + +<p>21. A three-fourths vote of a jury should be sufficient to render +a verdict in criminal cases.</p> + +<p>22. The coast defenses of the United States should be increased.</p> + +<p>23. The farmer is to blame for the high prices.</p> + +<p>24. The results of Arctic explorations have not justified the cost.</p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XI</h2> + +<div class='chaptertitle'>CHOOSING SUBJECTS</div> + + +<p><span class="smcap">In</span> <a href="#CHAPTER_X">Chapter X</a> definite subjects were assigned for talks. +Getting a subject for yourself sometimes seems difficult; +you are likely to think that there is no topic upon which +you can say more than a few sentences. Isn't it true that +when you are talking to your friends you seldom are at a +loss for something to say? Of course, what your companion +says often suggests an idea on which you give your opinion. +You speak about things that interest you, and the words +come fairly easily. Why not apply the same principle to +more formal composition, whether oral or written? Unless +a subject interests you, do not use it. But be careful that +you do not reject it as uninteresting until you have thought +about it carefully, considering it from all sides. Often one +subject will suggest another akin to it, but more interesting +to you because you know more about it. For this reason +choose very simple subjects, and become thoroughly familiar +with them by thinking or reading about them, before you +attempt to explain them.</p> + +<p>Sometimes, again, you will find that the subject you have +chosen is not good because it is not definite enough. You +hardly know where or how to begin to explain it, because +it suggests no definite ideas. Perhaps, for instance, you +have decided to write on the automobile and can think +of nothing to say until you remember that you once +saw an automobile race about which you can tell several +interesting details; or you have seen an automobile accident +and can write on the topic <i>A Runaway Electric</i>. If<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> +you can speak or write on a topic taken from your own +observation, your composition will probably be good. You +know the facts, you have an interest in the subject, and you +will very likely say something of interest to others. Subjects +taken from school life or neighborhood happenings, +especially such things as you yourself have seen, are +excellent. Perhaps on your way to school you noticed that +several old houses are being torn down. You remember +that you heard that a candy factory is to be erected. At +once several suggestions for themes will come to you; as, +<i>Why the Factory is Being Erected in this Neighborhood</i>, <i>How +Neighborhoods Change in a Large City</i>, <i>The Work the Wrecking +Company Carries on</i>. Perhaps your father owns property +in the neighborhood, and you could write on <i>How Real +Estate Values have Changed in this Neighborhood</i>.</p> + +<p>Next to your own experience, the best source from which +to draw subjects is your reading. This may be divided into +(1) books, (2) magazines and newspapers. Recall one of +the books that you read in the grammar grades, perhaps +<i>The Courtship of Miles Standish</i>. Drawing your material +from this source, you can write <i>A Picture of Early Plymouth +Days</i>, or a sketch of Miles Standish's character, using the +title <i>Practice What You Preach</i>. But to try to tell the whole +story to any one in two or three minutes would result in +failure, for it would be a subject entirely too big to treat +in so short a time. All the interesting details would have +to be omitted, and, if the details are omitted, the story loses +its vitality.</p> + +<p>It is the newspaper or the magazine, however, that offers +us the most available source of subjects. Practically all +that we know of the modern world and of the wonderful +progress being made in invention and discovery, as well as +of the accidents and disasters that take place, we have +learned first from the newspaper and have verified later +by the articles in magazines. Every issue of a newspaper or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> +of a magazine contains suggestions for many subjects. Such +magazines as <i>The World's Work</i>, <i>System</i>, <i>The Outlook</i>, <i>The +Technical World</i>, and other magazines that deal with technical +subjects in a popular way are excellent for this work.</p> + +<p>A third important source of subjects is the studies that +you are now pursuing. Every new study affords a new +point of view, which should suggest many topics for oral +and written themes. Sometimes a good subject is the comparison +of two of your studies by which you try to show, +perhaps, how the one depends on the other.</p> + +<p>The subject, of course, is but the beginning of the composition. +Developing the subject is fully as important as +having a subject to develop. The ability to develop a subject +clearly is very important in the business world. A +business man sells his goods either by talking or by writing; +by the salesman or by the letter and the advertisement. +Unless the salesman talks in a convincing way, he probably +will sell few goods. He must know not only what to say, +but how to say it.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 154—The Subject as a Whole</b></div> + +<p>First, you must see your subject in its entirety, as one +thing. Ask yourself, "Just what does my title mean?" +and if you have not as yet selected a title, study your subject +from all sides until you can see how to narrow it to +certain definite dimensions. Now you have set a sort of +fence around your subject. Nothing outside must enter, +but nothing inside must escape. The length of the composition +you are to write usually helps you decide on the +limits of your subject. If you are writing a book on Africa, +you might include all that the title suggests to you of exploration, +colonization, civilization, and Christianization. But +if you are writing a very short theme—not over three +pages—it is evident that the subject must be narrowed. +Would <i>The Transvaal</i> be good? <i>The Jungles of Africa?</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> +<i>Roosevelt in Africa?</i> <i>African Mission Stations?</i> <i>When I +think of Africa I think of Stanley?</i></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>Which of the following subjects would be good for short +compositions, either oral or written? The oral theme should +occupy two or three minutes, the written perhaps three +pages. What is the objection to a one word subject?</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 154"> +<tr><td align='left'>1. Manufacturing.</td><td align='left'>11. The dead letter office.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>2. Household uses of electricity.</td><td align='left'>12. The clearing house.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>3. The Constitution of the United States. </td><td align='left'>13. Business.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>4. Why we celebrate the Fourth of July.</td><td align='left'>14. Honesty in business.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>5. The destruction of our forests.</td><td align='left'>15. Physicians should advertise.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>6. Europe.</td><td align='left'>16. Paper.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>7. The westernizing of China.</td><td align='left'>17. How an electric bell works.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>8. How railroads build cities.</td><td align='left'>18. Electrifying the railroads.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>9. The fire drill at school.</td><td align='left'>19. How to make candy.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>10. Education.</td><td align='left'>20. Vocational education in Germany.</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_155" id="Exercise_155"></a>Exercise 155—The Divisions of the Subject</b></div> + +<p>After you have selected your subject, decide into what +divisions it naturally falls. If it is of the proper length, it +probably will divide itself into two or three divisions. Each +of these will constitute one-half or one-third of your composition, +and within each division illustrations, reasons, and +explanatory details will appear. Arrange the divisions in +the order in which they naturally come, according to their +relative time of happening or according to their relative +importance, reserving the most important for the last.</p> + +<p>Sometimes this sort of division is difficult to make, because +a subject can frequently be treated from different points of +view, the point of view deciding the divisions. Sometimes +you will find that you have made a number of small divisions, +in each of which you can say only one or two sentences. +This will at once suggest that you have not found the main +parts of the subject, but have made unimportant divisions.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> +Again, it may seem that you cannot divide your subject +into satisfactory parts. In that case, you probably do not +know enough about it. Think about it again, and, if you +find that you really cannot divide it, choose another.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>Choose one of the following subjects. Is the title definite +and clear? If it is not, change it so that it will be. For +example, <i>Photography</i> (5) is not a definite title. No one +could attempt to explain the entire subject of photography +in a few minutes. A better title for a theme would be one +of the following: <i>How to Develop a Negative;</i> <i>How to Intensify +[</i>or<i> reduce] a Negative;</i> <i>Our Camera Club;</i> <i>The Photography +Exhibit at the Art Museum;</i> <i>Kinematography;</i> <i>Flash +Light Pictures without Smoke or Odor;</i> <i>The Conditions Necessary +for a Good Snap Shot Picture;</i> <i>The Advantages of Using +a Developing Machine;</i> <i>How My Camera Helped Pay for +My Vacation</i>. Can you suggest still others?</p> + +<p>After having selected your title, decide into what divisions +the subject naturally falls. For example, let us take (2) +below. <i>A Ball Game</i> is not a definite title. Instead, let us +choose <i>Last Saturday's Football Game</i>. As stated above, a +subject may be treated from different points of view, the +point of view deciding the divisions. Thus, in treating +<i>Last Saturday's Football Game</i>, we may divide:</p> + + +<div class='center'><i>a</i><br /> + +<span class="smcap">Last Saturday's Football Game</span><br /></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="section a"> +<tr><td align='right'>I. </td><td align='left'>The first quarter.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>II. </td><td align='left'>The second quarter.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>III. </td><td align='left'>The third quarter.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>IV. </td><td align='left'>The fourth quarter.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class='center'> +<i>b</i><br /> + +<span class="smcap">Last Saturday's Football Game</span><br /></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="section b"> +<tr><td align='right'>I. </td><td align='left'>The excitement for a week before the game.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>II. </td><td align='left'>The tension during the struggle.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>III. </td><td align='left'>The celebration after the game.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span></td></tr> +</table></div> +<div class='center'> +<i>c</i><br /> + +<span class="smcap">The Two Decisive Plays in Saturday's Game</span><br /> +</div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="section c"> +<tr><td align='left'>I. </td><td align='left'>The long forward pass.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>II. </td><td align='left'>The end run to the five-yard line.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Still other divisions may be made if we consider the subject +from the point of view of the teams or the players themselves. +Can you suggest any such divisions?</p> + +<p>In the same way choose one of the subjects given below. +Change it, if necessary. Then write out the topic of each +division in as few words as possible.</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1. An important electrical device.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">2. A ball game.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3. Getting dinner.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4. The aeroplane.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5. Photography.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6. How styles change.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">7. The back-to-the-farm movement.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8. Why oriental rugs are expensive.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">9. Wireless telegraphy.</span><br /> +10. The business course in this school.<br /> +</div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 156—The Outline</b></div> + +<p>If your theme consists of more than one division, before +you begin to speak or write you should prepare a definite +working plan or outline. It should include enough to +suggest the first sentence of each division and the more +important details within each. The outline will help you +in speaking or writing to arrange the topics so that they +will follow one another clearly. If you have an outline, +there will be much less danger of including details which +do not belong to the subject and of omitting details which +should appear.</p> + +<p>In the following very simple outlines notice the use of +indentation:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span></p> + +<div class='center'> +1<br /> + +<span class="smcap">The Problem of Keeping our Cities Clean</span><br /> +</div><div class='blockquot2'> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">I. The cleaning of streets.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>a</i>) In summer.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(1) The cost of sprinkling.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>b</i>) In winter.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(1) The cost of removing snow.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">II. The cleaning of alleys.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>a</i>) The disposal of garbage.</span><br /> +III. The smoke nuisance.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>a</i>) Smoke consumers.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>b</i>) Smoke inspection.</span><br /> +</div><div class='center'><br /> +2<br /> + +<span class="smcap">Public Gymnasiums</span><br /> +</div><div class='blockquot2'> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">I. Definition of a public gymnasium.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>a</i>) Location.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>b</i>) Equipment.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>c</i>) Management.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">II. Benefits to the public.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>a</i>) Keeps children off the streets.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(1) Congested districts.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>b</i>) Develops them physically.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>c</i>) Affords them pleasure.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(1) Outdoor and indoor games.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(2) Bathing at beaches connected with gymnasiums.</span><br /> +</div> + +<p>One more suggestion is in place here. In writing an +outline, be careful that you express similar subdivisions of +a topic by similar grammatical elements. For example, in +the first outline above, (<i>a</i>) under I is a phrase; (<i>b</i>) under I +should be a similar phrase. It would be incorrectly worded +<i>Winter</i> or <i>What the winter problem is</i>. What is the advantage +of such similarity?</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>Using the divisions you made for one of the subjects under +<a href="#Exercise_155">Exercise 155</a>, develop an outline for a theme.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 157</b></div> + +<p>Choose one of the following subjects; restrict it or expand +it, if necessary; select a proper title; write an outline; and +then write or deliver your composition, following your outline +closely. Notice that the shorter your title the more it +includes, and therefore the longer your composition must be +to deal adequately with the subject.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Giving talks before a class develops self-reliance.</p> + +<p>2. Most inventors would not have succeeded without perseverance.</p> + +<p>3. The more training a man has, the better chance he has to +succeed.</p> + +<p>4. Most rich men learned to save early.</p> + +<p>5. The value of courtesy in a retail business.</p> + +<p>6. The dangers of football.</p> + +<p>7. The various methods of heating a house.</p> + +<p>8. The sporting page often sells the newspaper.</p> + +<p>9. Educational features of the modern newspaper.</p> + +<p>10. Our national game.</p> + +<p>11. Baseball is a better game than football.</p> + +<p>12. The use of machinery has lowered the cost of manufactured +articles.</p> + +<p>13. How to prevent taking colds.</p> + +<p>14. Athletic contests develop courage.</p> + +<p>15. Qualities essential to good salesmanship.</p> + +<p>16. Our debate with ——.</p> + +<p>17. The qualities of a good street car advertisement.</p> + +<p>18. A good cartoon.</p> + +<p>19. Learning to swim.</p> + +<p>20. The trials of washing day.</p> + +<p>21. Birds as money savers.</p> + +<p>22. Birds as destroyers.</p> + +<p>23. Open air as a cure for tuberculosis.</p> + +<p>24. Making a raft.</p> + +<p>25. Every one should open a savings account.</p> + +<p>26. Laziness.</p> + +<p>27. Tennis is better than baseball.</p> + +<p>28. Our respiratory system.</p> + +<p>29. The bad effects of ridicule.</p> + +<p>30. The good effects of ridicule.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 158</b></div> + +<p>Recall one of the books that you have read recently. +Name two subjects that it suggests to you and that you +can talk about. Write a careful outline for each of them, +and be prepared to speak on one.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 159</b></div> + +<p>Name a subject taken from one of your studies, history +for example. Let it be definite enough so that you can tell +all the details that you know about it in a speech lasting +two or three minutes. Use examples and illustrations to +make the subject interesting and clear. Prepare an outline.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 160</b></div> + +<p>Reproduce an article that you have read in a current +magazine. Be careful that you make the material your +own before attempting to retell it. Do not under any +circumstances try to memorize the article. Understand +fully what it says, make an outline of the facts that you +wish to reproduce, and then give them as if they were your +own ideas. At the beginning of your speech tell the name +and date of the magazine from which you are taking the +facts.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 161</b></div> + +<p>As has been said, most of us get our ideas of what is +taking place in the world from the articles that we read in +current newspapers and magazines. We cannot always form +our opinion from what one newspaper on one day says of a +particular event. We must read what it says on successive +days and, if possible, consult other newspapers on the same +subject, for it is well known that not all newspapers are +non-partisan. If one in the city is known to be so, that is +the paper to read for the material for this exercise. Then, +if we can read what one of the magazines says on the same<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> +subject, our knowledge will probably be more definite and +more nearly true.</p> + +<p>Let the class be divided into different sections, representing +different kinds of news; for example, national, +local, foreign, and business news. Under national news, +you can perhaps find articles on national politics, legislative +measures being discussed at Washington, rumors of +war, immigration; under local news, anything pertaining +to the city or the state in which you live; under foreign +news, anything of interest to any of the other countries of +the world; under business news, the prices of food products, +strikes, panics, and their effect on business conditions. +These are but suggestions. Such topics change so rapidly +that nothing more definite can here be given.</p> + +<p>When you have been assigned to one of these divisions, +prepare a talk on a topic that you understand thoroughly. +Begin your talk with a clear statement of your subject, as +explained in <a href="#Exercise_140">Exercise 140</a>; amplify it by details or illustrations; +and end with a sentence of conclusion, forecasting +the future of your topic or restating what you have proved.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 162</b></div> + +<p>For a week follow the same current event as recorded in +the newspaper, taking notes as you read. Then choose +from all your material only those facts that belong strictly +to one topic. Write an outline, setting forth the facts in +logical order. Deliver the speech, following your outline +closely.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 163</b></div> + +<p>Let the class choose four or six members one week in +advance, who are to prepare a debate on a topic of current +interest. Let the other members of the class act as judges +or volunteer on either side, as the instructor may see fit. +Such debates should occur as often as possible.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 164</b></div> + +<p>About once a month devote a day to the production of a +class paper. Let the class choose a name. During the +first year let the items be developed into paragraphs. Longer +compositions should be reserved for the second year.</p> + +<div class='center'><span class="smcap">Suggestions for Articles for the Paper</span></div> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +1. A column of interesting business items clipped from leading papers.<br /> +2. An important news item that would make a good "story."<br /> +3. Original editorials on one or more of the following:<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;"><i>a.</i> Needs or improvements in city, school, or home.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;"><i>b.</i> Recent city news.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;"><i>c.</i> Business news.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;"><i>d.</i> State news.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;"><i>e.</i> National news.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;"><i>f.</i> Foreign news.</span><br /> +4. Personal experiences, amusing incidents, or anecdotes, preferably +of the business world.<br /> + +5. For sale advertisements, or "want ads" that the class would understand.<br /> +</div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 165</b></div> + +<p>Criticise the following outlines. Each topic is supposed +to represent a division in thought.</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Outlines"> +<tr><td align='center'>1</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'><span class="smcap">The Wheat Harvest</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>1. A group of reapers.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>2. Their costumes.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>3. The field.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>4. Starting the harvest.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>5. Carting the sheaves to the barn.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>6. The stacks.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>7. The field after the harvest.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'><br />2<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'><span class="smcap">The Tongue</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>1. What it is.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>2. It is a good thing.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>3. It instructs.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>4. Evils done by the tongue.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>5. Especially slander.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>6. Conclusion.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'><br />3</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'><span class="smcap">The Newspaper Strike</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>1. The cause.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">(<i>a</i>) Strikers want higher wages.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">(<i>b</i>) Poverty of the families of the strikers.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">(<i>c</i>) Police have to protect newsboys against strikers.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>2. Disadvantages.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">(<i>a</i>) Newspapers are losing business.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">(<i>b</i>) Newsboys sympathize with strikers.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>3. Riots.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">(<i>a</i>) Newsboys hurt and newspapers burned.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">(<i>b</i>) Police cannot watch all sections of city.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>4. Conclusion.</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XII</h2> + +<div class='chaptertitle'>PUNCTUATION</div> + + +<p><span class="smcap">When</span> we speak, we make our meaning clear by the expression +that we put into our words and sentences. Some sentences +we say all in one breath and with not much change in +emphasis from one word to the next. We may be pretty +sure that such a sentence is short and simple, with all its +elements arranged in their natural order. In this respect +compare the sentences given below.</p> + +<p>Notice that the following sentence is spoken as one word +group:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Steam and electricity are making one commercial community +of all nations.</p></div> + +<p>A part that is subordinate in idea is subordinate in tone; +as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Steam and electricity, <i>which are the greatest of all discoveries</i>, +are making one commercial community of all nations.</p></div> + +<p>In the usual order of the sentence the subject comes first. +Sometimes for emphasis a participial phrase or an adverbial +clause precedes the subject. Such inversion is always +indicated; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><i>If the grape crop is large</i>, the price of grapes is low.</p></div> + +<p>Sometimes a word or phrase is thrust into the sentence +to give clearness or force; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>If, <i>on the other hand</i>, the season is poor, the price of grapes is +high.</p> + +<p>What, <i>then</i>, determines the price of grapes?</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span></p> + +<p>We cannot become good speakers until we learn to subordinate +in tone those groups of words that are subordinate in +idea, and to bring out clearly those groups which, for one +reason or another, are emphatic. The same thing is true +in music. We cannot become good musicians until we learn +phrasing; that is, until we learn to group the notes to form +distinct musical ideas. But when we write our thoughts, +we cannot indicate the tone in which the words are spoken. +We must show in some other way which groups of words +belong together, which are important, and which are subordinate +in idea. For this purpose punctuation marks have +been invented. When we write, we unconsciously speak +the thoughts to ourselves; we hear the divisions between +the parts of ideas; and, if we understand punctuation, we +indicate the divisions.</p> + + +<div class='center'><b>Questions</b></div> + +<p>1. Why in writing and printing do we separate one word +from the next? In ancient writing this was not done.</p> + +<p>2. Why do we separate one sentence from the next?</p> + +<p>3. We use punctuation marks for the same reason. Explain.</p> + +<p>4. The word to keep in mind in punctuation is <i>separate</i>. +If two words belong together in idea, the two making one +idea, allow them to stand unseparated. If they give two +ideas, separate them by a mark of punctuation. What is +the difference in thought in the two sentences that follow?</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +(<i>a</i>) She is a pretty, energetic girl.<br /> +(<i>b</i>) She is a pretty energetic girl.<br /> +</div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 166—The Apostrophe (')</b></div> + +<p>The <i>apostrophe</i> (') is used—</p> + +<p>1. To show the possessive case of nouns (See <a href="#Exercise_82">Exercise 82</a>); +as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The <i>boy's</i> writing is excellent.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span></p> + +<p>2. To indicate the omission of one or more letters; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><i>I'll</i> attend to the matter.</p></div> + +<p>3. To show the plural of letters, figures, and words that +usually have no plural; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Your <i>3's</i> are too much like your <i>5's</i>, your <i>a's</i> like your <i>u's</i>.</p> + +<p>Don't use so many <i>and's</i>.</p></div> + +<p>Write sentences in each of which you use one of the following +words correctly:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 166"> +<tr><td align='left'>you're </td><td align='left'>we're </td><td align='left'>who's</td><td align='left'>they're</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>your</td><td align='left'>were</td><td align='left'>whose</td><td align='left'>there</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>it's</td><td align='left'>he's</td><td align='left'>don't</td><td align='left'>their</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>its</td><td align='left'>his</td><td align='left'>doesn't </td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Explain why the apostrophe is used in the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. I've received no reply.</p> + +<p>2. This month's sales exceed last month's by one thousand +dollars.</p> + +<p>3. Politics doesn't affect the matter very much.</p> + +<p>4. The mistake was caused by his making his 7's like his 9's.</p> + +<p>5. Have you received the treasurer's report? No, I haven't.</p></div> + +<p>Point out the mistakes in the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. For sale, A ladies fur coat.</p> + +<p>2. The boy's have gone skating.</p> + +<p>3. We wo'nt worry over the political situation.</p> + +<p>4. Lets decide now where were to spend our vacation.</p> + +<p>5. Dot your is and not your us.</p> + +<p>6. Is this book your's or her's?</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 167—Capitals</b></div> + +<p><i>Capitals</i> are used for—</p> + +<p>1. The first word of every sentence.</p> + +<p>2. The first word of every line of poetry.</p> + +<p>3. The first word of a quotation (See <a href="#Exercise_169">Exercise 169</a>).</p> + +<p>4. The first word of a formal statement or resolution; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Resolved, That women shall be given the right to vote.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span></p> + +<p>5. The first word of every group of words paragraphed +separately in an itemized list, as in an order for +merchandise.</p> + +<p>6. The pronoun <i>I</i> and the interjection <i>O</i> (not <i>oh</i>).</p> + +<p>7. The words <i>Bible</i> and <i>Scripture</i>, the books of the Bible, +all names applied to the Deity, and all personal pronouns +referring to Him.</p> + +<p>8. All proper nouns, proper adjectives, and words that are +considered proper nouns; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><i>a.</i> Names of the days of the week, holidays, and months +of the year, but not names of the seasons.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> North, South, etc., when they refer to sections of +the country, but not when they refer to a direction +or a point of the compass.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> Official titles or titles of honor when they are used +in connection with names, but not when they are +used without names; as,</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +Vice-President Roosevelt, ex-President Roosevelt.<br /> +Nominations are now in order for vice-president.<br /> +</div> + +<p><i>d.</i> Names of political parties.</p> + +<p><i>e.</i> Names of religious sects.</p> + +<p><i>f.</i> Names of important events or documents; as,</p> + +<div class='center'> +The Revolution, The Declaration of Independence.<br /> +</div> + +<p><i>g.</i> The salutation in a letter; as,</p> + +<div class='center'> +Dear Sir, Gentlemen.<br /> +</div> + +<p><i>h.</i> Words indicating relationship, when they are used +in connection with a proper name, or when used +alone as a name, but not when used with a possessive +pronoun; as,</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +We expect Aunt Ellen at four o'clock.<br /> +I expect my mother at four o'clock.<br /> +</div></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span></p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>9. The important words in the title of a book, play, or composition. +Prepositions, articles, and conjunctions are +not capitalized; as,</p> + +<div class='center'>The Call of the Wild.</div> + +<p>10. Such words as <i>Paragraph</i>, <i>Article</i>, or <i>Section</i>, when +accompanied with a number; as,</p> + +<div class="center">Paragraph 26, Article 3.</div> + +<p>11. See <a href="#Exercise_75">Exercise 75</a>.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 168</b></div> + +<p>The <i>period</i> (.) is used—</p> + +<p>1. To indicate the end of a declarative sentence; as,</p> + +<div class="center">The business is prosperous.</div> + +<p>2. To indicate an abbreviation; as,</p> + +<div class="center">The firm of Clark Bros. has opened a new office at 144 Pleasant +St., Erie, Pa.</div> + +<p>The <i>interrogation mark</i> (?) is used—</p> + +<p>To indicate the end of a sentence that asks a question; +as,</p> + +<div class="center">When did you order the goods?</div> + +<p>The <i>exclamation mark</i> (!) is used—</p> + +<p>To indicate the end of a sentence or other expression that +shows strong feeling; as,</p> + +<div class="center">Such demands are inhuman!</div> + +<p>Frequently, all that shows exactly how the writer wished +his thought to be understood is the punctuation. The +same words may express different ideas according to the +mark of punctuation that follows them. Read the following +to show the meaning that the writer wished to convey +by each. Explain the circumstances under which each might +have been spoken.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span></p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1. The price is too high.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">2. The price is too high!</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3. The price is too high?</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4. The crop will not be good. There'll be no corn.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5. Corn! There'll be no corn!</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6. You didn't tell him that.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">7. You didn't tell him that!</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8. You didn't tell him that?</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">9. You are enjoying yourself.</span><br /> +10. You are enjoying yourself?<br /> +11. You are enjoying yourself!<br /> +</div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_169" id="Exercise_169"></a>Exercise 169—Quotation Marks (" ")</b></div> + +<p>1. When a speaker's words are quoted exactly, they should +be enclosed in quotation marks. This is called a <i>direct +quotation</i>.</p> + +<div class="center">He said, "The business is growing."</div> + +<p>Notice that the word <i>said</i> is followed by a comma, and that +the quotation begins with a capital letter.</p> + +<p>2. If the quotation itself is a question, although it forms +part of a declarative sentence, it requires an interrogation +mark before the quotation mark; as,</p> + +<div class='center'> +Have you been waiting long?<br /> +She opened the door and said, "Have you been waiting long?"<br /> +</div> + +<p>3. The same applies to a quotation that requires an +exclamation mark; as,</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exclamation mark examples"> +<tr><td align='left'>Look!</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>He cried, "Look!"</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>4. When the words of explanation follow the quoted +words, the punctuation is as follows:</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) When the quotation is a declarative sentence, put a +comma after the quotation and begin the words of explanation +with a small letter; as,</p> + +<div class="center">"The business is growing," he said.</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span></p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) When the quotation is a question, conclude it with an +interrogation mark, and begin the words of explanation with +a small letter; as,</p> + +<div class="center">"Have you been waiting long?" she asked.</div> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) When the quotation is an exclamation, conclude it with +an exclamation mark, and begin the words of explanation +with a small letter; as,</p> + +<div class="center">"Look!" he cried.</div> + +<p>5. When the author's words of explanation interrupt the +speaker's words, the punctuation is as follows:</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) When the interrupted parts are not naturally separated +by any punctuation mark, the comma is used as follows:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Section 5"> +<tr><td align='left'>I do not believe that the report is true.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>"I do not believe," he said, "that the report is true."</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class='unindent'>Notice in what way the quotation marks show that the +words <i>he said</i> do not belong to the quoted words.</div> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) Whatever mark of punctuation would naturally appear +between the interrupted parts must be used; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>(1) I shall buy the Boston ferns; they seem to require but little care.</p> + +<p><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"I shall buy the Boston ferns," she said; "they seem to require but little +care."</span></p> + +<p>(2) Oh! The flames are higher!</p> + +<p><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Oh!" she cried. "The flames are higher!"</span></p></div> + +<p>4. Division into sentences is made within a quotation +just as elsewhere. When the thought ends, the sentence +must end. The different sentences, however, must not be +divided by quotation marks; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The train came in," said he, "half an hour ago. I do not +see them in the waiting room. I think they did not come."</p></div> + +<p>5. When a quotation is very long, consisting of several +paragraphs, quotation marks should be placed at the beginning +of the quotation, at the beginning of each succeeding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> +paragraph, and at the end of the quotation—not at the end +of each paragraph.</p> + +<p>6. When a quotation occurs within a quotation, the one +within is distinguished by single marks; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>John explained, "After I had told Mr. Brown how I thought +the work could be done more easily, he said, 'Thank you for your +suggestion.'"</p></div> + +<p>7. Any words quoted from a book or article, or any words +quoted with a special significance, such as slang, should be +enclosed in quotation marks; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The day of the salesman who is satisfied with the "good old +way" is fast passing.</p></div> + +<p>8. A formal question, statement, or resolution for a debate +is not enclosed in quotation marks; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The question we are to discuss is, Shall women vote?</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 170</b></div> + +<p>Punctuate the following, dividing into sentences wherever +the sense demands division:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Thank you for your suggestion said Mr. Brown</p> + +<p>2. Mr. Brown said thank you for your suggestion</p> + +<p>3. Thank you said Mr. Brown for your suggestion</p> + +<p>4. If you will ask the shipping clerk I volunteered I think +you can get definite information</p> + +<p>5. How can we enforce the law asked the man</p> + +<p>6. The law cried the man how can we enforce the law</p> + +<p>7. Tell me said the man how we can enforce the law</p> + +<p>8. Tell me this said the man how can we enforce the law</p> + +<p>9. The question before us is how can we enforce the law</p> + +<p>10. John whispered did you hear his mother say yes you may +go</p> + +<p>11. As I was walking along the river he continued I heard a +voice cry help</p> + +<p>12. Halt shouted the captain the bridge is down</p> + +<p>13. The captain shouted halt the bridge is down</p> + +<p>14. We cannot cross said the captain the bridge is down<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span></p> + +<p>15. The bridge is down said the captain and I fear there is no +other way to cross</p> + +<p>16. Is the bridge down asked the captain does no one know +another way to cross</p> + +<p>17. The captain said the bridge is down do you know another +way to cross</p> + +<p>18. What shall we do asked a soldier if the bridge is down</p> + +<p>19. Do cried the captain swim that's what we'll do</p> + +<p>20. As we were riding along spoke up one of the soldiers I heard +a farmer shout you fellows better try the bridge lower down</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 171—Indirect Discourse</b></div> + +<p>In the preceding exercise we saw different forms of direct +quotations, or direct discourse. In each case, the speaker's +words were quoted exactly. When the substance of the +thought is given in slightly different form, we have an +indirect quotation, or indirect discourse, in which no quotation +marks are used. An indirect quotation is usually a +subordinate clause depending on a word of <i>thinking</i>, <i>saying</i>, +<i>telling</i>, or the like. Indirect statements are usually introduced +by <i>that</i>, and indirect questions by <i>when</i>, <i>where</i>, <i>why</i>, +<i>whether</i>, <i>if</i>, <i>who</i>, <i>which</i>, <i>what</i>, and the like. When a sentence +is changed from direct to indirect discourse, the person and +usually the tense of the direct quotation are changed; as,</p> + +<div class='blockquot'> +<i>Direct:</i> He said, "I do not believe the report."<br /> +<i>Indirect:</i> He said that he did not believe the report.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Direct:</i> He said, "Germany is over-populated."<br /> +<i>Indirect:</i> He said that Germany is over-populated. (See <a href="#Exercise_107">Exercise 107</a>.)<br /> +<br /> +<i>Direct:</i> She said, "I did my work before I went to school."<br /> +<i>Indirect:</i> She said that she had done her work before she went to school.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Direct:</i> "I have finished my work," said the girl.<br /> +<i>Indirect:</i> She says that she has finished her work.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Direct:</i> "Why didn't he succeed?" I asked.<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span><i>Indirect:</i> I asked why he had not succeeded.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Direct:</i> "When may I go?" she inquired.<br /> +<i>Indirect:</i> She inquired when she might go.<br /> +</div> + +<p>In the following change the italicized parts to direct quotations. +Do not change the paragraphing.</p> + +<div class='center'>1<br /> + +<span class="smcap">The Seal's Lesson</span></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The baby seal said <i>that he could not swim</i>.</p> + +<p>His mother answered <i>that he could try</i>.</p> + +<p>The little fellow persisted <i>that he could never learn</i>.</p> + +<p>His mother looked at him sternly, and said <i>that every seal +must learn to swim</i>.</p> + +<p>He replied <i>that the water was cold and that he liked the sand +better</i>, but because his mother insisted, he slid into the water +whimpering.</p> + +<p>After he had gone a short distance, he turned around and called +out <i>that the water was much pleasanter than the sand</i>.</p> + +<p>His mother said <i>that she knew that it would be so</i>. She said +<i>that young people must do as they are told because they have not +had enough experience to judge for themselves</i>.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />2<br /> + +<span class="smcap">A Faithful Servant</span></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A certain old time king said <i>that he needed a servant who could +be depended upon</i>. He said he knew <i>that such a man is difficult to +secure, and in the hope of getting the right one, he would hire two</i>.</p> + +<p>When he had engaged them, he took them to a well and, showing +them a large basket, told them <i>to fill it with water</i>. He said +<i>that he would return at night to see what they had done</i>.</p> + +<p>The men were very much in earnest when they began the work, +but, after pouring five or six bucketfuls of water into the basket, +one of them stopped and said <i>that he did not see any use in doing +that because, as soon as he poured the water in, it ran out again, +and his time was lost</i>.</p> + +<p>His companion replied <i>that the kind of work that their master +gave them was no concern of theirs; that they were paid to do the +work; and, whether it seemed useful to them or not, they ought to +do it</i>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span></p> +<p>The first speaker said <i>that the other man could do as he pleased, +but, as for him, he did not expect to waste his time on such foolish +work</i>. Throwing his bucket down, he walked off.</p> + +<p>The one that was left continued at the work until about sunset, +when he had nearly emptied the well. Looking into the basket, +he saw something glittering. Stooping to look more closely, he +found in the basket a ring of great value which his bucket had +scooped up from the mud at the bottom of the well. He said +<i>that now he knew why the king had wanted the water poured into +the basket</i>.</p> + +<p>Shortly afterward, when the king came up with some of his +officers and saw the ring in the basket, he knew that the man +had obeyed him, and he said <i>that he knew he could trust him, +and as a reward for obedience he would make him master over other +servants</i>.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 172—The Paragraph in Dialogue</b></div> + +<p>In conversation the words of each speaker, together with +the author's words of explanation, form one paragraph. +Whenever the speaker changes, the paragraph changes; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Mimer," boldly said the god Odin to the gray old guardian +of the well where wit and wisdom lie hidden, "Mimer, let me +drink of the waters of wisdom."</p> + +<p>"Truly, Odin," answered Mimer, "it is a great treasure that +you seek and one which many have sought before but who, +when they knew the price of it, turned back."</p> + +<p>Then replied Odin, "I would give my right hand for wisdom +willingly."</p> + +<p>"Nay," rejoined the remorseless Mimer, "it is not your right +hand, but your right eye, you must give."—Keary: <i>The Heroes +of Asgard</i>.</p></div> + +<p>However, when one speaker talks at length, what he says +is formed into paragraphs according to the divisions into +which it falls. (See <a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">Chapter XIV</a>.)</p> + +<p>When a short quotation is simply part of a paragraph, it +is punctuated as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>This, however, was of use to me, the impression continuing on +my mind. Often when I was tempted to buy some unnecessary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> +thing, I said to myself, "Don't give too much for the whistle," +and I saved my money.</p></div> + +<p>Paragraph the following:</p> + +<div class='center'>1</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>On the next morning we had gone but a mile or two when we +came to an extensive belt of woods, through the midst of which +ran a stream, wide, deep, and of an appearance particularly +muddy and treacherous. In plunged the cart, but midway it +stuck fast. Then approached the long team and heavy wagon +of our friends, but it paused on the brink. "Now my advice +is,—" began the captain, who had been anxiously contemplating +the muddy gulf. "Drive on!" cried R. But Wright, the +muleteer, apparently had not as yet decided the point in his own +mind. He sat still in his seat on one of the shaft-mules, whistling +in a low, contemplative strain to himself. "My advice is," resumed +the captain, "that we unload; for I'll bet any man five +pounds that if we try to go through, we shall stick fast." "By +the powers, we shall stick fast!" echoed Jack, the captain's brother, +shaking his large head with an air of conviction. "Drive on! +drive on!" petulantly cried R. "Well," observed the captain, +turning to us as we sat looking on, "I can only give my advice; +and if people won't be reasonable, why, they won't, that's all!"—Parkman: +<i>The Oregon Trail</i>.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />2</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Rebecca walked up the lane and went to the side door. There +was a porch there. Seated in a rocking-chair, husking corn, was +a good-looking young man. Rebecca was a trifle shy at this +encounter, but there was nothing to do except explain her +presence; so she asked, "Is the lady of the house at home?." "I +am the lady of the house at present," said the stranger with a +whimsical smile. "What can I do for you?" "Have you ever +heard of the—would you like—er I mean, do you need any +soap?" queried Rebecca. "Do I look as if I do?" he responded +unexpectedly. Rebecca dimpled. "I didn't mean that; I have +some soap to sell; I mean I would like to introduce to you a very +remarkable soap, the best now on the market. It is called the—" +"Oh! I must know that soap," said the gentleman genially. +"Made out of pure vegetable fats, isn't it?" "The very purest,"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> +corroborated Rebecca. "No acid in it?" "Not a trace." "And +yet a child could do the Monday washing with it and use no +force?" "A babe," corrected Rebecca. "Oh! a babe, eh? +That child grows younger every year, instead of older—wise +child!"—Wiggin: <i>Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm</i>.</p></div> + +<p>Change the following from indirect to direct discourse and +paragraph:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>When Whittier went on his first fishing trip, it was a day in +early summer. The long afternoon shadows lay cool on the +grass. The boy said that the flowers seemed brighter and the +birds merrier than ever before. When they came to a bend in +the river, his uncle said that this was a good place to try. He +told the boy to throw out his line as he had seen others do and +move it on the surface of the water in imitation of the leap of a +frog. The boy did as he was told, but he caught no fish. His +uncle said that he should try again. Suddenly the bait sank out +of sight, and the boy cried out that he had caught a fish at last. +As he spoke, he pulled up a tangle of weeds. His uncle said that +he should try again, because fishermen must have patience. In +a moment the boy felt something tug at his line, and as he jerked +it up, he saw a fine pickerel wriggling in the sun. In uncontrollable +excitement he called out to his uncle, telling him to look +at the big pickerel. His uncle said that the boy didn't have +it yet, and as he spoke there was a splash in the water, and the +boy's hook hung empty. His uncle assured him that there were +more fish in the river, but the boy would not be comforted. His +uncle smiled shrewdly and told Whittier to remember never to +brag of catching a fish until it was on dry land. He said that +he had seen older people doing that in more ways than one, and +so making fools of themselves. He said that it was better not to +boast of doing a thing until it was done.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 173—The Comma (,)</b></div> + +<p><b>Rule 1.—The comma is used to separate a direct quotation +from the words of explanation.</b></p> + +<p>For illustration see the foregoing exercises.</p> + +<p>Write the following from dictation; then compare your +version with the original:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Literature, the ministry, medicine, the law, and other occupations +are hindered for want of men to do the work. To test this +statement thoroughly you need only hunt up a first-class editor, +reporter, business manager, foreman of a shop, mechanic, or +artist in any branch of industry and try to hire him. You will +find that he is already hired. He is sober, industrious, capable, +reliable, and always in demand. He cannot get a day's holiday +except by courtesy of his employer, or of his city, or of the great +general public. But if you need idlers, shirkers, half-instructed, +unambitious, and comfort-seeking editors, reporters, lawyers, +doctors, and mechanics apply anywhere.—<i>Mark Twain.</i></p></div> + +<p><b>Rule 2.—The comma is used to separate the members of +a series.</b></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 174</b></div> + +<p>Divide the following into sentences and supply the necessary +commas:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Abraham Lincoln was a tall strong powerfully built boy he +could lift a load cut down a tree or build a fence more quickly +than any one else in the neighborhood his perseverance in his +boyhood helps us to appreciate the firm true steady hand that +guided our country through its great crisis Lincoln unceasingly +showed his wise brain his great courage and his kindness of heart +his character was not made in a day nor a month nor a year it +was built up after years of yearning years of striving and years +of hard work.</p></div> + +<p>In the above point out the instances where the comma +is used—</p> + +<p>1. When several nouns follow one another, all being in +the same case.</p> + +<p>2. When several adjectives follow one another, all modifying +the same noun.</p> + +<p>3. When a succession of phrases modifies the same noun.</p> + +<p>This kind of succession is called a <i>series</i>. Each new member +gives a new idea, the comma being used to help the +reader to separate one from the next with ease. Notice that +the comma is used between the last two members before +the coördinate conjunction as well as between the other +members.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'>2</div> + +<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir:<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> + +<p>You can make no mistake in buying BCL Power Co. bonds now +the company supplies power to mines and towns of Colorado +Utah and Idaho it furnishes electric light and power to Ophir +Ouray Ames Pandora and other towns in Colorado in Utah it +supplies light to Mescal Eureka Provo Logan and Bingham it +also furnishes power for the street railway systems of Salt Lake +City Farmington and Ogden.</p> + +<p>The bonds offer such good security good interest and ready +convertibility that we expect our allotment to be heavily oversubscribed +will you therefore send us your order before Monday</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Yours truly,<br /> +</div></div> + +<div class='center'><br />3</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Imagine the scene: a little hollow in the prairie forming a +perfect amphitheater the yellow grass and wild oats grazed short +a herd of horses staring from the slope I myself standing in the +middle like a ring-master in a circus and this wonderful horse +performing at his own free will. He trotted powerfully he +galloped gracefully he thundered at full speed he lifted forelegs +to welcome he flung out hind legs to repel he leaped as if springing +over bayonets he pranced and curvetted as if he were the pretty +plaything of a girl and finally he trotted up and snuffed about +me—just out of reach.</p></div> + +<div class='center'>4</div> + +<div class="blockquot">Dear Madam:<a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> + +<p>Our Style Book shows you the best of the season's styles for +ladies misses and children it contains illustrations of the latest +kinds of long coats of skirts in the most fashionable cuts and +materials of hats that are new and particularly becoming and of +dresses with the newest sleeves and collars we are especially sure +that you will like our waists they are artistic in design stylish +in cut and excellent in workmanship they are selected from the +leading fashion centers are the creations of the best costumers and +always have individuality twenty years of selling goods by mail +have given us experience skill and knowledge that make it certain +we can please you.</p> + +<p>The enclosed coupon is good for fifty cents on a five dollar order +one dollar and twenty-five cents on a ten dollar order and two<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> +dollars on an order for fifteen dollars or more this offer expires +September 30.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Yours truly,<br /> +</div></div> + +<div class='center'><br />5</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Increased wages shorter hours and perhaps lower efficiency +for the hours worked have done more to raise the cost of living +than almost anything else this higher cost of production we +see on the farm in the factory in transportation in merchandising +and even in domestic service we cannot double the cost of +excavating brick-laying plumbing and decorating and expect not +to double the rents that we must pay the cost of building has +increased as the demands of laborers increased as their hours of +work decreased and as their wages advanced the materials that go +into a building the transportation of that material the labor of +assembling it and the labor of fashioning it into a building have +all advanced in price.</p> + +<p>Moreover, high living has a great deal to do with the high cost +of living because it has made most of us think that we must +have more conveniences more luxuries more clothes and more +amusements than our fathers had with a return to the thrift +of our fathers with a return to their desire for work we shall +no longer feel the grip of the high cost of living there is a real +danger to our nation in our extravagance in our indifference to +cost in our sweep toward ease and idleness and in our growing +antipathy for work.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 175</b></div> + +<p>Write five sentences illustrating series of words; five +illustrating series of phrases; and five illustrating series of +clauses.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_176" id="Exercise_176"></a>Exercise 176</b></div> + +<p>Write the following from dictation:</p> + +<div class='center'>1<br /> + +<span class="smcap">The Government's Laundry</span></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Some of the paper money in circulation is so dirty that one +feels the need of gloves in handling it, and the suspicion that it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> +is germ laden might well be verified. It has often been said that +money spreads contagious diseases, nor can such a statement be +questioned when one remembers that money goes into every kind +of home and is handled by many infected persons. The government +has long felt that something should be done to lessen this +means of spreading disease, and a machine has finally been invented +that will wash and iron the dirtiest bills until they look +almost as fresh as new ones. The entire cost of operating the +device is hardly fifty cents for each thousand bills, but it is estimated +that it will save the government as much as a million +dollars a year.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />2<br /> + +<span class="smcap">Luck and Labor</span></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Luck is ever waiting for something to turn up; labor with +keen eyes and strong will turns something up. Luck lies in bed +and wishes the postman would bring him news of a fortune; +labor turns out at six o'clock and with busy pen or ringing hammer +lays the foundation of a competence. Luck whines; labor +whistles. Luck relies on chance; labor on character.—<i>Cobden.</i></p></div> + +<p>The selections given above illustrate the compound sentence. +Notice the thought expressed in these sentences. +There is usually an idea of balance or contrast, and the two +halves of the sentence express the two halves of the idea. +The two members are usually distinct enough to require +a comma before the conjunction. If the conjunction is +omitted, a semicolon must separate the two members, as in +the second selection above.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><b>Rule 3.—The comma is used before the coördinate conjunction +in a compound sentence. If the conjunction is +omitted, a semicolon must be used.</b></p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 177</b></div> + +<p>Separate the following into compound sentences and +punctuate:</p> + +<div class='center'><br />1</div> +<div class='blockquot'> +<p>Sawdust as a fire extinguisher sounds absurd but recent experiments +in Boston have proved it to be successful in quenching fires<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> +in tanks of oil and other inflammable liquids the Boston experiments +were conducted with tanks of burning varnish but the same +principles seem to apply to tanks of burning oil the floating sawdust +forms a blanket that shuts off the air from the flames and the +lack of oxygen causes the fire to die out the experiments were tried +with both wet and dry sawdust and the dry material seemed to +extinguish the fire as quickly as the wet.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />2</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Select the kind of business that suits your natural inclination +and temperament some men are naturally mechanics others have +a strong aversion to machinery because they do not understand +it some men are imaginative others are purely practical some +prefer active work others like sedentary employment all should +select those occupations that suit them best.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />3</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Certain Western railroads have long felt the need of a new +material for sleepers and they have been experimenting for some +time past with cocobolo or Japanese oak the wood is so hard +that it is almost impossible to drive spikes into it and screwed +spikes in bored holes are used these sleepers will cost a trifle more +than those made from American oak but they are expected to +last twenty-five or thirty years the reason for experimenting with +foreign woods is that native oak is becoming scarce and it is +deemed wise to search in time for a substitute.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />4</div> + +<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir: + +<p>We wrote you on the third but as yet no word has come of your +decision in regard to the investment you were considering at +475 Second Avenue let us have your order and we shall at once +prepare the contract of sale the building is an especially attractive +offering at $9,500 and we feel sure that you will find the +return from it unusually large.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Yours very truly,<br /> +</div></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 178</b></div> + +<p>When an adverbial clause or a participial adjective phrase +is put at the beginning of a sentence to secure emphasis,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> +it is called an <i>initial</i> clause or participial phrase. A comma +separates it from the independent clause to help the reader +to see where the subordinate idea ends and where the main +idea begins. Rewrite the following from dictation, noticing +the punctuation of initial elements:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>If a city is to be kept in good condition, every citizen must +pay his share of the expense. If the dreadful epidemics are to +be exterminated, there must be a good board of health to see +that everything is kept sanitary. When the health officers do +their work well, the health of the city improves. In order that +the decrees of the health department and of the courts may be +enforced, there must be a good police department. Besides +having these advantages, cities need good streets and good schools. +Because all of these good things cost a great deal of money, high +taxes must be levied to pay for them.</p></div> + +<p><b>Rule 4.—An initial clause or participial phrase must be +set off from the rest of the sentence by a comma.</b></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_179" id="Exercise_179"></a>Exercise 179</b></div> + +<p>Punctuate the following:</p> + +<div class='center'><br />1</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Although cotton seed used to be considered worse than rubbish +there now come from it every year millions of dollars in profit. +Formerly if it was not hauled away to rot it was usually dumped +into a neighboring stream and there it did much harm even if +we had the space it would be impossible to explain all the products +now made from the seed paper and an excellent meal for cattle +may be made from the hulls but the most important products +are made from the kernels besides making meal for cattle they are +readily converted into crude oil according to the degree of refining +that it receives this oil may appear as oil for miner's lamps lard +compounds or salad oils as an illustration of the way in which +modern manufacturers utilize former waste products the cotton +seed is supreme.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />2</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>When you sell your old clothes to the ragman do you know +that they come back to you as writing paper because the metal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> +buttons buckles and hooks that are often left on the garments +cannot be converted into paper they used to be a source of +annoyance to the papermaker although the cloth sorters tried to +remove them before the garments went into the pulp vats some +were overlooked if any found their way into the pulp they tore +holes in the paper and often damaged the rollers in order that +such danger may be avoided the pulp is now passed through a +series of magnetized rakes as the rakes are passed to and fro every +bit of metal clings to them when a quantity of such bits of iron +is collected it is sent to the foundry to return to us in many new +forms.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />3</div> + +<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir: + +<p>Investigating your complaint of the fifth instant we found that +the furniture which you ordered on the tenth of last month left +our factory on the fifteenth if all had gone well you would have +received the articles on or about the twentieth as you surmised +the delay in the arrival of the goods is due to a mistake on the part +of the railroad company although the goods were properly billed +to you they were allowed to go on to Columbus if you do not +receive them within ten days' time let us hear from you again.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Yours truly,<br /> +</div></div> + +<div class='center'><br />4</div> + +<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir: + +<p>Complying with your request of the 10th inst. I am sending +you particulars of the property which I wish to sell as I told you +when I was in your office last week the price at which I am holding +the building is $20,000 if the buyer prefers not to assume the +mortgage of $10,000 I think I can get the mortgagee to agree to +accept present payment for the note that he holds against me unless +the buyer agrees to pay the unpaid taxes for last year and the +assessments levied for improvements already made I shall not +consider a sale.</p> + +<p>After all preliminary arrangements are made if you will prepare +a contract of sale and forward it to me I will have the abstract +brought down to date and secured by a guaranty policy.</p> + +<p>Since I presume that the prospective purchaser has examined +the property and is satisfied to pay the price for it in its present +condition I would suggest that you do nothing more toward +securing bids for rebuilding the porches.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Yours very truly,<br /> +</div></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 180</b></div> + +<p>Write five sentences containing initial participial phrases.</p> + +<p>Write five sentences containing initial adverbial clauses.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 181</b></div> + +<p>The comma is used to separate the month from the year, +the city from the county or state, the company from the +place in which it is operated, or the like; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>In December, 1912, I wrote to you from Seattle, Washington.</p></div> + +<p>This use of the comma indicates that words have been +omitted, the sentence above really meaning,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>In December of the year 1912 I wrote to you from Seattle in +the state of Washington.</p></div> + +<p>The same use is shown in such sentences as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Of the three stenographers Mary received fifteen dollars a +week; Ellen, twelve; Susan, ten.</p></div> + +<p><b>Rule 5.—The comma is used to indicate the omission of +words.</b></p> + +<p>Supply the necessary commas in the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The bonds will be taken over on or before October 1 1934.</p> + +<p>2. On January 1 1913 the company had outstanding $4,000,000 +of stock of the par value of one dollar a share.</p> + +<p>3. The offices are at Salt Lake City Utah.</p> + +<p>4. The transaction was officially conducted between the +Power Bond & Share Co. New York and the Pacific Power Co. +Tacoma Washington.</p> + +<p>5. A late announcement of the Census Bureau tells us that +the center of population of the United States is four and one-quarter +miles south of Unionville Monroe County Indiana.</p> + +<p>6. Many mechanical devices in common use may be traced +to the patterns furnished by nature. Thus the hog suggests the +plow; the butterfly the ordinary hinge; the toadstool the umbrella; +the duck the ship; the fungus growth on trees the bracket.</p> + +<p>7. The per capita saving in the banks of the United States<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> +in 1820 was twelve cents; in 1830 fifty-four cents; in 1840 eighty-two +cents; in 1850 $1.87; in 1860 $4.75; in 1870 $14.26; in 1880 +$16.33; in 1890 $24.75; in 1900 $31.78; in 1910 $45.05; and it +is still increasing.</p> + +<p>8. The population in 1820 was 10,000,000 and in 1910 +90,000,000.</p> + +<p>9. Mexico draws about 55% of her imports from the United +States; Nicaragua about 50%; the other Central American states +from 35 to 75%; Venezuela 31%; Cuba 52%.</p> + +<p>10. In one decade Germany's exports to Latin-America have +shown an increase of 222%; those of the United Kingdom an +increase of 115%; and those of the United States an increase +of 130%.</p></div> + +<p>Write five sentences illustrating Rule 5.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 182—Explanatory Expressions</b></div> + +<p>There are a number of expressions—words, phrases, +and clauses—which are inserted into the sentence for +clearness or emphasis. They add a bit of explanation but +are not absolutely necessary. In other words, they might +be omitted, and the sentence would still be clear. These +may be of various kinds but are all similar in use. They +should be set off by commas so that the reader will +easily see that they are subordinate to the main idea of the +sentence.</p> + +<p>A. The <i>appositive</i> is a word or a group of words inserted +lo explain the noun that it follows. (See <a href="#Exercise_80">Exercise 80</a>.)</p> + +<p>Explain the use of the commas in the following sentences:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. William E. Curtis, <i>one of the world's ablest newspaper correspondents</i>, +in his will expressed the hope that his grandson would +continue his life-work, <i>a recital of the good that men had done and +not of the crimes they had committed</i>.</p> + +<p>2. The new device, the adding machine, has greatly lessened +office drudgery.</p> + +<p>3. Wall street, the great center of business life, fixes stock +prices.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span></p> + +<p>4. The people in moderate circumstances, the excellent middle +class of a country, suffer most from the strain of high prices.</p> + +<p>5. The Montreal Tramways Company, the first company to +introduce pay-as-you-enter cars, started its business in the winter +of 1861 with a very simple equipment, two horse-drawn sleighs.</p> + +<p>6. The Early Gem musk melon, one of the best shipping melons +grown, is a cross between the Rocky Ford and the Emerald +Green varieties.</p> + +<p>7. In making up our collections and bargain offers for this +year, we have arranged to put up a "Surprise Box," one hundred +packages of selected vegetable and flower seeds.</p> + +<p>8. The Chinese Giant, a new variety of sweet pepper, produces +branching plants about two feet in height.</p> + +<p>9. Amundsen, the discoverer of the south pole, is a native of +Norway.</p></div> + +<p><b>Rule 6.—The comma is used to separate an appositive +from the rest of the sentence.</b></p> + +<p>Write five sentences illustrating the use of the comma to +set off an appositive.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 183—Explanatory Expressions</b></div> + +<p>Similar in use to appositives are—</p> + +<p>B. Words, phrases, or clauses that separate the subject +from the predicate verb, the verb from its object, or the +like.</p> + +<p>In the natural order of the sentence the verb immediately +follows the subject and the object follows the verb. When, +for the purpose of explanation, something is inserted between +the two, it should be set off from the rest of the sentence +by commas. Words that are thus inserted are called appositive +or parenthetical expressions and are illustrated in +the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>In Ohio and Kentucky enterprising individuals, <i>evidently taking +the suggestion from the popular rural delivery service</i>, have established +ice cream routes. Ice cream wagons travel the country roads +at stated times so that, <i>with no more trouble than is required to +answer the postman's whistle</i>, dwellers on the farms can now secure<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> +the hot weather luxury at reasonable prices. The plan, <i>so far as +one can tell from present indications</i>, gives promise of meeting +with great success.</p></div> + +<p><b>Rule 7.—Parenthetical expressions should be set off by +commas.</b></p> + +<p>Punctuate the following:</p> + +<div class='center'>1</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The politics of the city as well as those of the nation must be +kept clean. The most intelligent men of the community not the +least intelligent should make our political speeches and be our +political leaders. The very opposite we must confess is what we +see too often. Many business men steadily pursuing their own +ends during the day feel that they cannot devote time to politics. +We need not search far to discover that too many of them even +if they have the time do not care to give it. At election the most +influential business and professional men either through lack of +interest or through laziness stay at home instead of going to the +polls. The men who are elected in nine cases out of ten are not +fit to hold office. The blame belongs every one will agree to those +who do not vote.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />2</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>England as most people know is becoming vastly interested +in the production of cotton in the Soudan. This state of affairs +for more reasons than one is a matter of interest to the American +manufacturer as well as to the American cotton planter. Egyptian +cotton ranking next to our own sea-island in length and +strength of fiber is wanted because of the brilliant finish it gives. +For the manufacture of fine goods including sateens India linens +and mercerized goods as well as for mixing with silk it has been +found very valuable. Cotton growers expect that the enlargement +of the Assouan dam will eventually redeem about a million +acres from the desert in Lower Egypt and although not more than +half will probably be planted to cotton it will increase Egypt's +output about twenty-five per cent. Our Department of Agriculture +after having experimented for years has developed and +acclimated in California a variety of Egyptian cotton superior +several experts say to the real Egyptian. It now rests with the +planters any one can see to decide whether American manufacturers +will get their fine cotton at home or abroad.—<i>The Wall +Street Journal.</i></p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span></p> + +<div class='center'><br />3</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>For several reasons some of them certainly unworthy people on +both sides of the Atlantic are talking of the perils of a "yellow" +invasion. It is true that in the past various invasions have been +attended with evil but civilization has passed on into an age +when migrations even the mightiest that the world has seen are +taking place silently and steadily for the good of all. There is +no reason to suppose that the overflow and interflow of nations +heretofore synonymous with the progress of humanity should +bring to us anything but good. Commerce is to lead the van in +the new movement of the nations as it has in the past and the +merchant consciously or unconsciously is going to anticipate and +guide the statesman.—<i>The Commercial and Financial Chronicle.</i></p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />4</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The prevailing spirit at least among a certain class of young +business men seems to be that the saving of little things in the +course of the day consumes time entirely out of proportion to the +value of the things saved but like all general rules it is carried too +far by young men who could hardly employ their time to better +advantage than in saving good though minor materials that +would otherwise be lost. The man who originated the idea probably +found it correct for himself but like all principles catering +to indifference regarding details the idea is too readily adopted +by many young men who can ill afford its practice. No one +wishes a man to be parsimonious but he should not allow anything +to be wasted which can with a reasonable exercise of effort be +saved.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 184—Explanatory Expressions</b></div> + +<p>C. <i>Independent elements</i> are words, phrases, or clauses that +have no direct grammatical relation with any other word +in the sentence. They are really a kind of parenthetical +expression, but have less connection with the sentence than +those given under B.</p> + +<p>The following is an argument against the trusts. The +italicized expressions are independent elements. What different +kinds do you discover?</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Gentlemen</i>, the big problem before us to-day, <i>therefore</i>, is the +trusts. Shall the people control the trusts, or shall the trusts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> +control the people? <i>To state the question differently</i>, shall we all +continue to keep a voice in government, or shall we turn our +power over into the hands of a few and let their word be law? +This centralizing of power, <i>by the way</i>, was the evil men tried to +remedy by forming republics, and shall we Americans, <i>do you +think</i>, be willing to sacrifice all that has been gained for us of +liberty? <i>The answer being self-evident</i>, let us proceed. It seems +that the little violator of law can be punished; the big violator +cannot be, or, <i>at any rate</i>, is not punished. The trusts, <i>most people +know</i>, are formed to destroy competition. Their reason for +destroying competition, <i>evidently</i>, is to swell profits by charging +all that the trade will bear. The trust, <i>finally</i>, is not a method +of doing business, but a scheme for levying tribute.</p></div> + +<p><b>Rule 8.—Independent elements are separated from the +rest of the sentence by commas.</b></p> + +<p>Punctuate the following:</p> + +<div class='center'>1</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<div class='right'> +<span class="smcap">New York</span>, May 12, 19—.<br /></div> +Mr. Thomas R. Stevenson,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">5010 Prospect Ave.,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">Milwaukee, Wis.</span><br /> + +Dear Sir:<br /> + + +<p>You are no doubt now planning your summer vacation before +you make any new plans however consider the opportunity that +we are offering you to see a new and marvelously beautiful world +for little more very likely than the cost of an ordinary vacation +at the summer hotel to which you usually go.</p> + +<p>The idea of summer travel in the Tropics it may be is new to +you comparatively few people unfortunately have yet awakened +to its possibilities they do not realize at least not fully that the +climate in Jamaica Panama and the Central and South American +countries is practically the same throughout the year moreover +the transportation rates are much lower than they are in the +North and the incidental expenses of travel such as carriage fare +and the cost of curios are considerably less rough weather too is +almost unknown in the summer.</p> + +<p>Possibly as you live on the shores of Lake Michigan you have +been considering a week's cruise of the great lakes at an expense +certainly of $40 or more and along coasts that you have seen +doubtless many times before we offer a number of trips varying<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> +in length from twelve to twenty-four days and in cost from $50 +to $130 to Jamaica Panama and Central and South America thus +for ten dollars more you may sail twice as long pass shores much +more beautiful visit cities far more strange and return with a +new almost magical store of memories.</p> + +<p>You are wondering perhaps how it is that we can offer these +remarkably low rates the reason briefly told is that our ships +carry an exceptionally large amount of freight however do not +think merely because our ships carry freight that they are not +splendidly equipped for passenger travel on the other hand they +are so luxuriously furnished that they are especially fitted for +tropical cruises you are missing an unusual opportunity we assure +you if you do not more fully investigate our offer.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Yours very truly,<br /> +</div></div> + +<div class='center'><br />2</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>We are learning year by year that as a rule financial independence +cannot be secured by most men except by saving the +savings bank is of course the first place to invest savings because +it will receive small sums and pay an interest on them when a +man's savings however have reached $1000 for example what +shall he do with his money he has not the time or the knowledge +probably to watch his investments he wishes therefore +to put his money where it will be safe where it will earn a fair +rate of interest and if possible where he can on short notice +convert it into cash.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />3</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A man is an investor usually at least by virtue of his savings +a woman on the other hand invests because she has received a +legacy this may take the form of course of property securities +cash or life insurance it is the function of sound investment +most people know to surround funds of this nature with strong +security the selection of conservative investments it is evident +must be made with care those companies naturally that deal +in conservative securities are the ones a prospective investor +should consult.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />4</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Not long ago the editor of a financial journal received a letter +of inquiry from a woman she had she said only two thousand +dollars if she invested it as some of her friends had advised her +to do in a well-known security she could not live on the proceeds<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> +she had consequently made a connection with a brokerage house +and was making a living by buying and selling speculative stocks +her list by the way showed a profit of $500 in four months what +she wanted to know of course was how she could make the gain +a second time in effect she was told to take her profits and run +as fast as she could she will not in all probability take the +advice and in a few months possibly weeks she will write again +for help in rescuing her last few hundred dollars she will have +learned at last that the way to keep her money is to save it but +she will not by that time in all likelihood have any money to save.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_185" id="Exercise_185"></a>Exercise 185—Explanatory Expressions</b></div> + +<p>D. The <i>explanatory relative clause</i>.</p> + +<p>Similar to the appositive is the explanatory relative clause. +Like an appositive, it is inserted into the sentence for the +purpose of explanation and is separated from the rest of the +sentence by commas. Because of this similarity, it is sometimes +called an appositive relative clause.</p> + +<p>Great care must be taken in punctuation to distinguish +a clause that may be omitted from the sentence without +destroying the meaning from one that may not be omitted. +The appositive clause may be omitted. A restrictive clause, +because it restricts the meaning of the word it modifies, may +not be omitted. Because it is needed for the sake of clearness, +it is not separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. +To distinguish an appositive clause from a restrictive +clause, the former is called a non-restrictive clause.</p> + +<p>Notice the difference between the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The Commonwealth Edison Company, <i>which controls the +electric light and power supply of Chicago</i>, was organized in 1907 +by the consolidation of the Chicago Edison Company and the +Commonwealth Electric Company.</p></div> + +<p>The sentence makes complete sense without the relative +clause.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>2. The concern <i>that controls the electric light and power supply +of Chicago</i> is the Commonwealth Edison Company.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span></p> + +<p>The relative clause must be used to understand the +sentence.</p> + +<p>In (1) the relative clause gives an additional idea. In (2) +it limits or restricts the meaning of <i>the concern</i>. The non-restrictive +clause is shown in (1), the restrictive clause in (2).</p> + +<p>Dictation to illustrate non-restrictive clauses:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>It is estimated that Chicago annually uses 93,450,000 gallons +of milk, for which it pays over $28,000,000. To supply this +amount 120,000 cows are needed, which are owned by 12,000 +dairy farms. Health officers conduct a systematic dairy farm +inspection, which has for its purpose the exclusion of diseased +milk. Farm owners, who formerly objected to the inspection, now +see that cleanliness is profitable. Authorities have discovered +that milk, which easily absorbs germs, is dangerous except when +produced under sanitary conditions, and now dairies are allowed +to sell only clean, pure milk, which is milk given by a healthy +cow.</p></div> + +<p>Phrases as well as clauses may be restrictive. In the +following sentences decide whether the italicized expressions +are restrictive or non-restrictive. State whether they +are phrases or clauses. Do any of the sentences need +commas?</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The man <i>wearing the brown coat</i> is my brother.</p> + +<p>2. My brother bought a new coat <i>which is brown</i>.</p> + +<p>3. The lesson <i>that I take at nine o'clock</i> is English.</p> + +<p>4. In English <i>which I take at nine o'clock</i> we are studying +punctuation.</p> + +<p>5. I am going to work in every city <i>that I visit</i>.</p> + +<p>6. I am going to work in any city <i>where I can find employment</i>.</p> + +<p>7. I am going to work in Denver <i>where my uncle lives</i>.</p> + +<p>8. The house <i>on the hill</i> is the oldest in town.</p> + +<p>9. The house <i>that is the oldest in town</i> is used as a museum.</p> + +<p>10. The Franklin Museum <i>which occupies the oldest house in +town</i> is a very interesting place.</p> + +<p>11. The town museum is the place <i>that I like to visit</i>.</p> + +<p>12. The chimney <i>that was blown down last night in the storm</i> +should have been mended long ago.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span></p> + +<p>13. The old ruined tower <i>which has long been a picturesque +sight in the village</i> was blown down last night.</p> + +<p>14. We counted ten chimneys <i>that were blown down last night</i>.</p> + +<p>15. The stenography system <i>that I studied</i> is Munson's.</p> + +<p>16. I think she uses Munson's <i>which she considers a good system +of stenography</i>.</p> + +<p>17. Last year I pursued a course in stenography <i>which I enjoyed +very much</i>.</p> + +<p>18. The book <i>that we use in class</i> has a brown cover.</p> + +<p>19. The only milk <i>that is fit to drink</i> comes from a clean dairy.</p> + +<p>20. Systematic inspection has been carried on <i>which has +resulted in securing better milk</i>.</p></div> + +<p><b>Rule 9.—A non-restrictive clause should be separated +from the rest of the sentence by commas.</b></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_186" id="Exercise_186"></a>Exercise 186</b></div> + +<p>Punctuate the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. We have an enormous crop of cotton the value of which is +estimated at one billion dollars.</p> + +<p>2. "The root of the mail order evil is the idea which the +retail mail order houses have been able somehow to instill into +the minds of the buying public that the local merchants ask too +much for their goods."</p> + +<p>3. Mr. Hilton who was sales manager at that time induced +the company to adopt this system.</p> + +<p>4. The lecture will be delivered by Mr. Brenton who is the +head of the advertising department of Whitlock & Co.</p> + +<p>5. Our dog whose fur was wet by his plunge into the lake +came running toward us.</p> + +<p>6. Genevieve who had always been the leader in the games +was not present.</p> + +<p>7. A late product of the brain of George Westinghouse who +was the inventor of the air brake and numerous electrical devices +is an air spring for automobiles. This little article has been +patented by Mr. Westinghouse who has the sole ownership. The +spring which has already proved popular with automobile owners +fits over the end of the regular spring and "makes good roads +out of bad ones."</p> + +<p>8. Careful selection of investments upon which the safety +of your money depends is often difficult. Careful watching of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> +investments which is fully as essential is much harder. Let us +tell you about our Investment Service which does this watching +for you and keeps you fully protected.</p> + +<p>9. As a direct result of the conference between the railroad +and steamship interests of the South-Atlantic and Gulf cotton +ports which was held recently at Hot Springs Va. an organization +which will be known as the South Atlantic and Steamship +Cotton Inspection Bureau has been created. The bureau will +have a chief inspector who will supervise the conduct of its business +at all ports and will arrange for the employment of the inspectors. +According to the rules and regulations copies of which +have been received by the cotton agencies and the export departments +of the various New Orleans firms any bale that shows +external damage from water mud bad bagging or other causes +must be condemned and its condition noted and reported.</p> + +<p>10. How would you like to wear a hat that has been handed +down through six generations in each of which it was a treasured +possession? The Italian peasants who love finery are proud to +do that very thing. Very few of the poorer people who live in +Italy own a hat. When you see a beautifully woven Leghorn hat +which is also very dirty on the head of a little peasant child you +may be pretty sure that she is celebrating her birthday by wearing +the family heirloom. These hats which are sometimes willed +to a favorite relative and which in some instances go the round +of the family are considered almost priceless. It is a frequent +sight along the dusty roads outside the little towns to see untidy +old women who are sauntering along twisting twine as they go +all vanity under the flopping brim of an antiquated hat. This is +almost the only souvenir that tourists' money cannot buy.—<i>The +Chicago Tribune.</i></p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 187—Explanatory Expressions</b></div> + +<p>E. When the subordinate element that comes at or near +the close of the sentence gives an <i>additional</i> idea, following +the more or less complete idea in the rest of the sentence, +it should be set off by a comma; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A signature clerk will easily recognize any alteration in a signature, +<i>although thousands of checks pass through his hands daily</i>.</p> + +<p>He gave a statement of the affairs of the company, <i>explaining +that he wished to make a loan</i>.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>Rule 10.—A terminal adverbial clause or participial +phrase giving an additional idea should be set off from the +rest of the sentence by a comma.</b></p> + +<p>Punctuate the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Popular-priced goods are the safest for a retail stock however +you consider the subject.</p> + +<p>2. A sheriff seldom finds large quantities of popular-priced +goods on hand when he comes to take possession of any retail +store although he usually finds expensive articles.</p> + +<p>3. They bring higher prices relatively than the heavier things +even when they are disposed of under forced sale.</p> + +<p>4. The catalogue houses have little fear for five-and-ten-cent +stores because sixty-eight per cent of their business is in big +goods such as furniture vehicles sewing-machines clothing and +relatively expensive things. They do not wish to increase the +sale of popular-priced articles although their catalogue may be +full of them because it costs them more to pack one hammer or +trowel than the profits can stand.</p> + +<p>5. Steel conditions remain about as they have been for several +weeks excepting that the price of rails has been advancing for +the last few days.</p> + +<p>6. Steel men are of the opinion that to increase prices too +rapidly would spoil a good market because most of the mills are +so filled up with orders that they would not be able to take +advantage of increased quotations for some time to come.</p> + +<p>7. The steel business for the last three months has been very +encouraging as it shows that railroads are dropping their policy +of waiting until the last minute to buy. It will probably mean +more normal operation of mills instead of spasmodic workings as +has been the case for the last few years.</p> + +<p>8. Boraxated soap chips will benefit your tableware and your +hands making dishwashing a pleasure instead of a task.</p> + +<p>9. The man who works to the limit of his physical powers is +as foolish as the manufacturer who immediately invests all his +profits in his business neglecting to have a reserve fund for unexpected +demands.</p> + +<p>10. A wide-awake manager tries plan after plan testing and +re-testing them until he can apply them to his company's needs.</p></div> + +<p>Write four sentences illustrating Rule 10.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 188</b></div> + +<p>Punctuate the following letters, supplying a heading and +an introduction for each:</p> + +<div class='center'>1</div> + +<div class="blockquot">Dear Madam: + +<p>We wish to acknowledge your letter of recent date assuring +you that we thank you for the opportunity you have given us +of opening a monthly charge account in your name. We shall +spare no effort to make every transaction as satisfactory as +possible hoping thus to merit a liberal share of your patronage.</p> + +<p>Our bills are rendered on the first of each month being payable +between that date and the fifteenth.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Yours very truly,<br /> +</div></div> + +<div class='center'><br />2</div> + +<div class="blockquot">Dear Mr. Warner: + +<p>In reply to your inquiry I am sending the following information +assuring you that I am glad to be of service to you.</p> + +<p>The Lancaster Company has apparently abandoned its plan +of erecting a new building this year difficulties having arisen it +is said in their securing a suitable location. About two years ago +the firm purchased a site on the corner of Harrison and Second +streets but they sold it again last year taking advantage of a +decided rise in real estate values. It is understood we believe that +the company will build in the near future even now having two +or three possible sites under consideration.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Sincerely yours,<br /> +</div></div> + +<div class='center'><br />3</div> + +<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir: + +<p>We offer you the benefits and privileges of our Special Charge +Account whereby purchases may be paid for in weekly or monthly +installments. You will find this a most convenient arrangement +because it permits you to have a charge account without the +usual hardship of payment at a fixed time. Moreover a Special +Charge Account costs you nothing since our prices are the same +whether you pay cash or have purchases charged. Please fill out +the enclosed application blank mailing it to us to-day.</p> + +<p>You will no doubt enjoy reading the enclosed booklet as it +gives much interesting information on fashion tendencies. The +illustrations too are unusually attractive although they hardly +do justice to the beautiful garments that we sell.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Yours truly,<br /> +</div></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 189</b></div> + +<p>Study the punctuation in the following selections from +<i>The Wall Street Journal;</i> then write them from dictation:</p> + +<div class='center'>1<br /> + +<span class="smcap">Trouble in Introducing Steel</span></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Strange as it now seems," said one of Carnegie's "young +men," now the vice-president of a large and prosperous corporation +in New York, "in the early days of the steel industry we had +the greatest difficulty in the world in weaning the old manufacturers +away from the use of wrought iron, though they admitted +the superiority of steel. They would look at it, test it, +and agree that it seemed to possess all the desirable qualities +claimed for it, but it was more or less untried by time, and they +preferred to stick to the old wrought iron, with which they were +familiar.</p> + +<p>"I remember one old chap with whom I had wrestled long, +but in vain, coming into my office and picking up a long, soft +steel rivet, which had been bent double and hammered flat.</p> + +<p>"'How many did you break in making this?' he asked, picking +it up and examining it curiously.</p> + +<p>"'That's the first one we hammered over, and, what is more +to the point, we can do it with all steel of that type,' I replied.</p> + +<p>"The polite incredulity in his face stirred my professional +pride, and I said, 'If I let you go to the mills, pick out a dozen of +those rivets just as they come from the rolls, and hammer them +with your own hands, will you use that steel hereafter, if it comes +up to the test?'</p> + +<p>"He said he would, and the rest was easy, for it is much easier +not to break than to break that kind of steel. Before long the +old man came back with perspiration dripping from the end of +his nose but with the light of conviction shining in his eye. The +firm had a new customer."</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />2<br /> + +<span class="smcap">Conservation</span></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Leslie M. Shaw, former Secretary of the Treasury, was in New +York, attending a meeting of a board of which he is a member. +Something was said about the present-day discussion of money<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> +power, and Shaw said that it reminded him of a speech he had +made in Seattle in the campaign of 1896.</p> + +<p>"I was speaking to a filled hall and had almost finished," said +Shaw, "when a long-whiskered man arose about the middle of +the hall and held up his hand, saying he wanted to ask a question.</p> + +<p>"'Go ahead,' I said.</p> + +<p>"'How, then, Mr. Speaker, do you explain the unequal distribution +of wealth?' was his question.</p> + +<p>"When I answered him with, 'In the same way that I explain +the unequal distribution of whiskers,' bedlam broke loose.</p> + +<p>"As soon as I could get quiet restored, I said: 'Now don't +think I returned the answer I did to make fun of your whiskers. +You will observe that I have no whiskers, as I dissipate them by +shaving them off. Nature gives me abundance of whiskers, and, +if I conserved them as you do, I also should be abundantly supplied. +Now, it is the same way with money. The man who +conserves his money has more than his share, as with whiskers; +while the man who dissipates his money is without his allotment.'"</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 190—The Semicolon (;)</b></div> + +<p>The semicolon is used between the propositions of a compound +sentence when no coördinate conjunction is used. +(See <a href="#Exercise_176">Exercise 176</a>, 2.)</p> + +<div class="center">It is not work that kills men; it is worry.</div> +<div class='unindent'>It is important not to overdo this use of the semicolon. +Do not use it unless the two principal clauses of the +sentence taken together easily form one idea.</div> + +<p>Especial care must be taken not to confuse coördinate +conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs. The following are +conjunctive adverbs: <i>then</i>, <i>therefore</i>, <i>consequently</i>, <i>moreover</i>, +<i>however</i>, <i>so</i>, <i>also</i>, <i>besides</i>, <i>thus</i>, <i>still</i>, <i>otherwise</i>, <i>accordingly</i>. +When they are used to join principal clauses, they should +be preceded by a coördinate conjunction or a semicolon; as,</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +Fruit was plentiful, and therefore the price was low.<br /> +Fruit was plentiful; therefore the price was low.<br /> +</div> + +<p>When there is a series of phrases or clauses, each of which +is long and contains commas within itself, the sentence<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> +becomes clearer if the members of the series are separated +by semicolons instead of by commas; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>You know how prolific the American mind has been in invention; +how much civilization has been advanced by the steamboat, +the cotton-gin, the sewing-machine, the reaping-machine, +the typewriter, the electric light, the telephone, the phonograph.</p></div> + +<p>Write the following from dictation:</p> + +<div class='center'>1</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>No man can deny that the lines of endeavor have more and +more narrowed and stiffened; no one who knows anything about +the development of industry in this country can fail to have +observed that the larger kinds of credit are more and more difficult +to obtain, unless you obtain them upon the terms of uniting your +efforts with those who already control the industries of the country; +and nobody can fail to observe that any man who tries to set himself +up in competition with any process of manufacture which +has been taken under the control of large combinations of capital +will presently find himself either squeezed out or obliged to sell +and allow himself to be absorbed.—Woodrow Wilson: <i>The New +Freedom.</i></p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />2</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>If the total amount of savings deposited in the savings banks +were equally divided among the population of the country, the +amount apportioned to each person in 1820 would have been +twelve cents; in 1830, fifty-four cents; in 1840, eighty-two cents; +in 1850, $1.87; in 1860, $4.75; in 1870, $14.26; in 1880, $16.33; +in 1890, $24.75; in 1900, $31.78; in 1910, $45.05, and it is steadily +increasing. Remember the fact that the population had increased +from 10,000,000 in 1820 to over 90,000,000 in 1910; the "rainy +day" money, therefore, assumes gigantic proportions.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />3</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>In Germany, says <i>The Scientific American</i>, wood is too expensive +to be burned, and it is made into artificial silk worth two dollars +a pound and bristles worth four dollars a pound; into paper, +yarn, twine, carpet, canvas, and cloth. Parquet flooring is made +from sawdust; the materials may be bought by the pound and +then mixed, so that the householder can lay his own hardwood floors +according to his individual taste and ingenuity.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span></p> + +<div class='center'><br />4</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The country gentlemen and country clergymen had fully expected +that the policy of these ministers would be directly opposed +to that which had been almost constantly followed by William; +that the landed interest would be favored at the expense of trade; +that no addition would be made to the funded debt; that the +privileges conceded to Dissenters by the late king would be curtailed, +if not withdrawn; that the war with France, if there +must be such a war, would, on our part, be almost entirely naval; +and that the government would avoid close connections with +foreign powers and, above all, with Holland.—<i>Macaulay.</i></p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 191—The Colon (:)</b></div> + +<p>The colon is always used to indicate that something of +importance follows, usually an enumeration or a list of +some kind, or a quotation of several sentences or paragraphs; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Three things are necessary: intelligence, perseverance, and +tact.</p> + +<p>2. The buffalo supplies them with almost all the necessities +of life: with habitation, food, and clothing; with strings for their +bows; with thread, cordage, and trail-ropes for their horses; with +coverings for their saddles; and with the means of purchasing all +that they desire from traders.</p> + +<p>3. Quoting from the current number of the <i>—— Magazine</i>, he +read: (four paragraphs).</p></div> + +<p>Punctuate:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. For the first fifty miles we had companions with us Troche +a little trapper and Rouville a nondescript in the employ of the +fur company.</p> + +<p>2. About a week previous four men had arrived from beyond +the mountains Sublette Reddick and two others.</p> + +<p>3. Reynal was gazing intently he began to speak at last +"Many a time when I was with the Indians I have been hunting +gold all through the Black Hills there's a plenty of it here you +may be certain of that I have dreamed about it fifty times" etc.</p> + +<p>4. Objects familiar from childhood surrounded me crags and +rocks a black and sullen brook that gurgled with a hollow voice +among the crevices a wood of mossy distorted trees.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 192</b></div> + +<p>The colon is used after <i>thus</i>, <i>as follows</i>, <i>the following</i>, or +similar expressions; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Name the adverbs in the following: He left hurriedly rather +early in the morning.</p></div> + +<p>The colon is not used after <i>namely</i>, <i>as</i>, <i>that is</i>, <i>for example, +for instance</i>, and the like. Such expressions are preceded +by the semicolon and followed by the comma.</p> + +<p>Punctuate the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The Christmas presents that he wants are the following +a toy train a toy automobile a toy circus and a printing press.</p> + +<p>2. Do the exercise thus first lunge to the left second raise the +arms forward and third wind the wand.</p> + +<p>3. We are offering for sale three residences of the size that you +wish namely 438 Bishop Ave 1614 Winchester St and 2015 Logan +Square.</p> + +<p>4. The following are the two that we liked best 438 Bishop +Ave and 2015 Logan Square.</p> + +<p>5. One use of the comma is to set off an appositive for example +Mr Kearne the buyer has left the city.</p> + +<p>6. The comma is used to set off an independent adverb as +We have not yet decided however when we shall leave.</p> + +<p>7. The plan is this I'll do the work and you pay for the materials.</p> + +<p>8. The officers are as follows Edward Lawrence for President +John Kelly for Secretary and Fred Morrison for Treasurer.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 193—The Dash(—)</b></div> + +<p>The dash is used to set off parenthetical expressions that +have very little connection with the rest of the sentence; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>In New York the Harlem River tunnel was comparatively a +simple one, but the first East River tunnels—the two subway +tubes from the Battery to Brooklyn—presented all the difficulties +known to subaqueous construction.</p> + +<p>These tunnels extend on under the great Pennsylvania terminal +building—another of the same decade's accomplishments—to +East Thirty-fourth Street.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span></p> + +<p>The dash is also used to indicate a sudden change or break +in the thought; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. When the millennium comes—if it ever does—all of our +problems will be solved.</p> + +<p>2. "I believe—" began the lawyer.</p> + +<p>"Believe!" interrupted his client. "I don't want you to +believe. I want you to know."</p></div> + +<p>The dash is used before a word that summarizes the preceding +part of the sentence; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>He had robbed himself of the most precious thing a man can +have in business—his friends.</p></div> + +<p>After a comma the dash has the effect of lengthening the +separation; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>One thing the Puritans desired,—freedom to worship God.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 194—Parenthesis Marks ()</b></div> + +<p>Parenthesis marks are used to enclose explanatory expressions +that are not an essential part of the sentence; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The United States Department of Agriculture estimates that +the receipts of cattle at the six leading markets (Chicago, St. +Louis, Kansas City, South Omaha, St. Joseph, and Sioux City) +from January 1 to August 1 of this year are 15 per cent less +than they were in the corresponding period of last year.</p></div> + +<p><i>Wrong.</i>—Do not use parenthesis marks to cancel a word +or a passage. A line should be drawn through a word that is +wrong.</p> + +<p>Bring to class five sentences that illustrate the correct +use of parenthesis marks.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 195—The Hyphen (-)</b></div> + +<p>The hyphen is used when a word has been divided. It is +always used at the end of the line and never at the beginning.</p> + +<p>When several short words are taken together to form one +word, they are hyphenated; as,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>a one-hundred-pound bag of coffee</p></div> + +<p>As a rule, when two words taken together are each accented, +they must be written with the hyphen. When only one is +accented, no hyphen is used; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>follow-up, first-class, self-reliant, railroad, steamship</p></div> + +<p>As a rule, nouns which are compounded of a participle +and a noun use the hyphen; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>talking-machine, driving-wheel</p></div> + +<p>When fractions are written out, the hyphen is used; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>one-third, three-fifths</p></div> + +<p>In other numerals expressing a compound number the +hyphen is also used; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>twenty-one, sixty-six</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 196</b></div> + +<p>Punctuate the following letters, supplying a heading and +an introduction for each:</p> + +<div class='center'>1</div> + +<div class="blockquot">Gentlemen: + +<p>We are glad to tell you that contrary to the fears expressed in +your last letter there are no present indications of sudden changes +at least no indications of drops in prices. With the exception of +two fruits and one vegetable grapes cantaloupes and cauliflower +all commodities sold on the wholesale fruit and produce markets +here were quoted yesterday at the prices announced last Friday.</p> + +<p>The change in grape prices affected the Red Peru variety in +which the supply has almost stopped the price being raised from +$1.05 to $1.25 a box. If one may trust the forecast of local merchants +the price will probably remain at this higher point until +the supply is exhausted. Cantaloupes seem to be a trifle scarce +especially the pineapple variety the price of which was raised +from $1.10 to $1.30 a crate. Cauliflower was raised to $1.35 +a dozen heads the staple price probably for the rest of the season.</p> + +<p>Excepting these items we shall be glad to receive any orders +at Friday's quotations.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Yours truly,<br /> +</div></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br />2</div> + +<div class="blockquot">Gentlemen: + +<p>Your order of the 20th instant forwarded from our Trenton +office came this morning. We regret to say however that we do +not carry the Sanito brand of canned goods as we do not consider +the grade first-class. If the Monsoon brand which is generally +acknowledged to be excellent will serve your purpose we can fill +your order at once.</p> + +<p>We are now in a position to supply the trade with Mrs. Keller's +coffee of which we have fortunately secured several thousand +packages at a very low price. If you wish any at $2.50 per dozen +packages less than half the retail price you will notice let us hear +from you at once.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Yours truly,<br /> +</div></div> + +<div class='center'><br />3</div> + +<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir: + +<p>We acknowledge your letter of October 5 but we regret that +as yet we have no information in regard to the excess charge of +$1.02 which you were obliged to pay on the express shipment of +one piece 27 yds. of plaid silk chiffon. We have taken up the +matter with the mill however and as soon as we receive their +report we shall write you again.</p> + +<p>Asking your indulgence meanwhile we are</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Yours truly,<br /> +</div></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XIII</h2> + +<div class='chaptertitle'>THE CLEAR SENTENCE</div> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Business</span> men like to talk of brevity. They tell you that +a talk or a letter must be brief. What they really mean is +that the talk or the letter must be concise; that it must +state the business clearly in the fewest possible words. +Don't omit any essential fact when you write, but don't +repeat. If you can express an idea in ten words, don't use +twenty. In a later exercise we shall meet the sentence, +<i>The size of the crops is always important, and it is especially +so to the farmer, and this is because he has to live by the +crops.</i> The writer of that sentence was very careless. He +had a good idea and thought that, if he kept repeating +it, he would make it stronger. Just the reverse is true. +The sentence may be expressed in a very few words: <i>The +size of the crop is vitally important to the farmer.</i></p> + +<p>If you wish to secure conciseness of expression, be especially +careful to avoid joining or completing thoughts by these +expressions: <i>and</i>, <i>so</i>, <i>why</i>, <i>that is why</i>, <i>this is the reason</i>, +<i>and everything</i>.</p> + +<p>In this chapter we shall consider some of the larger faults +that should be avoided in sentences.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 197—Unity of the Sentence</b></div> + +<p>Give the definition of a sentence.</p> + +<p>How many thoughts may one sentence express?</p> + +<p>What is likely to happen when two thoughts are joined +by <i>and?</i> What, then, is the danger in using the compound +sentence?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span></p> + +<p>The compound sentence is good to use to express certain +ideas, especially contrast; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>It is not work that kills men; it is worry.</p> + +<p>It is not the revolution that destroys the machinery, but the +friction [but it is the friction].</p></div> + +<p>The sentences which most clearly and easily give us one +thought are the simple and the complex sentences.</p> + +<p>Compare the following sentences. Which of them leave +<i>one</i> idea in your mind?</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The tongue is a sharp-edged tool.</p> + +<p>A sharp tongue is the only edged tool that grows keener with +constant use.</p> + +<p>A sharp tongue is like an edged tool, and it grows keener with +constant use.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 198</b></div> + +<p>The following is wordy. Rewrite it, condensing as much +as possible. Use simple and complex sentences rather than +compound, expressing in each only one thought.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>In the early summer the corn crop frequently seems to be very +poor, and so reports begin to circulate that corn will be high in +the autumn, but when the autumn really comes, Wall Street, +that great center of business life, begins to see that the reports +have been greatly exaggerated and that crops really will be very +good, and so business begins to pick up. The size of the crop +largely settles the volume of the next season's business, because +so great a part of the world's business activity is made up of buying +and selling the actual potatoes and corn and wheat and cattle +or the products made from these, and when the crop is poor there +are a great many people concerned, because they will be poor +just as the crops are poor, and this applies to the farmer as well +as to the dealer.</p> + +<p>The size of the crops is always important, and is especially so +to the farmer, and this is because he has to live by the crops. A +man may be living in the city and working for a salary and begin +to see that his work is not supporting him, and if he is an ambitious +man, he will change his occupation. This the farmer cannot +do because he has made an enormous investment; in the first<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> +place, he has invested in his land, and then in his seed and farm +implements, and this investment often means all the available +money the farmer has, and often it means a mortgage on his farm. +He puts the mortgage on his farm in hope of getting a good crop, +and when his hope is not realized, he is in trouble, because he +may lose his whole farm if he cannot pay the installments of interest +due on his mortgage; but then, on the other hand, if we consider +the other side of the question, when the crop is large, the +situation is altogether different. Even if the farmer has put a +mortgage on his farm, he gets enough money from his produce +to pay the debt of that mortgage, and he need not worry how he +is to live during the next winter.</p> + +<p>The town merchants depend on a good crop, because, if the +farmer has not a good return from his fields, he will have almost +no ready money, and so he cannot buy much clothing or household +furnishings. In Iowa, for instance, there is a little town in the +center of a corn-raising community, and it is here that the farmers +congregate to do their buying, and in this town there is quite +a large department store, and it is run by a woman. She does +most of her buying in the autumn and she prefers to do it personally, +and so she likes to make a trip to New York for the purpose, +but she never sets out until she knows that the corn crop is good. +And the reason for this is that she knows that it will cost her hundreds +of dollars to make the trip East, to stay at a good hotel, and +to spend the requisite length of time choosing her purchases at +the different wholesale houses, and she knows that if there is +no corn crop she will sell very few coats and hats and lace curtains, +and it will never pay her to run up her expenses into the +hundreds of dollars, but she will buy as best she can from the +drummers, and buy only a little, and thus the size of the crop +determines how much the farmer can buy, and, therefore, how +much the wholesale and retail dealers can sell.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 199—Subordination in the Sentence</b></div> + +<p>Sentences containing compound predicates may be made +more direct in thought if one of the verbs is changed to a +participle or an infinitive, because the predicate will then +express only one action; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The carpenter <i>threw</i> down his hammer <i>and walked</i> out of +the shop.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span></p> + +<p>2. <i>Throwing</i> down his hammer, the carpenter walked out of +the shop.</p> + +<p>3. I <i>went</i> downtown <i>and applied</i> for the position.</p> + +<p>4. I went downtown <i>to apply</i> for the position.</p></div> + +<p>Change the following sentences so that one action is +denoted by the predicate of each:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. A teamster drove out of the alley east of the theater and +swung his horses directly in front of a Madison street car.</p> + +<p>2. The tongue struck the front of the car and bored a hole +in the fuse box.</p> + +<p>3. The fire spread and burned the roof of the car.</p> + +<p>4. The half dozen passengers were badly frightened and got +out quickly.</p> + +<p>5. Several people ran and turned in a fire alarm.</p> + +<p>6. In a few minutes the fire engines arrived and began to +fight the flames.</p> + +<p>7. Crowds came from all directions and silently watched the +flames.</p> + +<p>8. The people poured out of the theater and cheered the firemen.</p> + +<p>9. The half dozen passengers soon recovered and stood on the +curbstone in the crowd.</p> + +<p>10. The firemen did their work quickly and departed amid +the cheers of the crowd.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 200—Combination of Short Sentences</b></div> + +<p>Sometimes short sentences are bad because two or three +of them are needed to express one complete thought. If +that is the case, they should be combined, the most important +detail being put into the principal clause, and the +other details into modifiers, as in the preceding exercise.</p> + +<p>Make use of—</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +1. Adjectives.<br /> +2. Adverbs.<br /> +3. Participial phrases.<br /> +4. Infinitives.<br /> +5. Relative pronouns.<br /> +6. Subordinate conjunctions.<br /> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span></p> + +<p>Below, the first and second sentences together make one +thought, which is expressed in the third.</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +John is a good reporter.<br /> +That is why he earns a good salary.<br /> +Because John is a good reporter, he earns a good salary.<br /> +</div> + +<p>Combine the sentences of each group below into a single +sentence, either simple or complex, omitting as many words +as possible but no ideas:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. We stayed at home for two reasons: first of all, we thought +Baltimore might be unpleasantly warm. Then, the other reason +was that we thought we ought to economize.</p> + +<p>2. In China the wedding takes place at the bridegroom's +house. This has been decorated with strips of bright red paper, +and they have the word "Hsi" on them. This means "Live in +happiness."</p> + +<p>3. First in the procession come the standard bearers. They +are hired for the occasion. These men have red coats put on over +their dirty clothes. The men they hire are usually beggars.</p> + +<p>4. Six years ago I went sailing on Lake George with my father. +I was ten years old at that time. Two other men went along with +us. The boat that we went in belonged to my father and these +men.</p> + +<p>5. The wind was high and it would come in gusts. This +made it hard to sail. It shifted the sails so quickly that it would +throw the boat over on one side.</p> + +<p>6. Several times the boat leaned over at an angle of forty +degrees. This let the water come in on that side. When this +happened, we all had to jump to the other side. We did this so +that the boat would right itself.</p> + +<p>7. The heart is the most important organ in the body. This +is because if the heart stops beating, you cannot live. Besides, +all the other organs are connected with it. It is something like +the main spring in a watch.</p> + +<p>8. This is a good machine. And since that's the case, I don't +see why it is that it doesn't work as it should.</p> + +<p>9. In every business there are many bad debts. Some can +be collected and others cannot be. This is because the men who +made them were given credit, and they didn't have any money.</p> + +<p>10. The night was dark, and there were no stars. The fishermen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> +stood on the shore, and they gazed at the wild sea. A storm +had arisen, and they could not go out in their boats.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 201</b></div> + +<p>As in the preceding exercise, rewrite the following, omitting +as many words as possible, but no ideas. Use shorter, +simpler expressions wherever possible.</p> + +<div class='center'>1</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Uncle Sam now has an aerial navy, but it's a small one, and +foundations of it were recently laid. This was done when contracts +were signed for the delivery of three aeroplanes and they +are the first aeroplanes that the United States bought. These +aeroplanes are of the latest development. They are all capable +of rising from land or water. They are able also to land on +water or on the deck of a ship, and they can carry at least one +passenger and are equipped with wireless outfits. Two of them +are Curtis machines and the third is a Wright, and they ranged +in price from $2,700 to $5,500.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />2</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The United States produces more steel than any two European +countries, and it is continuing to produce more. Moreover, it +has the productive capacity to produce more than any other three +or four countries put together. This capacity is being still further +increased. At the present time, there is one very important steel +company. It is very large, and seems to wish to monopolize the +entire iron and steel industry. Even at this time it owns half +the principal plants that are now producing steel and iron, and +controls half the trade of the entire steel and iron industry, and +when such a thing happens, it is a matter of international concern.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />3</div> + +<p>Condense the following into a single sentence, either +simple or complex:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The iron and steel industry is very important, and it includes +a great deal. First, the ore has to be mined, and then the work +includes everything up to making the finest wire for musical +instruments. Or, to put it another way, you can say from smelting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span> +the ore to building a battle ship. This is a very interesting +occupation and, as said before, very important. There is hardly +anything more interesting or important except agriculture.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 202—Dangling Expressions</b></div> + +<p>Sometimes a sentence is not clear because it contains a +participle which does not modify anything in the sentence. +A participle is part <i>verb</i> and part <i>adjective</i>. As a verb, it +expresses the idea of the verb from which it is derived. As +an adjective, it must modify a noun or a pronoun. The +important point is that this noun or pronoun must be expressed +in the sentence and not lie in the mind of the writer, +as it does in the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Riding from Saugatuck to Holland last year, the country +showed unmistakable signs of lack of rain.</p></div> + +<p>Here the writer means, <i>We saw that the country</i>, etc., but +he says that the country rode from Saugatuck to Holland.</p> + +<p>Again, an expression may be used which is really an incomplete +clause. Do not use such a clause, unless the understood +subject is the same as the subject expressed in the +independent proposition.</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +<i>Wrong:</i> When almost exhausted, the camp was reached.<br /> +<i>Right:</i> When almost exhausted, we reached the camp.<br /> +</div> + +<p>Recast the following sentences, correcting the dangling +expressions:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. You should not stop studying your lessons until thoroughly +prepared.</p> + +<p>2. In talking to the postman yesterday, he said that his route +had been changed.</p> + +<p>3. Owing two months' rent, the foreman laid me off.</p> + +<p>4. Before becoming a physician, the law sets a very severe +examination.</p> + +<p>5. Having eaten our luncheon very hastily, the typewriters +were soon clicking merrily again.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span></p> + +<p>6. The difficulty could easily be settled, going about it in the +right way.</p> + +<p>7. Although determined to get my money, the task was harder +than I had expected.</p> + +<p>8. Having installed an adding machine, our office work could +be done in half the time.</p> + +<p>9. On entering the car, the first thing that caught my attention +was the sign at the end.</p> + +<p>10. Silk should be washed with warm water and a mild soap, +being careful not to rub it.</p> + +<p>11. The house was redecorated, making it clean and homelike.</p> + +<p>12. The book should be carefully studied, reviewing each +chapter after it is read.</p> + +<p>13. Going to work this morning, an accident happened.</p> + +<p>14. Having entered college, Mr. Brown watched his son's +progress with pride.</p> + +<p>15. Soon after abandoning the boat, it sank.</p> + +<p>16. They say he will be lame, caused by a fall on the ice while +skating.</p> + +<p>17. While trying to break the half mile record, his back was +injured.</p> + +<p>18. Many people object to football, because in tackling the +boys' hearts are weakened.</p> + +<p>19. He did not wish to take up an extra study, thus lessening +his chance of being eligible for athletics.</p> + +<p>20. While a child, my father often told me stories of Indian +days.</p> + +<p>21. Absorbed all day in superintending his work, in the evening +the newspaper brought him political news enough to fill the hours +between dinner and bed-time.</p> + +<p>22. Discussing the happenings in the ward with an old crony, +his daughter would often sit near him listening.</p> + +<p>23. He is failing in his work, caused by his laziness.</p> + +<p>24. Although a good tonic, I did not gain weight while +taking it.</p> + +<p>25. In the new telephone, upon lifting the receiver, a ticking +sound is heard.</p> + +<p>26. Leaving the window open when she went to lunch, of course +the papers were disarranged on her return.</p> + +<p>27. Dictionaries must be returned to the desk after using.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 203—Pronouns with Uncertain Antecedents</b></div> + +<p>Sometimes the meaning of a sentence is not clear because +the pronouns have uncertain antecedents.</p> + +<p>1. Sometimes a pronoun may refer to either of two +antecedents; as,</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +<i>Wrong:</i> He gave his brother John the umbrella and then <i>he</i> left.<br /> +<i>Right:</i> He gave the umbrella to his brother John, who then left.<br /> +</div> + +<p>2. Sometimes the sentence must be entirely recast and +a direct quotation used before the pronouns can be made +clear; as,</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +<i>Wrong:</i> Tom told his father that <i>his</i> suit case was lost.<br /> +<i>Right:</i> <i>a.</i> Tom said, "Father, your suit case is lost."<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;"><i>b.</i> Tom said, "Father, my suit case is lost."</span><br /> +</div> + +<p>3. Sometimes the pronoun refers to a word that has not +been expressed or to an <i>idea</i>. In that case, the antecedent +must be supplied; as,</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +<i>Wrong:</i> If any one wishes to contribute to the cause, let him send <i>it</i> in the enclosed envelope.<br /> +<i>Right:</i> If any one wishes to contribute to the cause, let him send <i>his contribution</i> in the enclosed envelope.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Wrong:</i> I wouldn't wear mittens. Nobody does <i>that</i> nowadays.<br /> +<i>Right:</i> I wouldn't wear mittens. Nobody wears <i>them</i> nowadays.<br /> +</div> + +<p>4. A sentence containing an indefinite <i>they</i> or <i>it</i> is corrected +thus:</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +<i>Wrong:</i> Don't <i>they</i> have street cars where you live?<br /> +<i>Right:</i> Are there <i>no</i> street cars where you live?<br /> +</div> + +<p>Recast the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. She asked her mother if she could go, and she said she +thought she ought to stay at home.</p> + +<p>2. John told James he was sure he did not know the office +that he meant.</p> + +<p>3. George told his father his watch had stopped.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span></p> + +<p>4. The manager asked the clerk to bring his book.</p> + +<p>5. A light touch is important in a typewriter, because it makes +it easy to write upon it.</p> + +<p>6. The size of the crops is important to the farmers, because +they have to live by them.</p> + +<p>7. They decided to reorganize the company, which is always +a difficult task.</p> + +<p>8. They went into the hands of a receiver, which is an indication +that the affairs of the company had been poorly managed.</p> + +<p>9. There is a boat on the lake over which there is a pleasant +view, in which there is a club for working girls.</p> + +<p>10. He stole some money which brought about an investigation.</p> + +<p>11. She asked her aunt how old she was.</p> + +<p>12. John is famous for telling anecdotes, and he got it by +remembering every story he reads.</p> + +<p>13. The sleighing party last night was a success, which is not +always the case.</p> + +<p>14. He told a lie, which is a bad thing to do.</p> + +<p>15. They engaged a gardener, which doubled their monthly +expenses.</p> + +<p>16. Why don't you get some of that new fur trimming for +your blue dress?</p> + +<p>17. They had an accident on the street car this morning.</p> + +<p>18. In the newspaper it said that the lecture would begin at +8:15.</p> + +<p>19. They don't find iron in Illinois, do they?</p> + +<p>20. Do they have the original paintings in our art gallery?</p> + +<p>21. It says "Closed" on that door.</p> + +<p>22. It doesn't mention a bank draft in this book.</p> + +<p>23. They have a great many foreigners in New York City.</p> + +<p>24. John accompanied his brother to the city where he bought +a typewriter.</p> + +<p>25. I had expected to take the 9:30 train, but I couldn't do it.</p> + +<p>26. Going up to the horse he put a lump of sugar into his +mouth.</p> + +<p>27. In letter writing one should always be exact and arrange +them in the customary form.</p> + +<p>28. Those hooks are not rust-proof because the back of my +dress is stained with it.</p> + +<p>29. The telephone is a great convenience to all. They are +now used in almost every house.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span></p> + +<p>30. As we came down the road, it sounded like a train, which, +as we approached, grew louder and louder.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 204—Misplaced Modifiers</b></div> + +<p>Sometimes a sentence is not clear because a modifier does +not stand close to the word it modifies.</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +<i>Wrong:</i> I can't <i>even</i> do the first problem.<br /> +<i>Right:</i> I can't do <i>even</i> the first problem.<br /> +</div> + +<p>Change the order of words in the following sentences, +placing each modifier as closely as possible to the word +which it modifies. Some of the sentences are incorrect +because they contain split infinitives. (See <a href="#Exercise_92">Exercise 92</a>.)</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. I only waited for him about ten minutes.</p> + +<p>2. She stood at the window, trying to close it with a troubled +face.</p> + +<p>3. The city is supplied with water from cold springs which +flow nearly a hundred million gallons of the purest liquid that ever +burst from the earth, daily.</p> + +<p>4. The famous S. F. ice cream is made in this factory containing +fifty per cent pure cream.</p> + +<p>5. A man should not be allowed to cast a vote, who cannot +read and write.</p> + +<p>6. After taking the medicine for a short time, the appetite +is improved, and a desire is created for food, that has not existed +before.</p> + +<p>7. In real value, this magazine towers head and shoulders +over all others to the woman who is in charge of her home.</p> + +<p>8. There are pages of fashion news and embroidery hints and +news articles of the day that will appeal to the husband and +father as the others do to the wife and daughter as well as departments +for the children.</p> + +<p>9. The number of the sewing machine is 37A with a drop +head.</p> + +<p>10. They neither are gentle nor well-mannered.</p> + +<p>11. I only heard about the trouble yesterday.</p> + +<p>12. He left the same station at which, thirty years before, he +had arrived very humbly, in his own special car.</p> + +<p>13. He urged his brother to buy a home in his letter.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span></p> + +<p>14. The lighting system has been developed to a really remarkable +degree of perfection for the trains.</p> + +<p>15. The dynamo is so arranged that when the train is standing +still or only traveling twenty miles an hour, the lamps are lighted +from a storage battery.</p> + +<p>16. The batteries must be large enough during the run to carry +the entire lighting load.</p> + +<p>17. Please send me 6 Dining Tables No. 46 that extend to +ten feet as soon as possible.</p> + +<p>18. Large trees grow on each side of the house which is a rambling +affair shutting out the light.</p> + +<p>19. They decided to give a bonus to the one doing the best +work, amounting to fifty dollars.</p> + +<p>20. We had almost got to the corner before we saw the fire.</p> + +<p>21. I don't ever remember having seen so big a fire.</p> + +<p>22. Remember to thoroughly oil the machine.</p> + +<p>23. Do you need to in any way alter the machine?</p> + +<p>24. If we expect to completely fill the order to-day, we need +more help.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 205—Omission of Necessary Words</b></div> + +<p>Sometimes a sentence is not clear because a word has been +omitted that is necessary to the sense; as,</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +<i>Wrong:</i> The two officers that they elected are the president and +secretary.<br/> +<i>Right:</i> The two officers that they elected are the president and +<i>the</i> secretary.<br/> +<br/> +<i>Wrong:</i> His writing is as good or better than yours.<br/> +<i>Right:</i> His writing is as good <i>as</i> or better than yours.<br/> +<br/> +<i>Wrong:</i> The library is where we go to read.<br/> +<i>Right:</i> The library is <i>the place</i> where we go to read.<br/> +</div> +<p>State the difference between the following typewriter +ribbons:</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +1. A red and blue and black ribbon.<br /> +2. A red and a blue and black ribbon.<br /> +3. A red and blue and a black ribbon.<br /> +4. A red and a blue and a black ribbon.<br /> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span></p> + +<p>Supply the omitted part in each of the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. I always have and I'm sure I always shall be considerate +of others' feelings.</p> + +<p>2. They have a stenographer and bookkeeper, who are kept +busy all day.</p> + +<p>3. I believe he has already or will soon begin the work.</p> + +<p>4. The cushions of the rocker are much softer than the armchair.</p> + +<p>5. The arrangement of your flat is much more convenient +than our house.</p> + +<p>6. The number of shelves in your sideboard is just the same +as our china closet.</p> + +<p>7. I think the articles you ordered will arrive as soon or sooner +than you expect.</p> + +<p>8. She is as tall or taller than you.</p> + +<p>9. When your message arrived, I had already or at least had +decided to begin cutting the goods.</p> + +<p>10. It may not be better but it is fully as good as the other +article.</p> + +<p>11. I think you cook fully as well if not better than your sister.</p> + +<p>12. His poems hold a place in our hearts second only to the +Bible.</p> + +<p>13. Your idea is as good if not better than mine.</p> + +<p>14. We decided to make the change both for the sake of health +and economy.</p> + +<p>15. You will find the armchair fully as comfortable, if not +more so, than the rocker.</p> + +<p>16. The river is where we had the most fun.</p> + +<p>17. I know you better than Mary.</p> + +<p>18. She went to the park but I didn't care to.</p> + +<p>19. We didn't object to the scheme as much as you.</p> + +<p>20. A conservatory is where there are all kinds of flowers.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 206—Shift in Construction</b></div> + +<p>Sometimes the meaning of the sentence is obscure because +there has been a shift in construction. Do not change subject, +person, tense, or any grammatical form without a good +reason. Remember that <i>and</i> is a coördinate conjunction. +If there is an adjective before <i>and</i>, there must be an adjective<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> +after it. If a clause precedes, a clause must follow. +In other words, <i>and</i> joins two members of exactly the same +structure. <i>And</i> may not join one word and a phrase, nor +may it join a prepositional and a participial phrase. Both +members must be alike. In the following extract, parallel +constructions are used correctly. Be able to tell what kinds +of elements are used and how they are parallel.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>To eat your cake and keep it too; to wear a gown with the air +of originality and distinction, and keep a full purse; to have +your house display taste and refinement, and be praised as an +economical housewife; to dress your children daintily, and save +money for their education—use ABC transfer patterns. By +their aid you can make an inexpensive waist look like a French +blouse, have table linen of unrivaled elegance, and dress your +babies in the most approved style. These patterns cost,—some +ten, some fifteen cents. They cover the entire field of +dress,—waists, tunics, panels, infants' clothes, underwear, men's +apparel, and neckwear; and of household articles,—towels, table-linen, +and pillow tops.</p></div> + +<p>Recast the following sentences, correcting the shift of +construction in each:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. In the large department stores every clerk is to report +on her way to lunch and coming back.</p> + +<p>2. When one hears a cry of "Fire," your first thought is to run.</p> + +<p>3. He seemed fond of his work and to have skill in doing it +quickly.</p> + +<p>4. I decided on taking the trip and to keep my expenses within +fifty dollars if possible.</p> + +<p>5. X Y Z Cleaner is good for softening water and other +household uses.</p> + +<p>6. Because of the rise in the price of meats and owing to the +fact that grocers charge more for butter and eggs, people find it +hard to live.</p> + +<p>7. The office is well-heated and with plenty of light.</p> + +<p>8. The crowds began to watch the fire and cheering loudly.</p> + +<p>9. I heard the opera last year and have gone again this year.</p> + +<p>10. It was wonderful to see how fast they worked and their +accuracy.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span></p> + +<p>11. I can't decide whether to take up stenography or if bookkeeping +is better.</p> + +<p>12. He taught us the principles of letter writing, and somewhat +of advertising was taken up.</p> + +<p>13. Hoping that the work progressed, and unless a landslide +occurred, the Americans expected to remove 5,000,000 cubic +yards each year.</p> + +<p>14. The study of the earth has always been stimulated by two +fundamental passions of humanity—a desire for wealth and +because of their curiosity.</p> + +<p>15. He insists on our taking the trip and to go without +further delay.</p> + +<p>16. In reviewing, it is well to go over each part of the course +carefully, and you should make a note of every point which you +do not understand, and let each ask those questions which he +himself cannot answer.</p> + +<p>17. Mr. Fitzmorris is a man of great technical skill and who +has handled the situation capably.</p> + +<p>18. It will cost her hundreds of dollars to make the trip East +and spending the requisite length of time choosing her purchases +at the different wholesale houses.</p> + +<p>19. He had assumed control of the office, planned the advertising, +and the finances were also directed by him.</p> + +<p>20. We have decided to go on the excursion to the Capitol +and at the same time visiting Uncle John.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 207</b></div> + +<p>What prevents clearness in the following?</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The Federal Government began an investigation into fire +conditions in Europe in 1907, through our consuls.</p> + +<p>2. It cost $2.39 a year for fire in the United States between +1901 and 1910, for every man, woman, and child, and Germany +does not even pay nineteen cents.</p> + +<p>3. The number of our fires is increasing, which is worse.</p> + +<p>4. In ten years our population has increased 73 per cent and +134 per cent is the increase in fires.</p> + +<p>5. Having considered the details, the conclusion is easily +drawn that fire is a disgrace.</p> + +<p>6. He only gets to the office at ten o'clock.</p> + +<p>7. Having settled the plan of attack, the rest was simple.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span></p> + +<p>8. The manager warned him not to make the mistake again +and adding that mistakes are costly.</p> + +<p>9. To keep flannels from shrinking, wash in the following +way, and you will find it very satisfactory.</p> + +<p>10. To open a fruit jar run a knife under the edge and it comes +off easily.</p> + +<p>11. I didn't even finish half the questions.</p> + +<p>12. Electric lights are economical, clean, and give more light +than gas.</p> + +<p>13. You should buy your suit now, both for the sake of economy +and style.</p> + +<p>14. If in doubt as to the best word, a book of synonyms +should be consulted.</p> + +<p>15. The comma fault is where, two principal clauses are run +together without a coördinate conjunction.</p></div> + +<p>Rewrite the following so that it will be correct, concise, +and clear:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The Europeans were anxious for trade with the East, for +they were dependent upon them for spices and luxuries. The +three routes were through the Mediterranean Sea, over the Suez +Peninsula, down the Red Sea, and across to India. Another was +through the Mediterranean and then through Arabia. The other +was from the Mediterranean and then through the Black Sea and +then by land to India. It became necessary to seek a new route +because the Turks held Constantinople, and all vessels had to pass +through the Mediterranean, and the Turks held this by pirates. +The first explorers were working under the leadership of the King +of Portugal, and they solved the problem by going around Africa +and then to the Indies, but this was too long, and so explorers +tried other ways, and the result was the discovery of America.</p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV</h2> + +<div class='chaptertitle'>THE PARAGRAPH</div> + + +<p>The sentences developing each of the divisions of a composition +make one <i>paragraph</i>. A paragraph, therefore, is +the treatment of one of the natural divisions of a subject. +The length depends on the topic to be treated. Two cautions +may be given:</p> + +<p>1. Do not write paragraphs containing only one sentence. +Such paragraphs do not represent divisions of the subject. +They are simply statements which have not been expanded +as they deserve, or they are sentences that should be +placed with the preceding or succeeding sentences in order +to make a good paragraph. Some business men in their +letters and advertisements use the one-sentence paragraph +too frequently to concentrate the attention of the reader. +A writer divides his composition into paragraphs in order +to aid the reader to follow the thoughts he is presenting. +When the reader sees the indentation that indicates a new +paragraph, he thinks that the writer has said all that he +intends to say on the topic in hand and now intends to +open a new topic. It is confusing to find that the new paragraph +is simply another sentence on the same topic as the +preceding paragraph. Notice the jerky effect of the following +extract from a letter:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>We are sending you a copy of our latest catalogue, which gives +illustrations and prices of all our stock.</p> + +<p>The illustrations are all made from actual photographs and +are faithful in representing the shoe described.</p> + +<p>Bear Brand Shoes are shipped in special fiber cases, thus lessening +freight bills and eliminating the annoyance of shortage claims +because they cannot be opened without immediate detection.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span></p> + +<p>Errors of any kind should be reported without delay.</p> + +<p>Imperfect or damaged goods must be returned for our inspection; +otherwise no allowance will be made.</p></div> + +<p>2. Do not go to the other extreme, writing paragraphs of +great length. Much depends, of course, on the matter to +be treated, but, as a rule, in a student's theme a paragraph +should be not longer than one page. If one of the divisions +of your subject is necessarily long, subdivide it, allowing +a paragraph to treat each of the subdivisions.</p> + +<p>Whether it is to be long or short, a paragraph must treat +but one topic; from the first sentence to the last, it should +be the development of one idea. Moreover, this topic must +be revealed to the reader in no unmistakable way. Sometimes +the subject is so simple that the topic may easily be +gathered from the details given, but usually it is well to +have one sentence that in a brief or general way states the +topic. This is called the <i>topic sentence</i>. It may be at or +near the beginning; in this case the rest of the paragraph +defines or illustrates what it states. It may, however, be +found at almost any point in the paragraph, not infrequently +acting as a sentence of conclusion, summing up the details +that have been presented.</p> + +<p>A paragraph that begins with a topic sentence sometimes +ends with a sentence of conclusion. The first sentence +states the topic, the following sentences explain or illustrate +it, and the last sentence summarizes or otherwise indicates +that the topic has been completed. This form has been +called the <i>hammock</i> paragraph, because it has a solid "post" +at each end with a mass of details "swinging" between. +It is a good form to use in writing paragraphs on given +subjects, when each paragraph is to stand alone, complete +in itself, not forming part of a longer composition. The +practice of writing such paragraphs induces clear, forceful +thinking.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 208</b></div> + +<p>Study the following paragraphs for—</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +1. Topic sentence, if there is one.<br /> +2. Development of the topic.<br /> +3. Sentence of conclusion, if there is one.<br /><br /> +</div> + +<div class='center'>1</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The problem in many large firms is how to develop office efficiency +to the highest possible degree. In this respect the monthly +examination scheme has been found a great success. The examination +consists of a list of questions about merchandise and +business procedure. The questions are given out on the last +Saturday of the month, and the answers are returned for criticism +on the following Wednesday. The employees are told that +they may consult as many authorities as they wish, but each man +must write his own paper. A poor percentage in three of these +tests usually means dismissal. Thus the inefficient are dropped, +and the ambitious who have studied are recognized. The vice-president +of one concern that uses this system says that it is a +strong reminder to his men that they must make themselves +worthy of the organization. Besides maintaining an even standard +of efficiency, the plan has resulted in developing a number of +valuable executives, whose latent powers were brought out by the +rigidness of the tests.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />2</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Every month the department head in one big eastern concern, +watch in hand, times a large force of typists individually, testing +how rapidly they can write a letter of 200 words from their shorthand +notes. Rapidity, punctuation, spelling, and neatness are +carefully recorded. This plan has had a desirable influence in +bringing stenographers up to grade in their daily work, because +a good examination mark is reduced one-half by careless daily +work, and a poor examination mark correspondingly raised by +excellent daily work. When both examination average and daily +average are excellent, the stenographer's salary is increased; +when both are below good, the stenographer is dismissed. In +this way the standard of stenographic work is kept high.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span></p> + +<div class='center'><br />3</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>In his effort to succeed many a young business man overlooks +the detail of business courtesy. He does not realize the value that +a buyer places upon that commodity. The more experienced +man, however, knows that courtesy does more to hold a buyer +than do bargain sales. In our large cities merchants have incurred +great expense to fit up rest rooms where customers may +spend an idle hour, write letters on stationery that is provided, +and read the latest magazines. In the rural districts, where such +luxuries are often impossible, the merchant provides chairs for +his customers and a place for stationing their teams. The country +merchant, however, can often accomplish his object more +quickly than the city dealer by spending an hour gossiping with +his customers. He recognizes the fact that buyers are flattered +when the proprietor himself takes the time to say a few words +to them. He knows just as well as his city competitor does, +that if a buyer feels at home in his store, sales are practically +guaranteed.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />4</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The rural landscape of Norway, on the long easterly slope that +leads up to the watershed among the mountains on the western +coast, is not unlike that of Vermont or New Hampshire. The railway +from Christiania to the Randsfjord carried us through a hilly +country of scattered farms and villages. Wood played a prominent +part in the scenery. There were dark stretches of forest on +the hilltops and in the valleys; rivers filled with floating logs; +sawmills beside the waterfalls; wooden farmhouses painted white; +and rail-fences around the fields. The people seemed sturdy, +prosperous, independent. They had the familiar habit of coming +down to the station to see the train arrive and depart. We might +have fancied ourselves on a journey through the Connecticut +valley if it had not been for the soft sing-song of the Norwegian +speech and the uniform politeness of the railway officials.</p> + +<div class='sig'>—Van Dyke: <i>Fisherman's Luck.</i></div></div> + +<div class='center'><br />5</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The plan of the <i>Spectator</i> must be allowed to be both original +and eminently happy. Every valuable essay in the series may be +read with pleasure separately; yet the five or six hundred essays +form a whole, and a whole which has the interest of a novel. It +must be remembered, too, that at that time no novel, giving a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> +lively and powerful picture of the common life and manners of +England, had appeared. Richardson was working as a compositor. +Fielding was robbing birds' nests. Smollett was not yet +born. The narrative, therefore, which connects together the +Spectator's essays gave to our ancestors their first taste of an +exquisite and untried pleasure. That narrative was, indeed, constructed +with no art or labor. The events were such events as +occur every day. Sir Roger comes up to town to see Eugenio, as +the worthy baronet always calls Prince Eugene, goes with the +Spectator on the water to Spring Gardens, walks among the +tombs in the Abbey, and is frightened by the Mohawks, but +conquers his apprehension so far as to go to the theater when the +"Distressed Mother" is acted. The Spectator pays a visit in +the summer to Coverley Hall, is charmed with the old house, the +old butler, and the old chaplain, eats a jack caught by Will Wimble, +rides to the assizes, and hears a point of law discussed by Tom +Touchy. At last a letter from the honest butler brings to the +club the news that Sir Roger is dead. Will Honeycomb marries +and reforms at sixty. The club breaks up, and the Spectator +resigns his functions. Such events can hardly be said to form a +plot; yet they are related with such truth, such grace, such wit, +such humor, such pathos, such knowledge of the human heart, +such knowledge of the ways of the world that they charm us on +the hundredth perusal. We have not the least doubt that if +Addison had written a novel on an extensive plan, it would have +been superior to any that we possess. As it is, he is entitled to be +considered not only as the greatest of the English essayists, but +as the forerunner of the great English novelists.</p> + +<div class='sig'>—Macaulay: <i>Essay on Addison.</i></div></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 209</b></div> + +<p>Prepare a paragraph developing each of the following +topic sentences:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The kitchen was a cheerful place. (Tell all the details +that will explain the word <i>cheerful</i>.)</p> + +<p>2. In the kitchen the preparations for the feast went on merrily. +(Give the details that will help one get the picture.)</p> + +<p>3. Examinations are helpful to the student. (In what ways +are they helpful? If possible, use examples to illustrate the +point.)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span></p> + +<p>4. Winter is more enjoyable than summer. (Contrast the +pleasures of the one with those of the other, showing that those +of winter are more enjoyable.)</p> + +<p>5. Riding a motorcycle is apt to make a boy reckless. (Develop +by using examples.)</p> + +<p>6. A man must like his work if he is to succeed in it.</p> + +<p>7. Farm lands vary in price.</p> + +<p>8. The farmer feeds the world.</p> + +<p>9. Every department store should have regular fire drills.</p> + +<p>10. Every sale ought to be an advertisement.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_210" id="Exercise_210"></a>Exercise 210</b></div> + +<p>Paragraph the following so that the paragraphs will +represent the divisions in thought. If there are any topic +sentences, underline them.</p> + +<div class='center'>1</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>I have often noticed that every one has his own individual +small economies, careful habits of saving fractions of pennies in +some one peculiar direction, any disturbance of which annoys him +more than spending shillings or pounds on some real extravagance. +An old gentleman of my acquaintance, who took the intelligence +of the failure of a Joint Stock Bank, in which some of his money +was invested, with a stoical mildness, worried his family all +through a long summer's day because one of them had torn (instead +of cutting) out the written leaves of his now useless bankbook. +Of course, the corresponding pages at the other end came +out as well, and this little unnecessary waste of paper (his private +economy) chafed him more than all the loss of his money. +Envelopes fretted his soul terribly when they came in. The +only way in which he could reconcile himself to such a waste +of his cherished article was by patiently turning inside out all +that were sent to him, and so making them serve again. Even +now, though tamed by age, I see him casting wistful glances at +his daughters when they send a whole inside of a half-sheet of +note paper, with the three lines of acceptance to an invitation +written on only one of the sides. I am not above owning that +I have this human weakness myself. String is my foible. My +pockets get full of little hanks of it, picked up and twisted together,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> +ready for uses that never come. I am seriously annoyed +if any one cuts a string of a parcel instead of patiently and faithfully +undoing it fold by fold. How people can bring themselves +to use India-rubber bands, which are a sort of deification of string, +as lightly as they do I cannot imagine. To me an India-rubber +band is a precious treasure. I have one which is not new—one +that I picked up off the floor nearly five years ago. I have really +tried to use it, but my heart failed me, and I could not commit +the extravagance. Small pieces of butter grieve others. They +cannot attend to conversation because of the annoyance occasioned +by the habit which some people have of invariably taking +more butter than they want. Have you ever seen the anxious +look (almost mesmeric) which such persons fix on the article? +They would feel it a relief if they might bury it out of their sight +by popping it into their own mouths and swallowing it down; +and they are really made happy if the person on whose plate it +lies unused suddenly breaks off a piece of toast (which he does not +want at all) and eats up his butter. They think that this is not +waste. Now, Miss Matty Jenkins was chary of candles: We +had many devices to use as few as possible. In the winter afternoons +she would sit knitting for two or three hours—she could do +this in the dark or by firelight—and when I asked if I might not +ring for candles to finish stitching my wristbands, she told me to +"keep blind man's holiday." They were usually brought in with +tea, but we burnt only one at a time. As we lived in constant +preparation for a friend who might come in any evening (but who +never did), it required some contrivance to keep our two candles +of the same length, ready to be lighted, and to look as if we burnt +two always. The candles took it in turns; and then, whatever +we might be talking of or doing, Miss Matty kept her eyes habitually +fixed upon the candle, ready to jump up and extinguish it +and light the other before they had become too uneven in length +to be restored to equality in the course of the evening.</p> + +<div class='sig'>—Adapted from Mrs. Gaskell's <i>Cranford</i>.</div></div> + +<div class='center'><br />2</div> + +<div class="blockquot">Dear Madam: + +<p>We are sorry to say that we have no more house coats No. +SP62 in size 38 at $4.50. As we advertised, SP62 is not a regular +stock number, but represents a collection of $5, $6, and $7.50 +coats remaining after the holiday sales and reduced to insure their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> +being sold before spring. At the opening of the sale there were +only a few coats in size 38, and they were sold almost at once. +In our catalogue, pages 68 to 71 inclusive, you will find descriptions +of all our stock house coats. On page 68 you will see No. +450HC, our regular $4.50 coat. If you would like us to send you +one of these in size 38, we shall forward it to you at once. However, +if you would like a $5, $6, or $7.50 coat, you will, no doubt, +send us the difference in price on receipt of this letter. Of course, +the more expensive garments are made of better materials, but all +our coats show the same excellent workmanship. The best way +for you to get the exact shade of trimming that you wish is to +send us a sample of the goods that you would like to match. We +assure you that we shall take all possible care to send you the +proper color.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Yours truly,<br /> +</div></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 211</b></div> + +<p>Paragraphs may be developed in different ways. For +example, if you were going to write on the process of making +a layer cake, you would explain in detail the different +ingredients in the mixture, the proportion of each, and the +steps in the process before the product could be sold as a +layer cake.</p> + +<p>By the use of explanatory details develop the following:</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1. Making a kite.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">2. Making a baseball.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3. Making fudge.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4. How to play checkers.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5. The manufacture of soap (or any article in a grocery).</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6. The manufacture of a tin can.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">7. The manufacture of pins.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8. Every man must have an ambition.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">9. Why I intend to enter business.</span><br /> +10. The greatest modern invention.<br /> +</div> + +<p>By the use of examples to illustrate your point develop +the following:</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +1. Electricity is making housework easy and pleasant.<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span>2. Many sons of poor parents have won great wealth.<br /> +3. The wireless apparatus has saved many lives.<br /> +4. A boy can show that he is a good citizen.<br /> +5. Young Americans have little respect for authority.<br /> +</div> + +<p>By the use of comparison and contrast develop the +following:</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +1. Improvements in modern lighting systems.<br /> +2. Improvements in modern heating systems.<br /> +3. Improvements in modern means of locomotion.<br /> +4. Two kinds of work, pleasure, or study.<br /> +5. Why I intend to have a business of my own.<br /> +6. The study that I like best.<br /> +</div> + +<p>By explaining cause and effect develop the following:</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +1. The advantages of public gymnasiums.<br /> +2. The success of loose leaf devices.<br /> +3. The objections to football.<br /> +</div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 212</b></div> + +<p>Develop the following into paragraphs; in each case be +able to show what method or methods you have employed:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. A man who cannot read and write English should not be +allowed to vote.</p> + +<p>2. Postal savings banks inspire the savings habit.</p> + +<p>3. Women—the mothers of children—should vote.</p> + +<p>4. Women should not vote because they do not read the +newspaper.</p> + +<p>5. The effect of school slang is bad.</p> + +<p>6. I wish I had seen the coronation of George V. Every +fairy story I had ever read would suddenly have become real.</p> + +<p>7. Canada would gain by reciprocity with the United States.</p> + +<p>8. The United States would gain by reciprocity with Canada.</p> + +<p>9. Our forests should be preserved.</p> + +<p>10. The waste of lumber by forest fires results from carelessness.</p> + +<p>11. The waste of lumber in cutting railroad ties is too great.</p> + +<p>12. The rotation of crops enriches the soil.</p> + +<p>13. Apples are more easily gathered than cherries.</p> + +<p>14. Efforts should be made to keep the birds in our city parks.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span></p> + +<p>15. Every boy should learn a trade.</p> + +<p>16. Peddlers should not be allowed to call their wares.</p> + +<p>17. Great crowds gathered in the city during aviation week +(or any celebration).</p> + +<p>18. The electric toaster is good for hurry-up breakfasts.</p> + +<p>19. Ironing with an electric iron is more convenient than with +the old-fashioned kind.</p> + +<p>20. The wireless apparatus makes sea voyages safer than +before.</p> + +<p>21. A mixed diet is best.</p> + +<p>22. Cats should be exterminated because they spread disease.</p> + +<p>23. The parcel post will decrease the profits of the express +companies.</p> + +<p>24. A good book is opened with expectation and closed with +profit.</p> + +<p>25. Merchants should charge for delivering purchases.</p> + +<p>26. The object of the Child Welfare Exhibit is to promote the +best interests of children.</p> + +<p>27. One of the best enactments of our time is the Child Labor +Law.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 213—Smooth Connection</b></div> + +<p>We may as well confess at the beginning that smooth connection +between sentences and paragraphs is a hard thing +to learn. Primarily, it depends on clear thinking. In Exercise +135 we saw that the idea of one sentence must grow +out of the idea of the preceding one. It is the same +with paragraphs. The thought must develop gradually +from one to the next. Each paragraph, we know, represents +a unit within the larger unit of the composition; each +represents a division of thought. Not infrequently the +thought of one division differs considerably from the thought +of the next. The tying together of such units is sometimes +hard. It may be done in one of the following ways:</p> + +<p>1. By repeating at the beginning of the new paragraph +or sentence part of the preceding paragraph or sentence.</p> + +<p>2. By using pronouns to refer to what has gone before.</p> + +<p>3. By using connecting links, sometimes called <i>transition<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span> +words</i> because they indicate the transition from one +division to the next. Besides those mentioned in <a href="#Exercise_135">Exercise +135</a>, we may use a numeral connection, as, <i>in the first place</i>, +<i>in the second place;</i> or an expression much like a numeral, +as, <i>furthermore</i>, <i>in the next place;</i> or an expression +showing that an adverse idea is to be presented, as, <i>on the +other hand</i>, <i>however</i>, <i>in spite of this</i>, <i>nevertheless</i>. But whatever +you do, choose the right link, especially if you use such +a one as <i>possibly</i>, <i>probably</i>, <i>perhaps</i>, <i>certainly</i>, <i>surely</i>. Use +the one that expresses your idea exactly. Have none rather +than the wrong one.</p> + +<p>In the following the first and second paragraphs are connected +according to (1) above; the second and third are +connected according to (3) above.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>There comes to every prosperous man a time when he wishes +to know the best way of securing a steady income from his accumulated +savings without the burden of responsibility of managing +some property in order to gain his income. The merchant may +not wish to put back into the business all the earnings he gets +from it, and yet he wishes to prepare for his old age. The farmer +may wish to give up active work, but he realizes how soon his +broad acres may deteriorate through soil-robbery when he rents +his property "on shares." With such a problem before him the +thoughtful man makes an effort to <i>learn</i> how to act to secure a +good <i>income</i> all his life.</p> + +<p>One of the first things he <i>learns</i>, if he studies the situation carefully, +is that there is a wide difference between an <i>income</i> derived +from one's business ability, such as the profit secured from running +a store, factory, jobbing house, or farm, and the income which +is derived as the result of money "working" by itself. In the +first case, a man must of necessity keep up his business responsibilities; +in the other, once he has selected a safe investment, +practically all he has to do is to collect his income from time to +time as it falls due. There is in the latter no depreciation of +land, buildings, machinery, or the like; no insurance payments +to worry about; no crop failures to consider.</p> + +<p><i>It is evident, then</i>, that if one wishes to put surplus money away—say +the proceeds from the sale of a business or a farm—and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> +get a steady income from it without bother or worry, the most +important thing to consider is how to go about it to select something +which, once purchased, will turn out to be a safe investment.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 214</b></div> + +<p>In the following paragraphs taken from Robert Louis +Stevenson's <i>The Philosophy of Nomenclature</i>, point out all +the transition words that join (1) sentence to sentence, and +(2) paragraph to paragraph:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>To begin, then: the influence of our name makes itself felt +from the very cradle. As a schoolboy I remember the pride with +which I hailed Robin Hood, Robert Bruce, and Robert le Diable +as my name-fellows; and the feeling of sore disappointment that +fell on my heart when I found a freebooter or a general who did +not share with me a single one of my numerous <i>praenomina</i>. +Look at the delight with which two children find they have the +same name. They are friends from that moment forth; they +have a bond of union stronger than exchange of nuts and sweetmeats. +This feeling, I own, wears off in later life. Our names +lose their freshness and interest, become trite and indifferent. +But this, dear reader, is merely one of the sad effects of those +"shades of the prison house" which come gradually betwixt us +and nature with advancing years; it affords no weapon against +the philosophy of names.</p> + +<p>In after life, although we fail to trace its working, that name +which careless godfathers lightly applied to your unconscious +infancy will have been moulding your character and influencing +with irresistible power the whole course of your earthly fortunes. +But the last name is no whit less important as a condition of success. +Family names, we must recollect, are but inherited nicknames; +and if the <i>sobriquet</i> were applicable to the ancestor, it is +most likely applicable to the descendant also. You would not +expect to find Mr. M'Phun acting as a mute or Mr. M'Lumpha +excelling as a professor of dancing. Therefore, in what follows, +we shall consider names, independent of whether they are first +or last. And to begin with, look what a pull <i>Cromwell</i> had over +<i>Pym</i>—the one name full of a resonant imperialism, the other +mean, pettifogging, and unheroic to a degree. Who would expect +eloquence from <i>Pym</i>—who would read poems by <i>Pym</i>—who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> +would bow to the opinions of <i>Pym?</i> He might have been a dentist, +but he should never have aspired to be a statesman. I can +only wonder that he succeeded as he did. Pym and Habakkuk +stand first upon the roll of men who have triumphed, by sheer +force of genius, over the most unfavorable appellations. But +even these have suffered; and, had they been more fitly named, +the one might have been Lord Protector and the other have +shared the laurels with Isaiah. In this matter we must not forget +that all our great poets have borne great names. Chaucer, +Spenser, Shakespeare, Milton, Pope, Wordsworth, Shelley—what +a constellation of lordly words! Not a single commonplace +name among them—not a Brown, not a Jones, not a Robinson; +they are all names that one would stop and look at on a door-plate. +Now, imagine if <i>Pepys</i> had tried to clamber somehow into +the enclosure of poetry, what a blot would that name have made +upon the list! The thing is impossible. In the first place, a +certain natural consciousness that men have would have held +him down to the level of his name, would have prevented him +from rising above the Pepsine standard, and so haply withheld +him altogether from attempting verse. Next, the booksellers +would refuse to publish, and the world to read them, on the mere +evidence of the fatal appellation. And now, before I close this +section, I must say one word as to <i>punnable</i> names, names that +stand alone, that have a significance and life apart from him that +bears them. These are the bitterest of all. One friend of mine +goes bowed and humbled through life under the weight of this +misfortune; for it is an awful thing when a man's name is a joke, +when he cannot be mentioned without exciting merriment, and +when even the intimation of his death bids fair to carry laughter +into many a home.</p> + +<p>So much for people who are badly named. Now for people +who are <i>too</i> well named, who go topheavy from the font, who are +baptized into a false position, and who find themselves beginning +life eclipsed under the fame of some of the great ones of the past. +A man, for instance, called William Shakespeare could never dare +to write plays. He is thrown into too humbling an apposition +with the author of <i>Hamlet</i>. His own name coming after is such +an anti-climax. "The plays of William Shakespeare?" says the +reader—"O no! The plays of William Shakespeare Cockerill," +and he throws the book aside. In wise pursuance of such views, +Mr. John Milton Hengler, who not long since delighted us in this +favored town, has never attempted to write an epic, but has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span> +chosen a new path and has excelled upon the tight-rope. A +marked example of triumph over this is the case of Mr. Dante +Gabriel Rosetti. On the face of the matter, I should have advised +him to imitate the pleasing modesty of the last-named gentleman, +and confine his ambition to the sawdust. But Mr. Rosetti has +triumphed. He has even dared to translate from his mighty +name-father; and the voice of fame supports him in his boldness.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 215</b></div> + +<p>Turn back to <a href="#Exercise_210">Exercise 210</a>, 1. How are the different +paragraphs that you have made connected?</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XV</h2> + +<div class='chaptertitle'>BUSINESS LETTERS</div> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Not</span> long ago the head of one of the biggest mail order +firms in this country said: "Business needs the boys and the +girls. Do not let them think they can be but cogs in the +great system of wheels. More to-day than at any previous +time the world needs men and women who can speak and +write <i>themselves</i> into English. Four hundred million dollars +is wasted every year in unprofitable advertising alone, and +as much more in bad handling of good prospects and loss of +customers through inefficient letters. We look to the future +generation to conserve a part of this enormous loss. If a +single page advertisement in a single issue costs $7500, +what you say on that page is important. Look into any +current magazine, and you will be tremendously impressed +with the importance of English in this branch alone, not +to mention its importance in letter writing."</p> + +<p>There is no greater power in business to-day than the +ability to use convincing English in correspondence and in +advertising. Any one who can write good letters, letters +that the reader feels he must answer, has success ahead of +him, because the market of a good letter is practically unrestricted. +Wherever a letter can penetrate, it may create +desire for an article and make sales.</p> + +<p>But what is a good letter? Nothing more than a bit +of good English. Can you write clear, direct, crisp, yet +fluent English? Then you can write good letters—but +not till then.</p> + +<p>In modern business the letter has become the advertiser, +the salesman, the collector, and the adjuster of claims. An +advertisement must be attractive; it must arouse the interest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span> +of the one who sees it. A salesman must understand human +nature; he must forestall objections by showing the customer +how he will gain by buying. The collector and the +adjuster of claims must be courteous and at the same time +shrewd. If a letter is to meet all of these requirements +it cannot be dashed off at a moment's notice. It must be +thought out in detail and written carefully to include all +that should be expressed. This means, especially in a sales +letter:</p> + +<p>1. An unusually worded opening that puts the writer's +affairs in the background and the reader's gain in the foreground. +Begin with <i>you</i>, not <i>we</i>. The reader is interested +in himself, his own progress, his own troubles, and not in +the possessions of the writer, except as the writer can show +that those possessions affect him.</p> + +<p>3. A clear, simply worded explanation of the purpose of +the letter.</p> + +<p>3. Proof of advantages to the reader.</p> + +<p>4. Persuasion or inducement to act now.</p> + +<p>5. Conclusion, making this action easy.</p> + +<p>Above all, if a letter is to be good, it must not be too +short. In the pursuit of brevity too many pupils in business +English make the mistake of writing altogether too little to +get the reader's attention; and if his attention is not +aroused, the letter fails. The letter should be long enough +to suggest interest in the welfare of the reader and enthusiasm +for the subject under discussion.</p> + +<p>Enthusiasm in business involves knowledge both of your +project and of your customer. You cannot attempt to +write a letter of any kind unless you know the facts that +require it. Perhaps it is a complaint that you must try +to settle. Without a knowledge of the facts, of the truth or +the untruth of the claim, how can you write the letter? +Sometimes it requires both time and study to gather the +necessary details, but they must be gathered.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span></p> + +<p>When you have your details and begin writing, be sincere. +You must be so absolutely in earnest that the reader will +at once feel and begin to share your enthusiasm.</p> + +<p>Knowledge of the person to whom you are writing is fully +as important as knowledge of your subject. You must get +his point of view, understand his character, and appeal to +the qualities that you recognize in it, to the desires or ambitions, +that it shows. To a certain extent all of us are +alike. There are certain fundamental interests that we all +possess; these may safely be appealed to at almost all times. +But our employment, our habits of life, our ways of thinking +make us different. The same argument, probably, will +not always bring satisfactory replies from a manufacturer, +a farmer, a judge, a minister or priest, a carpenter, and a +woman. Some people like to receive a long letter that goes +carefully into detail; others will not take the time to read +such a letter. Each customer must be studied. This is so +difficult a matter that no one can expect to learn it all at +once.</p> + +<p>Finally, from the first word to the last be courteous. No +matter how righteous your indignation, be courteous. You +cannot afford to lose your temper. Courtesy does not imply +flattery nor a lack of truth. Your letter can be strong and +yet polite in tone. Lose your temper, and your letter will +probably fail. Keep your temper, show thoughtfulness for +the reader's interest, and your letter will more likely fulfill +its purpose.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 216—The Form of the Letter</b></div> + +<p>Before we look at some actual letters to judge of their +effectiveness, we must learn the conventional form of a +letter, the parts which many years of use have shown to +be necessary. There are six parts to a formal or business +letter:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The heading, which includes the writer's address and the +date.</p> + +<p>2. The introduction, which includes the name and the address +of the one to whom you are writing.</p> + +<p>3. The salutation; for example, Dear Sir:</p> + +<p>4. The body of the letter, the important part.</p> + +<p>5. The courteous close; for example, Yours truly,</p> + +<p>6. The signature.</p></div> + +<p>Each part ends with a period except the salutation, which +ends with a colon, and the courteous close, which ends with +a comma. The various groups of words within the heading +and the introduction are separated by commas.</p> + +<p>Why does the salutation end with a colon?</p> + +<p>Why does the courteous close end with a comma?</p> + + +<div class='center'><b>The Arrangement</b></div> + +<p>In the following, notice the spacing. If the heading is +short, it is put on one line; as,</p> + + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Letter heading"> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Heading</i></td><td align='right'> Hilliard, Fla., June 30, 1914.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' rowspan='2' valign='top'><i>Introduction</i></td><td align='left'>Mr. Thomas Barrett,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Boston, Mass.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Salutation</i></td><td align='left'>Dear Sir:</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' rowspan='3' valign='top'><i>Body</i></td><td align='left'> ..................................................</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>................................................................</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>.................................</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Courteous close</i></td><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 8em;">Yours truly,</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Signature</i></td><td align='right'>Samuel Garth</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>If the heading is long, arrange it in one of the following +ways:</p> + +<div class='center'>1</div> +<div class='blockquot2'> +<div class='right'> +334 Lexington Ave., Chicago,<br /> +May 19, 1915.</div><br /> +<br /> +Mr. Thomas Barrett,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Boston, Mass.</span><br /> +Dear Sir:<br /> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span></p> + +<div class='center'><br />2</div> +<div class='blockquot2'> +<div class='right'> +<span style="margin-right: 2em;">334 Lexington Ave.,</span><br /> +Chicago, Ill., May 19, 1915.<br /> +</div></div> + +<div class='center'><br />3</div> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +<div class='right'> +334 Lexington Ave.,<br /> +<span style="margin-right: 2em;">Chicago, Ill.,</span><br /> +May 19, 1915.<br /> +</div></div> + +<div class='center'><br />4</div> + +<div class='blockquot2'><div class='right'> +334 Lexington Ave.,<br /> +<span style="margin-right: 2em;">Chicago, Ill.,</span><br /> +May 19, 1915.<br /> +</div></div> + +<p>The superscription on the envelope is arranged and punctuated +like the introduction in the letter, except that the +punctuation may be omitted from the end of lines.</p> + +<p>There is a growing tendency to "block" the different +parts of a letter; that is, to begin each item of each part +directly below the first, with no indentation.</p> + +<p>There is also a tendency to use no abbreviations (except +for titles like <i>Mr.</i>), the name of the month and of the state +and the word <i>street</i>, <i>avenue</i>, or <i>building</i> being spelled out.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The punctuation as shown in the examples given above is +that in more prevalent use. Certain writers, however, advocate the +omission from the formal parts of the letter of commas at the end of +lines and of periods (except to show abbreviations).</p></div> + +<p>Arrange the following headings, supplying capitals and +punctuation marks:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. 55 water st mobile ala june 16 19—</p> + +<p>2. calmar iowa september 1 19—</p> + +<p>3. 453 marquette building chicago ill jan 5 19—</p> + +<p>4. 123 salem st springfield mass june 23 19—</p> + +<p>5. highland park grand haven mich may 3 19—</p> + +<p>6. 220 broadway new york n y february 15 19—</p> + +<p>7. 78 main street portland oregon december 10 19—</p> + +<p>8. 32 lincoln st kansas city mo oct 2 19—<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span></p> + +<p>9. room 15 1321 pennsylvania ave washington d c sept 2 19—</p> + +<p>10. 25 chestnut st philadelphia pa april 14 19—</p> + +<p>11. 212 tribune building new york n y march 2 19—</p> + +<p>12. 98 dorchester ave boston mass feb 12 19—</p> + +<p>13. 24 milk st boston mass June 14 19—</p> + +<p>14. 231 west 39th st new york city march 4 19—</p> + +<p>15. 345 newark ave jersey city n j (supply date)</p> + +<p>16. 44 fifth ave detroit mich sept 1 19—</p> + +<p>17. 102 west 42d st denver colorado (date)</p> + +<p>18. Explain the difference between (16) and (17). Notice +that the name of the street in each case is a numeral. Why is +it spelled out in (16) and not in (17)?</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 217</b></div> + +<p>Supplying the name of the firm and the business engaged +in, write letter heads using the items given in Exercise 216. +For example:</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<span class="smcap">Barrett, Brown & Co.</span><br /> +<i>Groceries</i><br /> +55 Water Street<br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 22em;">Decorah, Iowa, — 19</span><br /> +</div> + +<p>When may & be used?</p> + +<p>What is the advantage of using a letter head?</p> + +<p>In making letter heads, imagine you are a printer. Arrange +the items so that they may show to the best advantage. +Let your lines of printing or writing be of different lengths. +Add any details that you wish, such as trade-mark designs +or the names of officers.</p> + +<p>Arrange and punctuate:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. citronelle business mens association citronelle alabama +may 2 19— mr john harvey 19 e monroe st rochester n y dear sir</p> + +<p>2. 173 broadway new york June 10 19— mr walter thomas 191 +e main st waltham mass dear sir</p> + +<p>3. 25 broad st maplewood n h messrs hausen & ottman 18 +la salle station chicago ill gentlemen (supply date)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span></p> + +<p>4. john randolph & co druggist 14 jefferson st charleston s c +jan 8 19— gerhard mennen & co newark n j gentlemen (letter head)</p> + +<p>5. 43 south 5th ave madison wis aug 8 19— the white mountain +freezer co nashua n h gentlemen</p></div> + +<p>Address an envelope for each of the above, using the +following as a model.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/gs241.png" width="400" height="200" alt="card" title="" /> +</div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 218—Cautions</b></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><i>The Heading</i></div> + +<p>Always date your letters.</p> + +<p>Give your full address, even if you are certain that the +one to whom you are writing knows it.</p> + +<div class='center'><br /><i>The Introduction</i></div> + +<p>The person addressed must always be given a title. If you +address one man, use <i>Mr.;</i> if a firm, use <i>Messrs.;</i> if a woman, +<i>Miss</i> or <i>Mrs.</i> If a man has a title like <i>Professor</i> or <i>Doctor</i>, +it should be used, and <i>Mr.</i>, of course, omitted.</p> + +<p><i>Hon.</i> (Honorable) is used for a person who holds, or who +has held, a public office. It is a very formal title.</p> + +<p><i>Esq.</i>(Esquire) is a legal form used by some correspondents +in addressing any man. It is an English usage. It always +follows the name, and, if it is used, <i>Mr.</i> is omitted. In this +country <i>Mr.</i> is preferable.</p> + +<p>In writing to a man in his official capacity, the following +form is correct when there is no street number or when the +title is short. Notice that <i>Mr.</i> is omitted.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span></p> + +<div class='unindent'> +G. N. Fratt, Cashier,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">First National Bank,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Racine, Wis.</span><br /> +</div> + +<p>The following is correct when the title is long:</p> + +<div class='unindent'> +Mr. John Frederick Pierce,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ass't. Engineer of Bridges and Buildings,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">607 White Building, Seattle, Wash.</span><br /> +</div> + +<p>Notice that in the last example, the city and the state +are put on the same line as the street in order to make the +three lines of about the same length. Four lines might have +been used.</p> + +<div class='center'><br /><i>The Salutation</i></div> + +<p>If you address one man, the salutation is <i>Dear Sir;</i> as,</p> + +<div class='unindent'> +Mr. John Pierce,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Seattle, Wash.</span><br /> + +Dear Sir:<br /> +</div> + +<p>If you address a firm, the salutation is <i>Gentlemen;</i> as,</p> + +<div class='unindent'> +Messrs. Brownleigh & King,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Portland, Oregon.</span><br /> + +Gentlemen:<br /> +</div> + +<p>If you address a woman, married or single, the salutation +in business letters is <i>Dear Madam;</i> as,</p> + +<div class='center'>1</div> + +<div class='unindent'><br /> +Mrs. John Pierce,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Seattle, Wash.</span><br /> + +Dear Madam:<br /> +</div> + +<div class='center'><br />2</div> + +<div class='unindent'><br /> +Miss Florence Pierce,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Seattle, Wash.</span><br /> + +Dear Madam:<br /> +</div> + +<p>A more familiar form of salutation is either of the +following:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span></p> + +<div class='center'>1</div> + +<div class='unindent'> +Miss Florence Pierce,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Seattle, Wash.</span><br /> +My dear Miss Pierce:<br /> +</div> + +<div class='center'><br />2</div> + +<div class='unindent'><br /> +Miss Florence Pierce,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Seattle, Wash.</span><br /> +Dear Miss Pierce:<br /> +</div> + +<p>In using <i>Hon.</i>, the salutation is usually <i>Sir</i>.</p> + +<div class='center'><br /><i>The Courteous Close</i></div> + +<p>The courteous close corresponds in tone to the salutation. +If the salutation is <i>Dear Sir</i>, <i>Gentlemen</i>, or <i>Dear Madam</i>, the +courteous close should be one of the following:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Letter closings"> +<tr><td align='left'>Yours truly,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Yours very truly,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Very truly yours,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Respectfully yours,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Yours respectfully,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Sincerely yours,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Very sincerely yours,</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>If the salutation is <i>Sir</i>, the courteous close should be +<i>Respectfully yours</i> or <i>Yours respectfully</i>.</p> + +<p>If the body of the letter and the courteous close do not +agree in tone, the effect is often ridiculous. Suppose, for +instance, that the courteous close of (2) under <a href="#Exercise_220">Exercise 220</a> +were <i>Yours respectfully</i>. What would be the effect?</p> + +<div class='center'><br /><i>The Signature</i></div> + +<p>If an unmarried woman is signing a business letter, she +should avoid confusion by prefixing (Miss) to her name.</p> + +<p>A married woman should sign her own name, as, <i>Alice +Pierce;</i> she should indicate her title, as <i>Mrs. John F. Pierce</i>, +either below the other or at one side.</p> + +<p>No other title should be prefixed to a signature.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span></p> + +<p>If a letter is signed by the name of a firm, the signature +of the one who dictated the letter is usually added; as,</p> + +<div class='sig'> +<span style="margin-right: 4em;">Yours very truly,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-right: 2em;">Smith Lumber Co.</span><br /> +by ——<br /> +</div> + +<p>This sort of signature gives a letter the "personal touch." +Explain.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Folding a Letter</b></div> + +<p>Business letter paper is about eight by ten inches. In +folding a letter sheet, (1) turn the lower edge up to about +one-eighth of an inch from the top; press the fold firmly, +keeping the edges even; (2) turn the paper so that the +folded edge is at your <i>left</i> hand; (3) fold <i>from</i> you a little +less than one-third the width of the sheet; (4) fold the +upper edge <i>down</i> toward you so that it projects a trifle +beyond the folded edge. Without turning it over, pick it +up and insert it in the envelope, putting in <i>first</i> the edge +that was folded last.</p> + +<p>Write the address and the salutation for:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. A business house in your town.</p> + +<p>2. Mr. John R. Tobin, president of the Detroit State Bank, +Detroit, Mich.</p> + +<p>3. Miss Mabel Gunther, Shullsburg, Wis.</p> + +<p>4. Professor C. M. Watson, Harvard College, Cambridge, Mass.</p> + +<p>5. John F. Campbell, Manager Bond Department, First Trust +and Savings Bank, Boston, Mass.</p> + +<p>6. Taylor and Critchfield, Chicago, Ill.</p> + +<p>7. Mrs. Thomas D. MacDonald, 126 E. Second Street, Washington, +Ia.</p></div> + +<p>Write the courteous close and the signature for:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. A letter from a business house in your town signed by F. R. +Wilson.</p> + +<p>2. A letter from Miss Mabel Gunther (2 above).</p> + +<p>3. A letter from Professor C. M. Watson (4 above).</p> + +<p>4. A letter signed by John F. Campbell (5 above).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span></p> + +<p>5. A letter from Taylor and Critchfield signed by you yourself.</p> + +<p>6. A letter from Mrs. Thomas D. MacDonald (7 above).</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 219—Ordering Goods</b></div> + +<p>If an order includes a number of separate items, it is +usually written on a separate sheet of paper. Firms often +supply blanks for this purpose. If the order is short, it +forms part of the letter. In any case, each item is placed +on a separate line, so that the items may be checked as +the order is filled. In the following, notice the arrangement +and the punctuation:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<div class='right'>Hamilton, Montana, Feb. 16, 1914.<br /></div> + +Messrs. MacBride & Dickens,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">New York, N. Y.</span><br /> +Gentlemen:<br /> + + +<p>At your earliest convenience please ship me the following via +the Northern Express Co. from St. Paul:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Order"> +<tr><td align='left'>6 doz. A 68 assorted sizes Men's Black Caps </td><td align='left'>@ </td><td align='right'>1.50 </td><td align='right'>9.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>5 doz. D 71 Men's Cotton Handkerchiefs</td><td align='left'>@</td><td align='right'>.60 </td><td align='right'>3.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>5 doz. X 30 Men's Linen Handkerchiefs</td><td align='left'>@</td><td align='right'>2.00 </td><td align='right'>10.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' colspan='3'> </td><td align='right'>———</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' colspan='3'> </td><td align='right'>$22.00</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Enclosed find a draft on New York for twenty-two dollars.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +<span style="margin-right: 2em;">Yours truly,</span><br /> +S. D. Jensen<br /> +</div></div> + +<p>Write the letters outlined below:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Order fifty copies of the Business Arithmetic that you are +using. How shall you pay for them?</p> + +<p>2. Clip from a newspaper an advertisement of groceries. Imagine +that you are a housekeeper, and spend ten dollars to the best +advantage, ordering several articles.</p> + +<p>3. Bring in an advertisement of household necessities—linens, +tinware, etc. Spend five dollars, buying several articles.</p> + +<p>4. Bring in an advertisement of furniture. Write a letter +ordering enough to furnish a parlor or a dining room. Have the +amount charged to your account.</p> + +<p>5. A magazine offers one of several books as a premium with +a year's subscription. Answer the advertisement.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_220" id="Exercise_220"></a>Exercise 220—The Tone of the Letter</b></div> + +<p>Undue familiarity or an evidence of loss of temper will at +once frustrate the object of a letter. A dignified letter never +shows either. Just what constitutes a dignified letter is hard +to define but fairly easy to feel. This much is certain: it must +be simple in structure, direct in its wording, and so sincere in +feeling that no one will doubt its truth. Any extravagance +of language, therefore, has no place in a dignified letter.</p> + +<p>Study the following to see whether they show dignity:</p> + +<div class='center'>1</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<div class='right'> +Tuesday, 5 <span class="smcap">p.m.</span><br /></div> + +Miss Sarah Howard,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Denver, Colorado.</span><br /> + +Dear Madam:<br /> + + +<p>I have a great piece of <span class="smcap">confidential</span> news for you.</p> + +<p>Take advantage of the remarkable offer our company is making +to you, and it will mean thousands of <span class="smcap">dollars</span> in your pocket. +Understand that this offer is not open to every one. You have +been especially selected. You are the only one in your town who +will hear of this remarkable offer.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />2</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +Elsworth, Brown & Co.,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">120 Jefferson Ave.,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">Detroit, Mich.</span><br /> + + +Gentlemen: + +<p>What is the matter with our last order? Have you people +gone out of business, or are you asleep? If we don't get that order +by the third, you'll never hear from us again.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />3</div> + +<p>A letter to Mrs. Bixby, written Nov. 21, 1864.</p> + +<div class="blockquot">Dear Madam: + +<p>I have been shown in the file of the War Department a statement +of the Adjutant General of Massachusetts that you are the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> +mother of five sons who have died gloriously on the field of battle. +I feel how weak and fruitless must be any words of mine which +should beguile you from the grief of a loss so overwhelming. But +I cannot refrain from tendering to you the consolation that may +be found in the thanks of the republic they died to save. I pray +that our Heavenly Father may assuage the anguish of your +bereavement, and leave you only the cherished memory of the +loved and lost and the solemn pride that must be yours to have +laid so costly a sacrifice upon the altar of freedom.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +<span style="margin-right: 2em;">Yours very sincerely and respectfully,</span><br /> +Abraham Lincoln<br /> +</div></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 221</b></div> + +<p>In writing the following letters, be definite and courteous:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. You have advertised your eight-room, furnace-heated house +for sale for $3,500. A letter of inquiry desires particulars. +Answer it.</p> + +<p>2. You live on a side street, which for the last week has not been +lighted. Write to the editor of the paper, or to a town official, +whichever you think would remedy the matter. Be courteous. +A letter to an editor is begun: To the Editor of ——.</p> + +<p>3. The cars on which you ride every day are very dirty. Write +to the mayor. He is addressed: Hon. ——.</p> + +<p>4. You wish to have a telephone installed. Make application.</p> + +<p>5. Two weeks ago you wrote (4). Still you have no telephone. +Write again, stating the substance of (4) and asking the reason +for the delay.</p> + +<p>6. Write the telephone company's reply. Be very courteous. +What good reason could you give for the delay?</p> + +<p>7. You understand that your Congressman has the privilege +of recommending a young man for the entrance examinations +of your state university. Write to him, asking that he recommend +you. Remember that he is a stranger to you. What should +you tell him?</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 222—Mistaken Ideas in Letter Writing</b></div> + +<p>It is too bad that, to a number of people, the term <i>business +letter</i> conveys the idea of a colorless, stilted composition full +of trite and almost meaningless business formulas. No one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> +reads such a letter unless he has to, and surely that is not +the kind one should practice writing. Below are given a few +of the expressions that should be avoided.</p> + +<p>I. Sometimes a writer tries to impress a reader with the +volume of business he is doing by showing haste in his correspondence; +as, in</p> + +<p>1. Omitting the subject; as,</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +<i>Wrong:</i> In reply to your question will say ——<br /> +<i>Right:</i> In reply to your question I will say ——<br /> +</div> + +<p>2. Omitting articles and prepositions; as,</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +<i>Wrong:</i> Direct package care Western Canning Co.<br /> +<i>Right:</i> Direct the package in care of the Western Canning Co.<br /> +</div> + +<p>3. Using abbreviations</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><i>a.</i> Of the introduction. Write out the introduction +in detail, both name and address. Abbreviating +this part of the letter is highly discourteous.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> In the body of the letter; as,</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +<i>Wrong:</i> The Co. sent a no. of large orders last year.<br /> +</div> + +<p><i>c.</i> Of the courteous close; as,</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +<i>Wrong:</i> Yours etc.<br /> +<i>Wrong:</i> Yours resp'y.<br /> +</div></div> + +<p>4. Using a phrase as a sentence; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot2"><i>Wrong:</i> Yours of the 6th at hand and contents noted.</div> + +<p>It is much better to refer indirectly to the receipt of a +letter; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>In the order you sent us on Aug. 5 ——</p></div> + +<p>The same sort of mistake is seen in the all too frequent +closing:</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +<i>Wrong:</i> Hoping that we hear from you soon,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 21.5em;">Yours truly,</span><br /> +<i>Right:</i> Hoping that we hear from you soon, we are<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 21.5em;">Yours truly,</span><br /> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span></p> + +<p>Why use such an expression at all? Avoid <i>hoping</i>, <i>trusting</i>, +<i>awaiting</i>, or any other artificial closing.</p> + +<p>II. Sometimes a writer makes an effort to be extremely +courteous, but fails because he uses hackneyed wording; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. <i>Kindly.</i>—A good word in itself but greatly abused.</p> + +<p>2. <i>We beg to state.</i>—Never use <i>beg</i> in this sense. You +have no right to beg attention; earn it.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Your favor</i>, <i>your esteemed favor</i>, <i>your valued favor</i>.—Say, +<i>Your letter</i>.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Will you be so good as to.</i>—Belongs in the class with +<i>beg to state</i>. Make your requests courteously, but directly.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Would say.</i>—Avoid this expression.</p></div> + +<p>III. Sometimes in an effort to be clear a writer uses <i>same</i> +as a pronoun; as,</p> + +<div class="blockquot2"><i>Wrong:</i> If the books are not satisfactory, return same.</div> + + +<p>This is one of the worst of the distinctly business blunders. +<i>Same</i> is never a pronoun. Write to a man as you talk to +him and you will not use <i>same</i> in this way. (See <a href="#Exercise_88">Exercise 88</a>.)</p> + +<p>IV. Sometimes in order to get attention a writer will use a +liberal sprinkling of dashes and capitals, probably in imitation +of advertising copy. Better than such artificial means +is the attraction of a well worded letter.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>Criticise the following letters, pointing out all the expressions +that should be improved. Rewrite the letters.</p> + +<div class='center'>1</div> + +<div class="blockquot">Gentlemen: + +<p>We beg to acknowledge your esteemed favor of Apr. 6. In +regard to shoes received by you in poor shape as per complaint, +would say that on receipt of same will try to locate cause of trouble. +If due to defect in manufacture, will credit you with value of +same.</p> + +<p>Hoping this is satisfactory to you,</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Yours truly,<br /> +</div></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span></p> + +<div class='center'><br />2</div> + +<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir: + +<p>Yours of March 18 at hand. Referring to matter of short +weight, I beg to call your attention to C & A car 87324, which you +loaded for us March 7 at your Auburn mine, gross weight 121,400 +lbs. This car was check weighed at Peoria March 11 on your +company's scales and showed gross weight 113,200 lbs. or shortage +8,200 lbs. Having investigated car, I find same was in good order +and no indication of leakage, and it would appear to be a case of +carelessness at time of loading. Therefore will request you to +kindly send me cr. memo, on 8,200 lbs.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Yours truly,<br /> +</div></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_223" id="Exercise_223"></a>Exercise 223—The Sales Letter</b></div> + +<p>The object of the sales letter is to make the reader buy. +How can you do it? To begin with, get his point of view—that +of the user. Then imagine that he is present and talk +to him on paper. Get his interest with your opening sentence. +Explain what you have to sell. Show him that he +needs it. Whet his desire to possess it, and, finally, make +it easy and imperative for him to order today.</p> + +<p>The opening paragraph is all-important. It may make or +mar a letter. If it is stilted or lacks directness, if it hasn't +the personal, natural tone that makes the reader feel you +are talking to him, or if it is stereotyped in its wording, the +letter will probably go to the waste-basket.</p> + +<p>Contrast the two letters that follow. Both were written +to accompany a catalogue. Notice that the first begins +and ends in a stereotyped way; has too few details to arouse +interest; asks for an order but has no inducement to give +one now; and, throughout, lacks the personal, convincing +tone that makes the second a good selling letter. Notice +that the second begins with <i>you</i>, not with <i>we</i>, and keeps the +same <i>you</i> attitude to the end.</p> + +<p>Turn back to the five essentials of a letter given on page +230. See if you can differentiate the five in the second letter.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span></p> + +<div class='center'>1</div> + +<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir: + +<p>In compliance with your request of recent date we are sending +you our latest general catalogue, inasmuch as we do not know +which department catalogue you wish. We also have specialized +books for jewelry, furniture, hardware, and drygoods. On +request we shall be glad to send any one of these also.</p> + +<p>We carry the biggest line of Variety Store Leaders in the country, +and our goods are always of the best. We take particular +pains to acquaint our customers with the latest thing in the trade, +and to give business-getting suggestions. Our Co-operative +Bureau cheerfully answers all inquiries.</p> + +<p>Trusting we shall hear from you with an order, we are</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Yours truly,<br /> +</div></div> + +<div class='center'><br />2</div> + +<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir: + +<p>Under separate cover you will receive a copy of our latest general +catalogue, published especially for owners of Variety Stores. +We are sending you the general catalogue because we do not +know whether you are interested in a particular department. +However, if your business specializes in any one class of goods—such +as jewelry, furniture, hardware, or drygoods—we +shall be glad to supply you with the departmental book you need. +On the enclosed postal card simply check the one you wish, and +mail the card to-day. We shall <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'foward'">forward</ins> the catalogue at once.</p> + +<p>You may know that we always have on hand between +two hundred and two hundred and fifty different Variety Store +Leaders, affording you a wide selection of high-class goods of the +finest materials, the neatest workmanship, and the latest styles +at very low prices. After glancing over the catalogue you will +agree with us that in every department of our huge business a +dollar has full purchasing power.</p> + +<p>A unique feature of our business, moreover, is the Co-operative +Bureau, which you will find a decided help in building up your +business. Each week the Bureau sends out a Bulletin, acquainting +our customers with important business events in the larger +trade centers, with suggestions for new advertising and selling +methods, with notices of new stock additions that make especially +good leaders, and with advice how best to display them. +The Bureau invites correspondence and sends customers, absolutely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> +free of charge, advice on new store arrangements, window +decorations, and advertising plans.</p> + +<p>Your first order makes you a co-operating member and entitles +you to all the privileges of the Bureau and the services of an institution +with wide experience and with a recognized reputation for +square-dealing. Fill out the enclosed order blank, mail it to-day, +and receive this week's Bulletin by return mail. It contains +several splendid suggestions for novel, inexpensive advertising.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Yours truly,<br /> +</div></div> + +<p>The letter given above is personal and yet dignified. +Usually that is the best style to use, and the one that we +wish to practice writing. Sometimes, however, results can +best be obtained by using the colloquial or even jocular tone +illustrated in the following letter sent to a retailer in +Ottumwa, Iowa:</p> + +<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir: + +<p>We sell cheese, a new brand, the finest kind you ever tasted, +put up in the most attractive package, to sell at the most attractive +price. Called Par Excellence Creme, wrapped in silver foil +with a gold label, it sells for fifteen cents and costs you ten. Ever +hear a better proposition?</p> + +<p>Better buy now before your rival gets ahead of you. Everybody's +calling for it. Why? Because we're advertising everywhere. +It has been out only one month, and yet sales have trebled +our highest expectations. Half the sales of a new cheese depend +on the package and the price; the other half depend on the quality. +All three are right in Par Excellence Creme.</p> + +<p>Mr. S. R. King, our Iowa representative, tried to see you last +week, but, unfortunately, he was unable to find you in. Now, +he carries a full line of our samples, and it's worth the time it +takes just to see how good they look, even if you don't care to +buy. How about it? Don't you want to see them? Mr. King +will be in Ottumwa next Wednesday.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Yours truly,<br /> +</div></div> + +<p>This style is commonly called "snappy." It has its advantage, +but should be used only rarely. Above all, if you do use +it, avoid the dash. Notice how the dash spoils the following:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir: + +<p>Have you ever eaten that king of nuts—the budded or grafted +paper shell pecan—the nut whose kernel is as nutritious as beef +and as sweet and delicious as honey—the nut that is so delightfully +palatable and so wholesome, the discriminating epicures of +two continents have set their seal of approval on it—creating a +demand that literally cannot be supplied—even at prices ranging +as high as a dollar a pound.</p></div> + +<p>To use the dash in this way seems to imply that you do +not understand punctuation or sentence structure. If the +paragraph is rewritten, removing the dashes and dividing +into sentences, we get a much stronger appeal. The dash +makes for weakness rather than for strength because it +suggests hysterics.</p> + +<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir: + +<p>Have you ever eaten the king of nuts, the budded or grafted +paper shell pecan? The kernel is as nutritious as beef and as +sweet as honey. It is so wholesome and so delicious that discriminating +epicures of two continents have set their approval +on it, creating a demand that literally cannot be supplied, even +at prices ranging as high as a dollar a pound.</p></div> + +<p>A very good way to open a sales letter is to get the attention +by a bit of narration containing direct quotations, as +shown in the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir: + +<p>"It saves seven per cent."</p> + +<p>So said Mr. John H. Samuels, a manufacturer of Birmingham, +Ala.</p> + +<p>He had watched his bookkeepers at their work, and it seemed +to him that their main business was turning and flattening the +springy pages of the bulgy ledger. Ten seconds were wasted, he +said, every time a page was turned—almost every time an entry +was made—and hardly more than two minutes were needed to +make the entry. That was enough. Each of his twenty men +was wasting seven per cent of his time.</p> + +<p>"Try hinged paper," suggested the head bookkeeper.</p> + +<p>Accordingly, Mr. Samuels tried several kinds of hinged paper,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> +only to find that the hinged section tore, broke, or cracked. The +time that the clerks now saved in flattening the leaves they wasted +in rewriting the pages that had torn out.</p> + +<p>He had no more faith in hinged papers by the time that he saw +the advertisement of the Benton hinge. "As strong as the rest of +the paper!" he scoffed. "We'll see about this!"</p> + +<p>"Send me a sample," he wrote us. "If your ad tells the truth, +you get my order."</p> + +<p>We sent it. He tested it. He pulled it, crumpled it, ruled on +it, erased it on both sides, and even creased it. But it did not +break.</p> + +<p>Very cautiously and doubtingly he tried the paper in one +ledger for one month. He found that the book rolled flat whenever +it was opened, that no hinge tore, and that every page could +be used from binder to outer edge.</p> + +<p>"It does the work," he told our salesman at the end of the +month. "It saves seven per cent. Send me a consignment."</p> + +<p>If you, too, are paying seven per cent of your bookkeepers' +salaries for waste motion, let us send you a sample. It will cut +down your expenses as it cut down Mr. Samuels'.</p> + +<p>Remember that you put yourself under no obligation to us. +You take no risks. Simply promise to use the paper if we send +it free.</p> + +<div class='sig'>Yours truly,</div></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 224</b></div> + +<p>Study the following letters and letter openings for good +and bad qualities:</p> + +<div class='center'>1</div> + +<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir: + +<p>People who have not had much of what the world calls "good +luck" find it hard to believe an opportunity when it comes—they +don't feel sure about it—on the other hand, people who +have had many opportunities have a natural confidence that +every opening presented is intended for them and they grasp it +with an assurance that begets success.</p> + +<p>You may be one of those who have not had many chances to +do what you would like to do and therefore not sure that my offer +is an opportunity. For that reason let us again go over the +points of advantage. . . .</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span></p> + +<div class='center'><br />2</div> + +<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir: + +<p>I am taking the liberty of writing you again because I fear you +do not fully realize the value of the proposition I am offering you. +Why, man, it's the opportunity of a life-time! . . . (extended +for three pages.)</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />3</div> + +<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir: + +<p>If we wanted to know just what kind of person you are, do +you know where we'd go to find out? We'd ask your old friends +and neighbors, who know all about you from close association.</p> + +<p>If you want to find out about us—what we are doing and what +improvements we are making in southern Florida—the best +place to get this information is from the people of Florida, who +know the facts from first-hand observation. The enclosed clipping +is an editorial expression—not a paid advertisement—from +the Ft. Meyers Press. The editor is under no obligation to us +and is merely expressing the opinion of the people here. . . .</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />4</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<div class='right'> +New York, Right Now.<br /></div> +<br /> +<div class='center'><span class="smcap">A Deal of Importance</span><br /> +</div> + +<p>It affects YOU! It is so important I must forego the pleasure +of a personal letter in order to write 5,000 people to-day—500 of +whom—the wide-awake ones who read this letter through—will +be able to coin it into dollars—real money—money you +can spend.</p> + +<p>What we now offer you has never before been offered by any +body in the world. It is a combination we are fortunate enough, +just at this time, to be able to offer you, because of an important +deal we have just closed—a deal that may easily spell dollars +to you. Read every word of this letter—it may be—possibly +is—the only thing to make you a successful and wealthy man. . . .</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />5</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<div class='right'> +R F D 4 Logansport, Ind.<br /> +<span style="margin-right: 2em;">8-26-11.</span><br /> +</div> +Mr. M. H. Smith, etc.<br /> +Dear Sir:<br /> + + +<p>I acknowledge getting your telegram over the telephone yesterday, +and if I had been in funds would have answered by return<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span> +telegram, but such is life. I accommodated a friend by loaning +him $750, which will probably be paid the last week of never. I +thank you for the offer, and when I am in funds will call on you +either personally or by letter.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Very truly yours,<br /> +</div></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 225—Opening an Account</b></div> + +<p>Imagine that you are manager of a wholesale dry goods +house. You have received an order from P. H. Powley, 23 +Water street, Franklin, Mich. As you do not know Mr. +Powley, write him, stating in as courteous a way as possible +that, since this is his first order, he must either furnish references +or send a remittance. Make your letter direct and +personal. Include some good selling talk.</p> + +<p>The exercise above illustrates the method that might be +adopted in case of a small order. If Mr. Powley had sent +a large order, the wholesale house would no doubt consult +a financial agency to discover his financial condition; +his <i>rating</i>, it is called. If his name were not found in the +book of the agency, the wholesale house would require Mr. +Powley to send a correct account of his financial standing; +that is, a list of his assets and liabilities. If he refused, they +would not do business with him. Why? The principal +financial agencies are Bradstreet and Dun. Besides these, +there are many mercantile agencies. They give any information +that is required concerning a business man. All +such information is confidential.</p> + +<p>In connection with this exercise study the letters that +follow:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<div class='center'> +<span class="smcap">Request to Open an Account</span><br /> +</div><div class='right'> +Madison, Wis., Sept. 16, 1915.<br /> +</div> +Wilson, Brighton, & Co.,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">68 Broadway, New York.</span><br /> + +Gentlemen:<br /> + + +<p>Until recently I was in the employ of Samuel Stratton & Co. +of Milwaukee, but I have now started a business of my own, for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> +which I should like to open an account with your house. As to +my business ability and financial standing, I refer you to my late +employers, Samuel Stratton & Co. of Milwaukee, and to the +Madison State Bank of this city.</p> + +<p>If on investigation you decide to accept me as a customer, +will you please send the goods on the enclosed order, deducting +your usual discount for cash? Upon receipt of the goods and of +the invoice, I shall at once forward a sight draft on the Broadway +National Bank of your city.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Respectfully yours,</span><br /> +George R. Scott<br /> +</div></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">Reply No. 1</span></div> + +<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir: + +<p>In seeking information through the usual outside channels for +basing credit for you, we find our reports have not been sufficient +in detail to permit us to arrange this matter satisfactorily. These +reports all speak very highly of you in a personal way, but do not +give us the required information financially.</p> + +<p>We assume you want our goods for your Christmas trade. It +is imperative, therefore, that we ship immediately. We suggest +that on this order you send us a draft, in consideration of which +we shall be pleased to allow you a special discount of 4%. Understand +that we suggest these terms on this first order only, as we +feel confident that we can easily arrange a credit basis for future +shipments. We sincerely trust you will take no offense at the +above suggestion, as we have made it in your interest.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Yours very truly,<br /> +</div></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">Reply No. 2</span></div> + +<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir: + +<p>Thank you for the order you sent us yesterday. Its size confirms +the belief we have always held that D—— is a rapidly +growing business center, the right place for a retailer to settle +and prosper.</p> + +<p>After careful consideration of your letter, however, we have +decided to hold back your order for a short time. You cannot +regret this more than we do. We do not like to lose your account, +and yet, under the circumstances, we feel we cannot send you the +order. We hope you can sell the property you mentioned in your +letter and thus clear up the balances against you. Then we +shall gladly open an account for you.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span></p> + +<p>We are especially sorry we cannot send the order at once, as +you no doubt need your fall stock now. Don't you think it would +be the best solution if you would send us your remittance for $250 +now, so that we may send the goods? We know what it means +to buy in the open market so late in the season. We assure you +that on receipt of a remittance the order will go through immediately.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Yours truly,<br /> +</div></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 226</b></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Order from the Grand Rapids Furniture Co., Grand Rapids, +Mich., 5 mahogany rockers, 1 Turkish rocker, 2 brass beds, 12 +dining room chairs, 2 dining room tables. Supply catalogue +numbers and give shipping directions.</p> + +<p>2. The Grand Rapids Furniture Co. replies, acknowledging +the receipt of the above order (give date) but stating that you +did not mention how you would pay for the goods. On receipt of +a certified check to cover the amount, or of the names of two +reliable references, they will be pleased to send you the order. +Make this a good sales letter.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 227</b></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. You are a florist of Rockford, Ill. Write to S. M. Porter +& Son, 155 S. State Street, Chicago, saying that this fall you are +opening a new department of Landscape Gardening. Judging +by advance orders, you will need approximately 200 shade trees, +maples and poplars; 200 fruit trees of various kinds; and several +hundred flowering shrubs. You will probably duplicate the +order in the spring. Ask for terms, saying that you would like +to open an account. Give two references.</p> + +<p>2. S. M. Porter & Son reply, acknowledging your order, and +saying that they will be pleased to do business with you on sixty +days' credit, terms 50 and 5%. If this is satisfactory, they will +add your name to their books. Make it a sales letter.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 228</b></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Samuel Radford of Douglas, Mich., wishes to buy a motor +boat. He orders of the Modern Steel Boat Co., manufacturers +of high grade motor boats, Detroit, Mich., boat No. 172. +page 425, catalogue No. 10. The price as listed is $192. He accepts +the offer they made him —— (date), of —— (terms) and encloses<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span> +a certified check for the amount. He gives full shipping +directions. (Be sure you can do this.) He asks how cheaply +he can obtain cushions for the boat.</p> + +<p>2. The company reply: They have shipped the boat. (Is +this sufficiently detailed?) A set of new cushions to fit the boat +costs $25. They have a set of secondhand cushions in excellent +condition for $15. If Radford desires either of these, he should +wire at once at their expense.</p> + +<p>3. Telegraph his decision.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 229</b></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Messrs. Lee and Watkins, druggists of Gallon, Ohio, wish +to open an account with Pierce, King & Co., 17 S. Albany St., +Baltimore, Md., for the purchase of large orders on ninety days' +credit. They say they do a very large business as they have +the only drug store within a radius of several miles. They give +several names as references. Write the letter.</p> + +<p>2. You are a traveling salesman for Pierce, King & Co. They +write you at the Union Hotel, Columbus, telling you of the foregoing +letter, a copy of which they enclose, and asking you to investigate +the standing of Messrs. Lee and Watkins.</p> + +<p>Reply that you visited the drug store in question on a Tuesday +(give date), because in your experience the early part of the +week is very quiet in the business of small towns. Say that two +clerks were kept busy constantly and that several people spoke +of the enormous business done on Saturdays and market days. +The firm has good credit in the town. You are satisfied that the +gentlemen in question are reliable.</p> + +<p>3. Write from Pierce, King & Co. to Messrs. Lee and Watkins, +acknowledging the receipt of their letter —— (date) and expressing +pleasure in being able to enter their name on the firm's +books. Write as courteous a letter as you can.</p> + +<p>4. Imagine that the salesman's reply (2) had been unfavorable. +Write to Messrs. Lee and Watkins, refusing them credit but +trying to get their cash business.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 230—Letters Requesting Payment</b></div> + +<p>It is better not to make threats in a collection letter except +as a last resort, and then the threat should be carried out. It +is advisable in a first letter of the kind to take for granted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span> +that a customer is honest and that the failure to pay is +an oversight. If some inducement for further purchases is +included in the letter in the form of good selling talk, a +remittance will probably be sent, and perhaps another order +as well.</p> + +<p>If the customer, however, takes no notice of the first letter, +a second, making the request for payment more urgent, +may follow. The tone of the second letter and subsequent +letters will depend on the value that you put on the customer's +trade. Finally, if he ignores all of these letters, +dally no longer. Say that if payment is not made by a +certain date, you will draw on him at sight. If he does +not honor the draft, put the matter in the hands of your +attorney.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>Study the following letters. Select from them those that +you think would make a good series:</p> + +<div class='center'>1</div> + +<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir: + +<p>Ten days ago we mailed you a statement of your account, +which was due at that time. As we have heard nothing from +you, we have concluded that the letter must have miscarried. +We are, therefore, enclosing a duplicate of the former statement. +We trust that it will reach you safely and have your prompt +attention.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Yours very truly,<br /> +</div></div> + +<div class='center'><br />2</div> + +<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir: + +<p>Evidently you, too, are experiencing the increase in business +that our customers in general are reporting. In the rush of orders +you probably have overlooked the fact that your account with +us is three weeks over-due. Your remittances hitherto have been +very prompt, and we trust that this reminder will be treated +equally promptly.</p> + +<p>By the way, have you found that the Holeless Socks are coming +up to our guarantee? From all parts of the country we are getting +flattering reports in the form of big orders. We feel that +they merit their popularity, and with the extensive advertising<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span> +campaign that we have inaugurated they are bound to continue +in favor.</p> + +<p>We are especially prepared at present to give you an attractive +price, enabling you to realize large profits on these socks. If you +need more of them, we can make shipment at once.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Yours very truly,<br /> +</div></div> + +<div class='center'><br />3</div> + +<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir: + +<p>In looking over our accounts, we find that your purchases have +lately been increasing considerably and that your payments have +been few and unimportant. Statements have been sent regularly, +we believe, but have probably been overlooked because of the +stress of your other affairs. Such things, of course, can happen +with any of us, especially when we have many other matters to +look after.</p> + +<p>We have always valued your account, and we greatly desire +our pleasant relations to continue. As the amount that you owe +us is now long over-due, we would appreciate your returning the +enclosed bill to be receipted during the next few days.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Yours very truly,<br /> +</div></div> + +<div class='center'><br />4</div> + +<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir: + +<p>Your attention has twice been called to your account for $——, +but for some reason you do not reply to our letters.</p> + +<p>Our terms, as you know, are thirty days, and we cannot allow +a longer extension except by special arrangement. We have +borne the matter very patiently, realizing that unusual conditions +sometimes prevent one's doing as he desires. At the same time, +it is entirely out of reason that your account should still be owing +at this time. May we not expect your remittance by return +mail?</p> + +<p>Should we not hear from you by the 15th, we shall draw on +you, and, if you have not remitted in the meantime, please provide +for our draft upon its arrival.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Yours truly,<br /> +</div></div> + +<div class='center'><br />5</div> + +<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir: + +<p>On March 15 we drew on you for $250. Our draft has been +returned to us by the Blank Bank, unpaid.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span></p> + +<p>Your account is long past due, and, although we are willing to +do almost anything to accommodate our customers, we feel that +in your case the time for concessions has passed. We desire your +check at once for the balance due us.</p> + +<p>You are credited with using considerable money in your business, +and it would seem that you should without difficulty be able to +take care of amounts such as you owe us. If we do not hear +from you by April 1, we shall send a second draft. If you permit +this to be returned unpaid, we shall be compelled to take action +to force collection. We wish to express the hope, however, that +you will not allow this to be done.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Yours truly,<br /> +</div></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 231</b></div> + +<p>Letter (2) above is written primarily to get a check for +the over-due account and incidentally to get another order. +Suppose that the customer sends an order and no money. +You do not wish to extend further credit until the old balance +is paid. Write a tactful letter, saying that you will hold +back the order until you receive a check to pay the over-due +account.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 232</b></div> + +<p>Write the letters in the following transaction:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. J. F. Brookmeyer, Peru, Ind., is a dealer in shoes. He +opened an account with you a month ago. He has purchased +shoes to the amount of $250. You rendered an account on the +first of the month, two weeks ago. Write a letter saying that +you do not carry over accounts from month to month, as your small +margin of profit makes it impossible for you to carry an irregular +account. Make it a courteous sales letter as well as a collection +letter.</p> + +<p>2. J. H. Brookmeyer sends a certified check for the full amount, +apologizing for the delay.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 233</b></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. John R. Phillips, 32 New York Building, Seattle, Washington, +owes you $470. Write him, saying that you need the +money. Give a good reason. Make it a courteous, friendly letter.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span></p> + +<p>2. Mr. Phillips has not answered (1). Write him again, saying +that if you do not get a remittance by ——, you will draw on +him at sight.</p> + +<p>3. Your bank notifies you that your draft has been returned +unpaid. Write Phillips, asking for an explanation. Say that +unless you hear by ——, you will bring suit.</p> + +<p>4. Phillips writes an apologetic letter, giving illness as the +reason for his non-payment. He says he was in the hospital and +did not receive letters (1) and (2). He encloses fifty dollars and +promises to pay at least half the balance next month, the full +amount within sixty days. Write his letter.</p> + +<p>5. Accept this offer.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 234—Answering Complaints</b></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. A mail order house discovered that its files contained the +names of 10,000 people who had once been customers but who +had not bought anything for the last two or three years. Write +a letter in the name of the manager frankly asking why the +customer has stopped buying. Advertise the stock.</p> + +<p>2. One correspondent in reply demands a return of $16, +which he had paid for a coat that was "not worth a cent." How +would you reply to this letter so that the one making the complaint +would send in an order? Write the letter.</p></div> + +<p>In connection with this exercise study the following letter:</p> + +<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir: + +<p>We wish to acknowledge your letter of April 16, in which you +say that on April 14 you received a bill for five S & Q Railway +bonds, which Mr. Wensley had sold you on the 11th at 100 and +interest; that you sent us your check for the amount on the same +day; and that on the 16th, two days afterward, you received a +letter from us, offering a new block of these bonds at 99 and +interest.</p> + +<p>This complication was brought about through a peculiar chain +of circumstances, an explanation of which, we feel, is only just +both to you and to us. When Mr. Wensley came to the office on +Saturday, the 12th, he told us that he had your order for five of +these bonds at 100¼ and interest. The market price was then +100 and interest, and we were very glad to give you the benefit +of the more favorable price. At that time we had no intimation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span> +that more of these bonds were coming on the market. Quite +unexpectedly on Monday we received notice from our Boston +office that they had in view a new block of the bonds. Even at +that time we did not know definitely that we would get them. +On Tuesday, again quite unexpectedly, we were instructed by our +Boston office that the bonds had been secured and were to be +offered immediately at 99 and interest. So suddenly did the +entire transaction take place that we were unable to prepare a +new circular, and on Tuesday night we merely sent out a letter, +telling our customers that we had an additional block of these +bonds. In fact, the new circular will not be ready until about +noon of to-morrow.</p> + +<p>We realize that you should have been informed of the new +price. The bonds, however, came on the market so quickly and +in taking care of the details of the offering we were so busy that +the matter, unfortunately, was overlooked. We are glad, therefore, +to make adjustment of the price now by having our banking +department send you our check for $50.</p> + +<p>It is unnecessary for us to say, we presume, that we regret this +occurrence and to assure you that had we known of the new bonds +on Saturday we would have advised you to hold off your purchase +until the offering was ready. We feel that you know us and the +policy of our house well enough to be sure that we would not willfully +take advantage of you in this way. We trust that the +arrangement that we have made satisfactorily straightens out +the matter.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Yours very truly,<br /> +</div></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 235</b></div> + +<p>1. What is the advantage of the policy shown in the following +suggestion from <i>System?</i></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The manager of a retail establishment says: "We never +refuse to refund money. If a dissatisfied customer returns a +purchase, before we ask what the trouble is we refund his money +gladly. When he is free to walk out of the store with his money, +we try to find the source of the trouble. Generally we can adjust +the difficulty and make a sale."</p></div> + +<p>2. State the advantage in the policy of a large clothing +concern which follows the sale of every suit or overcoat<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span> +with a letter to the customer, asking him whether the purchase +is proving satisfactory.</p> + +<p>3. Write such a letter.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 236</b></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Conrad H. Harwood of 122 Winter Street, Vandalia, Ill., +writes to Wilson, Black & Co., manufacturers of shoes, 100 Second +Street, Lynn, Mass., asking why they are not sending his order of +—— (the goods ordered) of —— (date). He is losing sales +because of the delay. If the goods are not received before ——, +Harwood will cancel the order.</p> + +<p>2. Wilson, Black & Co. acknowledge the receipt of Harwood's +letter and say that this is the first notice they have received of +such an order. The first letter must have miscarried. They +have shipped the goods. Be very courteous.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 237</b></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. C. F. Gardner, a merchant of 432 Puyallup Ave., Tacoma, +Wash., has received notice from the C.M. & P.S.R.R. freight +office that a box of goods has arrived from Messrs. Fiske & Jones, +Detroit, Mich. Gardner ordered the goods a month ago. He +writes Messrs. Fiske & Jones that he refuses to accept the goods +because of the delay. He has bought elsewhere in the meantime.</p> + +<p>2. Fiske & Jones apologize for the delay and explain that it +was due to the unreliability of one of their shipping clerks, who +has since been discharged. They had known nothing of the +matter until Gardner's letter of complaint arrived. They assure +him that he will never suffer another such inconvenience.</p> + +<p>3. Fiske & Jones telegraph the C.M. & P.S.R.R. to return the +goods at Fiske & Jones's expense. Write the telegram.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 238—Letters of Application</b></div> + +<p>A letter of application usually has three parts. In writing +such a letter, first, tell where you saw the advertisement +and apply for the position; second, tell your qualifications +and give your references; third, end the letter appropriately, +possibly asking for an interview.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span></p> + +<p>This is a difficult kind of letter to write. Not only should +it be neat in appearance and clearly written, but it should +also be so carefully worded that it will show enough of the +writer's individuality to distinguish it from a form. Be +neither hesitant nor bold, but tell your qualifications in a +simple, straightforward way.</p> + +<p>Study the following letters. Are they convincing? Do +they show the personality of the writers, or are they mere +forms?</p> + +<div class='center'>1</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +Gentlemen:<br /> + + +<p>Your advertisement in to-day's Record for a salesman who +knows the tea and coffee business interests me. I should like +you to consider my application for the position.</p> + +<p>Since my graduation from the Blank High School, four years +ago, I have been employed as salesman for the Economy Wholesale +Coffee Co., a firm doing business in this city and its outlying +districts. During these four years I have gathered a wide knowledge +of the principles of the buying and selling of coffees and teas +and of the grades and blends of both, just the training, it seems to +me, that you wish to secure.</p> + +<p>You may depend upon my taking an active interest in your +business, because I have an intense desire to advance. I myself +vouch for my honesty and earnestness, and Mr. Robert Brown of +the firm mentioned above has assured me that he will supply you +with any information that you may wish as to my character or +ability. He endorses my desire to secure a broader opportunity.</p> + +<p>If the position that you have to offer is one in which there is +a real future for an energetic, capable man, I should like to have +an interview with you.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Yours very respectfully,<br /> +</div></div> + +<div class='center'><br />2</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +Dear Sir:<br /> + + +<p>I am answering your advertisement in to-day's Record for a +clerk because I wish to get started in the wholesale dry goods +business, my idea being to work into the sales department. If +the position that you advertise affords such an opportunity, I +wish to apply for it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span></p> + +<p>I have had a little experience in the retail dry goods business, +having worked as clerk for Mr. Amos Jones of this city during +the past two summers. What I have seen and learned of the +business makes me feel that I have ability as a dry goods salesman. +I shall be glad to work hard in a clerical position if only +I get a chance to learn and to advance.</p> + +<p>I am eighteen years of age and have just graduated from the +Blank High School, where I took the four-year commercial course. +This, as you know, includes business arithmetic, bookkeeping, +and some business practice. During the last two years I was +business manager of the high school paper. This position gave +me considerable experience in handling details rapidly and in +soliciting advertising. It is this latter experience that makes me +feel that I would have success in selling.</p> + +<p>I am confident that I can please you, and I should be grateful +if you will grant me an interview. Mr. Amos Jones, 815 E. 47th +St., will be glad to give you any information that you may wish as +to my work, and if you desire I can furnish other references.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Yours respectfully,<br /> +</div></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 239</b></div> + +<p>Apply for the following positions:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. OFFICE MAN—who can handle correspondence and general office +work for growing North side manufacturing company. Good +opportunity for the right man. State experience and salary +expected. Address A. H. Stanton, 17 Elm St.</p> + +<p>2. MAIL ORDER MAN—up-to-date, experienced; must have ability +and be capable of handling a large volume of correspondence; must +also be a pusher and systematizer. In reply give references, age, +and detailed experience. Address X. W. 291 News.</p> + +<p>3. AMBITIOUS YOUNG MEN—who are willing to start at the +bottom to learn steel and iron business; must be high school or +college graduates, or have equivalent education, and furnish exceptional +references; very good opportunity for the future. Address +A. F. 361 Times.</p> + +<p>4. BRIGHT YOUNG MAN—for office work in large manufacturing +plant, Northwest side; must be neat, quick, and accurate at +figures. State age, experience, and salary expected. Address +J. F. Holtz & Co., 320 W. Exchange St.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span></p> + +<p>5. OFFICE CLERK—a girl who can write a plain, rapid, legible hand; +desirable, permanent position, and excellent chance for advancement. +Give age, experience, if any, and where formerly employed. +Salary $6.00 to start. Address T. P. 514 Chronicle.</p> + +<p>6. HELP WANTED—salesman having established trade on rubber or +leather footwear in Michigan, northern Indiana, northwest Ohio, +or eastern Wisconsin. Good chance to become connected with +live middle-western jobbing house. Give late experience. Address +G724 Boot and Shoe Recorder, Boston, Mass.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 240—Contract for Painting Iron Work</b></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. James W. Walker & Co., 325 Second St., Pittsburgh, are +receiving bids for painting the iron work of the bridge to be +constructed over the Cheesequake Creek at Morgan Station, +New Brunswick, N. J. The Barnard Emerson Co., of Harrisburg, +Pa., write saying they would like to figure on the work. They +ask James W. Walker & Co; to send plans and specifications. +Write the letter sent by the Barnard Emerson Co.</p> + +<p>2. James W. Walker & Co. reply that they are sending plans +and specifications. They say that bids must be in by March 10. +Write the letter.</p> + +<p>3. The Barnard Emerson Co. write that page two, line four, +of the specifications for the bridge to be constructed (state in +detail) reads "and paint all beams underneath two coats of dark +green," and page four, line ten, reads "all upright beams above +and underneath to be painted two coats of light green between +shades three and four." They ask which is correct. Write the +letter. Be exact.</p> + +<p>4. James W. Walker & Co. reply that page two, line four, is +correct. Explain in detail.</p> + +<p>5. The Barnard Emerson Co. agree to do the work on (repeat +exactly what bridge you mean) for three thousand dollars. They +guarantee to finish the work by April 30, according to the specifications. +They will forfeit fifty dollars for every day after that +date until the bridge is finished. Write the proposal or bid.</p> + +<p>6. James W. Walker & Co. write, saying that they accept the +bid above and that they enclose duplicate contracts, one of which +they have signed and which the Barnard Emerson Co. is to keep. +The other the Barnard Emerson Co. is to sign and return to +James W. Walker & Co.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 241—Contract for the Delivery of Property</b></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The Arlington Coal Company, Old Colony Building, Chicago, +Ill., write to the Red Rock Coal Company, Auburn, Ill., +saying that they need several cars of egg coal per week throughout +the year. They ask if the Red Rock Coal Co. wish to offer +some on contract. If so, they must state how the coal is screened, +and give their lowest price. Write the letter.</p> + +<p>2. The Red Rock Coal Co. reply that they will offer egg coal +for shipment at the rate of two cars per week throughout the year, +at $1.15 per net ton, cars f.o.b. mines. If a contract were drawn +up for three or more cars per week, they would give the coal for +$1.12½ per net ton. They say their egg is an excellent steam producing +coal and gives general satisfaction. It is shipped from the +Red Rock mine via the Chicago & Alton Railroad, freight rate +being 82¢ per ton. Write the letter.</p> + +<p>3. The Arlington Coal Co. write that the Red Rock Coal Co. +may send a one year contract drawn in triplicate for three cars of +egg coal per week at $1.12½ per net ton, cars f.o.b. mines. Of +course it is understood that the usual clauses regarding accidents +or other unavoidable happenings on either side will be inserted. +Write the letter.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 242—Contract for Construction</b></div> + +<div class="blockquot2"> +<p><span class="smcap">News Item.</span>—Bids will be received until Dec. 12 by +the Chairman of the Board of Public Works, North Bend, +Washington, for the construction of a solid concrete bridge +over the Snoqualmie River at North Bend; double arch, with +one pier in the river; span of arch 92 feet; width of bridge +50 feet. Plans may be had by addressing the Chairman.</p></div> + +<p>The McClaine Construction Co., of Spokane, Wash., send in a +bid for $25,000, guaranteeing to use Atlas Portland cement, +crushed rock for the coarse aggregate, and torpedo sand for the +fine aggregate, the concrete to be reinforced with the Kahn system +of reinforcement as set forth in the specifications. The company +specify, further, that they shall be paid extra for excavation, +on the scale of 25¢ a yard for earth, 75¢ a yard for loose rock +and hard pan, and $1.00 a yard for solid rock. Write the letter +that they send.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 243—Form Letters</b></div> + +<p>It frequently happens in business that you receive a +number of letters requiring practically the same answer. +In such cases, the best plan is to have one letter that is as +good a letter of its kind as you can write. Use that as an +answer to all those to which it can be made to apply. +You may have to add a bit of information or change a word +here and there, but, practically, you are using the same +form for all the letters. When you have mastered the +form, the answering of letters of this class will be a simple +matter. The letter accompanying a catalogue may easily +be a form. (See the second letter in <a href="#Exercise_223">Exercise 223</a>.)</p> + +<p>The danger, however, is that the use of form letters tends +to make work mechanical. When letters are different, they +must receive different replies. A form letter should never +be used just because it is easy to use when it does not +really apply.</p> + +<p>Mandel Bros., Chicago, Ill., announce their annual sale +of silk remnants. Make this a good advertisement that will +reach several classes of customers. Have in it as one item +white wash silk of heavy quality, 36 inches wide, at 47 cents +a yard.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Make out a sales letter for the above.</p> + +<p>2. Several mail orders have been received in excess of the +supply. Make out a form letter that could be sent when the +money is returned. What is the advantage of a form letter in +this case?</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 244—Circular and Follow-up Letters</b></div> + +<p>There is a class of letters that usually originates in the +advertising department of a firm. They are not sent out to +answer inquiries, but to solicit new customers and to keep +old ones. Such letters are printed in large numbers in +imitation of typewriting, and the introduction and the +salutation are afterward carefully filled in on the typewriter.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span> +The intention, of course, is to make the recipient +feel that he has received a personal letter. Firms are +generally careful to fill in the signature in pen and ink. +These are called <i>circular</i> letters. (See the last letter in +<a href="#Exercise_223">Exercise 223</a>.)</p> + +<p>These letters are very important and each year more +numerous. Frequently a series of them is written, each one +expanding one argument in a series of arguments. If all the +letters are read, one after the other, you have a complete +list of reasons why you should buy the particular article +which the letters advertise. These letters are sent out regularly, +so that the effect of one may not quite wear off before +the next arrives. It is frequently the case that not until +the third or fourth letter is sent out does any reply come. +Such letters should be definitely planned in order to present +arguments that are true and attractive. They must be +simply and clearly written. They are called <i>follow-up</i> letters.</p> + +<p>The following series of follow-up letters was intended to be +sent to women who keep no maids. The series was planned +to contain five letters. Write two more, using different +appeals from those in the letters here given.</p> + +<div class='center'>1</div> + +<div class="blockquot">Dear Madam: + +<p>Do you remember the fairy tale of Little Two-Eyes?</p> + +<p>A fairy, out of pity for the child's hunger, spread a table before +her each day as she was watching the goat in the field, and when +her appetite was satisfied all the child had to say was, "Table clear +yourself," and the dishes magically disappeared.</p> + +<p>"This is a beautiful way to keep house," was Two-Eyes' verdict, +and every woman, thinking of her own distaste of dirty +dishes, will agree.</p> + +<p>"How I hate dishwashing!" You have said it hundreds of +times—after every meal, probably.</p> + +<p>"I like to cook and bake," you declare. "They are really +interesting. There is fun in trying new recipes—but the dishes!"</p> + +<p>You enjoy giving luncheon and dinner parties. It is a delightful +way of meeting one's friends. Moreover, you are justly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span> +proud of your skill in cooking, and you like to show your beautiful +china. But what a damper it is on your spirit of good-fellowship, +after the guests are gone, to have to spend an hour or more +washing the dishes. Then you would like to say, with the child +in the story, "Dishes wash yourselves!" Wouldn't you?</p> + +<p>Well, you may. For thirty days—ninety meals—we will +put the Fairy Dishwasher in your home, without charging you a +penny.</p> + +<p>The machine is simplicity itself. Wheel the cabinet into your +dining room, alongside your serving table, and, as a course is +finished, without rising from your place, stack the dishes into the +washer. When you have finished the meal, wheel the cabinet +into your kitchen, make the connection, and turn the switch. +In a few minutes the dishes are washed and dried. Having +friends in to dinner is fun when the Fairy washes the dishes.</p> + +<p>Let the Fairy do yours. Simply return this letter to us in the +enclosed envelope, making sure that your name and address are +correct, and we'll send you the Fairy. Use it three times a day +for thirty days. Then if you think you can get along as well +without the machine, all that you need to do is to send us a postal +card, telling us so. We'll take back the Fairy and ask no questions.</p> + +<p>But send to-day.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Yours very truly,<br /> +</div></div> + +<div class='center'><br />2</div> + +<div class="blockquot">Dear Madam: + +<p>Did you ever envy another woman's smooth, white hands? +You looked at hers, and then you looked at yours; you sighed +and thought, "It's dishwashing."</p> + +<p>But what can you do? Haven't you tried everything to make +dishwashing less drudgery? Haven't you tried patent soaps and +tepid water, only to find that the dishes were not clean? Haven't +you tried dish mops, scrapers, and rubber gloves, only to find +that the mop and the scraper saved but one hand? As for rubber +gloves, as likely as not, the first time you used them they were +caught on the prong of a fork and were thereafter useless. Yes, +you've tried everything; haven't you?</p> + +<p>No, you haven't. You have not tried the only sure help that +there is. Stop your drudgery and let the Fairy wash your dishes.</p> + +<p>For thirty days—ninety trials—we will put the Fairy Dishwasher +in your home, absolutely free of charge, guaranteed to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span> +wash and sterilize your dishes in boiling water, without a touch +of your hand.</p> + +<p>Do your manicuring while the Fairy does the dishes.</p> + +<p>Pay no money, but send the enclosed postal card to-day. It +will bring the Fairy at once.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Very truly yours,<br /> +</div></div> + +<div class='center'><br />3</div> + +<div class="blockquot">Dear Madam: + +<p>An extra hour of leisure every day! What is it worth to you?</p> + +<p>Think what you could do if some one would give you an extra +hour of leisure every day. There's the book you would like to +read, the call you ought to make, the embroidery you wish you +could finish. There are the thousand and one things that a housekeeper +continually wishes she could do—but where can she get +the time?</p> + +<p>And yet you waste at least an hour each day washing dishes +when the Fairy Dishwasher will not only save you the time but +rid you of a distasteful task. You pay 16<span class='small'><sup>2</sup>/<sub>3</sub></span> cents a day for five +months and the Fairy does your dishes every day; you buy +yourself an extra hour every day,—you are an hour ahead +every day for the rest of your life.</p> + +<p>Is it worth the price?</p> + +<p>Remember that we allow you to use the Fairy for thirty days—ninety +meals—before you pay a penny. Then for five months +you send us five dollars a month, and we guarantee that you will +declare it the best twenty-five dollars that you ever spent.</p> + +<p>Send the enclosed postal card to-day. It will bring the Fairy +and a booklet of full directions.</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Very truly yours,<br /> +</div></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 245</b></div> + +<p>You have bought a big tract of land in Alabama. You +wish to sell a part uncleared, to set out a part in pecan trees, +and to devote a part to truck farms. Write three letters +to the same man, making each one stronger than the one +before. Keep in mind the five essentials of a good letter. +(See <a href="#Page_230">page 230</a>.)</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Offer the uncleared land at a very low price. Offer as +many inducements as you can, such as desirability of location,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span> +fertility of the soil, and comparison in price with other land in +the same neighborhood.</p> + +<p>2. You received no response from (1). Try to sell the section +in which you are planting pecan trees. What inducements +could you offer that might reach a man who was not affected +by (1)?</p> + +<p>3. You received no response from (1) or (2). Try to sell a +truck farm. What inducements could you offer that might lead +a man to buy a truck farm when he had no interest in either +uncleared land or pecan trees?</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 246</b></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The <i>Modern Magazine</i> offers a set of Mark Twain's complete +works absolutely free if you subscribe for one year for the +<i>Modern Magazine</i> and the <i>Household Magazine</i> at the regular +price of $2 for the <i>Modern Magazine</i> and $1.50 for the <i>Household +Magazine</i>. This offer expires —— (date). Write the letter.</p> + +<p>2. You have not responded. The <i>Modern Magazine</i> feels +that you could not have understood its offer. These are no cheap +books. To prove this, the firm is willing to send you the books +to allow you to examine them before you send any money. If +you accept them, pay the express agent; if not, return the books +at the expense of the <i>Modern Magazine</i>. Remember that this +offer expires —— (date).</p> + +<p>3. You have not responded. The magazine extends the time. +Give a reason for the extension of the time.</p></div> + +<p>What criticism can you make on (3)?</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 247</b></div> + +<p>A druggist was obliged to move from his corner store four +doors east on a side street. He decided to advertise by sending +a series of follow-up letters embodying the following +ideas:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Change of location because ——.</p> + +<p>2. Stick to your druggist because he holds the key to your +health.</p> + +<p>3. What is the reason that my trade is staying with me? +(Prizes for the best answer.)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span></p> + +<p>4. The reasons why trade stays with me—what my patrons +say.</p> + +<p>5. The pure food question—why we must handle only fresh +drugs.</p> + +<p>6. We are registered pharmacists—what this means to you.</p> + +<p>7. Why our sales expense is smaller now than formerly—how +you profit.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 248</b></div> + +<p>A furniture house selling goods on monthly payments +decides to advertise by sending a series of follow-up letters, +using the following reasons why you should buy, one in each +letter:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Variety of stock; assurance that they can please, no matter +what you wish. Amplify.</p> + +<p>2. Reliability of the firm.</p> + +<p>3. The small profit on which they run their business gives you +an excellent opportunity of buying good values at low prices.</p> + +<p>4. Buying on the "easy payment" plan enables you to have +the use of your furniture while you are still paying for it.</p></div> + +<p>Why is (4) a poor argument?</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 249</b></div> + +<p>Write a series of letters to sell an electric washing machine, +using the following items:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The machine is ball bearing; therefore very easy to work. +You can sit down while you do your week's washing. The only +work required is hanging the clothes out of doors.</p> + +<p>2. It saves laundry bills.</p> + +<p>3. Summary of (1) and (2). The investment required is not +large. Special plans for payment.</p> + +<p>4. The machine is durable.</p> + +<p>5. Summary of the above. The following figures show that +during the time that has elapsed since (1) was received the +machine might have been paid for out of the money spent for +laundry bills.</p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span></p> +<h2>PART III—BUSINESS PRACTICE</h2> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>CHAPTER XVI</h2> + +<div class='chaptertitle'>MANUFACTURE</div> + + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> following chapters will furnish exercises in composition, +both oral and written, based upon the various phases +of business. They are intended to show the application of +the principles underlying manufacturing, buying, and selling. +Of course, we cannot expect to go into great detail in +any one of the divisions. That must be reserved for future +study, perhaps reserved until the time that you enter a +particular business. We must remember that our first +consideration is the study of English, the problem of clear-cut +expression. Underlying clear-cut expression is clear-cut +thinking. It cannot be repeated too often that without +a definite thought there can be no definite wording of the +thought. To say, "I know, but I don't know how to tell +it," shows a lazy brain. Learn to exercise your thinking +powers so that you can force them to stay upon a subject +until you have thought it out carefully and can express it. +All of the oral exercises in the following chapters require +careful preparation. This does not mean that they should be +written out before the recitation, but it does mean that they +must be carefully thought out. The preparation need not take +a particular form. The main thing is that you know exactly +the points that you wish to make before you begin to speak. +If the exercise calls for a paragraph, have clearly in mind the +plan by which you expect to expand your thought. Perhaps +you expect to begin with, or to lead up to, a topic sentence. +Remember that this may be done in several ways. Choose<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span> +whichever plan seems best. If the exercise does not call +for a particular form, such as a paragraph or a debate, you +are left free to develop your thought in the way that you +think fits your subject best and to the length which you +think it demands.</p> + +<p>There are many different kinds of businesses. We shall not +attempt to consider any except the most common and fundamental. +Some, like farming or mining, consist in bringing +forth certain products from the ground. Such products +are called raw materials, of which an example is wheat. +Some raw materials are sold and used unchanged, but most +of them go through the process of manufacture in order to +be directly usable. The miller is an example of a manufacturer, +because from wheat he makes flour. In this chapter +we shall study the principles underlying manufacture.</p> + +<p>The exercises do not by any means exhaust the subject. +Each one is to be considered as a nucleus about which others +are to be grouped. If you live in a manufacturing district, +other subjects will easily suggest themselves. If you have +studied Industrial History or Commercial Geography, you +probably have in mind a number of topics for discussion. +If you know but little about raw materials, read some of +the books suggested in Exercise 257. At all events let your +work be definite. Whatever statements you make be able +to substantiate by an illustration of something that you +have seen or heard or read.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 250—Manufacture</b></div> + +<p>Almost all the things we eat, wear, and use every day are +manufactured articles. Each one of them requires its own +particular process in the making, involving the necessity +in most cases of complex and expensive machinery, of expert +workmen, and of still more expert management. Take, for +example, the shoes we wear, in the manufacture of which +an amazing number of complicated machines and of expert<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span> +workmen is necessary. According to the United States +Department of Labor, men's rough shoes go through eighty-four +distinct processes performed by skilled workmen and +automatic machines. No less amazing is the amount of +work turned out by these machines. It has been estimated +that the McKay machine, which attaches the soles to the +uppers, sews up in about one hour and a half one hundred +pairs, an amount which it would take ninety-eight hours, or +about eleven whole working days, to sew by hand.</p> + +<p>Each manufacturing business has peculiarities, machinery, +methods, and even a language of its own; sometimes men +must spend years in the study of the technicalities of certain +manufacturing businesses before they become expert in them. +It is evident that we cannot take up any one of them here +except in so far as the principles of one apply to all, and +these can be set down only very briefly.</p> + +<p>The first essential to successful manufacturing is correct +buying. In fact, in some businesses this is so essential that +the buyer gets a larger salary than the manager himself. +We can see the reason for this when we consider that a +good buyer must understand not only the materials that +he buys, but also the manufacturing processes, so that, +knowing the process through which the raw materials will +go in his particular business, he will buy those materials +that will make the most profitable manufactured articles.</p> + +<p>The next essential, and in most cases the most important +one from the manufacturing standpoint, is a management +capable of producing the best product at the least cost. The +managers decide what shall be produced and how; they hire +the workmen and decide what each shall do; they decide +what shall be done by hand and what by machinery; and +they choose the machines. Sometimes they go even so far +as to determine exactly the method in which each task shall +be done, and whenever they see that it would be advantageous +to install a machine, they do so. Pursuing this policy, a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span> +Chicago yeast concern not long ago put in three machines +for wrapping the small yeast cakes, eliminating the services +of 140 girls and cutting the cost of wrapping to three-fifths +of what it had been. In the steel business the early success +of Andrew Carnegie and the famous Bill Jones was largely +due to the fact that on several occasions they did not hesitate +to break up half a million dollars' worth of machinery and +replace it with newer and more efficient kinds.</p> + +<p>The third essential to manufacturing success is aggressive +marketing of the product. From the standpoint of money +success this is probably the most important consideration; +so important is it, in fact, that it will be more fully discussed +in the chapter following.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 251—Manufactured Articles</b></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><i>Oral</i></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Define the word <i>industry</i>. When is a business called an +industry? (Consult an unabridged dictionary.)</p> + +<p>2. <i>a.</i> Name several raw materials.</p> + +<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>b.</i> Name some industries whose business it is to produce +raw materials.</span></p> + +<p>3. Name some companies or industries whose business it is, +or whose principal function it is, to manufacture from +raw materials.</p> + +<p>4. Name some companies or groups of companies that make +articles more useful by transporting them to places where +they are needed.</p> + +<p>5. Name some wholesale houses. In what does their business +consist?</p> + +<p>6. Name several kinds of retail businesses. In what does +their business consist?</p> + +<p>7. Name some companies that manufacture only one article.</p> + +<p>8. Name some companies that manufacture more than one +article, but all of the same class. This is the largest +group.</p> + +<p>9. Name some companies that manufacture several different +kinds of articles.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span></p> + +<p>10. Name some companies which, in manufacturing one product, +make a secondary or by-product.</p> + +<p>11. Name a number of by-products and what they are by-products +of.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><i>Oral or Written</i></div> + +<p>In each of the following emphasize the labor involved, +not the machinery used; prepare outlines:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Select any manufactured article that you have seen on a +grocer's shelves, and trace it through (2), (3), (4), (5), and (6) +above, from the raw material until the product is in the housekeeper's +hands. If possible make your information exact by +visiting a factory in which the article is made. The information +contained in advertisements of well-known articles may help +you.</p> + +<p>2. Trace the labor that is necessary to put a loaf of bread on +the table.</p> + +<p>3. Trace the changes that the mineral undergoes to be suitable +for the making of edged tools, such as knives or axes.</p> + +<p>4. Trace the changes that cotton must undergo before it is +suitable for wearing as a dress or a pair of stockings.</p> + +<p>5. Trace the changes that wool undergoes before it can be worn +as a sweater or a winter coat.</p> + +<p>6. Trace the changes that the skins of animals undergo before +they can be worn as a muff.</p> + +<p>7. Trace the changes that silk undergoes before it can be worn +as a neck-tie.</p> + +<p>8. Trace the changes that hemp undergoes before it can be +used as a rope.</p> + +<p>9. Trace the changes that hides undergo before they can be +worn as shoes.</p> + +<p>10. Trace wood from the tree to a piece of fine furniture or to +the case of a musical instrument.</p> + +<p>11. Trace the steps in the process of making maple sugar.</p> + +<p>12. Trace the steps in making a piece of glazed pottery.</p> + +<p>13. Trace clay to bricks.</p> + +<p>14. Trace flax to a tablecloth.</p> + +<p>15. Trace the steps necessary to make a five dollar gold piece.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 252</b></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Subjects for Themes, Oral or Written</b></div> + +<p>The following are suggestions for theme subjects on manufacture. +Develop one or more as the teacher directs.</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1. Household uses for asbestos.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">2. Making turpentine from wood.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3. A convenient electrical device.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4. The advantages of the fireless cooker.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5. The advantages of concrete as a building material.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6. The way to make a plaster cast.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">7. How iron castings are made.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8. Artificial flowers from feathers, paper, or cloth.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">9. How a suction sweeper works.</span><br /> +10. The safety match.<br /> +11. The uses of wood pulp.<br /> +12. Patent roofing.<br /> +13. The manufacture of plate glass.<br /> +14. Utilizing cotton seed.<br /> +15. The advantages and the disadvantages of using baking powder.<br /> +</div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 253</b></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Suggestions for Debates</b></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The average young man has a better chance to succeed in +business than in a profession.</p> + +<p>2. A manufacturing business offers a better opportunity for +a young man at the present time than a mercantile business.</p> + +<p>3. Manufacturing industries would suffer if immigration were +restricted.</p> + +<p>4. The labor union should be abolished.</p> + +<p>5. The labor union has no right to restrict the number of +apprentices.</p> + +<p>6. The profit-sharing plan produces greater efficiency in the +working-force.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 254</b></div> + +<p>Imagine that you are Stanley M. Benner, 171 South St., +Buffalo, N. Y., proprietor of a factory making men's shirts +and collars.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Write an order to The American Printing Mill, 1038 Canal +St., Passaic, N. J., for several bolts each of percale, madras, corded +madras, and silk striped madras. Use catalogue numbers.</p> + +<p>2. Write another order to The Trescott Silk Mill, 976 River +St., Paterson, N. J., for several bolts each of No. 62, No. 14, +and No. 20 shirting silks, No. 62 being a striped silk and +the others figured. Be definite in ordering the colors that you +wish.</p> + +<p>3. You have received an order from Spencer & Mitchell, 1925 +Pearl St., Albany, N. Y. Write a letter, thanking them for the +order and explaining when and how the goods will be sent.</p> + +<p>4. You have received an order from William F. Atwood, 590 +Jackson St., Wilmington, Del., for a certain style of collar on +which there has been a run. Write a letter, explaining that it will +take about three weeks to fill the orders that you now have for +this collar and that you therefore cannot send Mr. Atwood's +goods before the end of the month.</p> + +<p>5. The goods have arrived from The Trescott Silk Mill. You +find, however, that two bolts of No. 14 are badly soiled. Write +a letter, saying that you are returning the bolts and asking to have +the matter adjusted.</p> + +<p>6. A. W. Trescott, President of The Trescott Silk Mill, replies, +expressing regret that the goods were soiled and saying that two +clean bolts of No. 14 are being sent at once. Write his letter.</p> + +<p>7. You have on hand about 50 gross men's striped madras +collars, for which there is no longer a call. Write to Markham +Bros., wholesale jobbers, 1765 Greenwich St., New York City, +asking what price they will offer for the lot.</p> + +<p>8. Accept their offer of $1.50 a gross for the collars.</p> + +<p>9. A customer sends a cash order for goods at last year's prices, +10% below present prices. Write a politic reply.</p> + +<p>10. Owing to the mildness of the winter, you fear that you +will not sell your stock of men's flannel shirts. Write a circular +letter, offering the shirts in lots of 25 dozen each, assorted sizes +and colors, at a 35% reduction in price. Address one letter to. +Frederick H. Howard, a dealer at 775 Cedar St., Harrisburg, Pa.</p> + +<p>11. A teamsters' strike has delayed your shipments. You +have received so many complaints of the non-arrival of goods +that you decide to prepare a form letter that will answer all the +complaints. Address one letter to William A. Spaulding, 2937 +Waterman St., Providence, R. I.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span></p> + +<p>12. Miss Sarah MacComb has a small dry goods store in +Norwich, Conn. She has owed you $125 for six months. You +have been lenient with Miss MacComb because you know that +she has had difficulty in meeting her bills. However, you feel +that she should pay at least a part of her indebtedness to you. +Write a courteous letter, longer and more persuasive than if it +were to go to a man, demanding payment but retaining the customer's +good will. This is a difficult letter to write. Prepare it +carefully.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 255</b></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. You have been manager of the Forsyth Furniture Co., +Grand Rapids, Mich. You have financial backing for $25,000 +and are looking for a location for a factory of your own. Write +the same letter to the Secretary of the Chamber of Commerce of +Great Falls, Mont.; Memphis, Tenn.; Houston, Texas; Indianapolis, +Ind. Ask the Secretary to tell you the prospects for such +a factory in his city, and what inducements the city will offer you. +(By writing to different cities, the teacher can obtain their booklets +and their special offers to manufacturers.)</p> + +<p>2. Investigate the conditions in one of the cities mentioned +above and reproduce the letter that the Secretary wrote.</p> + +<p>3. Of the four cities, Great Falls appeals to you as the best +location for your factory. Write again, asking the Secretary +especially about the water power facilities offered and the rates +charged for electrical power.</p> + +<p>4. He replies that Great Falls has the most extensive power +in the United States, the hydro-electric power being ready for +delivery in any quantity at exceptionally low rates. He tells of +the many factories that are already located in Great Falls +because of its water power facilities.</p> + +<p>5. Great Falls is your choice. After your factory is built +and your machinery installed, write to the Secretary of the Sand +Point Lumber Co., Sand Point, Idaho, asking him to submit +figures for a contract for supplying all your fir lumber. Tell +him you think you will use about a million board feet a year.</p> + +<p>6. The Secretary replies, offering you a contract on the following +terms: For all amounts under 250,000 feet a year, a rate of 12 +cents a foot; under 500,000, 11 cents; over 500,000, 10 cents. +All goods are to be billed at the highest rate and rebates made +at the end of the year, terms of payment being 90 days, 5% for +30 days.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span></p> + +<p>7. Write to the Central American Supply Co., Tehuantepec, +Mexico, ordering 50,000 feet No. 1 Mahogany Veneer. Have it +charged to your account, which you have previously opened.</p> + +<p>8. Write to Gregory Bros., wholesale dry goods merchants, +12141 Nicollet Ave., Minneapolis, Minn., ordering 15 bolts No. +7 Green Denim; 10 bolts No. 09 Green Panne Velvet; 50 yds. +No. 216 Tapestry; 50 yds. No. 16 Tapestry; 100 bolts Green and +100 bolts Brown No. 5 Guimpe. Instruct them to ship the goods +at once and draw on you at sight through the First National +Bank of Great Falls. (See <a href="#Page_344">page 344</a>.)</p> + +<p>9. Write to the Excelsior Varnish Co., Merchants' National +Bank Building, St. Paul, Minn., ordering articles such as varnish, +stains, oils, enamels, and finishing wax.</p> + +<p>10. Write an order to a St. Louis firm for leather.</p> + +<p>11. Write an order to a Spokane firm for springs.</p> + +<p>12. Find out where a Great Falls merchant would buy oak and +birch, and write an order for each.</p> + +<p>13. Write to the Hanover National Bank of New York City +(because you happen to know the cashier of that bank), explaining +that you are having a very decided increase in your business +and that, in order to take care of the demand, you require a loan +of $10,000. Explain further that the rates are too high in Great +Falls for you to take a loan there. Say that you are enclosing +a statement of your assets and liabilities.</p> + +<p>14. A dealer in Portland, Ore., writes, complaining that he has +not yet received the goods that he ordered ten days ago. Write +an appropriate reply.</p> + +<p>15. You receive an order, one item of which is 3 doz. oil mops, +which you do not carry. Reply that you have referred the matter +to —— a firm which you can recommend highly.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 256</b></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Topics for Investigation and Discussion</b></div> + +<p>Principles involved in manufacture:</p> + +<p>1. The location of a factory.</p> + +<div class='unindent'> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>a.</i> Where necessary raw materials can be obtained easily and cheaply.</span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>b.</i> Where land is not expensive.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>c.</i> Where the coal or water supply will make power inexpensive.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>d.</i> Where transportation facilities are good.</span><br /> +</div> + +<p>2. The advantages of using machinery in manufacture.</p> + +<div class='unindent'> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>a.</i> Relative amount of work turned out.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>b.</i> Relative cost of work turned out.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>c.</i> Relative cleanliness of work turned out.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>d.</i> Relative uniformity of work turned out.</span><br /> +</div> + +<p>3. The number of working hours.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Some factories have made the experiment of reducing the +number of working hours from ten to eight without reducing the +wages of the workers. They have found that the quantity of +work turned out is increased and the quality improved. Can +you explain why?</p></div> + +<p>4. The advantages of the profit-sharing plan, both for +employer and for employee.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>This is a plan by which a certain per cent of the profits of the +business is divided annually among the employees. (See a very +interesting article in <i>System</i> for March, 1911, or read <i>Profit-sharing +between Employer and Employee</i> by N. P. Gilman.)</p></div> + +<p>5. Specialized labor.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>There was a time when a man made all the parts of a pair of +shoes. Why in modern factories does he make only one part? +Which system tends to make shoes of uniform workmanship? Is +uniformity a good quality in manufacture? This principle applies +to any kind of factory.</p></div> + +<p>6. Special products.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Suppose that you manufactured a large number of styles of +millinery, or novelty, footwear. Would you expect your profits +on these to be larger or smaller than on your staple styles? Give +reasons and illustrations.</p></div> + +<p>7. Why is there a struggle between labor and capital?</p> + +<p>8. What is the cause of strikes?</p> + +<p>9. Are strikes a good thing for manufacture?</p> + +<p>10. A visit to a shoe factory (or any other factory).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 257</b></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Books that will Suggest Topics for Talks</b></div> + +<p>If you have access to a public library, you can probably +obtain some of the following books. They are all simple +and interesting, and any of them will suggest several topics +for talks.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Allen, N. B.</span>, Industrial Studies.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Baker, R. S.</span>, Boys' Books of Inventions.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Barnard, Charles</span>, Tools and Machines.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Carpenter, F. G.</span>, How the World is Fed; How the World is Clothed; +How the World is Housed; Geographical Readers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Chamberlain, J. F.</span>, How We are Fed; How We are Clothed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Chase, A.</span> and <span class="smcap">Clow, E.</span>, Stories of Industries (two volumes).</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cochrane, C. H.</span>, The Wonders of Modern Mechanism.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cochrane, Robert</span>, Romance of Industry and Invention.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Doubleday, Russell</span>, Stories of Invention.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Forman, S. E.</span>, Useful Inventions.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gibson, C. R.</span>, The Romance of Modern Manufacture.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lane, M. A. L.</span>, Industries of To-day.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Little Chronicle Co.</span>, Industries of a Great City.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mowry, W. A.</span> and <span class="smcap">Mowry, A. M.</span>, Inventions and Inventors.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Parton, J.</span>, Captains of Industry (two series).</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rocheleau, W. F.</span>, Products of the Soil; Minerals; Manufactures.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Towle, G. M.</span>, Heroes and Martyrs of Invention.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Williams, A.</span>, How it is Made.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 258</b></div> + +<p>Study the punctuation of the following; then write from +dictation:</p> + +<div class='center'>1</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>It is stated that practical experience with gas mantles made of +artificial silk—that is, silk made from wood pulp—has proved +them to be far superior to those made of cotton, especially where +the mantles are exposed to excessive vibration. Several German +towns are said to be obtaining exceptionally good results from +these new mantles used in conjunction with pressure gas, and it +is asserted that the mantles are in good condition after being +used for seven or eight weeks. Artificial silk, according to reports, +has also been used experimentally by several manufacturers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span> +of incandescent gas mantles in the United Kingdom. The reports +are all very encouraging, except that there seems to be one difficulty +that is purely mechanical—the knitting of the artificial +silk. The knots and other imperfections in the yarn cause a +considerable amount of waste. However, the knitting-machine +makers are experimenting to overcome it.—<i>Daily Consular and +Trade Report.</i></p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />2</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>As the production of wool in this country, although approximating +320,000,000 pounds a year, does not begin to meet the +demands for the raw material, there is a yearly importation of +from 156,000,000 to over 300,000,000 pounds. When each new +census reveals the fact that there are fewer sheep of shearing age +in the country than there were ten years before, the question +of wool production becomes one of still greater importance. A +solution may be found in a Peruvian product. A variety of cotton +grows in Peru whose long, rough, crinkly fiber mixes so readily +with wool that manufacturers use it in connection with wool in +manufacturing "all wool" goods. It grows on a small tree that +yields two or three crops a year for seven or eight years. The +area, however, in which it is being successfully cultivated in Peru +is so limited that the annual output is only about 16,000,000 +pounds, of which the United States takes approximately 5,500,000 +pounds. As the region in which it thrives is practically rainless, +perhaps a way may be found to persuade the rough Peruvian to +make a home for itself in the hot and arid regions of our Southwest. +It would be a triumph of agriculture, certainly, to raise vegetable +wool in regions not fitted for real sheep.—<i>The Wall Street Journal.</i></p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />3</div> + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">The Casting of Metals</span></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>As is well known, some metals are unsuitable for casting, while +others, like iron, can readily be cast into any desired shape. The +property of casting well, it is said, depends upon whether the metal +contracts or expands in solidifying from the liquid form. Iron, +like water, expands in solidifying, and hence the solid metal may +be seen floating in the liquid iron about it. The expansion causes +it to fill the die into which it is poured, and so it can be cast easily. +Gold and silver contract in cooling, and are, therefore, not suitable +for casting.—<i>Harper's Weekly.</i></p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XVII</h2> + +<div class='chaptertitle'>DISTRIBUTION</div> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Correct</span> buying and the most efficient methods of manufacture +play a large part in the successful carrying on of a +business, but the most important consideration is the successful +marketing or distributing of the product after it has been +manufactured or bought. Very few products are so superior +in quality that they sell themselves purely on merit. Competition +in business to-day is so keen that, in order to find +a market for his product, a merchant must create a demand +for it. Thus at its very foundation, distribution is merely +a process of creating a demand and then filling that demand. +For instance, the retail merchant is concerned with bringing +the customers to his store rather than to his competitor's +across the street. The wholesale merchant is concerned with +having the retailers handle his goods rather than those of +another firm. The mail order merchant is concerned with +getting the farmer's business before some other dealer gets +it. The salesman is concerned with writing the order before +a rival from another house writes it.</p> + +<p>In the first place, the merchant must handle those things +that his customers consider necessary or desirable. Overcoats +cannot be sold in August, ashsifters on the equator, +nor electric fans in Iceland. Different peoples, different +times, and different conditions create different demands, +and it is the merchant's business to study those demands +and to fill them. In the second place, he must leave no stone +unturned in endeavoring to make his product more desirable +than that of his competitors. This may mean extensive +advertising campaigns, expensive displays, outlay for costly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span> +catalogues and booklets, the expenditure of money for +inducements to bring customers, or the hiring of expert +salesmen. In fact, thousands of plans are carried out every +year in this endeavor to increase trade.</p> + +<p>The getting of new and additional business, however, is +only one of the important considerations that the merchant +must always have in mind. He must also keep what business +he already has by maintaining the standard of his goods +and by giving his customers satisfactory service. One of +the first essentials in this question of service is promptness +and exactness of delivery. In this the merchant must depend +very largely on the transportation companies, and therefore +a brief study of these facilities will be especially in +place at this point.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Transportation</b></div> + +<p>Transportation is an essential item in the problem of distribution. +If you wished to drink a cup of coffee and found +that none could be had except in Brazil, you would begin to +realize how much the steamship company and the railroad +company have done in transporting and hauling it where +you might buy it. The same is true of our oranges from +California and Florida, our apples from Washington and +Oregon, and our grain from the Middle States. In fact, +in the case of many products the most important item is +not growing them, but bringing them to market, since the +transportation charges are often much greater than the actual +cost of producing. Thousands of barrels of apples rot on the +ground every year because their quality does not warrant +the high transportation charges, the lack of transportation +rendering them useless. In a smaller measure, the delivery +wagons in our cities and towns are essential to us because +they save us the trouble of carrying our purchases about. +Thus, the element of transportation enters into our lives +every day, saving us inconvenience, bringing to us necessities<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span> +that we demand and luxuries that we like, and, at +the same time, increasing the price of commodities.</p> + +<p>Common carriers, as transportation companies are called, +are of two general classes:</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +1. Those operating on water—the steamship companies.<br /> +2. Those operating on land—the railroad companies.<br /> +</div> + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">The Steamship Company</span></div> + +<p>Steamship companies operate three general kinds of lines: +(1) lines consisting of the largest and fastest steamers which +carry only passengers, mail, and valuable parcels; (2) lines +using slower steamers which carry both passengers and freight; +and (3) lines employing vessels—steamers, sailing vessels, +and barges—which carry only freight. The cost of hauling +cargoes by water is in every case less per mile than that of +carrying the same quantity of goods on land. It costs, for +example, over four times as much to carry a bushel of wheat +from Chicago to New York by rail as it does to carry it across +the Atlantic. It is for this very reason that the traffic on +our navigable rivers, the Ohio and the Mississippi, and on +the Great Lakes is so heavy. Whenever a cargo can be +shipped as well by water as by rail and there is no hurry for +delivery, it is shipped by water. However, because so much +of our freight must be rushed from place to place, the railroads +get the bulk of the inland traffic.</p> + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">The Railroad Company</span></div> + +<p>The services of the railroad company embrace the hauling +of freight, the carrying of passengers, and the transporting of +express and of mail. The hauling of freight is the most +important item in the railroad business, about three-quarters +of the total income being derived from this source. Each +year over one billion tons of freight are turned over by +shippers to the railroads, who use almost two and one-half<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span> +million freight cars to carry it. About one-half of this tonnage +is minerals, mainly ore and coal; about one-seventh +consists of manufactured articles; and one-twelfth of agricultural +products. Commodities are grouped into from ten +to fourteen classes, on each one of which the freight rate is +different from that of the others. By freight rate is meant +the cost of shipping a certain unit, usually 100 pounds +or a ton, from one place to another; it is dependent +on the distance. There are certain bulky commodities like +coal, livestock, lumber, grain, and cement, which are almost +always handled in carload lots. They are not included in +the freight classification, but have a special ex-class freight +rate. Freight rates depend also on whether the goods are +shipped by slow or <i>local</i> freight or by fast or <i>through</i> freight.</p> + +<p>There are a hundred different kinds of papers used in +carrying on the railroad freight business. Only four of the +most important will be considered here. When a shipper +turns over his goods to the railroad company at its freight +depot, he gets from the agent a <i>receipt for freight</i>, which is +merely a receipt for the goods he has turned over. In the +ordinary course of business these receipts are exchanged at +the company's office for a <i>bill of lading</i> in triplicate. The +original and one copy are given to the shipper. The second +copy is kept by the railroad. This bill of lading may be +of two kinds, <i>straight</i> or <i>order</i>. If a straight bill of lading +is given, the original is sent to the person to whom the goods +are shipped, who is called the <i>consignee</i>, who on the presentation +of the bill of lading is entitled to the goods after +paying the charges. An order bill of lading is much like +a check, in that it can be assigned to another person. Like +the straight bill it states the name of the consignee or +the person for whom the goods are intended and his +address, but the consignee cannot get possession of the +goods until he has paid for them. To collect payment, +the shipper attaches to the order bill of lading a draft for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span> +the amount of the goods and the freight, and through his +bank and the bank of the consignee the amount is collected. +The consignee then gets possession of the order bill of lading, +which entitles him to possession of the goods. This is +more fully explained on <a href="#Page_344">page 344</a>. The railroad's most +important paper is the <i>way bill</i>, which shows the conductor +or the agent of the company just what articles are included +in the shipment, so that it can be checked when unloaded. +When the goods arrive at their destination, the consignee +is notified and is sent a <i>freight bill</i> showing the freight +charges. When he presents his bill of lading and pays the +charges, the <i>freight bill</i> is receipted and the goods are his.</p> + +<p>In quoting prices on goods, manufacturers and distributors +usually designate whether they will pay the freight or +whether it is to be paid by the consignee. In the latter case +the price is quoted f. o. b. at the place from which the goods +are shipped, which means freight on board at that point. +That is to say, if a distributor located at Detroit quotes his +automobiles f. o. b. Detroit, he means that he will see that +the goods get into the railroad company's hands at Detroit, +but that the consignee pays the freight from Detroit to the +destination. The latter is the common practice in shipping.</p> + +<p>In the following exercises we shall treat the subject of +distribution under four heads:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Outline"> +<tr><td align='right'>I. </td><td align='left'>The Retail Merchant.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>II. </td><td align='left'>The Wholesale Merchant.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>III. </td><td align='left'>The Mail Order Merchant.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>IV. </td><td align='left'>The Salesman.</td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><span class="smcap">I.—The Retail Merchant</span></h2> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 259</b></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><i>Oral</i></div> + +<p>You are opening a grocery store. Remember that your +object is to sell the largest possible amount of goods. +Develop each of the following suggestions:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. What kind of location would you desire?</p> + +<p>2. How would you have the front of your store painted? +Would you try to make it stand out from the rest?</p> + +<p>3. Do you think it would pay you to have the interior newly +and brightly redecorated? To put in the best and brightest +lights?</p> + +<p>4. What quality of stock would you select? The same for +all neighborhoods? Give your reasons. Would advertised +brands bring you more trade?</p> + +<p>5. Do you think window display would pay? Would you +recommend freak or ordinary displays? Price-marked or non-price-marked? +Give your reasons.</p> + +<p>6. Does the delivery wagon pay? Would it be advisable to +buy a new wagon and a good horse? What other considerations +would enter?</p> + +<p>7. Would you sometimes cut the price of some necessity to +draw people? Give reasons for your answer.</p> + +<p>8. Is it a good thing to have a general cut-price-sale to bring +customers to your store? Even if you lose money by it?</p> + +<p>9. Would you give credit? Would the class of people you +served come into consideration?</p> + +<p>10. Is the use of trading stamps and premiums good policy?</p> + +<p>11. Why do you often find a meat market in connection with +a grocery?</p> + +<p>12. There are two kinds of retail meat markets: (1) the one +that sells goods which can be retailed at a low price, and (2) the +one that sells superior goods at a higher price. Which policy +would you follow and why?</p> + +<p>13. Could a retailer combine the two spoken of in (12)? Consider +cost, space, satisfaction of the customer.</p> + +<p>14. Would you advertise by means of handbills? By circular +letters?</p> + +<p>15. What would you do if another grocery opened across the +street from yours?</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 260</b></div> + +<div class='center'><br /><i>Written</i></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. You have bought Burton & Sanders' grocery at Fort Wayne, +Indiana. Send out a circular letter advertising the new White +Front Grocery and telling what the policy of the new management +will be. Explain that the opening sale will begin next Monday<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span> +and that a special feature of the sale will, be twenty pounds +of granulated sugar for eighty cents with a two dollar order.</p> + +<p>2. At the same time have an article appear in a local newspaper, +telling that Burton & Sanders have sold their store to +you and that you are making extensive improvements, especially +in sanitary means of handling provisions. In addition, let the +article give an account of your business career in another town. +Would such an article be of value to you? Write it.</p> + +<p>3. Write to Peabody, Harper & Co., Rush Street Bridge, +Chicago, Ill., saying that you would like to open an account with +them. Give as references a bank in your town and one in +Logansport, where you used to live. Ask Peabody, Harper & Co. +what terms they can offer you.</p> + +<p>4. You have decided to advertise in a local paper. Write +to the advertising manager, asking him for yearly rates for a half-column +every evening and a quarter-page every Friday.</p> + +<p>5. Find out what are the advertising rates of a paper in your +town and answer (4).</p> + +<p>6. Reproduce a letter that a woman living in town sends, +ordering two dollars' worth of groceries and requesting that you +send, in addition, the twenty pounds of sugar you advertise in +(1). She encloses a check for $2.80.</p> + +<p>7. You are in receipt of a letter from Peabody, Harper & Co., +answering your inquiry in (3) and offering you sixty days' credit +and 2% discount for payment within ten days. Write the letter.</p> + +<p>8. Send an order to Peabody, Harper & Co. for $200 worth +of groceries. Among the items let there be 6 cases of canned +tomatoes, first quality, at $1.75 a case. Ask them to send the +goods by the Pennsylvania R. R.</p> + +<p>9. Your business is increasing and you need another clerk, +(a) Write an advertisement for one. <i>(b</i>) Apply for the position.</p> + +<p>10. Write a short circular advertising an inexpensive novelty +that a grocer might sell. These circulars are to be wrapped +with purchases.</p> + +<p>11. Peabody, Harper & Co. write, confirming your order in +(8) and enclosing a straight bill of lading.</p> + +<p>12. When the goods arrive, you find no tomatoes among them. +Write a complaint to the wholesale house.</p> + +<p>13. Peabody, Harper & Co. reply to your letter in (12), apologizing +for the mistake, explaining how it occurred (supply an +explanation), and telling you that they have sent one case by +express at their expense. The rest will follow by freight.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span></p> + +<p>14. The tomatoes sent by freight do not arrive. Write to the +grocery company, asking the latter to send out a "tracer"; that +is, to request the railroad company to trace the goods on its lines.</p> + +<p>15. The grocery company telephones the railroad company, +requesting the latter to trace the goods and to report. The +grocery company also writes a letter confirming its request. Write +the letter.</p> + +<p>16. (<i>a</i>) The railroad company reports that by mistake the goods +were carried through to Lima, but that they are being returned +to Fort Wayne. (<i>b</i>) The grocery company informs you of the +developments and hopes that the delay has caused you no great +inconvenience. Write both letters.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 261</b></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. You wish to get a partner to open a meat market in connection +with your grocery. Write to a friend in Lafayette, Ind., +who you think will be interested, proposing the plan. Tell him +of the opportunities, as you see them, of business in Fort Wayne +and the surrounding country. Tell him that with $4,000 additional +capital you and he could set up a much larger establishment, +invest in a motor wagon, and thus secure the trade of the +outlying districts.</p> + +<p>2. Your friend replies that the proposal appeals strongly to +him, but that he has only $2,000 in cash. However, he holds a +mortgage for $2,000 on —— (state the location of the house) in +Lafayette, and, if he can sell the mortgage, he will be glad to +avail himself of the offer.</p> + +<p>3. After the partnership is formed, your partner writes to Orr +& Locket, 14 W. Randolph St., Chicago, Ill., ordering the following +to be shipped by Pennsylvania R.R.: 1 Refrigerator No. 361; +2 Meat Blocks No. 3; 1 Scale No. M. 30; <span class='small'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>6</sub></span> doz. Saws No. 33 +(16 in.); <span class='small'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>6</sub></span> doz. Saws No. 33 (22 in.); <span class='small'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> doz. Knives No. 955; +<span class='small'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> doz. Knives No. 490; <span class='small'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>6</sub></span> doz. Steels No. 82; <span class='small'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>6</sub></span> doz. Cleavers +No. 09; <span class='small'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> doz. Block Scrapers. He explains that he is the same +man who formerly had a meat market in Lafayette.</p> + +<p>4. Orr & Locket acknowledge the receipt of the order, enclose +the invoice, and offer him 5% discount for payment within 30 days. +Write the letter.</p> + +<p>5. A Detroit manufacturer sends you f.o.b. prices on his +motor wagons. Investigate the prices and write the letter.</p> + +<p>6. Order one of them. (Remember the f.o.b. item.)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span></p> + +<p>7. He writes confirming your order, saying that the car is now +in the shipper's hands and that his bank has sent the order bill of +lading with draft attached to the First National Bank of your +city. Write the letter. (See <a href="#Page_344">page 344</a>.)</p> + +<p>8. At the same time the shipper's bank sends a letter to the +First National Bank of your city enclosing the order bill of lading +with draft drawn on you for collection. A copy of this letter is +also mailed to you. Write it.</p> + +<p>9. You telephone your bank to draw on your account for +the amount of the draft and to send you the bill of lading. You +confirm this understanding by a letter. Write it.</p> + +<p>10. Your bank writes, confirming the telephone conversation +and enclosing the bill of lading and a receipt for the correct +amount. You present your bill of lading, pay the freight charges, +and get your motor wagon. Write the letter the bank sends.</p> + +<p>11. The automobile manufacturer has meanwhile received +through his bank a credit for the amount you paid for the car and +writes acknowledging its receipt. Write the letter.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 262</b></div> + +<p>Choose four or six members of the class, one-half of whom +are to argue in favor of the policy indicated in the plan outlined +below and one-half of whom are to argue against it.</p> + +<p>A certain grocer opened a store with the determination of +doing a strictly cash business, and of making no deliveries +unless the purchaser paid for the delivery. This was his +plan as suggested by <i>System:</i></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. To those who would carry their own purchases he sold +everything for cash much lower than any other grocer in town +sold it.</p> + +<p>2. If the customer bought very bulky goods, or if he did not +wish to be his own delivery man, the grocer charged him for +delivery a certain percentage of the total of his cash purchases. +Yet the customer bought more cheaply than he could buy in any +other grocery in town.</p> + +<p>3. Those who wished to pay once a month instead of at every +visit he advised to deposit a certain sum of money with him as +banker and to buy against that, paying cash prices and receiving +3% interest on the amount left on deposit.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span></p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><span class="smcap">II.—The Wholesale Merchant</span></h2> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 263</b><br /><br /> + +<i>Oral</i></div> + +<p>Each of the following should be developed into a paragraph:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. You are a manufacturer and wholesale distributor with a +factory on the outskirts of a town; would you have a warehouse +in the center of the town? Give reasons for your answer.</p> + +<p>2. What would be the advantage of having your warehouse +near the railroad freight depots? Near the docks?</p> + +<p>3. What would be the advantage of being located in a large +city with many railroads and with water transportation facilities—Chicago, +for example?</p> + +<p>4. Speed gets orders. With this in view, what would you +recommend with respect to the equipment for handling? What +would you suggest about the number of people through whose +hands the order would have to go before being shipped?</p> + +<p>5. If you were looking for big trade in a big city, what kind of +stock would you carry? Musical instruments? Clothing?</p> + +<p>6. Would it be a good plan to make a specialty of certain +brands for leaders and to quote a special price on them?</p> + +<p>7. If you were just starting a wholesale hardware or grocery +business, state which you think would be the better policy: (1) +to concentrate on one kind of goods in one territory and to take +on other kinds and territories later, or (2) to work all kinds of +goods as widely as possible from the very beginning. Explain +fully.</p> + +<p>8. Would you bear part of the expense of retailers' advertising, +especially of window displays, provided they handled your +goods?</p> + +<p>9. Would it be good business for the salesmen of the firm to +suggest selling methods to retailers and to plan window displays +for them? Give your reasons.</p> + +<p>10. Do you think it would increase sales to offer a money prize +to the retailer selling the largest amount of a certain kind of your +goods, the sale of which you wished materially to increase?</p> + +<p>11. Tell which you think would be the better policy: (1) to +undersell your competitors for a time and then, when you had the +trade, to raise your prices, or (2) to set one price and maintain it +from the beginning. Give your reasons.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span></p> + +<p>12. If you were getting out a new brand of carpenters' tools, +where would you advertise? Would you conduct an extensive +national campaign?</p> + +<p>13. If you were bringing out a new soap or washing powder, +where would you advertise? Would you conduct an extensive +national advertising campaign? What would your answer be +if you were introducing a new brand of crackers?</p> + +<p>14. Would bringing out novelties from time to time help the +sale of your staple articles? Explain.</p> + +<p>15. Do you think it would pay to send circulars to the housewives +of a certain locality to get the local grocers' trade? After +you had the local grocers' trade?</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_264" id="Exercise_264"></a>Exercise 264</b><br /><br /> + +<i>Written</i></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. You are Thos. H. Peabody of Peabody, Harper & Co.'s +wholesale grocery. Prepare a circular letter, announcing your +removal to a new building. The letter will be printed in imitation +of typewriting and the introduction filled in later on the +typewriter. Remember you are seeking patronage. Address +one letter to Walter T. Barth, 350 E. Water St., Milwaukee, Wis.</p> + +<p>2. Write an advertisement to appear in the January number +of <i>The Grocer and Country Merchant</i>, a grocers' trade journal. +It will announce your change of location.</p> + +<p>3. You receive an order from a retailer in which he asks for +a certain brand of coffee that you do not carry. Write a letter +telling him you do not handle that brand and offering him another. +Make the letter as courteous as possible.</p> + +<p>4. Write an advertisement for (1) a bookkeeper; (2) a stenographer.</p> + +<p>5. Answer (1) or (2) above.</p> + +<p>6. Write an advertisement for a traveling salesman.</p> + +<p>7. Answer (6) telling why you think you could sell groceries +although you have had no experience.</p> + +<p>8. Write a circular letter to send to the trade setting forth +the merits of a new brand of canned fruit. Say that you are +offering the brand at a very attractive price in the expectation +that retailers will make it a leader. Write to Mr. Barth (1).</p> + +<p>9. You have made a contract with the manufacturers of the +canned fruit mentioned in (8), by which you secure the exclusive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span> +sale but take the responsibility of advertising. Write to an advertising +agency, saying that you are considering a three months' +advertising campaign. Explain that you do not wish the expense +to exceed five thousand dollars.</p> + +<p>10. The advertising agency replies that, as five thousand dollars +is a comparatively small sum for a campaign, it would suggest +that the advertising be confined to one class: street car, billboard, +newspaper, or magazine. Write the letter.</p> + +<p>11. Notify the agency of your choice, giving your reasons.</p> + +<p>12. Write a series of three letters to send to housewives, advertising +the canned fruit, with the purpose of having them ask +for this brand at their grocers': (1) Telling the name of the canned +fruit, its excellence, its price, and where it may be bought; (2) +Asking if the housewife has as yet bought any, and if she has not, +telling her she can get a sample at her grocer's on presentation of +this letter; (3) Asking how she liked the fruit and quoting a letter +of recommendation received from Mrs. A., who lives in the neighborhood. +Urge her to buy, but not too abruptly. A letter to a +woman should be fairly long. (See <a href="#Page_265">page 265</a>.)</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 265</b></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. For two months you have been without a credit man. You +wish to be very careful in your choice because of the importance +of the position. J. B. Wright of 439 Russell Ave., Indianapolis, +is a personal friend of yours. He has heard that you need a credit +man and he recommends Joseph Haddon, who worked for him +three years in that capacity until a year ago when he went to +Colorado because of the ill-health of his wife. Meanwhile, Mr. +Wright's son has been acting as his credit man. Mrs. Haddon +has now recovered, and her husband is anxious to get another +position. Reproduce Mr. Wright's letter.</p> + +<p>2. Write the letter Mr. Wright sends Mr. Haddon in Colorado, +suggesting that the latter apply for the position.</p> + +<p>3. At the same time Joseph Haddon writes, applying for the +position. Write the letter of application.</p> + +<p>4. Write Mr. Haddon's letter thanking Mr. Wright for his +interest. Remember that the two men know each other.</p> + +<p>5. Joseph Haddon, whom you have engaged, is proving to be +a very alert credit man. He has made a study of your credit +files and has discovered that you have a great many accounts of +long standing that ought to be collected. He prepares a courteous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span> +letter to send to the debtors, telling them that he has just been +made credit man and that he personally would like to get into +closer touch with their particular situation to find out how soon +he might expect a remittance from them, so that he could plan +the future of his department. Write the letter. (See <a href="#Page_254">page 254</a>.)</p> + +<p>6. A number of retailers remit the amount that they owe. +Some explain their situation in detail, but a great many do not +respond to (5). Write another letter, still courteous, but more +emphatic than (5), to those who did not respond. (See <a href="#Page_255">page 255</a>.)</p> + +<p>7. Still a number do not respond. Write a third letter, saying +that you will place the matter in the hands of your attorney +unless you receive a remittance within ten days.</p> + +<p>8. Mr. Haddon discovers that there are about a hundred +retailers who used to be customers, but who have bought nothing +for about two years. He reports this to the sales manager, Mr. +James Woodworth, who writes a letter to the retailers to induce +them to send another order, using the canned fruit spoken of in +(8) of <a href="#Exercise_264">Exercise 264</a> as a means of interesting them.</p> + +<p>9. Nathaniel Sears, a dealer in general merchandise at Joplin, +Mo., writes to you asking for an open account. He says that he +did a $10,000 business last year and that, apparently, sales this +year will be larger. He gives no references. You refer the matter +to Mr. Haddon, who looks up Mr. Sears in Bradstreet and then +writes to one of your salesmen at St. Louis, asking him to investigate +the financial standing of Mr. Sears. Write to the salesman.</p> + +<p>10. After three days the salesman reports that Mr. Sears seems +to be doing a good business, but he thinks the dealer is living +beyond his means. He owes two wholesale houses $500 and $850 +respectively; his property in Joplin is heavily mortgaged, and +yet he is making extensive improvements on his residence; his +son and his daughter are at expensive boarding schools. Write +the letter. Be exact in your information.</p> + +<p>11. As Mr. Woodworth, write Mr. Sears a courteous letter, +refusing him credit but attempting to secure his cash business.</p> + +<p>12. Charles Freeman, 141 Park Place, Newark, Ohio, writes +in answer to (5) saying that he is unable to pay his account of +$500. After the harvest his outstanding bills will be paid by the +farmers, and then he can remit. He says he is willing to give his +90 day note for the amount he owes.</p> + +<p>13. Mr. Haddon writes, accepting the note.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span></p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><span class="smcap">III.—The Mail Order Merchant</span></h2> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 266</b><br /><br /> + +<i>Oral</i></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Suppose you were starting a mail order business. Would +it make any difference in possible profits if your center of operations +were in a large or a small city? Give your reasons.</p> + +<p>2. Would you try to be near good transportation?</p> + +<p>3. What kind of stock would you advertise principally: bulky +articles or those easily handled? expensive goods or those of more +moderate price?</p> + +<p>4. Your catalogue is your salesman. What would this statement +suggest about the cost of running your business as compared +with that of Peabody, Harper & Co., who employ five salesmen?</p> + +<p>5. How would you bring special attention to your leaders in +your catalogue?</p> + +<p>6. Why is it advisable not to give your catalogue away free, +but to charge a nominal sum for it?</p> + +<p>7. Would you sell as cheaply as you could or would you try +to sell for as high a price as possible even if you sold less?</p> + +<p>8. Is it profitable for a mail order merchant to sell one spool +of thread or one pocket-knife? Consider the handling and the +packing.</p> + +<p>9. Why can the mail order merchant sell more cheaply than +the country dealer?</p> + +<p> +10. <i>a.</i> How is the parcel post favorable to the mail order dealer?<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;"><i>b.</i> Why did the country merchant object so strenuously to the passage of the parcel post law?</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>11. Some distributors who handle only one kind of article sometimes +pay the freight. Would this plan be advisable for a mail +order house to adopt?</p> + +<p>12. Since the purchaser pays the freight, is it advisable for +him to buy a large or a small order at one time?</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 267</b><br /><br /> + +<i>Written</i></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. A customer who wishes to buy some furniture complains +that he can purchase what he wishes from another firm that will +pay the freight. Write a letter meeting his objection.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span></p> + +<p>2. You have just added a new clothing department and have +published a special clothing catalogue, which you will be glad +to send to your customers free of charge. Write a letter telling +of the new department and drawing special attention to your +three-piece serge suit for $15. Enclose a sample of the cloth.</p> + +<p>3. Write, especially to farmers, saying that with the facilities +now offered by the parcel post you are able to supply their wants +quickly; as, for example, for a broken part of a piece of farm +machinery. Write a fairly long letter in a friendly tone.</p> + +<p>4. In the fall write a letter, addressing the farmers' wives, +saying that, as winter is at hand, it would be well for them to put +in a supply of groceries when prices are reasonable. Enclose a +folder giving some attractive bargains. Write the folder.</p> + +<p>5. Write a letter, saying that you have just put up a new +building. Invite your customer to come to see it. Explain that +every afternoon from 2 to 4 o'clock there will be a band concert +in your large visitors' hall.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 268</b></div> + +<p>1. Let one pupil be chosen to dictate to the class each +of the letters outlined below. He is to use no notes. The +class will represent stenographers.</p> + +<p>2. Discuss and improve the letters that have been +dictated.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Borroughs & Brown, a mail order firm at N. 11th and +Callowhill Streets, Philadelphia, send you their catalogue and an +advertising letter. Write the letter.</p> + +<p>2. Write, stating that in their catalogue No. 6, page 673, +Borroughs & Brown list a washing machine such as you wish, +called the "Pride Swing" washing machine, No. 4-A-459. The +measurements as listed are: depth 13 inches, diameter 21 inches. +The price is $5.25. This is too small for your purpose. Ask if +they can supply you with the same style 30 inches in diameter. +Ask the price.</p> + +<p>3. Borroughs & Brown write that they have no such machine +in stock, but, since there have been many requests lately for a +larger machine, they have decided to consult the factory, and if +it is advisable, they will reproduce the "Pride Swing" machine +in larger size. (Letter head.)</p> + +<p>4. Borroughs & Brown, Dept. 18, House Furnishings, write to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span> +the W. F. Wiggins Mfg. Co., Saginaw, Mich., stating that they have +had several orders for a larger "Pride Swing" washing machine +which the Wiggins Company manufacture. Burroughs & Brown +ask concerning a 30-inch machine. Write the letter.</p> + +<p>5. The W. F. Wiggins Mfg. Co. telegraph Borroughs & Brown +that before they can state a price on a 30-inch "Pride Swing" +machine, they must make samples, calculating cost of materials +and workmanship. Write the telegram. Confirm by letter. +Write the letter.</p> + +<p>6. Borroughs & Brown write you, giving the information contained +in (5) above.</p> + +<p>7. The W. F. Wiggins Mfg. Co. write Borroughs & Brown, +stating that after several experiments they find that the coil +springs by which the "Pride Swing" machine is operated are +too weak for the larger sized tub. The manufacture of suitable +springs will cause some delay in their final report.</p> + +<p>8. Ten days later. Telegram. The W. F. Wiggins Mfg. +Co. to Borroughs & Brown, stating that they have now perfected +a "Pride Swing Special" machine; width 30 inches, depth 18 +inches; price $8, with a discount of 50%.</p> + +<p>9. Borroughs & Brown write you that they have perfected a +"Pride Swing Special" washing machine, No. 4-B-459, 30 inches +in diameter, 18 inches in depth, price $7. Add a courteous +close.</p> + +<p>10. Order five machines. Give full shipping directions. Say +that you will pay according to the offer made on page 25, catalogue +No. 6; viz., $20 upon receipt of the goods and $5 per month until +they are paid for. Give two references.</p> + +<p>11. Borroughs & Brown telegraph the W. F. Wiggins Mfg. Co. +ordering 100 machines, five of which are to be sent directly to +you. Write, confirming the telegram.</p> + +<p>12. Two weeks later than letter (10) write again, explaining +that you have not received the machines you ordered. Ask the +reason for the delay.</p> + +<p>13. Two weeks later than (11) write a telegram from Borroughs +& Brown to the W. F. Wiggins Mfg. Co., asking why the machines +have not been sent.</p> + +<p>14. Send a telegram from the W. F. Wiggins Mfg. Co. to Borroughs +& Brown, saying that, owing to a teamsters' and shipping +clerks' strike, they have not been able to fill any of their orders +for the last two weeks. The machines have been sent. (State +how and when.) Write a letter, confirming the telegram.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span></p> + +<p>15. Borroughs & Brown write to inform you that the strike +was the cause of the delay in the shipment of the machines you +ordered ——. The machines were shipped ——. Add a courteous +close.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 269</b></div> + +<p>Conduct a transaction of your own, using the above as +a model, except in the method of payment.</p> + + +<div class='center'><b><span class="smcap">IV.—The Salesman</span></b></div> + +<p>Salesmanship is a branch of distribution about which +many volumes have been written. We cannot consider it +minutely from the personal view of the salesman, but can +only touch upon it from the point of view of distribution. +The salesman is merely a force in distribution like +correspondence, circulars, and advertising. But the salesman +has the advantage over these in that he is able to +bring his personality to bear in the problem of getting +business. It is by means of his personality that the salesman +gets the attention and confidence of the customer,—a +thing which is extremely hard to do in a letter, a circular, +or an advertisement. Securing a buyer's confidence is very +important, because no suspicious customer has ever yet +bought anything.</p> + +<p>In addition to a pleasing personality a good salesman must +have a wide and thorough knowledge of his wares. If he +does not know his goods, the sale drags; whereas, if he knows +everything good there is to be known about them, his enthusiasm +instills enthusiasm into the customer.</p> + +<p>After bringing his knowledge and his enthusiasm into play, +he must next call on his perseverance and his tact; perseverance +to keep at the customer until he gets the order, and +tact to know in each case just how to go about getting the +order and just when to stop. Many salesmen talk too much; +many more do not talk enough.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 270</b><br /><br /> + +<i>Oral</i></div> + +<p>In talking on any of the following subjects be sure you +know just what you are going to say before you begin, and +then say it clearly and convincingly. Don't say too much +and don't say too little. Just exactly how much you +should say no one can tell you. You must watch your +audience. If they look puzzled, give more details; if they +look bored, try shorter, more concise sentences, or bring +your talk to a close. After you have explained all your +points, sum them up briefly at the end. Remember that +your talk must, first, attract attention; second, hold the +interest; and third, create enthusiasm and desire to buy.</p> + +<p>To supplement what facts you get from observation, study +advertisements and catalogues to get material for (9) to +(20) below:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Get up a talk to persuade a freshman or a group of freshmen +to subscribe to the school paper.</p> + +<p>2. To persuade girls to contribute to a fund to be used to buy +suits for the football team.</p> + +<p>3. To induce particularly uninterested freshmen to buy +tickets for a school activity; for example, a debate.</p> + +<p>4. As a real estate agent induce a classmate to establish a +home in your neighborhood.</p> + +<p>5. Try to sell the manager of the baseball team a new line of +athletic goods.</p> + +<p>6. Try to sell a set of Dickens' (or any other author's) works +to a boy who is not fond of reading. You must enjoy the books +that you recommend.</p> + +<p>7. Try to sell the class or the teacher a new kind of loose +leaf note book for science or English work.</p> + +<p>8. As an agent for the publishers try to sell this text book to +your English class or to your English teacher.</p> + +<p>9. You are trying to sell an automobile to a farmer. By +means of concrete examples develop the following items into a +talk:<br /> + + +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;"><i>a.</i> The business opportunities to be gained.<br /></span> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;"><i>b.</i> The social opportunities to be gained.</span><br /> +</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span></p> + +<p>10. Get up a talk to sell a runabout to a physician who +has a small practice. Suppose that he owns a horse and a buggy. +Be tactful.</p> + +<p>11. You are a salesman for an automobile house and are trying +to sell a gasoline car to a man who is partial to an electric car. +Meet the objections to the gasoline car and put forward its +advantages.</p> + +<p>12. You are trying to sell an electric runabout to a woman. +Develop the following into a talk:<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;"><i>a.</i> Ease of operation.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;"><i>b.</i> Noiselessness and comfort.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;"><i>c.</i> Elegant appearance.</span><br /></p> + +<p>13. You are trying to sell the manager of a local express company +a motor truck. Gather all the data you can and present it +in a talk on why he should replace his horses and wagons with +motor trucks. Be as specific as possible.</p> + +<p>14. Get up a talk showing why a man with considerable means +should trade his two year old car as part payment for the latest +model.</p> + +<p>15. Get up a talk to sell a phonograph.</p> + +<p>16. To sell an electric washing machine.</p> + +<p>17. To sell a piano.</p> + +<p>18. To sell a vacuum cleaner.</p> + +<p>19. To sell a subscription to a magazine.</p> + +<p>20. To obtain an order for groceries or teas and coffees. The +offer of premiums might add to the effectiveness of your talk.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 271</b></div> + +<p>The following paragraph was adapted from William C. +Freeman's <i>Advertising Talks</i>.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>George Washington's Cherry Tree Story has served a good +purpose through all of these years. "I cannot tell a lie" is a phrase +that has been used in every schoolroom in America to impress +upon young minds the importance of truth telling. The phrase +is also serving its purpose outside the schoolroom. In all professions +and in all kinds of business, men know that in order to +make good they must tell the truth. There never was, in all the +history of the country, a greater movement than now toward +universal truth telling. There is not even that winking at "white"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span> +lies that used to prevail. The man who does not make a direct +statement, who does not earn a reputation for being honest, has +no chance of succeeding. Time was when the trickster was regarded +as shrewd and was accepted in the community as being +right both socially and commercially. To-day the man who has +money without a reputation for integrity is a bankrupt, as far as +real friends and public opinion are concerned. The expression +"I cannot tell a lie" has been changed to-day to "I will not tell +a lie even if the lie seems more expedient than the blunt truth." +So George Washington's Cherry Tree Story is as good to-day as +it ever was.</p></div> + +<p>Prepare paragraphs on the following suggestions, expanding +each by examples:</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1. As a salesman, be honest with your customers.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">2. Cultivate tact.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3. Cultivate a conscience.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4. Learn to avoid friction.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5. Acknowledge your mistakes.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6. Don't criticise.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">7. Don't procrastinate.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8. Don't boast.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">9. Don't buy your clothes on time.</span><br /> +10. Don't borrow from fellow clerks.<br /> +11. Don't think your employer can't see whether you are working.<br /> +12. Don't sell a merchant a larger order than he can move.<br /> +13. Study the duties of the man ahead of you.<br /> +14. New ideas count with your employer.<br /> +15. He can who thinks he can.<br /> +</div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 272</b><br /><br /> + +<i>Written</i></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. A request has come in from your territory for your automobile +catalogue. Write a letter to accompany the catalogue, +inviting the inspection of your cars. Make it as personal as +possible.</p> + +<p>2. You have just been talking with a prospective buyer. Drive +home some of the strong points of your car in a letter exploiting +strength, reliability, and speed. Use the following as a basis of +your letter: The Up-to-the-minute car breaks the record from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span> +New York to San Francisco, making the trip in ten days, fifteen +hours, and thirteen seconds.</p> + +<p>3. You have just shown your motor truck to a business man. +Strengthen the impression you made on him by writing him a +letter summing up the important advantages of the motor truck. +Use the following extract from a letter:</p> + +<p>"It has not missed a single trip since I have had it, and it takes +the place of three wagons and twelve horses. My route from +Waltham is so long that a pair of horses going over it one day has +to be laid off the next."</p> + +<p>"This truck makes three trips each day. I have had it on the +road nearly four months and have covered over four thousand +(4,000) miles with no expense for repairs."</p> + +<p>4. A prospective customer has lost interest. Try to arouse +him once more by telling him of a particularly good sale recently +made, or of a new model just received, or of a new device lately +perfected. Your object is to get him to inspect your cars again.</p> + +<p>5. Write a letter to a wealthy man who bought one of your +cars two years ago, offering him half of what he paid for the car +in exchange for a new model. Make him see that it would be to +his advantage to accept the offer.</p> + +<p>6. Write an advertisement to appear in a local newspaper +asking for an automobile salesman.</p> + +<p>7. Answer the advertisement, telling why you think you could +sell cars, although you have had no experience.</p> + +<p>8. Write a letter to a friend telling him you have been offered +the agency for the Up-to-the-minute car. Ask him to be your +partner, and try to show him why you will succeed. He will be +expected to bear half the office expenses, and he will get half the +commissions.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 273—Suggestions for Debates</b></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The mail order house ruins the trade of the country +merchant.</p> + +<p>2. The giving of free samples does not attract desirable +purchasers.</p> + +<p>3. The use of trading stamps should be abolished.</p> + +<p>4. The motor wagon is more advantageous for the average +grocer than the horse and wagon.</p> + +<p>5. All manufactured food products should be sold in sanitary, +sealed packages.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 274</b><br /><br /> + +<i>Oral or Written</i></div> + +<p>Prepare paragraphs on the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. A merchant must know his neighborhood before he buys +his stock.</p> + +<p>2. Selling by weight rather than by measure benefits dealer +and consumer.</p> + +<p>3. Giving short weights does not prove profitable.</p> + +<p>4. The price of a certain kind of goods, or of an article, that +is going out of style should be reduced to move it quickly.</p> + +<p>5. If merchants did not deliver purchases, goods would be +cheaper.</p> + +<p>6. Hard work and patience spell the merchant's success.</p> + +<p>7. The middle man gets the bulk of the profit.</p> + +<p>8. The telegraph is a great aid to the business man.</p> + +<p>9. There is a difference between day and night telegraphic +rates.</p> + +<p>10. Money may be sent by telegraph.</p> + +<p>11. The night letter is very useful to the merchant.</p> + +<p>12. The parcel post is a great help to the farmer.</p> + +<p>13. The parcel post tends to increase the business of the mail +order firms.</p> + +<p>14. The object of an automobile exhibit is to sell cars.</p> + +<p>15. The five-and-ten-cent stores have succeeded because ——.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 275</b></div> + +<p>Prepare paragraphs on the following:</p> + + +<p>1. The importance of transportation facilities to the farmer.</p> +<p>2. The importance of transportation facilities to the manufacturer.</p> +<p>3. The steamship in international trade.</p> +<p>4. Transportation before the days of the railroad.</p> +<p>5. The influence of the railroad in the advance of civilization.</p> +<p>6. Electrifying the railroads.</p> +<p>7. Speed, the cause of railroad accidents.</p> +<p>8. The observation car.</p> +<p>9. The care of food in the refrigerator car.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span>10. The work of the railroad repair-shop.</p> +<p>11. The advantage of railroad transportation over water transportation.</p> +<p>12. The advantage of water transportation over railroad transportation.</p> +<p>13. Why the larger railroads in our country run east and west.</p> +<p>14. The advantages of the pay-as-you-enter car.</p> +<p>15. The importance of the interurban electric railroads in country trade.</p> +<p>16. The disadvantages of the elevated system in large cities.</p> +<p>17. Congestion in the business district of a large city.</p> +<p>18. The underground system as a solution for congested traffic.</p> +<p>19. The work of a transfer company.</p> +<p>20. The motor truck decreases the business of the express companies.</p> +<p>21. The automobile decreases railroad suburban business.</p> + + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 276</b></div> + +<p>Topics for Investigation and Discussion</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The work of the Interstate Commerce Commission.</p> + +<p>2. How railroads control other railroads.</p> + +<p>3. Railroad earnings.</p> + +<p>4. Different kinds of railroad traffic.</p> + +<p>5. The relation between the express companies and the railroads.</p> + +<p>6. Railroad rates and rebates.</p> + +<p>7. Government ownership of railroads.</p> + +<p>8. The influence of the Panama canal in the growth of business +in the southern states.</p> + +<p>9. The influence of the canal in the growth of business in the +central West.</p> + +<p>10. The influence of the canal in the growth of business in +South America.</p> + +<p>11. The deep water way.</p> + +<p>12. The parcel post zones.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 277</b></div> + +<p><b>Books that will Suggest Topics for Talks</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Bolton, S. K.</span>, Successful Women.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Chamberlain, J. F.</span>, How We Travel.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Drysdale, W.</span>, Helps for Ambitious Boys; Helps for Ambitious Girls.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fowler, N. C.</span>, Practical Salesmanship; Starting in Life.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hale, E. E.</span>, What Career?</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Higinbotham, H. N.</span>, The Making of a Merchant.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Laselle, M. A.</span> and <span class="smcap">Wiley, K. E.</span>, Vocations for Girls.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lundgren, Charles</span>, The New Salesmanship.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lyde, L. W.</span>, Man and his Markets.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mallon, I. A. S.</span>, The Business Girl.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Manson, G. J.</span>, Ready for Business.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Marsden, O. S.</span>, The Secret of Achievement; The Young Man Entering +Business.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mitten, G. E.</span>, The Book of the Railway.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Moody, W. D.</span>, Men Who Sell Things.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Reed</span>, <i>et al.</i>, Careers for the Coming Men.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rocheleau, W. F.</span>, Transportation.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rollins, F. W.</span>, What can a Young Man do?</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stockwell, H. G.</span>, Essential Elements of Business Character.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stoddard, W. O.</span>, Men of Business.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Vocation Bureau</span>, Boston, Vocations for Boys. (Pamphlets on +<i>The Grocer</i>, <i>The Machinist</i>, <i>The Architect</i>, <i>etc.</i>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">White, S. J.</span>, Business Openings for Girls.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 278</b></div> + +<p>Write the following from dictation:</p> + +<div class='center'>1</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Transportation is a great business as well as manufacturing or +farming. History tells us that very early people did not have a +settled home, but, when the grass began to give out in one part +of the country, several members of the community, perhaps whole +tribes, took their belongings on their backs and sought for a new +place to settle. It is reasonable to suppose that they wished to +keep up some sort of intercourse with their friends. At once +difficulties arose, since hostile tribes lived between them and their +old home. It was a brave man, indeed, who ventured to encounter +the dangers of the trip between the settlements. Such a set of +men arose in the peddlers, who set out alone or in caravans with +articles of produce or manufacture and braved the dangers even +of a desert to exchange what they carried for the produce of the +old home. This is the earliest form of transportation. Compare +this simple form with the modern railroad, steamship, and express +service.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span></p> + +<div class='center'><br />2<br /> + +<span class="smcap">Capturing the Latin American Trade</span></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>No empty iteration of the Monroe doctrine, no reservation of +canal privileges, will capture the trade of Latin America. This +will be accomplished only by efforts to produce and to sell those +countries the kind of goods that they want; measured, labeled, +and packed their way; offered in the language that they understand; +and, moreover, sold at attractive prices. Our consuls +abroad report that in all these essentials American dealers are +deficient and that British, French, and German manufacturers +fill the South American markets.</p> + +<p>To these rivals must be added another, for, in spite of old South +American prejudices against Spain and Spanish goods, the Spaniards +are quietly regaining their footing in those republics of +whose trade a century ago the home country enjoyed the monopoly. +Her advantages, we know, are a common language and +familiarity with the ways of life and the tastes of the buyers. +Spain produces just the kind of wine, olive oil, and canned goods +that South America wants; she turns out the kind of paper, the +patterns of cotton goods, the styles of tools and implements, +the clothing, shoes, and weapons used in Latin America; and the +result is that she gets the trade. One-sixth, at least, of her entire +exports goes to her former possessions.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />3</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>South Africa has been successfully operating an agricultural +parcel post. By its instrumentality gold, diamonds, minerals, +wool, feathers, saddlery, boots and shoes, confectionery, fruit, +plants, seed, butter and eggs suitably packed, and other farm +products are transported, and the producer and consumer have +been brought together. From the report of the Department of +Posts and Telegraphs we learn that the scheme has worked well, +is a recognized and popular feature of the postal system, and is +entirely feasible. The sparse settlements and widely scattered +population have not operated to bar its success, as was feared at +the time of its introduction.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />4</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The duty of applying the remedy for wrecks rests, primarily, +with the railroad managers. And what is the remedy, and how +is it to be applied? It would seem that there can be but one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span> +answer: there must be stern discipline for taking risks. There +must be thorough instruction as to what risks are and how to +avoid them, just such instruction as the "safety first" movement +is leading up to, but extended to every man in every department +of every road. In addition, the promise that no engineman will +be censured for losing or not making up time or for not running +fast when it is not considered safe to do so must be changed to +the positive, unequivocal statement that there will be a substantial +penalty for every case of running fast when it is not safe to +do so.—<i>Railway Age Gazette.</i></p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />5</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>More and more attention, each year, is being given by the railroad +managers to the locating of new kinds of industry along their +lines. The roads in the West and the South nearly all have +efficient industrial departments, land departments, or immigration +departments. Their men seek out new industries, meet the +steamers to tempt immigrants into their region, arrange for the +purchase or rental of lands, and get together reports of the soil, +the products, and the advantages of any desired location. Perhaps +the greatest effort, however, is bent upon the location of +new factories along the route. In one year one southern railroad +induced more than seven hundred men to establish industries along +its lines, after the railroads had made complete and painstaking +investigation of all the conditions that would confront the prospective +manufacturers.</p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XVIII</h2> + +<div class='chaptertitle'>ADVERTISING</div> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Advertising</span> is one of the most vital forces in the problem +of distribution. Every advertisement is a salesman and is +written and sent out with the idea of doing the work of one. +It may bring in actual orders or it may merely do "missionary +work"; that is, it may introduce a certain article or +product and educate the people to see its advantages so that +when next they desire that particular sort of article, they +will order the one that they have seen advertised.</p> + +<p>Many an article that has had practically no sale has by +means of an effective advertising campaign been brought to +a point of wide distribution and ready sale. How many +safety razors would the manufacturers sell if they had never +advertised their product? Very few. But when day after +day, everywhere a man looks—in street cars, newspapers, +magazines, and on billboards—he sees staring at him a +reason why he should use a safety razor, he soon comes to +feel that he needs one. It is just the same as though the +country were covered with salesmen who were constantly +after every one to get him to see the advantage of the safety +razor. The advertised articles may in themselves be no +better than the unadvertised brands, but advertising has +created a demand for the one over the other. The secret +of selling success is creating a demand.</p> + +<p>The importance of advertising is demonstrated by an +experience which the city of Chicago had on Wednesday, +March 2, 1911. On the afternoon before, a dispute arose +between two newspapers and their printers, ending in a +temporary strike of the printers. As a result, all papers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></span> +published on March 2 contained only four pages each, in +contrast to the usual twenty-four, because they contained +not a single advertisement. Fortunately, the strike lasted +only one day, as the local printers were at once reprimanded +by the International Typographical Union. But the losses +that newspapers and retail business men suffered on this one +day convinced them of the power of advertising. Street +cars, downtown streets, and department stores were almost +empty. To be sure, billboards still proclaimed their wares, +but, as soon as newspaper advertising ceased, the great +mass of shopping stopped.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 279</b><br /><br /> + +<i>Oral</i></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. What are some of the advertising methods used in a retail +business?</p> + +<p>2. What are some of the advertising methods used in a wholesale +business? Where are the advertisements published?</p> + +<p>3. What is the principal advertising medium of the mail order +house? Explain why it is effective.</p> + +<p>4. What is classified advertising? Why are newspapers +anxious to increase it? Name several reasons.</p> + +<p>5. What is "display" advertising as distinguished from +classified? What is the principal medium of this kind of advertising?</p> + +<p>6. Give several instances of advertising by means of the +distribution of "novelties," such as calendars. Is such advertising +effective?</p> + +<p>7. Is the distribution of samples good advertising? Be +specific in your answer.</p> + +<p>8. Is it a good thing to have a trade-mark? Name some +trade-marks that you think are good advertising.</p> + +<p>9. Is a bargain table good advertising? What is its advantage +in a retail store?</p> + +<p>10. What class of advertising is done in the classified columns +of a newspaper?</p> + +<p>11. What class of articles and products is advertised in the +street cars and trains? Expensive or inexpensive? Things you +use every day or not?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span></p> + +<p>12. Are articles advertised by billboards usually widely advertised +articles or not?</p> + +<p>13. What kind of articles would you advertise in:</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +1. The newspaper rather than the magazine?<br /> +2. The magazine rather than the newspaper?<br /> +3. The street car rather than on the billboard?<br /> +4. The trade papers rather than the newspapers?<br /> +</div> + +<p>14. Suppose you were bringing out a new soap and you could +use only one of the following mediums: (1) newspapers; (2) local +and trade magazines; (3) street cars; (4) billboards and posters. +Which would you choose and why? Would your answer be the +same if you had real estate to sell? A new machine? If you +were producing a new play?</p> + +<p>15. <span class="smcap">News Item.</span>—The University of Wisconsin has issued +a bulletin, stating that of all the money spent for food, shelter, +and clothing 90% is spent by women. Would the following be +good advertising for a magazine: "The women of the country +read this paper"? Give reasons for your answer.</p> + +<p>16. Do handbills suggest cheapness to you?</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 280</b><br /><br /> + +<i>Oral</i></div> + +<p>Discuss the value of each of the following as forms of +advertising:</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +1. Location.<br /> +2. Furnishings of the office or the store.<br /> +3. Letter headings.<br /> +4. Window displays.<br /> +5. Electric (or other) signs.<br /> +6. Moving electric signs.<br /> +7. Colors (especially reds, greens, and yellows) as against black and white.<br /> +8. White lettering on a black background.<br /> +</div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 281</b></div> + +<p>Fundamentally, the same principles apply to the advertisement +as apply to the sales letter (See <a href="#Page_230">page 230</a>). First of +all, you must look at your goods from the standpoint of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span> +the user; see his gain in buying rather than your profit in +selling. Your products, then, will probably fall into one +of the following general classes:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Something entirely new for which you must create a +demand by showing its advantage to the buyer, arousing his +sense of need and, consequently, his desire to possess.</p> + +<p>2. Something new but filling a long-felt need—"Just what +you've been looking for"—the value of which will appeal to the +buyer almost as soon as the product is explained. Comparison +with the article that now imperfectly fills the want suggests itself.</p> + +<p>3. A new brand of an old staple, like crackers, of which the +superiority must be dwelt upon to induce buyers to ask for it. +Even after the article is selling well, continuous advertising is +necessary to keep the name before the public.</p></div> + +<p>A paying advertisement appeals to a large class of people +or, better still, to several classes. For a moment let us +analyze a few of the appeals to which almost every one +responds; let us consider the reasons back of our purchases. +Why do we buy one article and not another? We buy it +first, perhaps, because we need it or think we need it; second, +because we think it will taste good or be comfortable or +good-looking or because it will afford us amusement; third, +because we think it is better, though possibly more expensive, +than any other brand on the market, and our pride +or our desire to emulate responds to it; fourth, because we +think it is good for our health or our safety; and, fifth, +because we shall save money or make money thereby. +Summing up, we may say that the motives to which +appeals may safely be made are:</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +1. Need, conscious or unconscious (usefulness, quality, or durability).<br /> +2. Comfort, amusement, or appetite.<br /> +3. Pride, desire to emulate, or vanity.<br /> +4. Safety (of health or personal possessions).<br /> +5. Economy or gain.<br /> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span></p> + +<p>Clip from magazines and bring to class good advertisements +that appeal to the motives named above. Try to +find those advertisements that make an appeal to only one +motive in one advertisement.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 282</b></div> + +<p>The following catch phrases have been taken from advertisements +in various places. Tell (1) whether their appeal +is general; (2) whether they induce one to buy; and (3) if +they do, which of the motives given above have been used +by the advertiser. Frequently more than one motive is +used in one advertisement.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. For a delicatessen store: Good things to eat.</p> + +<p>2. For a chewing gum: The taste lasts.</p> + +<p>3. For a motor washer: Two cents a week pays your washing +bill.</p> + +<p>4. For a refrigerator: Are you poisoning your family?</p> + +<p>5. For a summer drink: It's wet.</p> + +<p>6. For stockings: Wear like 60, look like 50, cost but 25.</p> + +<p>7. For a shaving soap: Comfort for your face, economy for +your purse.</p> + +<p>8. For a liniment: Don't rub—it penetrates.</p> + +<p>9. For a hair tonic: What does your mirror say?</p> + +<p>10. For a clothing store: Exclusive styles for exclusive +women.</p> + +<p>11. For an inexpensive scouring powder: Why pour money +down the sink?</p> + +<p>12. For canned goods: When company comes.</p> + +<p>13. For a varnish: Water won't hurt it.</p> + +<p>14. For bread: The human hand never touches it.</p> + +<p>15. For a fountain pen: It can't leak.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 283</b></div> + +<p>Bring to class two advertisements containing catch phrases +that you think are good. To which of the motives given +above does each appeal?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 284</b></div> + +<p>Bring in two advertisements of articles that have suggestive +names. What is the value of a suggestive name?</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 285—Good and Bad Headlines</b></div> + +<p>A good headline has the following qualities:</p> + +<p>First, it should be short. Professor Walter Dill Scott +determined by experiments that the average person can +ordinarily attend to only about four visual objects at the +same time—four letters, four words, four simple pictures, +or four geometrical figures. As the headline of an advertisement +is intended to be taken in at one glance, it should, +therefore, be not longer than four words—preferably less, +provided the interest of the phrase is the same. Short words, +too, can be taken in more readily than long words.</p> + +<p>Second, the best headline is a command. People instinctively +obey a command, unless it is so worded that they +rebel against the manner of expression.</p> + +<p>Third, a good headline is suggestive. It touches upon +the things that the reader is thinking about. It shows that +the article that is offered for sale has a close connection +with the interests that absorb the reader's mind. It is a +direct answer to his thoughts, feelings, hopes, or worries.</p> + +<p>The following headlines were taken from the advertisements +in one issue of a magazine. Judge of their effectiveness, +using the three principles given above as a basis for +your decision:</p> + +<div class='blockquot'> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1. Get That Job!</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">2. Foot Comfort.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3. Ventilate, but Don't Catch Cold!</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4. A New Filing Cabinet.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5. Are You Open to Conviction?</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6. Low Priced Envelope Sealer.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">7. Shave for 1c Without Stropping.</span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8. What a Wonderful Trip!</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">9. Save 30% on Your Furniture.</span><br /> +10. You Have a Right to Independence.<br /> +11. Just Out!<br /> +12. Get the Dust Out of Your Home—It's Dangerous.<br /> +13. The Easiest Riding Car in the World.<br /> +14. Our Seeds Grow.<br /> +15. That Raise! (Sub-heading in smaller type: What Would a Raise in Salary Mean to You?)<br /> +</div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 286</b></div> + +<p>Some advertisers choose headlines merely for the purpose +of attracting attention, forgetting that the headline should +suggest what the following illustration and text explain. +A few years ago a well-known automobile company ran an +advertisement with the headline <i>$1000 Worth of Folly</i>. The +headline was followed by a picture of the automobile. The +advertisement was intended to convey the idea that, as this +car might be bought for $3000, any one paying $4000 for an +automobile was foolishly squandering $1000. As a matter +of fact, the only suggestion that the reader got from the +advertisement was that any one who paid $1000 for the +illustrated car would be a fool.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Bring to class an advertisement in which the headline has +no connection with the rest of the advertisement, being used +merely to catch the attention.</p> + +<p>2. Find an advertisement in which the headline suggests the +opposite of what the advertisement is intended to convey.</p> + +<p>3. How might either advertisement be improved?</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 287</b></div> + +<p>Still-life advertisements are not interesting. The picture +of a furnace, or a typewriter, or a house attracts less attention +than the same objects with human beings represented +moving in the picture.</p> + +<p>Bring to class two advertisements of the same kind of +article, in one of which a still-life illustration is used and +in the other of which human beings are used to center the +attention upon the article that is offered for sale.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 288</b></div> + +<p>Bring to class (1) an advertisement that is not good because +it contains too much—lacks a center upon which the +attention naturally focuses; and (2) an advertisement that +is good because it has a definitely defined center of attraction.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 289</b></div> + +<p>Bring to class an advertisement in which the principle of +balance is used to advantage, two illustrations, one on each +side of the text, being used to convey one impression.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 290</b></div> + +<p>In writing the following, try to embody the principles that +have been brought out in previous exercises:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. An entertainment is to be given in the school hall. Write +an advertisement to appear in the school paper.</p> + +<p>2. Write an announcement of the same entertainment—to +be posted on the bulletin board.</p> + +<p>3. Write an advertisement for a debate.</p> + +<p>4. For a football, baseball, or basket-ball game.</p> + +<p>5. For an inter-class contest.</p> + +<p>6. You have permission to secure advertisements to be printed +in the program of the entertainment spoken of above. Suppose +that you are to write the copy for the different advertisements. +Use one-eighth, one-quarter, one-half, or one page, as you wish.</p> + +<p>Advertise a grocery.</p> + +<p>7. A meat market.</p> + +<p>8. A dry goods store.</p> + +<p>9. A candy store.</p> + +<p>10. A bakery.</p> + +<p>11. A bank.</p> + +<p>12. A tailor's shop.</p> + +<p>13. A photographer's studio.</p> + +<p>14. A barber shop.</p> + +<p>15. A drug store.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 291</b></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Write a handbill announcing a 20% discount sale to run +three days in your dry goods store.</p> + +<p>2. Describe a chair, table, or other article of furniture in your +own home. The description is to form part of an advertisement +to appear in a mail order catalogue.</p> + +<p>3. You are advertising a new brand of coffee in the street car. +Write the card. Would you use an illustration? If so, of what +kind?</p> + +<p>4. As in (3) advertise a new brand of pork and beans.</p> + +<p>5. As in (3) advertise a shoe sale.</p> + +<p>6. Advertise a well-known brand of soap in a magazine. Use +your own idea. Would you use an illustration?</p> + +<p>7. How would you advertise an automobile which has proved +its merits? Remember, your object is to keep the name before +the public. How would you advertise a new make of automobile? +How much space would you use in either case? Write both +advertisements.</p> + +<p>8. A half-page advertisement by the Hudson Cereal Company, +110 Hudson St., New York, of their Nervo-Cereal Coffee contains +the item: "Can you thread a needle, holding the thread one +inch from the end? If you cannot, you are nervous. Is coffee +to blame?" Exploit the aroma and flavor of the cereal coffee.</p> + +<p>9. The Central Packing Company is running a series of advertisements +of their Premium Extract of Beef. This one is to appear +just before Thanksgiving. Entitle it "Four Delicious Dishes +for the Thanksgiving Dinner," and then in as attractive a form as +possible give four recipes, making a point of the necessity of using +Premium Extract for the right flavor. At the end sum up the +merits of Premium Extract and mention the silver premiums +given with the certificates under the metal caps.</p> + +<p>10. The Bay City Mill Co., Bay City, Mich., sells fine finished +lumber suitable for making furniture at home. Prepare an advertisement +to show how simple it is to make tables and chairs at +home with their plans and their specially cut lumber. Illustrate +by giving the plans and working directions for making a useful +table, showing how easy it is with their specially cut lumber. Set +an attractive price on the lumber necessary to make this table. +Sum up by exploiting a book of plans, which may be had for the +asking.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 292</b></div> + +<p>The following paragraph is taken from Professor Scott's +<i>Theory of Advertising</i>. What is the subject of the paragraph? +Is there a topic sentence? By what plan is the paragraph +developed?</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Many of those who use illustrations for their advertisements +follow the philosophy of the Irish boy who said that he liked to +stub his toe because it felt so good when it stopped hurting. Many +of us are unable to see how the boy had made any gain after it +was all over, but he was satisfied, and that was sufficient. The +philosophic disciples of the Irish boy are found in advertisers who +have certain things to dispose of which will not do certain harmful +things. First they choose an illustration which will make you +believe that what they have to sell is just what you do not want, +and then in the text they try to overcome this false impression +and to show you that what they have to offer is not so bad after +all. Most of us are unable to see how the advertiser has gained, +even if he has succeeded in giving us logical proof that his goods +are not so bad as we were at first led to think. We are not logically +inclined, and we take the illustration and the text, and we +combine the two. The best that the text can do is to destroy +the evil effect of the illustration. Of course, when we read in +the text that the illustration does not correctly represent the +goods, we ought to discard the illustration entirely and think +only of the text, but, unfortunately, we are not constructed in +that way. The impression made by the illustration and that +made by the text fuse and form a whole which is the result formed +by these two elements.</p></div> + +<p>Write paragraphs on each of the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Advertising is essential in modern business.</p> + +<p>2. Advertising helps the housewife economize.</p> + +<p>3. The study of advertisements saves the shopper's time and +strength.</p> + +<p>4. Advertised goods cost more than the unadvertised brands. +(Give the reasons.)</p> + +<p>5. Trade-marked and advertised goods have increased the +cost of living.</p> + +<p>6. Increased advertising causes the styles to change quickly.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[318]</a></span></p> + +<p>7. Every advertisement must catch and hold the attention. +Some accomplish this object by causing a laugh. (Describe one +such.)</p> + +<p>8. Some advertisements hold the attention because they +appeal to our love of the mysterious. One such is —— (describe +it).</p> + +<p>9. Some advertisements succeed because of their clever color +scheme. One such is ——.</p> + +<p>10. Every successful advertisement contains a convincing +argument.</p> + +<p>11. Mouth to mouth advertising is the best and the cheapest.</p> + +<p>12. Advertised goods are better because they have to be.</p> + +<p>13. The consumer pays for all the advertising.</p> + +<p>14. The cost of advertising is paid by the competitors who do +not advertise.</p> + +<p>15. Advertising tends to create uniform prices.</p> + +<p>16. The advertising expert is a student of men.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 293</b></div> + +<p>Give your opinion as to the effectiveness of the following +advertisements:</p> + +<div class='center'>1</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A department store that was anxious to increase its trade on +Mondays and Wednesdays included the following coupons in +its circular advertisement one week:</p></div> + + + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="12" cellspacing="0" summary="Coupons"> +<tr><td align='center'>THIS COUPON AND 19c<br /> +Monday only<br /> +good for<br /> +<i>6 Spools J. & P. Coats'</i><br /> +<i>Best 6 Cord Machine</i><br /> +<i>Thread</i><br /> +Regular 30c value<br /></td><td align='center'>THIS COUPON AND 50cWednesday only<br /> +good for<br /> +<i>Misses' or Children's</i><br /> +<i>White Canvas Pumps</i><br /> +2 strap model, heavy or light soles,<br /> +trimmed with dainty bow on<br /> +vamp. All sizes up to 2.<br /> +$1.50 value</td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<div class='center'><br />2</div> + +<div class='center'><span class="smcap">$10,000 in Cash to Charity</span></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>We ask our customers to decide by their votes the 250 institutions +that shall receive this amount. Each ten cents' worth +purchased entitles the purchaser to one vote.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319]</a></span></p> + +<div class='center'><br />3</div> + +<p>The following appeared in the center of a page otherwise blank. +On the opposite page appeared the advertisement of a well-known +article.</p> + +<div class="blockquot2"><p>The announcement on the +following page is so important +that we have decided +to leave this page +blank.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />4</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The following was part of a circular:</p> + +<p>Following our annual custom we will again this year give away +absolutely free a beautiful silk flag to every customer making a +purchase of $1 or over, Tuesday and Wednesday, July 2 and 3.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />5</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The following appeared in a newspaper:</p> + +<div class='center'><span class="smcap">A Word of Appreciation</span></div> + +<p>We have now been in our new location somewhat over a month. +Our business has been all that we expected; in some departments, +indeed, there is an increase, notably in the neckwear, ready-to-wear +clothes, hats, and tailoring departments.</p> + +<p>Naturally, we had an abundance of faith in our new location; +nevertheless, we must confess that there were times when we had +anxious moments. We discovered, however, that our moving +was at the "psychological moment"; we soon learned that in the +minds of the people there was but one thought—success for +Michigan Avenue.</p> + +<p>We have always felt that there was a closer bond of sympathy +between our customers and us than is usually the case between +buyer and seller. The unusual interest taken in our new store +and in our success has more than confirmed us in this impression. +Our experience during the last forty days has really made life +worth living.</p> + +<p>The minds of hundreds of our customers have reverted to the +beginning of our business in our old Dearborn Street store, +twenty years ago, and they have made comparisons between that +and the wonderful establishment we now possess; they have done +it in a way that would almost suggest that it was their business<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320]</a></span> +that they were talking of rather than ours. It made us feel that, +although we have made our mistakes, nevertheless we must have +served the public well, and we insert this article in the hope that +a few of our well-wishers may read it and understand that we +appreciate and are grateful.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 294</b></div> + +<p>Books that will Suggest Topics for Talks</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +<span class="smcap">Balmer, Edwin</span>, The Science of Advertising.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Bellamy, Francis</span> (ed), Effective Magazine Advertising.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Bridgewater, Howard</span>, Advertising, or The Art of Making Known.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Calkins, E. E.</span> and <span class="smcap">Holden, R.</span>, Modern Advertising.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Cherington, Paul T.</span>, Advertising as a Business Force.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Deland, L. F.</span>, Imagination in Business.<br /> +<span class="smcap">De Weese, Truman A.</span>, Advertising (The Business Man's Library, Vol. vii).<br /> +<span class="smcap">Edgar, Albert E.</span>, How to Advertise a Retail Store.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Fowler, N. C.</span>, Building Business.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Scott, W. D.</span>, The Theory of Advertising.<br /> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XIX</h2> + +<div class='chaptertitle'>REAL ESTATE AND INSURANCE</div> + + +<p>Lands, buildings, and houses are called real property or real +estate, and the business pertaining to them, the real estate +business. Every one of us has more or less to do with this +business. If we do not own property, we pay <i>rent</i>. Rent +is the money paid for the use of a piece of land, or a building, +or part of a building, and is usually paid at certain stated +intervals of time—monthly, for example. The owner of +the building is called the <i>landlord;</i> the one who rents, the +<i>tenant</i>. Sometimes there is no condition as to how long +a tenant shall remain in one place and pay rent, but, as a +rule, the landlord requires the tenant to sign a <i>lease</i>. This +is a contract between the landlord and the tenant, stating +that in consideration of the landlord's furnishing the tenant +a place in which to live with certain conveniences—such +as heat, hot water, and other services—the tenant agrees +to pay rent for a certain length of time, usually a year or +more. If the tenant moves out before his lease expires and +refuses to pay the rent, he breaks the contract and, as is +usually the case when a contract is broken, a lawsuit may +follow. In large cities where land is in some places very +valuable, owners may not care to sell the property on which +others wish to build, but lease it to the builders for a certain +term of years, usually ninety-nine years.</p> + +<p>Suppose you no longer wish to pay rent, but to own the +house in which you live. If you buy a piece of property +from John Smith and pay him your money for it, you wish +to be assured that after a few months John Smith will not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[322]</a></span> +come to you and claim the property as his. To protect +you John Smith gives you a <i>deed</i> to the property. A deed is +a contract between the buyer and the seller of the property. +It states that, in consideration of the buyer's paying a certain +stipulated sum of money, the seller releases and conveys +the property to the buyer. This deed shows that you now +own the property. At the same time you should receive a +<i>clear title</i> to the property; that is, you wish to be sure that +no one else has a claim on the property. If John Smith +guarantees that the title is clear, he gives you a <i>warranty +deed</i> for the property, in which he will "warrant and defend +the same against all lawful claims whatsoever." If, however, +he simply turns over the property to you as it stands, +he gives you a <i>quitclaim deed</i>, in which he relinquishes or +quits all his interest in it. If you have no debts on the +property, you own it in <i>fee simple</i>.</p> + +<p>Very often in buying property, the purchaser pays only +a part of the purchase price himself, paying for the balance +by borrowing the necessary amount from a third party. +For example, if the house you bought from John Smith cost +$6,000 and you had only $4,000, you would be forced to +borrow the other $2,000 to pay John Smith. You would +then go to your bank or to some person who had money to +invest and would borrow the required amount, and to +guarantee that you would pay the money back, you would +give a <i>mortgage</i> on the property. A mortgage is a contract +which states that, in consideration of one party's giving +the second party a certain sum of money, the second party +agrees to pay interest on that money at a stipulated rate, +and at the end of a certain length of time agrees to pay the +money back; and that, in case the second party does not +pay back the amount at the end of the time, the first party +is empowered to take possession of the property, to sell it, +and to get the amount due him. This last procedure is +called <i>foreclosing the mortgage</i>. It is a common practice to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323]</a></span> +mortgage property; almost all the property in a city is +mortgaged.</p> + +<p>Some men and firms make a special business of transferring +property, buying and selling it for others, making leases, +and collecting rents. They are called real estate agents, +and for their services get a <i>commission</i>, which is a certain +percentage of the purchase or the selling price and a certain +percentage of the amount of rent collected. This percentage +varies according to whether the amount of money +involved is large or small, the percentage being larger when +small sums of money are involved than when large sums +are involved.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 295</b><br /><br /> + +<i>Oral</i></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. What is a lease?</p> + +<p>2. Explain why owners of valuable property lease it.</p> + +<p>3. What is a deed? Explain the two kinds.</p> + +<p>4. What is meant by a clear title?</p> + +<p>5. What is meant by fee simple?</p> + +<p>6. Why is it important to be careful about the title?</p> + +<p>7. What is a mortgage?</p> + +<p>8. Explain why property is often mortgaged. Does the mortgage +benefit the owner? Explain.</p> + +<p>9. What is meant by foreclosing?</p> + +<p>10. What is an agent? How is he usually paid?</p> + +<p>11. Why do people employ real estate agents to take care of +renting? To sell their property?</p> + +<p>12. Why is property near a railroad valuable? For what?</p> + +<p>13. Why is a corner lot worth more than an inside lot?</p> + +<p>14. Why is property on a car line more valuable than on a side +street?</p> + +<p>15. What effect would the building of a new street car line +have on the value of adjacent property? Why?</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 296</b><br /><br /> + +<i>Oral</i></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Suppose that you are a landlord and that in your lease no +mention is made of giving your tenants janitor service, but you<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[324]</a></span> +yourself take care of the furnace. Other landlords in the block +supply janitor service. After one of your tenants has moved in, +he demands that the back porch be scrubbed once a week and +the garbage emptied daily. What would you do? Consider the +points for and against.</p> + +<p>2. Suppose some boys playing ball on the street break a plate +glass window in the store you own. Would you expect your +tenant to pay for repairs?</p></div> + +<div class='center'><i>Written</i></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>3. Write to Francis L. Russell, a real estate agent, asking his +terms for collecting the rent of —— (tell the location of the +house, the number of the tenants, and the rent you receive).</p> + +<p>4. As if you were Francis L. Russell write a reply, saying that +you will undertake the collection for a commission of 5%.</p> + +<p>5. Imagine you are a tenant in the same building. The +kitchen sink cannot be used in your flat because of a stoppage +in the plumbing. You have told the agent once. Write him +(see 3) again, stating that unless he sends a plumber you will not +pay your next month's rent. (Is there any reason for writing +this, rather than telephoning it?)</p> + +<p>6. The plumber has submitted a bill of $5.98 for the repairs +suggested in (5). The agent writes to the landlord, enclosing a +check for the rent that he has collected, less the amount of the +plumber's bill and his commission.</p> + +<p>7. You are a lawyer. Write to the landlord, informing him +that the mortgage which your client holds against the landlord's +property expires in thirty days. Ask the landlord whether he +expects to pay the money or whether he wishes a renewal of the +loan for three years. Your client is willing to give such a renewal.</p> + +<p>8. The landlord replies that he is enclosing $100 to pay the +interest due on the mortgage and that he desires a renewal of the +loan. If the lawyer will prepare the papers, he will come to sign +them at the specified time. Write the letter.</p> + +<p>9. You are an insurance agent. Write to the landlord that +the fire insurance on his property expires in sixty days. Ask him +to allow you to write a new policy. Inform him that the rate +now will be 3¾% instead of if 1¾% as it was formerly, because a +garage has been erected one door north of his property. (Why +should the rate be higher?)</p> + +<p>10. One of the tenants has paid no rent for two months. You +decide that he never will be able to pay. As landlord you make<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[325]</a></span> +out and deliver to him a <i>Five days' notice of removal</i>. At the same +time, you write a letter to your lawyer, explaining the state of +affairs and asking him to take charge of enforcing the notice. +(This means that if the tenant does not move, the case must come +up in court. If it is decided in the landlord's favor, the tenant +must move. If he refuses, the lawyer engages a constable to eject +him.) Write the letter.</p> + +<p>11. Francis L. Russell writes three short advertisements, offering +for sale (1) a large 12 room residence, mortgage $6,000, price +$15,000; (2) a 3 apartment building, clear, price $16,000; (3) a +large 12 apartment building, mortgage $25,000, price $41,000, terms +to suit. Where would you advertise? Write the advertisements.</p> + +<p>12. You get inquiries about all of the above. Write answers +describing the buildings more fully, and make appointments with +the writers to inspect the property.</p> + +<p>13. A man is interested in the 12 flat building, but he has only +$10,000. Offer him the property for $40,000 on these terms: +$10,000 down, a first mortgage for $20,000 to run 10 years at 5%, +and a second mortgage for $10,000 to run 5 years at 5½%, $2,000 +to be paid each year with interest. Make it as attractive as +possible. Tell him you will arrange for the mortgages.</p> + +<p>14. (<i>a</i>) Write to your bank, the First National, and explain +that, although the first mortgage on the 12 flat building for $25,000 +still has 3 years to run, you would like to arrange for a 10 year +mortgage for $20,000, if your prospective buyer takes the property. +(<i>b</i>) Write to George R. Scott, who owns the building, offering him +the second mortgage. Explain that although it is a second mortgage +the fact that $2,000 of the principal is paid each year makes +it attractive. (How would the owner benefit if the buyer failed +to make his payments after 2 years?) Sign yourself Francis L. +Russell.</p> + +<p>15. You have put through the deal. Write to the new owner, +offering to take care of the renting for a commission equal to 2½% +of the amount collected.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 297—Farm Lands</b></div> + +<p>1. You own a large tract of land in the South, West, or +Southwest. Choose your own locality. Prepare a pamphlet +setting forth the advantages of this particular spot in a +series of paragraphs: (1) scenery, (2) climate and healthfulness,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[326]</a></span> +(3) crops, (4) profits from the crops, (5) price of +labor, (6) chances for pleasure, e.g., hunting, fishing, etc., +(7) transportation facilities, (8) price of the land. Use a +firm name and address.</p> + +<p>2. Arrange and punctuate:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Nov. 1, 19— [For the introduction supply the same firm name +used in (1)]. Gentlemen I have just returned from an extended +trip through (the district spoken of above) with reference to the +forty acres I purchased from you I desire to say that I am convinced +that it will prove a paying investment I am so pleased that +I shall certainly try to induce several of my friends to purchase +near my site while on the property I carefully inspected the farm +worked by Mr S R Jackson I must say what he is accomplishing +the immense crop of vegetables and fruit he is marketing amazed +me no doubt what he is doing I may do for I made sure by careful +examination that the soil on my land is exactly like his you may +depend upon it that within the next two months I shall move my +family upon the land for I am eager to develop it sincerely yours +F W Farrell</p></div> + +<p>What advantage would there be in including such a letter +as (2) in the booklet spoken of in (1)?</p> + +<p>3. To prove the possibilities of the land spoken of in (1), +you intend to start a model farm. Advertise for a farmer. +Your plan is to give him 60 acres to develop for himself, in +return for which he shall demonstrate the possibilities of +the land.</p> + +<p>4. Write a letter applying for the position. You must +have farming experience, some money, a knowledge of crops, +and a good deal of enthusiasm.</p> + +<p>5. Write an advertisement of your land for a big newspaper. +Exploit its most striking features, especially the +price. Study such advertisements before you write +yours.</p> + +<p>6. Reproduce a letter you received in answer to (5), +asking for more information concerning the lands.</p> + +<p>7. Write the reply to (6). Say you are enclosing the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[327]</a></span> +booklet spoken of in (1); tell of the model farm being established +(3); and induce the inquirer to become a purchaser.</p> + +<p>8. Prepare a series of three follow-up letters to be sent out +to prospective purchasers who write as in (6) but who do +not answer your letter in (7). Make each letter set forth +one of the following advantages of buying a piece of your +land: (1) The profits from the crops are large; (2) The +conditions are ideal—mention climate, water, neighbors, +transportation; (3) It is a good investment, since the land +will certainly rise in value—tell of other land in the neighborhood +that has risen in value within the last year. Arrange +the letters in the order that you think will be most effective.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 298</b><br /> + + + +<b>Topics for Investigation and Discussion</b></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The cause of changes in city real estate values.</p> + +<p>2. The price of downtown property in your town.</p> + +<p>3. The rise in property values in the last few years.</p> + +<p>4. The causes of the rise.</p> + +<p>5. Stove heated or steam heated property—which is the +better income producer?</p> + +<p>6. The Mortgage.—(<i>a</i>) Why people mortgage their property; +(<i>b</i>) Why people loan money on mortgages.</p> + +<p>7. The increase in the total value of farm lands during the +last ten years.</p> + +<p>8. The decrease in the value of farm lands in the East.</p> + +<p>9. The reasons for the growth of the West.</p> + +<p>10. Will the South be a new West?</p> + +<p>11. The reclamation of swamp lands.</p> + +<p>12. The success of irrigation.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 299—Insurance</b></div> + +<p>An exposition of the subject of insurance is hardly in place +here, especially as every one, to a certain extent at least, is +acquainted with the fundamental reasons why insurance is +purchased. The questions below should be used as a rudimentary +review that will prepare for the letters that follow<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[328]</a></span>.</p> + +<div class='center'><i>Oral</i></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. What is the object of insurance?</p> + +<p>2. What is meant by a policy?</p> + +<p>3. By the premium?</p> + +<p>4. By the beneficiary?</p> + +<p>5. By life insurance?</p> + +<p>6. By fire insurance?</p> + +<p>7. By accident insurance?</p> + +<p>8. By marine insurance?</p> + +<p>9. What is the difference between a straight life and a 20 year +endowment policy?</p> + +<p>10. Between the above and a 20 year pay policy?</p> + +<p>11. Between the above and a term policy?</p> + +<p>12. Why is it that the mortgagee, and not the owner, holds +the fire insurance policy? Why must the amount of insurance +equal or exceed the amount of the mortgage?</p></div> + +<div class='center'><i>Written</i></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. You are an insurance agent. A man came to your office +to-day to inquire about a life insurance policy. Write him a letter, +repeating what you told him, advocating his taking out a straight +life policy.</p> + +<p>2. A new building has just been erected in your neighborhood. +Write to the owner, soliciting him to let you write the fire insurance +policy.</p> + +<p>3. Write to a man who rides downtown on the train every +day. Convince him that he needs to take out an accident insurance +policy. Point out that the premium is only $25 a year. If +the man is injured he will receive $25 weekly; if he is killed by +accident, his beneficiary will receive $5,000; if he is killed on a +train or in an elevator, $10,000.</p> + +<p>4. Write to one of your clients, informing him that the premium +on his life insurance policy falls due in ten days.</p> + +<p>5. Write to another of your clients, informing him that the +insurance on his property runs out in ten days. Inform him that, +if he wishes the policy renewed, he should let you know at once +and remit the premium.</p> + +<p>6. From the client mentioned in (5) you receive a letter in +which he explains that the paint store which formerly adjoined +his property has been replaced by a grocery. He would like a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[329]</a></span> +new policy at a lower rate. Reproduce the letter. A paint store +is insured at the highest, or hazard, rate. The rate on property +adjoining a paint store would also be very high.</p> + +<p>7. You investigate the matter and find that the facts are as +stated in (6). Write your client, offering him a rate of 1½% and +enclosing a bill for $45.</p> + +<p>8. He replies that, since the risk of fire is now so much less, +he wishes to take only $2,000 worth of insurance. He asks you to +write such a policy, and he encloses his check for $30. Write the +letter.</p> + +<p>9. A man writes to you, saying that he wishes to take out an +endowment policy for his fifteen year old daughter, who has +already been examined. He wishes to give the insurance to her +as a birthday present. He encloses a check for the premium and +asks you to send the contract to her on her birthday (Name the +date). Write the father's letter.</p> + +<p>10. Write a letter to accompany the birthday present. Remember +you do not know the daughter.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 300</b></div> + +<p>Write the following from dictation:</p> + +<div class='center'>1<br /> + +<span class="smcap">Must Reform our Farming</span></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The average yield of wheat in the United States for the five +years ending in 1910 was eight-tenths of a bushel per acre more +than in the five years ending in 1905, but it was less than four-tenths +of a bushel more than for the ten ending in 1900. The average +corn product for the ten years ending in 1910 was a little less than +for the ten years ending in 1875. Thirty-five years had not advanced +us a step. European countries—Great Britain, France, +Germany—with inferior soils and less favorable climate produce +crops practically double our own. In our studies of conservation +we find no waste comparable, either in magnitude or importance, +to this. The farm will fail, and the foundations of our prosperity +be undermined, unless agriculture is reformed. The percentage +of our people actively engaged in farming had fallen from 47.36 +in 1870 to an estimated 32 in 1910. Every man on the farm to-day +must produce food for two mouths against one forty years ago.</p> + +<div class='sig'>—<i>J. J. Hill.</i></div></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[330]</a></span></p> + +<div class='center'><br />2<br /> + +<span class="smcap">The Farming Specials</span></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>One of the latest and most successful activities of the railroads +is the practice of carrying knowledge of the best farming methods +to the farmers by means of special trains equipped like agricultural +colleges. These trains, bearing experts and all the equipment +for exhibiting the new methods of agriculture, bring the knowledge +to the farmers free, and the railroads are glad to give it, for every +bit of knowledge comes back to them in a hundred fold profit in +freight. In the summer eager audiences all over the country +listen to the preaching of better methods and larger crops. Dozens +of special trains travel through the agricultural regions disseminating +information. The "Breakfast Bacon Special" has been run +to encourage Iowa farmers to raise more hogs to take advantage +of the high price of bacon. The Cotton Belt Route southwest +of St. Louis runs the "Squealer Special" to prove to the Arkansas +and Panhandle farmers the money-making advantages of blooded +hogs over the razor-back variety. Down the Mississippi Valley +the Illinois Central sends the "Boll Weevil Special" to conduct +a campaign against that pest. The Harriman lines have six +trains operating in California every year. In one year they visited +more than seventy-five thousand people. Better farming specials +run in practically every state south of the Ohio and Potomac and +west of the Mississippi. The New York Central also has two +trains in operation in New York.—<i>The Business Almanac.</i></p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />3</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A large proportion of farmers give little or no attention to the +selection of seed; yet it has been demonstrated that a careful +selection would add hundreds of millions of dollars to the total +value of the crops. If, for example, a variety of wheat were +developed capable of producing one more kernel to the head, it +would mean an addition, so Burbank says, of 15,000,000 bushels +to our average wheat crop. It is possible, however, to do even +more than this. At the Minnesota station a variety, selected for +ten years according to a definite principle, yielded twenty-five +per cent more than the parent variety. Applied to our average +crop, that increase would amount to 185,000,000 bushels, worth +about $140,000,000. As for corn, it has been officially stated that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[331]</a></span> +our average yield could easily be doubled. After exhaustive experiments +the Department of Agriculture says that by merely testing +individual ears of seed corn and rejecting those of low vitality an +average yield of nearly fourteen per cent could be secured, adding +about $200,000,000 to the value of the crop. Does scientific seed +selection seem worth while?—<i>The Wall Street Journal.</i></p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XX</h2> + +<div class='chaptertitle'>BANKING</div> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Imagine</span> that you are a druggist in a small town. Suppose +that a woman comes in to buy two ounces of camphor +and in exchange gives you three eggs. In a few moments, +perhaps, a man enters to buy a safety razor and brings with +him wheat enough to pay the bill. Another, again, wishes +to trade a turkey for a fountain pen. You can readily see +the inconvenience to which you would be put in such exchange +of actual commodities; yet this was the method used +in primitive times, a method called <i>barter</i>.</p> + +<p>To overcome the inconvenience of barter, as civilization +advanced, it became necessary to establish a common +medium of exchange, which could be accepted for anything +one had to sell and with which one could buy anything he +wished. This is what we call <i>money</i>. To meet the requirements, +money must not be bulky, must be durable, and must +not readily change in value. In civilized countries gold and +silver are the bases of exchange.</p> + +<p>But gold and silver are heavy and inconvenient to carry +about in large, or for that matter in small, quantities, and +for convenience the following kinds of paper money have +been established:</p> + +<p>1. <i>Gold Certificates</i> are issued with the government's guarantee +that there is gold deposited in the Treasury equal to +the amount of the face of the bill. At any time the one holding +such a bill may demand of the Treasury that he receive +gold for it.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Silver Certificates</i> are similar to gold certificates, except +that silver is deposited in the Treasury instead of gold.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333]</a></span></p> + +<p>3. <i>United States Treasury Notes</i> are promissory notes of +the government to pay the sum indicated. They are not +payable on demand.</p> + +<p>4. <i>National Bank Notes</i> are promissory notes issued by the +national banks and are payable on demand of the bearer. +Before a national bank may issue such notes, it must own +United States government bonds of at least the amount for +which it issues notes. These bonds are held by the Treasurer +of the United States as security that the bank will pay +its notes. According to the Owen Glass Bill, passed in +December of 1913, national bank notes may at the option +of the banks be gradually withdrawn from circulation.</p> + +<div class='center'><b>Credit</b></div> + +<p><i>Credit</i> is a promise to pay at some future time for a thing +which you receive now. Its use is probably as old as the +practice of exchange and quite as important. The simplest +and most extensive form of credit is "book" credit, such as +you get at the grocer's or butcher's or at the department +store. To explain a little more complex kind of credit: +Suppose you owe Smith one hundred dollars. At the same +time Smith owes Jones one hundred dollars. Because you +owe Smith, he may give Jones an order to collect the money +from you. With this order Jones may pay his lawyer, let +us say. Perhaps the lawyer has bought a bill of goods from +you. He pays you with the same order. You destroy the +"note," and thus four actual transactions have been taken +care of without the use of any money. The business institution +which deals especially with credits is the bank.</p> + +<div class='center'><b>Banks</b></div> + +<p>A bank which fulfills every banking function must have +these three departments: (1) the commercial department, +(2) the savings department, (3) the trust department. Some +institutions specialize in one department more than in either<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334]</a></span> +of the others, and thus, taking the name from their principal +function, banks are known as follows: (i) commercial +banks or banks of deposit, (2) savings banks, (3) trust +companies.</p> + +<div class='center'><b>Banks of Deposit</b></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 337px;"> +<img src="images/gs340.png" width="337" height="400" alt="Deposit slip" title="" /> +</div> + +<p>Banks of deposit or commercial banks are business men's +banks. Their two principal functions are (1) receiving money +for safe-keeping on deposit, and (2) loaning money to business +men at interest. The deposit function is based on +confidence and credit. The business man takes his money to +the bank not only because it is convenient for him to do so, +but also because he +has confidence that +the money will be +more carefully protected +than if he kept it +in his own possession. +In depositing his +money in the bank, +the business man uses +a <i>deposit slip</i> such as +the one illustrated +here. The teller puts +down the amount in +the <i>bank book</i> of the +depositor, who is credited +with that amount +on the bank's books. He is entitled to draw just that much +actual cash or that much credit in the form of <i>checks</i>. (See +<a href="#Page_339">page 339</a>.) Most firms do not deposit a sum of money and +then promptly draw it out again in the form of checks to +pay current liabilities, but maintain a fairly steady balance +in the bank. On large average monthly balances most +banks allow interest, varying from one per cent on balances<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[335]</a></span> +of one thousand dollars to three per cent on balances of +ten thousand dollars or more.</p> + +<div class='center'><b>Discount</b></div> + +<p>Because a large bank has many depositors, the aggregate +of all the balances makes a considerable sum of money. +Bankers have learned by experience just what proportion +of their deposits they can depend on to remain steadily on +deposit as a balance, and thus they know what proportion +of their deposits it is safe to use for the purpose of <i>discount</i>. +The simplest case of the discount function is the discount +of a promissory note. In the note shown in the illustration +after ninety days John H. Blodgett will receive from Lucius +Thomas five hundred dollars with interest. But perhaps +Blodgett cannot wait ninety days for his money. In this +case, he takes the note to his banker, who will pay him the +five hundred dollars less a certain percentage or discount, +which is the bank's profit on the transaction. The bank +then collects the note when it becomes due.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/gs341.png" width="600" height="249" alt="Promissory Note" title="" /> +<span class='caption'><span class='smcap'>Promissary Note</span></span></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Collateral</b></div> +<p>Instead of cashing a note held by one of its customers, the +bank may itself loan money at interest for a short period +of thirty, sixty, or ninety days, taking the note of the business<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[336]</a></span> +man to whom the money is loaned. In most cases, +however, unless the bank knows the business man well, a certain +amount of <i>collateral</i> is demanded as an assurance that +the borrower will pay the loan when it becomes due. The +amount of collateral deposited with the bank is usually 10% +to 25% in excess of the amount loaned, and it may take the +form of stocks or bonds; mortgages on real estate; liens on +stock, fixtures, or personal property; or warehouse receipts. +When the amount borrowed is paid, the collateral is returned; +if it is not paid within a reasonable time, the collateral +is sold, and the amount loaned, with interest to date, +is taken from the proceeds.</p> + +<p>There are, of course, other functions of banks of deposit +practised quite generally by all banks, and these will be explained +later. The functions just described, however, distinguish +banks of deposit in a general way from the other +two classes.</p> + +<div class='center'><b>Savings Banks</b></div> + +<p>A savings bank accepts from its depositors small amounts +of money which are not subject to withdrawal by check, but +on which it pays a low rate of interest. As a general rule, +an account may be opened with one dollar; and when the +initial deposit is made, the depositor is furnished with a pass +book, similar to the bank book, in which further deposits, +interest credits, and withdrawals are recorded. Interest is +compounded every four or six months, and money must, as +a general rule, remain on deposit until an interest payment +date before the depositor receives any interest on it. The +usual rate of interest is three per cent, although four is often +paid. Frequently, before banks allow deposits to be withdrawn, +they demand a certain number of days' notice, +usually thirty. It is well to investigate the conditions under +which the depositor places his money in the safe-keeping of +the bank, because the withdrawal requirements are often<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337]</a></span> +stringent. Because of the stability of this class of deposit, +banks are always anxious to increase their savings accounts, +as a large proportion of the funds may be used for loans.</p> + +<p>A form of the savings bank established in the United States +in 1911 is the postal savings bank, in which the post-office +is made the depository for savings. The post-office in the +town deposits its funds in the local national or state bank, +which, as security for safe-keeping, must deposit with the +Treasurer of the United States bonds at least equal in value +to the amount of savings deposited in the bank. Postal +savings banks are practically absolutely safe, because, if the +bank which takes care of the funds should fail, the bonds +may be sold, so that the savers will receive their money. +From deposits made in the postal savings bank, the return +to the depositor is only two per cent, whereas the return +from deposits made in the bank's own savings department is +three, three and a half, and sometimes four per cent.</p> + +<div class='center'><b>Trust Companies</b><br /> + +<i>The Richards' Baby Stocking Fund</i></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A miner named Richards was killed in an accident in an Alaska +mine. Among his possessions were found a number of letters and +a baby stocking containing a little gold dust. The letters told +that Richards had a little six-year-old daughter, who was now left +destitute. The rough miners made up a fund of $2,500 in gold +dust, depositing it with the United States Commissioner of the +Territory of Alaska, to be held by him until the proper disposition +of it could be made. A <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'committe'">committee</ins> was appointed, who agreed that +one hundred dollars a year for ten years should be used to give +the child a common school education, and then five hundred dollars +each year to give her a college education. A legal guardian +was appointed, and the Kansas City Trust Company asked to act +as co-guardian to invest the money and make the required remittances. +The funds were first deposited by the commissioner in a +bank in Portland, which sent them to the Kansas City Trust Company. +Correspondence was of course carried on at the same time, +the Kansas City Trust Company agreeing to accept the trust without<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[338]</a></span> +remuneration. They have invested the money in five per cent +bonds, thus increasing the fund yearly.</p></div> + +<p>This is called a <i>trust</i> because the money is entrusted for +safe-keeping and investment to the bank, which is called the +<i>trustee</i>. A bank may also become the trustee for property +left at the death of a person, both when there is a will and +when there is none. When there is no will and the bank takes +charge of the affairs of the deceased, the bank is called the +<i>administrator;</i> when there is a will, the <i>executor</i>. Another +important function of the trust company is acting as <i>receiver</i> +for a company which has failed; that is, adjusting the company's +affairs in the way fairest both to the stockholders +and to the company's creditors. The trust company often +acts, also, as <i>agent</i> for its clients' property, performing the +same duties as a real estate agent.</p> + +<div class='center'><b>Form of Remittance</b></div> + +<p>Banks as a class are distinguished one from the other +according as they specialize in one or more of the functions +described above. However, there are certain services that +all banks perform and certain facilities that they all offer +in connection with the payment of money from one person +to another. These concern the forms of remittance.</p> + +<p>If you have studied business arithmetic or bookkeeping, +you very likely know the definite forms that are used. At +all events, you know that currency should never go through +the mails. The following is a brief review of the more +important forms that may be used. Study the illustrations +carefully, noticing particularly the similarity of form in all. +Uniformity in such matters is desirable because it saves +time as well as misunderstandings. The forms we shall +consider are:</p> + +<div class='blockquot2'> +1. The check<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>a.</i> Personal</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>b.</i> Certified</span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[339]</a></span>2. The money order<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>a.</i> Express</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>b.</i> Postal</span><br /> +3. The bank draft<br /> +4. The time draft<br /> +5. The sight draft<br /> +</div> + +<p><i>Check.</i>—A check is a written order on a bank, signed by +a depositor, directing the bank to pay a certain person a +certain sum of money. When the bank pays the order, it +deducts the amount from the depositor's account. The +one who signs the check is called the <i>drawer</i> or maker; the +person to whom or to whose order a check is made payable +is called the <i>payee;</i> the bank on which a check is drawn is +called the <i>drawee</i>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/gs345.png" width="600" height="234" alt="Check and Stub" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Check and Stub</span> +</div> + +<p>Of course, before you could write a check for one hundred +dollars, you must have deposited at least one hundred dollars +in the bank on which the check is drawn. The bank supplies +you with a check book, consisting of blank checks, each +attached to a stub. When you write a check, you put the +same information on the stub to be kept for reference. Then +you tear off the check through the perforated line, using +it to pay for whatever you may have purchased.</p> + +<p><i>Certified Check.</i>—Suppose, however, that you are writing +this check to pay a debt to a stranger who lives in another<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340]</a></span> +city. He may hesitate to accept it as money. That he may +have no cause to doubt your ability to pay the check, you +take it to your bank to have the cashier investigate your +account. If he finds that you have sufficient funds, he +writes or stamps <i>Accepted</i> or <i>Certified</i> on the check and signs +his name. At the same time the amount of the check is +deducted from your account. Such a check is accepted +without question when the holder is properly identified.</p> + +<p><i>Endorsement.</i>—If A gives you his check for twenty-five +dollars, you could not receive the money until you had endorsed +the check; that is, put your name on the back, +which is, in effect, giving a receipt for the money. You +may do this in various ways. You may endorse:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. In blank; that is, merely write your name across the back.</p> + +<p>2. In full, by saying, "Pay to the order of ——" and signing +your name.</p> + +<p>3. By restricting the payment to a particular person; as, +"Pay to ——" This check cannot now be cashed by anyone +except the one named in the endorsement.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/gs346.png" width="600" height="282" alt="Express Money Order" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Express Money Order</span> +</div> + +<p><i>Express Money Order.</i>—An express money order is much +like a check, except that it is drawn on an express company +instead of on a bank and reads, for example: Continental +Express Company agrees to transmit and pay to the order<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[341]</a></span> +of —— (the one to whom you are sending the money) —— (the +amount). The order is signed by the treasurer of the company +and countersigned by the agent who sells it. You can +buy such an order at any express office. It may be endorsed +like a check.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/gs347.png" width="600" height="214" alt="Postal Money Order" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Postal Money Order</span> +</div> + +<p><i>Postal Money Order.</i>—The other form of money order, +the postal, is an agreement signed by the postmaster of one +city that the postmaster of another city will pay the amount +of money named in the order to the person named in the +order.</p> + +<p><i>Bank Draft.</i>—A bank draft is very much like a check, +except that instead of two individuals dealing with each +other two banks conduct the transaction, their places of business +being in different cities or villages. A bank draft is +sometimes called a bank check, because in the case of both +a draft and a check one party draws upon another with whom +the first has funds deposited. As a general rule, banks and +business houses require that remittances be sent to them +by drafts drawn on New York or Chicago banks, as there is +a charge called <i>exchange</i> made in the collection of checks +drawn on local banks.</p> + +<p>In the draft that follows, the State Bank of Utah, of which +Henry T. McEwan is Assistant Cashier, makes out the +draft. The bank which is ordered to pay the money is the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[342]</a></span> +National Park Bank of New York. The money is to be paid +to Henry L. Fowler. The State Bank of Utah is called the +drawer; the National Park Bank of New York, on whom the +draft is drawn, is the drawee; Henry L. Fowler is the payee.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/gs348a.png" width="600" height="288" alt="Bank Draft" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Bank Draft</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;"><span class="caption">Endorsement</span> +<img src="images/gs348b.png" width="400" height="234" alt="Endorsement" title="" /> + +</div> + +<p>The payment indicated above +was probably made without actually +sending the money from +Salt Lake City to New York. +It was done in this way:</p> + +<p>Henry L. Fowler of Salt +Lake City owes one hundred +dollars to a man living in +an Eastern city, let us say Charles Emery of Rochester, +N. Y. Mr. Fowler goes to the State Bank of Utah in +Salt Lake City and "buys a draft on New York," +made payable to himself. The bank makes out the above, +charging Mr. Fowler one hundred dollars plus a fraction +of one per cent for its trouble. Mr. Fowler endorses it +in full to Mr. Emery of Rochester and sends the draft to the +latter. He has the draft made payable to himself so that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[343]</a></span> +endorsement will constitute a full record of the transaction. +Mr. Emery takes the draft to his own bank in Rochester, +endorses it in blank, and receives the one hundred dollars. +Thus Mr. Fowler has paid out the money and Mr. Emery +has received it.</p> + +<p>The way the banks conduct the transaction is as follows: +There are certain big money centers in the country; e.g., +New York, Chicago, St. Louis, San Francisco. Important +banks in other places have money on deposit in at least one +bank in each of these centers. The banks which thus deal +with one another are called <i>correspondents</i>. The National +Park Bank is the correspondent of the State Bank of Utah. +When Mr. Emery cashes the draft at his Rochester bank, the +latter sends it to its New York correspondent, and at the +same time charges the correspondent one hundred dollars. +The correspondent presents the draft to the National Park +Bank, which pays the money and charges the same amount +to the State Bank of Utah. Explain how this settles the +transaction.</p> + +<p><i>Time Draft.</i>—A time draft is much like a bank draft, in +that two banks conduct the principal part of the transaction +for two individuals, but no money is actually paid at +the time the draft is drawn. The details of a transaction of +this kind are explained on the following page.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/gs349.png" width="600" height="223" alt="Time Draft" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Time Draft</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[344]</a></span></p> + +<p>Horace Prang of 1008 Elm Street, Columbus, Ohio, owes +Loetzer & Co. five hundred dollars, due August 27, 1915. +Loetzer & Co. make out the draft above and deposit it in +the Bank of Buffalo. The latter sends the draft to its correspondent +in Columbus, which presents the draft to Horace +Prang. If he is willing to pay the note when it falls due, he +writes across the face of it, "<i>Accepted</i>" adds the date, and +signs his name. It is now returned to the Bank of Buffalo. +The Bank of Buffalo will then discount the draft for Loetzer +& Co.</p> + +<p><i>Sight Draft.</i>—A sight draft is much like a time draft, +except that the amount is paid by the person on whom it is +drawn as soon as it is presented, instead of after a stipulated +length of time.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/gs350.png" width="600" height="236" alt="Sight Draft" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Sight Draft</span> +</div> + +<p>Suppose the Empire Elevator Co. of Buffalo has sold $420 +worth of grain to the Smith Milling Co. of Springfield, Mass. +When the grain is loaded on the cars, the railroad company +gives the Empire Elevator Co. a bill of lading. Now, the +Smith Milling Co. must possess this bill of lading before it +can take the grain from the cars at Springfield. The Empire +Elevator Co. deposits the bill of lading with the above draft +in the Marine National Bank of Buffalo. This bank sends +both to its correspondent in Springfield. The Springfield bank +presents the draft to the Smith Milling Co., who may take<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[345]</a></span> +the grain from the cars on payment of the draft. In case +of non-payment, both draft and bill of lading are returned +to the Marine National Bank of Buffalo, and the Empire +Elevator Co. must make arrangements for the return or the +disposal of the grain.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_301" id="Exercise_301"></a>Exercise 301</b></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. F. R. Thompson, sales manager of the New York Trust +and Savings Bank, sends a circular letter to a number of banks, +saying that he is enclosing a booklet that describes a number of +bonds suitable for the security of postal savings deposits, the +legality of which has been carefully investigated. In his letter +he mentions especially Omaha, Nebraska, School 4½% bonds, +price to net 4.40%; Seattle, Washington, Harbor 5% bonds, price +to net 4½%; and Hoquiam, Washington, Bridge 5½% bonds, price +to net 5%. Reproduce the letter, addressing it to W. W. Fallows, +Cashier of the Mercantile National Bank of Pueblo, Colorado.</p> + +<p>2. Mr. Fallows answers, saying that his knowledge of the +postal savings law is vague and that he would be glad if Mr. +Thompson would give him definite information on the subject.</p> + +<p>3. Mr. Thompson replies that he is enclosing a copy of the +postal savings law. He assures Mr. Fallows that he can serve the +latter both in buying the proper securities and in depositing them +with the Treasurer of the United States. Application for such +deposits must be made by the bank itself. Mr. Thompson will +gladly inform him if Mr. Fallows does not know the steps to +be taken or the report to be submitted.</p> + +<p>4. Punctuate, using a letterhead:</p> + +<p>Mercantile Trust Company New York City Dec 2 19— manager +the bank of Scotland 3c bishop E C London England dear sir we +are sending you herewith advice of the issuance of our circular +letter of credit No. 262 in favor of Miss Helen Jackson for 300 +pounds sterling Miss Jackson is at present in Paris France and the +letter of credit has been forwarded to Messrs Thomas Cooke and +Son 1 Place de l'Opera Paris we have requested Messrs Thomas +Cooke and Son to forward to you two specimens of Miss Jacksons +signature which we have signed and forwarded to Messrs Thomas +Cooke and Son for that purpose so that you may have these +signatures before any drafts against the letter of credit are presented +to you yours very truly James R Hudson treasurer.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[346]</a></span></p> + +<p>What is a letter of credit? How did Miss Jackson get it?</p> + +<p>The Bank of Scotland is the correspondent of the Mercantile +Trust Company. Explain.</p> + +<p>Why should the New York bank forward Miss Jackson's signature?</p> + +<p>5. Write the letter that the Mercantile Trust Company sends +to Messrs. Thomas Cooke and Son.</p> + +<p>6. Write the letter that Messrs. Thomas Cooke and Son send +to the Bank of Scotland.</p> + +<p>7. W. T. Randall, cashier of the Milwaukee Trust and Savings +Bank, Milwaukee, Wis., writes a letter, the purpose of which is to +secure savings accounts. A club of 500 members is to be formed. +Each member is to buy a share by paying one dollar and to pay +one dollar per week per share, the amount to draw interest at 3%. +After forty-eight weeks he gets credit for fifty dollars per share, +thus securing over 5% interest on his money. Make the offer +attractive.</p> + +<p>8. Some time ago a bank in your city discounted a note held +by George Carpenter, signed by Martin Kugerman. The note +falls due in ten days. As cashier write to Mr. Kugerman, telling +him that you hold the note and that you hope he will be able to +remit on the day of maturity.</p> + +<p>9. Your bank loaned Clarence Wentworth $500 for ninety +days, taking as security $700 worth of collateral. The note falls +due in a week. Write to Mr. Wentworth, reminding him that +the note falls due and asking him whether he wishes to pay it off +or whether he wishes it extended.</p> + +<p>10. John Elsworth, who has an account with you, writes, saying +that by registered mail he is sending you certificates of 20 shares +Union Pacific common stock, 50 shares National Biscuit Co. preferred +stock, 5 (bonds) American Telephone and Telegraph convertible +4½'s, 3 (bonds) New York and East River Gas Co. first +mortgage 5's. He asks you to take care of them and collect +dividends and interest when they are due, crediting them to his +account.</p> + +<p>11. Your correspondent, the First National Bank of Janesville, +Wis., writes, asking you to forward by registered mail $5,000 in +currency.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 302</b></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Mr. Henry Carroll of Wausau, Wis., writes to Mr. Randall +(<a href="#Exercise_301">Exercise 301</a>, 7), asking him to buy 10 shares of C. & N. W. R. R.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[347]</a></span> +preferred stock at 134 or better. When they are bought, he adds, +they can be sent through any bank in Wausau.</p> + +<p>2. Mr. Randall replies by sending the 10 shares of stock to the +bank's correspondent in Wausau, the First National Bank, telling +the latter to deliver them to Mr. Henry Carroll on payment of +the enclosed draft for $1340 with exchange. Write the letter.</p> + +<p>3. A dressmaker in South Bend, Ind., has applied to Marshall +Field & Co., Retail, State and Washington Streets, Chicago, for +a charge account. The department store makes inquiries concerning +her at her bank, the Commercial and Savings Bank of +South Bend. Write the letter.</p> + +<p>4. The bank replies that she has maintained a small but +steady balance, that she has never overdrawn her account, and +that in their opinion her credit would be good up to $100 monthly. +Write the letter.</p> + +<p>5. Theodore Buchanan of St. Louis sends Philip Newborg of +your city a check for $100 with which he pays a debt to Charles +Springer of Minneapolis. Springer endorses it and deposits it +in the Security National Bank. The check is returned marked +N.S.F., and the Security National Bank notifies Springer of +the situation and of the fact that his account has been charged +with $104, the amount of the draft plus expenses.</p> + +<p>6. One of the depositors of the Milwaukee Trust and Savings +Bank brings to the Cashier a note which is about due, and +asks the bank to collect it. The maker of the note is William T. +Adams of Seattle. The Cashier writes to the bank's correspondent +in Seattle, the Scandinavian American Bank, asking the +latter to collect. Write the letter. (See <a href="#Exercise_301">Exercise 301</a>, 7.)</p> + +<p>7. The Scandinavian American bank writes to William T. +Adams, telling him that it holds a note signed by him, due ——, +and asking him to make prompt payment. Write the letter.</p> + +<p>8. Mr. Adams pays the note. The Seattle Bank notifies the +Milwaukee Bank, enclosing a draft for the amount. Write the +letter.</p> + +<p>9. See <a href="#Exercise_301">Exercise 301</a>, 10. As John Elsworth's banker send the +coupons for the American Telephone and Telegraph bonds to +your correspondent in New York, the National City Bank, +because the interest is payable in New York. Ask the bank to +make the collection. Write the letter.</p> + +<p>10. The National City Bank makes the collection and informs +you by means of a printed form that it has credited you with the +amount, $112.50. The form is just like a letter except that it is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[348]</a></span> +already printed with blanks left for the name and the address +and for itemizing the coupons collected. Write such a form.</p> + +<p>11. One of your depositors has overdrawn his account. Notify +him of the fact. Do this courteously so that the depositor may +have no reason to withdraw his account.</p> + +<p>12. In your city there is a real estate dealer who often has +large sums of money idle for a short time because, when he sells +one piece of property, he does not always have another immediately +in view. He is not a depositor in your bank. Write to +him, inducing him to take out a Certificate of Deposit at such +times and telling him that the advantages of such a certificate are +that he will get 3% interest on the money deposited and that he +may draw out the money at any time.</p> + +<p>13. One of your depositors has written to you, asking for a +loan of $5,000 for nine months. Write to him, saying that it is +not your practice to make time loans for definite periods longer +than six months, as it is not a good plan thus to tie up your deposits. +Explain that as most of a bank's deposits are payable on demand, +you would suggest his taking out a demand loan for $5,000, payable +on the demand of the bank. Under ordinary business conditions +such a loan might easily run for nine months.</p> + +<p>14. R. F. Marsden, President of the Truesdale Cotton Mill, +Birmingham, Ala., has written to you, asking whether he can +secure a loan next fall on the cotton in the mill as collateral. +Reply that you feel certain that satisfactory arrangements could +be made if the cotton were stored in an accredited warehouse, so +that you could accept the warehouse receipt as collateral.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 303</b></div> + +<p>Punctuate and paragraph the following letter, which explains +one function of a trust company:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Dear sir as you are one of our clients you are familiar with the +reputation of this bank for sound banking and conservative +investments you may not however be aware that we have a fully +equipped trust department prepared to act in any of the numerous +capacities in which the services of trust companies have proved of +special value at this time we wish to call your particular attention +to the service which this department is prepared to render as +trustee under agreement it is natural that one who has accumulated +property should desire to superintend or direct its disposition +formerly this was done by will now however as the complex laws<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[349]</a></span> +of the various states frequently necessitate the payment of double +or triple inheritance taxes it is becoming a more and more common +practice for a man during his lifetime to administer his own estate +so to speak this may be accomplished through the establishment +of a trust with respect to either a part or all of one's property it +can be accomplished not only with absolute safety to the donor +but with entire secrecy as well the terms of the trust being regarded +as absolutely confidential furthermore the donor has the satisfaction +of disposing of his property during his lifetime in accordance +with his desires the life of a trust company unlike that of any +individual is of perpetual duration death does not interfere with +its management of the trust estate its financial responsibility and +the safeguards thrown around trust estates by the state laws +insure the safety of a trust fund if you are interested in this subject +let us discuss it with you either in person or by correspondence +when this bank is named in a trust capacity no charge is made +for service or advice in connection with the drafting of the trust +instruments yours truly</p></div> + +<p>Before writing the following, re-read The Richards' Baby +Stocking Fund, <a href="#Page_337">page 337</a>.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Suppose that you were a newspaper correspondent in Alaska +at the time Richards was killed. For your home paper write an +account of the finding of the baby stocking. In what ways would +this account differ from a magazine article on the same subject?</p> + +<p>2. As if you were the United States Commissioner of the Territory +of Alaska, write to a Portland bank saying that you are +sending the $2,500 to them, and asking them to put the funds in +the care of a reliable trust company.</p> + +<p>3. The Portland bank writes to the Kansas City Trust Company, +asking if the latter will accept the trust. Write the letter.</p> + +<p>4. The Kansas City Trust Company replies that it will accept +the trust without remuneration. Write the letter.</p> + +<p>5. The Portland bank informs the United States Commissioner +of the Territory of Alaska of the disposition of the funds. Write +the letter.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 304</b><br /><br /> + +<b>Topics for Investigation and Discussion</b></div> + +<div class='blockquot2'><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1. The panic of 1907 and some of its lessons.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">2. Future banking reform.</span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[350]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3. Government supervision of banks.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4. Unscrupulous banking companies.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5. Clearing house certificates.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6. Postal savings banks.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">7. The work of the clearing house.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8. The need of banks in a community.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">9. The development of real estate firms into banks.</span><br /> +10. The Owen Glass Currency Bill.<br /> +</div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 305</b><br /><br /> + +<b>Books that will Suggest Topics for Talks</b></div> + +<div class='blockquot'><br /> +<span class="smcap">Crocker, U. H.</span>, The Cause of Hard Times.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Fonda, Arthur J.</span>, Honest Money.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Gibbs, H. C.</span>, A Bimetallic Primer.<br /> +<span class="smcap">McAdams, Graham</span>, An Alphabet in Finance.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Newcomb, Simon</span>, The A B C of Finance.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Norton, S. F.</span>, Ten Men of Money Island, or The Primer of Finance.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Reeves, John</span>, The Rothschilds: The Financial Rulers of Nations.<br /> +<span class="smcap">White, Horace</span>, Money and Banking.<br /> +</div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 306</b></div> + +<p>Write the following from dictation:</p> + +<div class='center'>1<br /> + +<span class="smcap">The Daily Routine of the Clearing House</span></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Each bank sends two clerks to the Clearing House: a delivering +clerk and a settling clerk. There are three rows of seats running +through the clearing room lengthwise, one in the center and +one on each side parallel with it. The settling clerks occupy these +seats and each one has a sufficient amount of desk room in front +of him to do his work on, his space being separated from his neighbors' +by a wire screen. The delivery clerks, with their packages +of checks in separate envelopes, stand in the open space in front +of the settling clerks. At two minutes before 10 o'clock the manager, +whose station is an elevated open space at the extreme end +of the room, strikes a bell.</p> + +<p>The movement has all the precision of a military drill. When +the second bell sounds, at exactly 10 o'clock, each delivery clerk +takes one step forward, hands the proper package to the settling +clerk of the bank next to him, drops the accompanying ticket +showing the amount into an aperture like a letter box, and places<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[351]</a></span> +before the settling clerk his schedule, on which the latter places +his initials. Thus the procession moves uninterruptedly until +each delivery clerk has presented to each settling clerk the proper +package and ticket. Usually this part of the operation is completed +in ten minutes. Meanwhile the proof clerk, who occupies +a desk near the manager, has entered the claims of each bank +under the head "Bank Cr." on a broad sheet of paper.</p> + +<p>Inasmuch as the amount of each bank's claim against the +Clearing House (entered under the head "Banks Cr.") is the sum +of all the tickets which its delivery clerk has pushed into the +letter boxes of the other banks, it follows that all the tickets of +all the banks should equal all the entries under that head. The +next step in the operation is for each settling clerk to arrange the +amounts of all the tickets in his letter box in a column, add it +up, and send the amount to the proof clerk, who transcribes and +arranges it according to the bank's number under the head +"Banks Dr.," so that the debit of Bank A shall be on the same +line with its credit.</p> + +<p>Then the difference between the two will show how much the +bank owes the Clearing House or how much the Clearing House +owes the bank. The time occupied by the settling clerks in +arranging their tickets and adding up the columns is about half +an hour. As fast as these footings are completed, they are sent +to the proof clerk, who puts them in the debit column opposite +the credits of the banks, respectively. When all are completed, +if no error has been made, the footings of the credit and debit +columns must be exactly equal and the footings of the two other +columns, which show the differences, must be exactly equal. +Then these differences are read off slowly and in a distinct tone by +the manager, so that each settling clerk can write down the sum +that his bank has to pay or to receive. As time is money at the +Clearing House, a fine is exacted for every error and every delay +in making footings, for every disobedience of the orders of the +manager, or for every instance of disorderly conduct.—Horace +White: <i>Money and Banking</i>.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />2</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The Treasury, in connection with its money washing, has asked +national banks to exercise more care in sending in money for +redemption. Banks frequently put into the same bundle, good +notes, bad notes, and notes of different denominations. When +they are mixed in this way, it requires a good deal of work to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[352]</a></span> +separate the money. The Treasury thinks that the banks could +do this work, so that, when the money reaches Washington, it could +easily be separated by packages instead of each package having +to be separated first. The Assistant Secretary says he believes +that, when he gets the subject worked out in detail, new washed +money will be returned to the bank in any denomination desired +on the same day that it is received; that money unfit for laundering +will be destroyed and new money issued. This expeditious +handling of money sent in for redemption cannot, however, be +attained, he admits, without the co-operation of the banks. In +a short time, he believes, all banks will see that it is to their +benefit to do this.</p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[353]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XXI</h2> + +<div class='chaptertitle'>THE CORPORATION</div> + + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> study that we have thus far made of the various +kinds of businesses would be incomplete did we not briefly +outline the different types of organization by which modern +business is conducted. This will <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'natually'">naturally</ins> lead us to a discussion +of stocks and bonds, which are of great importance +in every big business and of interest to individuals as means +of investment. However, as the subjects are probably outside +the experience of most students, we shall treat them +as simply as possible, letting the chapter stand rather for +the information it contains than for its application to the +study of English expression.</p> + +<p>Business to-day is carried on in three different ways; +viz., by individuals, by partnerships, and by corporations. +The grocer, the butcher, the baker, or any one man who +carries on a business is an example of the first. If, however, +the grocer and the butcher, or the grocer and the baker, +combine their businesses for the good of both, they form +a partnership. When the amount of capital necessary for +carrying on the business becomes so large that the money +of many people is needed, a <i>corporation</i> is formed. The +amount of money which any one individual invests in the +company is represented by a certain number of shares of the +<i>capital stock</i> of the company, entitling him to his portion +of the dividends, or interest on the money he has invested. +These shares of the capital stock are transferable and can +be bought and sold like an automobile or a house. Since +there is no time limit as to how long a corporation may do +business, a change in the ownership of part of the stock, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[354]</a></span> +the death of a stockholder, is not accompanied by the same +result as in a partnership, where the death of one of the +partners sometimes breaks up the business. Furthermore, in +a partnership each one of the partners is personally liable for +any debts made by any of the partners in behalf of the business, +whereas the personal possessions of a stockholder in a +corporation cannot be held as security for any debts incurred +by the corporation. These are two of the more important +advantages of corporate organization over partnership.</p> + + +<div class='center'><b>The Finances of a Corporation</b></div> + +<p>It has been estimated that if one were to count money, +dollar by dollar, one dollar every second for eight hours six +days a week, it would take him six weeks to count one million +dollars, and over one hundred years to count a billion +dollars. This may help us to appreciate the sums of money +spoken of in the following: In 1914 the market value of +the Commonwealth Edison Company of Chicago was over +$83,000,000. The valuation placed on the properties of the +Chicago Railways Company in 1914 exceeded $79,000,000. +The Union Pacific Railroad Company had invested in its +properties in 1914 approximately $500,000,000. The capital +obligations of the United States Steel Corporation in 1914 +were over $1,500,000,000. There are hundreds of such organizations +in our country, the investments in which run to +and beyond $50,000,000 each. It must be plain that, except +in a very few cases, these vast amounts of money do not +represent the investment of one, or of a few, but of many +persons. In uniting their capital, these persons decrease the +cost of making or distributing the product and so increase +their profits.</p> + + +<div class='center'><b>Stocks</b></div> + +<p>When a large company of this kind is organized, a certain +amount of money is agreed upon to be the capital of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[355]</a></span> +company, and it is divided into small portions, ordinarily +$100 each, called <i>shares</i>. The total of the shares is called +the <i>authorized capital stock</i>. These shares are sold, the purchasers +of the shares being called <i>shareholders</i>, or <i>stockholders,</i> +of the company. The number of shares a person holds determines +what part of the profits he is entitled to. For +example, if a company is organized for 1000 shares of $100 +each, or a capital stock of $100,000, and you owned 100 +shares, you would be entitled to one-tenth of the divided +profits of the company. Such profits of the company, +divided proportionately among the stockholders, constitute +the <i>dividends</i>.</p> + +<p>Often the capital stock is of two kinds, <i>preferred</i> and +<i>common</i>, as in the case of the Union Pacific R. R., which has +$200,000,000 of authorized preferred stock and $296,178,700 +of authorized common stock. As the names signify, preferred +stock is ordinarily better than common stock, the dividends +on preferred stock being paid before any dividends are paid on +common stock and usually at a stated rate of interest; as, 4, +5, or 6 per cent. In the case of the Union Pacific, this rate is +4 per cent. If the company earns only enough profits to pay +the dividends on the preferred stock, the common gets no +dividends. On the other hand, if the profits are enormous, +the common occasionally gets more than the preferred.</p> + + +<div class='center'><b>Par and Market Value</b></div> + +<p>The <i>par value</i> of a stock is the face value of one share of +stock, indicated on the face of the certificate. This may be +$10 or $50 or $100, whatever the amount agreed upon for one +share when the company is organized. The amount most +commonly used as par is $100. The <i>market value</i> of the +stock, however, need not be this amount, but may be greater +or less, dependent on how successful the company is and +what rate of dividends it pays. If a company's standing +is very good and the dividends are high (over 6 per cent),<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[356]</a></span> +the stock will probably sell on the market above par. If +the company's finances are in a doubtful condition and there +are evidences that the company will pay small dividends, +if any at all, the market price of the stock will fall below +par. For example, in January, 1914, Union Pacific R. R. +common stock sold for about $158 per share, because the +finances of the company were in good condition and the company +had paid 10 per cent dividends steadily each year since +July 1, 1907. If, however, any occasion should arise to make +the public doubt the payment of future dividends at the same +rate, the stock would probably decline. To go to the other +extreme, in the same month Wabash R. R. common stock +sold as low as $8½ per share, although the par is $100. This +was because for some years the company had paid no dividends +and was then in the hands of receivers. To take a +middle case in the same month and year, Erie R. R. first +preferred stock sold at about $45 per share, notwithstanding +the fact that since 1907 no dividends had been paid. The +reason for this seemingly high price was that the company +had for some time been reconstructing its property, had +gradually increased its business, had earned a $9,000,000 +surplus in 1913, and had a good outlook to a dividend in +the near future.</p> + +<p>These are not the only influences that affect the price of +stocks. The old factor of supply and demand has a great +influence on price. If, for example, a financier decides to +buy a large "block" of some stock, the market will almost +immediately be affected, and that stock will go up. One +example will suffice. In 1901 E. H. Harriman set out to +buy $155,000,000 worth of Northern Pacific stock in the +open market to gain control of the Northern Pacific railroad. +Of course, the market felt the demand, and the price of +the stock rose from a little above par until it touched $1,000 +a share before it started back to normal. When Mr. Harriman +unloaded that same stock in 1906, because he failed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[357]</a></span> +to gain control, the market went down so considerably that +he lost $10,000,000 and almost caused a panic.</p> + +<p>Often the stocks of a company sell below par because +the stock is watered; that is, the company has issued more +stock than there is value invested in the property. Many +of our railroads, for example, were built on borrowed money—that +is, from the proceeds of the sale of bonds—and, to +make the bonds sell more readily, stocks were given away +with them. This, of course, increased the capitalization +greatly without increasing the value. The temptation +in forming new companies, especially in mining schemes +and wildcat ventures, is to water the stock heavily by voting +a large block of stock gratis to the organizers. Before one +invests in any of these companies, he should thoroughly +investigate them. Sometimes companies water their stocks +when their dividends have become very large and they wish +to bring the rate down to that commonly paid. The Wells +Fargo Express Company did this in 1910, presenting their +stockholders with $16,000,000 worth of new stock without +any new investment in the property.</p> + + +<div class='center'><b>Bonds</b></div> + +<p>Suppose that A owns a house with a store in it, and in +the store he carries on a grocery business. Suppose that by +enlarging his store and putting in a bigger stock of goods he +can make more money. The improvements will cost $1,000, +but he hasn't the money. He goes to B to ask B to lend +him $1,000 for five years, offering B the house as security. +B gives A the $1,000 and in return gets a certain amount of +interest each year and A's mortgage note against the property. +This means that, if at the end of five years A cannot pay +the $1,000, B has the right to sell A's house and collect the +money due him.</p> + +<p>When a corporation borrows money to extend its properties, +plants, or rights, the transaction is really the same,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[358]</a></span> +although the form is somewhat different. Just as all the +capital stock of a corporation is divided into shares owned +by a number of people, so, when the corporation borrows +money, the amount borrowed is divided into smaller parts of +$500 or $1,000 each, called <i>bonds</i>, which the corporation sells +through its bankers to people who have idle money to invest. +Twice each year, as stated in the bond, the corporation +pays interest on the borrowed money at the rate, probably, +of 4, 4½, 5, or 6 per cent. After a definite number of years, +as stated in the bond, the corporation is obliged to pay back +the amount of money that it borrowed. This is called <i>redeeming</i> +the bonds. To show that it intends to pay back +the amount borrowed at the end of the time stated, or redeem +the bonds when they become due, the corporation +puts a mortgage on its real estate, buildings, machinery, and +equipment. When the bonds become due—or <i>mature</i>, as it +is called—if the corporation does not pay back the amount +borrowed, the holders of the bonds may take possession of +the company's real estate, buildings, machinery, and equipment +on which the company has placed the mortgage and +may sell them to recover the money they have loaned. +Thus, while the stockholders of a corporation have no assurance +that they will ever get their money back or will ever +get any interest on it, the holders of carefully selected bonds +are reasonably sure of getting a certain amount of interest +each year and of getting their money back when the bonds +mature. Shares of stock represent the investment made by +the stockholders who own the company, whereas bonds represent +the investment of those who loan money to the company. +We can readily see, then, that the stockholders take +the greater risk. For this reason it is expected that stocks +should yield a higher profit than bonds, and this is usually +the case.</p> + +<p>The greater portion of the bonds that are issued by corporations +run for long periods—twenty, forty, fifty, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[359]</a></span> +even one hundred years. At times when money rates are +high, corporations that need funds are reluctant to pay a +high rate for so many years, and so they issue <i>short time +bonds</i> to run from two to five years, in the hope that at +the end of the time money rates will be lower and more +favorable to their issuing long time bonds. Many companies, +especially industrial corporations and railroads, have +issued obligations to pay, <i>notes</i> running from six months to +five years. They are not usually secured by a mortgage +on the property but are merely the company's promise to +pay, the interest and the principal taking precedence over +the dividends on the preferred and the common stocks.</p> + + +<div class='center'><b>Corporate Organization</b></div> + +<p>Before a corporation can carry on its business, it must +obtain a charter from one of the states of the United States, +whose laws it must obey. The laws of some states are more +lenient than those of others, allowing the corporations more +privileges. New Jersey is thus lenient; consequently we find +many large corporations—such as the United States Steel +Corporation, the American Sugar Refining Company, and +others—organized under the laws of New Jersey. After the +charter is granted and the stock bought by the stockholders, +the latter have a meeting, at which they elect a small number +of men to be <i>directors</i>, who, as the name signifies, conduct +the business of the company for the stockholders. They +choose a president, one or more vice-presidents, a treasurer, +a secretary, and any other officers necessary to carry on the +business under the control of the directors. The term of +office of the directors is usually so fixed that the term of a +part of them expires each year, so that each year the +stockholders have an annual meeting at which they elect +new directors or re-elect the old ones whose term has +expired.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[360]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><b>The Railroad</b></div> + +<p>Corporations divide themselves into three large groups; +viz., railroad companies, public utility corporations, and +industrial corporations. Of these, the group composed of +the largest and most powerful corporations is the railroad +group.</p> + +<p>Railroads have two general sources of income, the larger +being the revenue received from operating trains, both +freight and passenger; and the smaller being the return +from investments in other companies, from real estate, and +from the rental of lines, terminals, stations, and cars to other +railroads. To carry on the second or smaller part of its +business, the company needs an organization much like any +other business, but to conduct the first part it requires a +special organization. This divides itself into four departments, +usually with a vice-president at the head of each: +(1) the traffic department, (2) the operating department, +(3) the finance and accounting department, and (4) the +legal department.</p> + +<p>It is the duty of the traffic department to get the business +for the company and adjust all traffic claims. In +short, it does everything to increase the business and the +earnings. This department naturally divides into the +freight traffic and passenger traffic departments, with a +superintendent or manager at the head of each.</p> + +<p>After the traffic department has solicited the business for +the company, it is the duty of the operating department to +render the services required by the traffic department. The +work is done by four large divisions: (1) the engineering +or construction department, whose duty it is to build the +roads over which the company may operate; (2) the maintenance-of-way +department, whose duty it is to see that the +roadbed and rails are kept in good order and repair; (3) +the equipment department, whose duty it is to see that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[361]</a></span> +company is supplied with proper locomotives and cars and +to see that such equipment is kept in repair; and (4) the +transportation department, which has to do with the +operating of the trains.</p> + +<p>The financial policy of a railroad is usually in charge of +one of the vice-presidents, who must be a man of experience +in financial matters and who acts with the approval +of the directors. The accounting department is more important +than may appear at first sight. Railroads are +now under the supervision and regulation of the government, +and one of the rights that the government has is +to examine the books of the company at any time and to +require all companies to submit a monthly report to the +government.</p> + +<p>The legal department of a railroad is especially important +for two reasons: (1) In performing its services, the company +has business dealings with a large number of persons, and +in the adjustment of claims against the railroad, expert +legal advice is constantly necessary. (2) The railroad, as +stated above, is under the regulation and control of the +state and the national governments, and the enforcement +of this regulation makes the railroad a party to numerous +proceedings in the courts and before the Interstate Commerce +Commission. The large railroads operate in from ten +to twenty states. It can thus easily be seen that the legal +department has a great deal more to do than if the railroad +operated under but one political power.</p> + + +<div class='center'><b>Public Utility Corporations</b></div> + +<p>Public utility corporations supply services without which +the people of to-day could not very well live. They are +those supplying water, light, heat, power, telephones, local +transportation, gas, etc. They may properly be called public +necessity corporations. The nature of these businesses<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[362]</a></span> +practically gives them a monopoly in their locality; this is +the reason that they have grown so enormously during the +last thirty years. The Commonwealth Edison Company, +which supplies a large part of Chicago with light and +power, began in 1887 with a capital of $500,000 and in +1914 its capital obligations had a market value of over +$83,000,000. The American Telephone and Telegraph +Company began in 1885 with $12,000,000 of capital stock +and in 1914 had practically $340,000,000. The other public +service corporations have kept pace, according to the growth +of the locality they serve. In the depression of 1907 this +class of corporation kept steadily increasing the volume of +its business when all others went back a step. Since these +corporations are dependent on the local community for +their business, if the community grows the company must +grow, and usually faster than the community. For this +reason the stocks and bonds of these companies are usually +a good investment.</p> + +<p>It is a common practice for municipalities to demand a +share of the profits of the company, by way of a fixed +sum, a certain percentage of the gross profits, or a share +of the net profits. For example the city of Chicago receives, +from the Commonwealth Edison Company each year 3 per +cent of its gross receipts from the sale of current and 10 +per cent of its gross receipts from the rental of conduit space, +amounting in 1913 to more than $300,000, quite a considerable +sum. The Chicago Railways Company and the +Chicago City Railway Company, the two large street car +companies of Chicago, after deductions for expenses and +charges and 5 per cent on the amount invested are made +from the gross income, pay to the city 55 per cent of the +surplus earnings, keeping for themselves 45 per cent. +Whenever these companies pay part of their earnings to +the municipality, they are really under municipal supervision, +and their books and accounts are open to examination<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[363]</a></span> +by the city at any time. These companies are called +quasi-municipal corporations.</p> + + +<div class='center'><b>Industrial Corporations</b></div> + +<p>As the name indicates, industrial corporations are those +that carry on our industries. They are by far the largest +class of corporations and have among their number some +very powerful companies, whose assets run up toward the +billions. This class of corporations has not had the gradual, +steady growth of the public utility corporations, but in the +case of the most successful, the growth has been amazing. +The Standard Oil Company for many years prior to its dissolution +had paid dividends on its capital stock of about +$100,000,000 at the rate of 40 per cent a year. The Steel +Corporation is said to have produced a thousand millionaires +and is still producing them. This class of corporations has +not been so closely under the supervision of the federal and +municipal authorities as the railroads and public utility corporations, +and their financing has been carried on in a looser +fashion than that of the other two classes. For this reason +the securities of these corporations are not generally regarded +as highly as those of the other two. However, the federal +government has taken and is taking steps to regulate these +corporations, and this will tend to bring them eventually to +the standards of the railroad and public utility corporations.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 307</b><br /><br /> + +<i>Oral</i></div> + +<p>Explain carefully:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. What is a corporation?</p> + +<p>2. What is a share of stock?</p> + +<p>3. What is a bond? a security?</p> + +<p>4. Explain the difference between par and market values.</p> + +<p>5. Why do stocks and bonds vary in value?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[364]</a></span></p> + +<p>6. What is the difference between preferred and common stock?</p> + +<p>7. What are dividends?</p> + +<p>8. What is meant by watered stock?</p> + +<p>9. What are the advantages of a corporation over a partnership?</p> + +<p>10. The following was copied from a morning paper. Explain it.</p> + +<p>"The Canadian Westinghouse Company, Ltd., declared its +regular quarterly dividend of 1½% and an extra dividend of 1% +on its stock, both payable Jan. 10."</p> + +<p>11. Explain the following bond quotations:</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Bonds table"> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><span class="smcap">Municipal Bonds</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'><i>Security</i></td><td align='center'><i>Maturity</i></td><td align='center'><i>Yield per cent about</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Albany, Ga., 5's</td><td align='left'>Nov. 1, 1941</td><td align='center'>4.75</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>King Co., Wash., 4½'s </td><td align='left'>Nov. 1, 1931 </td><td align='center'>4.50</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><br /><span class="smcap">Railroad Bonds</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><div class='hang1'>Atchison, Topeka, & Santa Fé,<br />general mortgage, 4's</div></td><td align='left' valign='bottom'>Oct. 1, 1995 </td><td align='left' valign='bottom'>4.20</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><div class='hang1'>Louisville and Nashville, unified<br />mortgage, 4's </div></td><td align='left' valign='bottom'>Feb. 1, 1946</td><td align='left' valign='bottom'>4.35</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><br /><span class="smcap">Public Service Corporation Bonds</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>New York Telephone Co., 4's</td><td align='left'>Nov. 1, 1939</td><td align='left'>4.75</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Chicago Railways, first mortgage, 5's </td><td align='left'>Feb. 1, 1927 </td><td align='left'>4.99</td></tr> +</table></div> +<p>12. Why are the bonds of successful public utility corporations +a good investment?</p> + +<p>13. Which company do you think would grow faster, a light and +power company or a gas company? What effect would the growth +or the failure to grow have on the price of the stocks of each?</p> + +<p>14. Should a street car company pay part of its earnings to +the city?</p> + +<p>15. If the population of a city doubled, what effect would +there be on the price of public utility stocks?</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[365]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 308</b><br /> + +<b>Topics for Investigation and Discussion</b></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Harnessing our streams to secure electric power.</p> + +<p>2. The growth of the Interurban.</p> + +<p>3. In your own town:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><i>a.</i> Have gas rates increased or decreased? Can you explain +the change?</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> Have electric light rates increased or decreased? Can +you explain the change?</p></div> + +<p>4. Street railway, electric light, and gas company franchises.</p> + +<p>5. The earnings of the street car company in your city.</p> + +<p>6. Municipal ownership of public utility corporations.</p> + +<p>7. The effect of mergers and consolidations of big corporations.</p> + +<p>8. The effect of a trust on competition.</p> + +<p>9. Trusts and prices.</p> + +<p>10. Government suits against trusts.</p> + +<p>11. The tariff and the steel industry, the wool industry, and +the sugar industry.</p> + +<p>12. Railroad rate increases.</p></div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 309</b></div> + +<p>Write the following from dictation:</p> + +<div class='center'>1</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>In New London, Connecticut, stands the oldest grist mill in the +country. It is a picturesque building, having a water wheel like +the one that it originally used when New London was first settled. +The town was in the center of an agricultural community, +and a mill to grind corn was a need that soon manifested itself +to the settlers. Accordingly, in 1650 at a town meeting, six +men were chosen to build a mill. John Winthrop and his heirs +were granted the right to carry on the grist mill as long as they +maintained the building placed in their charge. This is one of +the first monopolies recorded in New England history.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />2</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The same standards by which a farming or a manufacturing +investment may be judged are not applicable to a mining investment. +A farmer may earn eight per cent on his capital, and with +care his investment may increase in value. A manufacturer<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[366]</a></span> +may earn eight per cent on his investment, and, if he keeps up his +machinery, his business may be as valuable ten years, or even +twenty years, hence; but a mine, after each dividend is paid, is +that much nearer its end. Now, it is well known among mining +men that the average life of a gold or silver mine is under, rather +than over, ten years. There are exceptions to this rule, of course, +but, granting that the life of a certain gold or silver mine is to be +ten years, then, in order to pay back both principal and interest, +dividends of at least sixteen per cent should be distributed. Copper +mining, of which the statistics have been most accurately +kept in New York and Boston, offers many inducements to the +investor; but too much care cannot be taken in the matter of +selection, for copper stocks, in not a few instances, have been +boosted out of all reason. As with gold and silver mines, so it +is with copper mines. They have so much ore to begin with, and +after each dividend are that much nearer to the day when they +will close down. For such mines, provided they have a good +lease of life, eight per cent or even ten per cent may be regarded +as only moderate returns. These are merely samples of some +general principles to be followed.—<i>Roger W. Babson.</i></p></div> + +<div class='center'><br />3</div> + +<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir: + +<p>At the close of a year which has presented many perplexing +problems, not only to investors and dealers in bonds, but also to +borrowing municipalities and corporations, there are several +factors in the situation which in our opinion offer strong encouragement +to every one in any way interested in bond investments.</p> + +<p>Of special significance is the marked change in sentiment which +has recently taken place. There is every indication that this +country enters the new year with an unusually substantial feeling +of confidence. While a notable increase in the demand +for bonds would undoubtedly bring out a large amount of new +financing, on the other hand, there has been an accumulation +of funds during the period of depressed markets, and it is generally +understood that investment dealers are carrying comparatively +small amounts of bonds.</p> + +<p>January has an almost unbroken record of higher average bond +prices than the average prices in December. It is not our intention +to predict an advance this January, although there are unquestionably +many reasons for anticipating at least a moderate +improvement; but, viewing the question in its broader aspects, +we find many convincing arguments in favor of the purchase of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[367]</a></span> +bonds at this time. It is recognized that the decline in prices +has been due to a variety of causes, which, except in a few individual +cases, are not the result of any depreciation in real values. +Basic conditions are admittedly sound. We, accordingly, not +only recommend the judicious purchase of bonds for the investment +of surplus funds, but also suggest consideration of the advisability +in some cases of converting short time securities into +long time bonds.</p> + +<p>What conditions could be more favorable from the standpoint +of the purchaser of bonds than an extremely low level of prices; +a wide-spread belief that fundamental conditions are sound; a +general feeling of confidence that the problems which have tended +to disturb business during the past year have been, or are being, +solved; and a conviction that we are entering upon a period of +probable ease in money rates?</p> + +<div class='sig'> +Very truly yours,<br /> +</div></div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[369]</a></span></p> +<h2>INDEX</h2> + + +<div class='center'><span class="smcap">Numbers refer to pages</span><br /><br /></div> + +<div> +<i>A</i>, Italian, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Abbreviation, objectionable, of the introduction of a letter, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the courteous close, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Abbreviations, of states, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>-<a href="#Page_27">27</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of commercial terms, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>-<a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of titles in letters, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">objectionable in the body of the letter, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Able</i> and <i>ible</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Absolute use of the nominative case, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Abstract noun, defined, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Accent, indication of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">words changing meaning with change of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Accept</i> and <i>except</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Account, opening an, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">letters for opening an, <a href="#Page_250">250</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +Accounting department of a railroad, work of the, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>-<a href="#Page_361">361</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Active voice of verbs, defined, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conjugation of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Ad</i>, prefix, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Adjective, the, defined, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and the adverb, <a href="#Page_75">75</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">following verbs of the senses, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">clause, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comparison of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Adjective endings, peculiar, <a href="#Page_33">33</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Adjective modifiers, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Adjective pronouns, use of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Adjectives and adverbs, confused, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">incorrectly used, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>-<a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>real</i> and <i>very</i>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>most</i> and <i>almost</i>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Adjectives, punctuation of series of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Adjectives to be distinguished, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>-<a href="#Page_81">81</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>fewer</i> and <i>less</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>almost</i> and <i>most</i>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Adverb modifiers, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Adverb, the, defined, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and the adjective, <a href="#Page_75">75</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +Adverbial, clause, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">modifier, case of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Adverbs, conjunctive, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and adjectives confused, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and prepositions confused, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ideas denoted by, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">modifying different parts of speech, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">correct position of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">absolute use of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">incorrectly used, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>-<a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Advertised articles, classes of, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Advertisements, motives appealed to in, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">catch phrases used in, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">suggestive names used in, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">good and bad headlines for, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of still-life, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">without a definite center, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">illustrating the principle of balance, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">exercises to write, <a href="#Page_315">315</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">paragraph topics dealing with, <a href="#Page_317">317</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">some examples of, <a href="#Page_318">318</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +Advertising, <a href="#Page_308">308</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">importance of, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">different forms of, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>-<a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fundamentals of, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>-<a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">outline for debate on, <a href="#Page_141">141</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bibliography for, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Affect</i> and <i>effect</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>-<a href="#Page_103">103</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Affirmative of debate on advertising, <a href="#Page_141">141</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +<i>After</i>, as preposition and conjunction, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Agent, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>-<a href="#Page_300">300</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commission of, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Agreement, grammatical, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>-<a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Amusement, motive appealed to in advertising, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Analysis, word, <a href="#Page_29">29</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Ance</i> and <i>ence</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>And</i>, in compound sentence, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">in series, punctuation with, <a href="#Page_171">171</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">used in joining parallel expressions, <a href="#Page_211">211</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">for <i>to</i>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[370]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">excessive use of, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>-<a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Anglo-Saxon prefixes and suffixes, <a href="#Page_29">29</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Answering complaints, letters to be used in, <a href="#Page_257">257</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Ant</i> and <i>ent</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Antecedents, uncertain, <a href="#Page_207">207</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Apostrophe, the, used to form the possessive case, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used to indicate the omission of letters, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to show plural of letters and figures, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Appeals made in advertisements, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>-<a href="#Page_312">312</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Application, letters of, <a href="#Page_259">259</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Appositives, case of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">punctuation with, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>-<a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Article, incorrect omission of in business letters, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>As</i>, case following, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a conjunction, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">followed by an understood verb, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">punctuation with, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>As</i>—<i>as</i>, used in expressions stating equality, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>As follows</i>, punctuation with, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Atlas</i>, story of the derivation of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Authorized capital stock, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Baby blunder, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Balance, principle of, used in advertisements, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bank draft, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>-<a href="#Page_343">343</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Banking:<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">inconvenience of barter, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">kinds of paper money, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>-<a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">credit, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">discount, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">collateral, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">promissory note, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">forms of remittance, <a href="#Page_338">338</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">letters pertaining to, <a href="#Page_345">345</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">topics for investigation and discussion, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>-<a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bibliography for, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dictation exercises on, <a href="#Page_350">350</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +Banks, departments of, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of deposit, <a href="#Page_334">334</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">savings, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">trust companies, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Be</i>, conjugation, indicative, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">subjunctive, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used to form progressive tenses, <a href="#Page_88">88</a> ff., <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used to form passive voice, <a href="#Page_105">105</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Before</i>, used as preposition and conjunction, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Beg to state</i>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bibliography, on manufacture, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on distribution, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>-<a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on advertising, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on banking, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Bill of lading</i>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>straight</i> or <i>order,</i> 285.</span><br /> +<br /> +Blunder, baby, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Body of the letter, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bonds, <a href="#Page_357">357</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">redemption of, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">maturity of, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">long period, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">short time, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Breve, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Brevity in business letters, mistaken for conciseness, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Business_letters" id="Business_letters"></a>Business letters, <a href="#Page_229">229</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">essentials of, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the form of, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the arrangement of, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cautions in writing, <a href="#Page_235">235</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">directions for folding, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to order goods, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the tone of, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mistaken ideas in writing, <a href="#Page_241">241</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to make sales, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to accompany a catalogue, <a href="#Page_245">245</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to open an account, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to make collections, <a href="#Page_253">253</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to answer complaints, <a href="#Page_257">257</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">applying for positions, <a href="#Page_259">259</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">form, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">circular and follow-up, <a href="#Page_264">264</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +Business news, to suggest topics for talks, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Business thinking, importance of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>c</i> and <i>g</i>, pronunciation of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Can</i> and <i>may</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Capital stock, explained, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">preferred, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">common, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">par and market values of, <a href="#Page_355">355</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +Capitals, use of, <a href="#Page_160">160</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Caret, the, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Carriers, common, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Case, defined, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nominative, <a href="#Page_64">64</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">objective, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">possessive, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">exercise in, <a href="#Page_70">70</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">following prepositions, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Cause and effect, paragraphs developed by, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Caution, its appeal in advertising, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>-<a href="#Page_312">312</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cautions in writing business letters, <a href="#Page_235">235</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Cede</i>, <i>ceed</i>, <i>sede</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Certificate, the gold, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the silver, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Certified check, the, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>-<a href="#Page_340">340</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Check, the, <a href="#Page_338">338</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">personal, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">certified, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>-<a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Choosing subjects, suggestions for, <a href="#Page_146">146</a> ff.<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[371]</a></span><br /> +<i>Cion</i>, <i>sion</i>, <i>tion</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Cious</i>, <i>tious</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Circular letters, <a href="#Page_264">264</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Class paper, suggestions for a, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Classes of advertisements, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Clause, the, defined, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">principal, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">subordinate, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">incorrectly used as a sentence, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">introductory words for, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">adjective, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">adverb, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">noun, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">modifiers, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">introduced by <i>than</i> or <i>as</i>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">initial, punctuation of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">restrictive and non-restrictive, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>-<a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">punctuation of relative, <a href="#Page_185">185</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">coming at the end of the sentence, punctuation of, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>-<a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">incomplete, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>-<a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">misplaced, <a href="#Page_209">209</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +Clauses, punctuation of series of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Clear title to property, explained, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Clearing house, daily routine of, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>-<a href="#Page_351">351</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Clearness_of_the_sentence" id="Clearness_of_the_sentence"></a>Clearness of the sentence, mistakes that prevent:<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dangling expressions, <a href="#Page_205">205</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pronouns with uncertain antecedents, <a href="#Page_207">207</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">misplaced modifiers, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>-<a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">omission of necessary words, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>-<a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">shift of construction, <a href="#Page_211">211</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +Close, courteous, of business letters, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Coherence between sentences, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>-<a href="#Page_128">128</a>; 224 ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">between paragraphs, <a href="#Page_224">224</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +Collateral, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>-<a href="#Page_336">336</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Collection letters, <a href="#Page_253">253</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Collective noun, defined, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Colon, use of the, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Colonization, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Combination of short sentences to secure unity, <a href="#Page_202">202</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Comfort, its appeal in advertising, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>-<a href="#Page_312">312</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Comma fault, the, <a href="#Page_44">44</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Comma, use of the, in direct quotations, <a href="#Page_163">163</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in series, <a href="#Page_171">171</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in compound sentences, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to set off initial clauses or participial phrases, <a href="#Page_175">175</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to separate the month from the year, etc., <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to indicate the omission of words, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to set off appositives, <a href="#Page_179">179</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to set off parenthetical expressions, <a href="#Page_180">180</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to set off independent elements, <a href="#Page_182">182</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to set off non-restrictive clauses, <a href="#Page_185">185</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to set off modifiers coming at the end of the sentence, <a href="#Page_188">188</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +Command used in good headlines of advertisements, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Commercial department of a bank, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Commercial terms, abbreviations of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>-<a href="#Page_28">28</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Commission, agent's, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Common carriers, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Common noun, defined, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Common stock, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Companies, kinds of, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Company, the steamship, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the railroad, <a href="#Page_284">284</a> ff.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(See <i>Corporation</i>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a> ff.)</span><br /> +<br /> +Comparative degree, of adjectives, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of adverbs, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Comparison and contrast, paragraphs developed by, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Comparison, of adjectives, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of adverbs, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">negative, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Complaint, letters answering, <a href="#Page_257">257</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Complement, subjective, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Complex sentence, defined, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Composition, oral and written, <a href="#Page_127">127</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Compound nouns, plural of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Compound relatives, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Compound sentence, defined, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">punctuation of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Con</i>, prefix, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Conciseness of expression, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Condensation to secure clearness, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Conjugation, of <i>write</i>, active voice, <a href="#Page_88">88</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of <i>be</i>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of <i>follow</i>, passive voice, <a href="#Page_105">105</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +Conjunction, and the preposition, <a href="#Page_116">116</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Conjunctions.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Coördinate, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">punctuation with, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">distinguished from conjunctive adverbs, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Subordinate, list of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>than</i> and <i>as</i>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Correlative, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Conjunctive adverbs, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">distinguished from coördinate conjunctions, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">punctuation with, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[372]</a></span><br /> +Connection, smooth, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>-<a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">methods of securing, <a href="#Page_224">224</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +Conservation, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>-<a href="#Page_192">192</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Consignee, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Consonant, final, doubling of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">silent, words containing, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Construction, letters dealing with contract for, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">shift of, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Contract, letters dealing with, for painting iron-work, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for the delivery of property, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for construction, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Contraction, apostrophe used with, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Coördinate conjunctions, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">punctuation with, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +Coördinate expressions, <a href="#Page_122">122</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Copulative verbs, defined, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Corporate organization, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Corporation, the, <a href="#Page_353">353</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">finances of, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">capital stock of, <a href="#Page_354">354</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dividends of, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">stockholders of, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bonds of, <a href="#Page_357">357</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">organization of, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">directors of, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">railroad, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>-<a href="#Page_361">361</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">public utility, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>-<a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">industrial, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">topics for investigation and discussion on, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dictation exercises on, <a href="#Page_365">365</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +Correlatives, defined, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">correct position of with coördinate expressions, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>-<a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>either—or</i> and <i>neither—nor</i>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Cost of living, paragraph on, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cotton seed, paragraph on, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cotton in the Soudan, paragraph, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Could</i> and <i>might</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Courteous close, in business letters, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Courtesy in business letters, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Credit, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Credit letters, <a href="#Page_250">250</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Currency, bill, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">legislation, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Current events, to suggest subjects for talks, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Dangling expressions, <a href="#Page_205">205</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Dash, use of, <a href="#Page_195">195</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">too free use of in business letters, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Dead letter sale, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Debate, outline for a, <a href="#Page_141">141</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">subjects for, <a href="#Page_139">139</a> ff., <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on manufacture, suggestions for, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on distribution, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Debating, <a href="#Page_137">137</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">proposition for, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">six rules for, <a href="#Page_137">137</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">false conclusions in, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">irrelevant matter in, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Declarative sentence, defined, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Declension of pronouns, personal, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relative, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">interrogative, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Deed, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Degrees of comparison, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>-<a href="#Page_79">79</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Demonstrative pronouns, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Departments, of banks, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of railroads, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Deposit, banks of, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">slip, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Details, explanatory, necessary to secure interest, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">paragraphs developed by, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Development of paragraphs, methods of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>-<a href="#Page_223">223</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>dg</i>, words containing, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Diacritical marks, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Diaeresis, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Dialogue, paragraphing in, <a href="#Page_168">168</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Dictation exercises, for series, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for compound sentences, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>-<a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for initial clauses or participial phrases, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for parenthetical expressions, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>-<a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for independent elements, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>-<a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for non-restrictive relative clauses, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for the semicolon, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>-<a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on manufacture, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>-<a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on distribution, <a href="#Page_305">305</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on real estate, <a href="#Page_329">329</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on banking, <a href="#Page_350">350</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on corporations, <a href="#Page_365">365</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +Direct discourse, <a href="#Page_163">163</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">use of comma in, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Directors of corporations, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Discount, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Discourse, direct, <a href="#Page_163">163</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">indirect, <a href="#Page_166">166</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +Discussion and investigation topics, on manufacture, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>-<a href="#Page_279">279</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on distribution, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on real estate, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on banking, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>-<a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the corporation, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Dishwasher, letters to sell a, <a href="#Page_265">265</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Distribution.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Transportation an essential element, <a href="#Page_283">283</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the steamship company, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[373]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">the railroad company, <a href="#Page_284">284</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the retail merchant, <a href="#Page_286">286</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the wholesale merchant, <a href="#Page_291">291</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the mail order merchant, <a href="#Page_295">295</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the salesman, <a href="#Page_298">298</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">suggestions for debates, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">subjects for paragraphs, <a href="#Page_303">303</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">topics for investigation and discussion, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bibliography, <a href="#Page_304">304</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dictation exercises, <a href="#Page_305">305</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +Dividends, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Dividing a subject into its natural divisions, <a href="#Page_149">149</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Dot, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Double relative, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Doubling final consonants, rule for, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Draft, bank, <a href="#Page_341">341</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">time, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>-<a href="#Page_344">344</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sight, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>-<a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Dropping of final <i>e</i>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Druggist, outline of advertising letters sent by, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>-<a href="#Page_269">269</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Durability, its appeal in advertising, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>-<a href="#Page_312">312</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>E</i>, final, retained, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Each</i>, <i>every</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a> (3)<br /> +<br /> +Economy, its appeal in advertising, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>-<a href="#Page_312">312</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Effect</i> and <i>affect</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Efficiency, office, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">stenographic, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>ei</i> or <i>ie</i>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Either—or</i>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Electric washing machine, outline of letters to sell, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Elements, independent, case of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">punctuation of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Emphatic pronouns, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Emulation, its appeal in advertising, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>-<a href="#Page_312">312</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>ence</i> and <i>ance</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Endings, peculiar adjective, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">peculiar noun and verb, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Endorsing a check, methods of, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.<br /> +<br /> +English, oral, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">written, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(See <i><a href="#Punctuation">Punctuation</a></i>, <i><a href="#Clearness_of_the_sentence">The Clear Sentence</a></i>, <i><a href="#Business_letters">Business Letters</a></i>.)</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>ent</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Enthusiasm in business, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>eous</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Essentials, of a sales letter, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in manufacture, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>-<a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of an advertisement, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>-<a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Every</i>, number of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Examples and illustrations, paragraphs developed by, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Examples of advertisements, <a href="#Page_318">318</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Except</i>, a preposition, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">incorrectly used as a conjunction, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Except</i> and <i>accept</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Exclamation mark, use of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Exclamatory sentence, defined, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Explanatory details, paragraphs developed by, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Explanatory expressions, punctuation of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a> ff.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Appositives, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">parenthetical expressions, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">independent elements, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">explanatory relative clauses, punctuation of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">subordinate elements coming at the end of the sentence, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Exports in cattle, paragraph on, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Express money order, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>-<a href="#Page_341">341</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Expression, conciseness of, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">variety of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>f</i>, and <i>fe</i>, plurals of nouns ending in, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br /> +<br /> +False conclusions in debating, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>-<a href="#Page_138">138</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Farm lands, <a href="#Page_325">325</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">outline of letters to sell, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>-<a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">letters pertaining to, <a href="#Page_325">325</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">topics for investigation and discussion on, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dictation exercises on, <a href="#Page_329">329</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +Farm reform, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Farming specials, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Favor, your esteemed</i>, and similar expressions, to avoid, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Fee simple, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Fewer</i> and <i>less</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Figures, plural of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Final consonant, rule for doubling, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Final <i>e</i>, dropped, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">retained, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>-<a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Finance department of a railroad, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>-<a href="#Page_361">361</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Finances of a corporation, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Fly</i>, <i>flow</i>, <i>flee</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Folding a letter, directions for, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Follow</i>, conjugation of in the passive voice, <a href="#Page_105">105</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">synopsis of, passive, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Following, the</i>, punctuation after, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[374]</a></span><br /> +Follow-up letter, the, <a href="#Page_264">264</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +<i>For</i>, as preposition and conjunction, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Foreclosing a mortgage, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Foreign plurals, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Foreign news, to suggest subjects for talks, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>For example</i>, punctuation with, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>For instance</i>, punctuation with, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Form letter, the, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Form of the business letter, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Formation, of participles, <a href="#Page_21">21</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of possessive case, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of infinitives, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Freight bill, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Freight, receipt for, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Furniture, outline of letters to sell, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Future tense, <a href="#Page_88">88</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">progressive, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">perfect, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>G</i>, pronunciation of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Gas mantles, paragraph on, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>-<a href="#Page_281">281</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Gold certificates, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Good and bad headlines in advertisements, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>-<a href="#Page_314">314</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Government's Laundry, the, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>-<a href="#Page_174">174</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Greek roots, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>Had ought</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.<br /> +<br /> +"Hammock" paragraph, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Have</i> and <i>of</i>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Heading of the business letter, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Headlines of advertisements, good and bad, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>-<a href="#Page_314">314</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Health, its appeal in advertising, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>-<a href="#Page_312">312</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Herculean</i>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Homonyms, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>-<a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> +<br /> +How to advance, paragraph on, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Hoping</i> and similar expressions, to avoid, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>-<a href="#Page_243">243</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hyphen, use of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>Ible</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ideas, mistaken, in letter writing, <a href="#Page_241">241</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +<i>ie</i> or <i>ei</i>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Illustrations and examples, paragraphs developed by, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Imperative sentence, defined, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>In</i>, prefix, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Income of railroads, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Incorrectly used, nouns and pronouns, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>-<a href="#Page_74">74</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">adjectives and adverbs, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>-<a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">verbs, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>-<a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prepositions, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>-<a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Indefinite <i>it</i> or <i>they</i>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Indefinite pronouns, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used as adjectives, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Independent elements, case of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">punctuation of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Indicative mode, defined, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of <i>be,</i> 112.</span><br /> +<br /> +Indirect discourse, <a href="#Page_166">166</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Indirect object, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Industrial corporations, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Industry, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Infinitive, defined, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tenses and voices of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">split, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Initial clause or participial phrase, punctuation of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Insurance, <a href="#Page_327">327</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">letters pertaining to, <a href="#Page_328">328</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +Insurance and real estate, <a href="#Page_321">321</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Interesting words, <a href="#Page_1">1</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Interjection, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>O</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Interrogation mark, use of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">position of with quotation marks, <a href="#Page_163">163</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +Interrogative pronouns, declined, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Interrogative sentence, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Intransitive verb, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Introduction of the letter, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>-<a href="#Page_236">236</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Investigation and discussion, topics for, on manufacture, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>-<a href="#Page_279">279</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on distribution, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on real estate, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on banking, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>-<a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the corporation, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Investments, mining, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>-<a href="#Page_366">366</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Investors, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>ious</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Irregular plurals of nouns, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Irregular verbs, principal parts of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +<i>ise</i>, <i>ize</i>, <i>yze</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>It</i> used indefinitely, <a href="#Page_207">207</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Italic</i>, derivation of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Italian <i>a</i>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Its</i> and <i>it's</i>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>k</i>, insertion of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Kindly</i>, abuse of, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[375]</a></span> + + + +Labor, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Local news, to suggest subjects for talks, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Land business, the, <a href="#Page_325">325</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Latin-American trade, the, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Latin prefixes and suffixes, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Lay</i> and <i>lie</i>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>-<a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Learn</i> and <i>teach</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Lease, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Least</i>, used in the superlative degree, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Legal department of a railroad, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>-<a href="#Page_361">361</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Length of good headlines in advertisements, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Less</i> and <i>fewer</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Letter beginnings, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>-<a href="#Page_249">249</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Letter" id="Letter"></a>Letter, to investors, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to accompany a style book, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to sell a trip on the water, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>-<a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to sell a house coat, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>-<a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ordering goods, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">from A. Lincoln to Mrs. Bixby, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>-<a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to accompany a catalogue, <a href="#Page_245">245</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to sell cheese, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to sell hinged paper, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>-<a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to open an account, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>-<a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">credit, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>-<a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">requesting payment, <a href="#Page_254">254</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">answering a complaint, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>-<a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of application, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>-<a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">follow-up, <a href="#Page_265">265</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">from a bank, soliciting a trust (to be punctuated), <a href="#Page_348">348</a>-<a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">market, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Letters, plurals of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Letters, business, in the manufacturing business, <a href="#Page_276">276</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the retail business, <a href="#Page_287">287</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the wholesale business, <a href="#Page_292">292</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the mail order business, <a href="#Page_295">295</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to help the salesman, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pertaining to banking, <a href="#Page_345">345</a> ff.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(See <i><a href="#Business_letters">Business letters</a></i>, <i><a href="#Letter">Letter</a></i>.)</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Lie</i> and <i>lay</i>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>-<a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Like</i>, followed by the objective case, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Loose</i> and <i>lose</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Lose</i> and <i>loose</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Luck and labor, paragraph on, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Macron, the, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Magazine advertising, <a href="#Page_311">311</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Mail order business, the, <a href="#Page_295">295</a> ff..<br /> +<br /> +Manufacture, <a href="#Page_270">270</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">essentials in, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>-<a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">subjects for themes on, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">suggestions for debates on, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">letters in, <a href="#Page_276">276</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">topics for investigation and discussions on, <a href="#Page_278">278</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bibliography for, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dictation exercises in, <a href="#Page_280">280</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +Market letter, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Market value, <a href="#Page_355">355</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Marks, diacritical, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">question, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quotation, <a href="#Page_163">163</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +Materials, raw, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Maturity of bonds, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>May</i> and <i>can</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Merchant, the retail, <a href="#Page_286">286</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the wholesale, <a href="#Page_291">291</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the mail order, <a href="#Page_295">295</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +Methods of endorsing a check, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Might</i> and <i>could</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mining investment, principles of, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Misplaced modifiers, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>-<a href="#Page_210">210</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mispronounced, words commonly, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mistaken ideas in letter writing, <a href="#Page_241">241</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Mode, defined, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">indicative and subjunctive of <i>be</i>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">subjunctive denoting possibility, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Model letters. (See <i><a href="#Letter">Letter</a></i>.)<br /> +<br /> +Modern business done by letter, <a href="#Page_229">229</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Modifiers, adjective and adverb, word, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">phrase, <a href="#Page_52">52</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">clause, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>-<a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used to secure unity, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">misplaced, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>-<a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Money, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">kinds of paper, <a href="#Page_332">332</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">its appeal in advertising, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>-<a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Money order, express, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>-<a href="#Page_341">341</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">postal, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Monosyllables ending in silent <i>e</i>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Month from year, comma used to separate, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>More</i> or <i>less</i>, used in the comparative degree, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mortgage, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">foreclosing a, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Most</i> or <i>least</i>, used in the superlative degree, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Motives to which advertisements appeal, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[376]</a></span> + + + +<i>Namely</i>, punctuation with, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Names, suggestive, in advertising, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.<br /> +<br /> +National bank notes, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.<br /> +<br /> +National news, to suggest subjects for talks, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Necessary words, omission of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>-<a href="#Page_211">211</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Need, its appeal in advertising, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>-<a href="#Page_312">312</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Negative comparison, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Negative, outline for a debate on advertising, <a href="#Page_143">143</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Neither—nor</i>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.<br /> +<br /> +News, to suggest topics for talks, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Nominative absolute, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Nominative case, <a href="#Page_64">64</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as subject, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as subjective complement (predicate nominative), <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as appositive, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">independent, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">absolute, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Nor</i>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Notes, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">promissory, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Noun, defined, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">clause, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and the pronoun, <a href="#Page_57">57</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">common, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">proper, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">collective, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">abstract, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">verbal, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">modified by <i>every</i> and similar words, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">collective, number of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Nouns, rules for plurals of, regular, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ending in <i>y</i>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ending in <i>o</i>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ending in <i>f</i> and <i>fe</i>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">irregular, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>-<a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">compound, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">foreign, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">possessive case of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">incorrectly used, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>-<a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">joined by <i>or</i>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">punctuation of series of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +Number of verb, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>O</i>, capitalization of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>o</i>, plural of nouns ending in, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Object, of a preposition, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of a transitive verb, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">indirect, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">second, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Objective case, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as direct object of a transitive verb, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as object of a preposition, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as indirect object, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as second object, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as appositive, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as adverbial modifier, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">following <i>like</i>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Observation, subjects taken from, <a href="#Page_146">146</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Obsolete words, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Of</i> and <i>have</i>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Of</i> phrase substituted for the possessive case, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Oh</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Omission, of letters, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of necessary words, <a href="#Page_210">210</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of subject in business letters, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Opening an account, letters for, <a href="#Page_240">240</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Operating department of a railroad, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Oral English, exercises in, <a href="#Page_127">127</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Oral expression, <a href="#Page_127">127</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">variety of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Oral reproduction, from magazines, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">from newspapers, <a href="#Page_154">154</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Oral_exercises" id="Oral_exercises"></a>Oral exercises, in general, <a href="#Page_127">127</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on manufacture, <a href="#Page_273">273</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the retail trade, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the wholesale trade, <a href="#Page_290">290</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the mail order business, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in connection with the salesman, <a href="#Page_299">299</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +Order bill of lading, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ordering goods, letter for, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Order, express money, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>-<a href="#Page_341">341</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">postal money, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Organization, corporate, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of a railroad, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Outline, for a debate, <a href="#Page_141">141</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how to make an, <a href="#Page_151">151</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Paper money, kinds of, <a href="#Page_332">332</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Paragraph, the, <a href="#Page_215">215</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in dialogue, <a href="#Page_168">168</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">proper length of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>-<a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">topic sentence in, <a href="#Page_216">216</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"hammock," 216;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how developed, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>-<a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Paragraphs on, Sacramento City, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">exports in cattle, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cost of living, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the government's laundry, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>-<a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">luck and labor, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sawdust, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>-<a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a new kind of wood, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hogs as mortgage lifters, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cotton seed, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">making paper, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>-<a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how to advance, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bubonic plague, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">politics of a city, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cotton in the Soudan, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the "yellow" invasion, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">saving, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">investors, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chicago's milk supply, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the dead letter sale, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">industries, controlled, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the secret blotter, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[377]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">a mummy's doll, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">office efficiency, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">stenographic efficiency, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">business courtesy, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the rural landscape of Norway, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the <i>Spectator</i>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>-<a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">income, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gas mantles, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>-<a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">production of wool, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">casting metals, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">transportation, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Latin-American trade, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the parcel post in Africa, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the remedy for wrecks, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>-<a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">colonization, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">farm reform, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">farming specials, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">selection of seed, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>-<a href="#Page_331">331</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the clearing house, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>-<a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">washed money, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>-<a href="#Page_352">352</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">an early monopoly, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mining investments, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>-<a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Paragraphs, subjects for. See <i><a href="#Subjects">Subjects</a></i>.<br /> +<br /> +Parenthesis marks, use of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wrongly used to cancel expressions, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Parenthetical expressions, punctuation of, <a href="#Page_180">180</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Participle, defined, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tenses and voices of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the dangling, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>-<a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Participles, formation of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of verbs in <i>y</i>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Participial phrases, punctuation of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">188 ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +Parts of speech:<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The noun and the pronoun, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the adjective and the adverb, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the verb, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the preposition and the conjunction, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the interjection, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Parts, principal, of irregular verbs, <a href="#Page_95">95</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Par value, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Passive voice, defined, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conjugation of <i>follow</i>, in the, <a href="#Page_105">105</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">synopsis of <i>follow</i> in the, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Past_tense" id="Past_tense"></a>Past tense, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">progressive form of, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">emphatic form of, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">perfect, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Payment, letters requesting, <a href="#Page_253">253</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Perfect_tenses" id="Perfect_tenses"></a>Perfect tenses, <a href="#Page_89">89</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Period, use of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Personal pronouns declined, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Personality essential in a salesman, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Persons of the pronouns, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Phrase modifiers, <a href="#Page_52">52</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Phrases, prepositional, <a href="#Page_52">52</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">adverbial, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>-<a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">adjective, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>-<a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">classification of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">punctuation of series of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">initial participial, punctuation of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">incorrectly used as a sentence, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Plurals, of nouns, <a href="#Page_18">18</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of letters and figures, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of foreign nouns, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Positive degree, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Possessive case, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rules for forming, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">separate possession, in the, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with verbal nouns, <a href="#Page_67">67</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>of</i> phrase substituted for, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">use of the apostrophe in the, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Possibility, use of the subjunctive mode to show, <a href="#Page_113">113</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Postal money order, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Predicate, of the sentence, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nominative, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Preferred stock, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Prefix, usually constituting a syllable, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Anglo-Saxon, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Latin, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>ad</i>, <i>con</i>, and <i>in</i>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>-<a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Present_tense" id="Present_tense"></a>Present tense, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">progressive, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">emphatic, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">perfect, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Preposition, defined, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">phrase introduced by, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">followed by the objective case, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and the conjunction, <a href="#Page_116">116</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the wrong, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">necessary, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Prepositional phrases, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>-<a href="#Page_53">53</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Prepositions, and adverbs confused, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">list of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used with certain verbs, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>-<a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">incorrectly used, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>-<a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Pride, its appeal in advertising, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>-<a href="#Page_312">312</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Principal clauses, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Principal parts of irregular verbs, <a href="#Page_95">95</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Progressive tenses, <a href="#Page_88">88</a> ff.; 105.<br /> +<br /> +Promissory note, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Pronominal adjectives, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Pronoun, defined, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and the noun, <a href="#Page_57">57</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">incorrect use of <i>same</i> as a pronoun, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>-<a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Pronouns, <a href="#Page_58">58</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">personal, declined, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">emphatic, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reflexive, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">list of relative, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">declension of relative, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[378]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">compound relative, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">double relative, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">restrictive relative, <a href="#Page_59">59</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">interrogative declined, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">demonstrative, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">indefinite, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">adjective, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">possessive in form, not in use, <a href="#Page_59">59</a> (note);</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">incorrectly used, <a href="#Page_73">73</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">joined by <i>or</i>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Pronunciation, <a href="#Page_7">7</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">slurring syllables in, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of <i>c</i> and <i>g</i>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Proper noun, defined, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">capitalization of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Proposition for debate, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Public utility corporations, <a href="#Page_361">361</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Punctuation" id="Punctuation"></a>Punctuation, <a href="#Page_158">158</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">apostrophe, <a href="#Page_159">159</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">capitals, <a href="#Page_160">160</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">period, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">interrogation mark, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">exclamation mark, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quotation marks, <a href="#Page_163">163</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comma, <a href="#Page_170">170</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">semicolon, <a href="#Page_192">192</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">colon, <a href="#Page_194">194</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dash, <a href="#Page_195">195</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">parenthesis marks, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hyphen, <a href="#Page_196">196</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of series, <a href="#Page_170">170</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of compound sentences, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of initial clause or participial phrase, <a href="#Page_175">175</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of explanatory expressions, <a href="#Page_179">179</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">after <i>as follows</i>, etc., <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">after <i>namely</i>, etc., <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Quality, its appeal in advertising, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>-<a href="#Page_312">312</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Questions for discussion on, manufacture, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>-<a href="#Page_274">274</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the retail merchant, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>-<a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the wholesale merchant, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>-<a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the mail order merchant, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">advertising, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>-<a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">real estate, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the corporation, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>-<a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Quitclaim deed, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Quotation marks, use of, <a href="#Page_163">163</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Quotations, use of comma in, <a href="#Page_170">170</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Railroad, the, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sources of income of, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">organization of, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">departments of, <a href="#Page_360">360</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +Railroad company, the, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Raise</i> and <i>rise</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Raw materials, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Reading, subjects taken from, <a href="#Page_147">147</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Real</i> and <i>very</i>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Real estate and insurance, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Real estate business, <a href="#Page_321">321</a> ff.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rent, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">lease, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">warranty deed, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quitclaim deed, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">clear title, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fee simple, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mortgage, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">foreclosing a mortgage, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">agent and commission, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">letters in, <a href="#Page_324">324</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">topics for investigation and discussion, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Receipt for freight, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Redemption of bonds, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Reflexive pronouns, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Reform, farm, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Relative pronouns, list of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">declined, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">double, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">restrictive, <a href="#Page_59">59</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">compound, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Relative value of different forms of advertising, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Remedy for wrecks, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>-<a href="#Page_307">307</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Remittance, forms of, <a href="#Page_338">338</a> ff.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Check, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">certified check, <a href="#Page_339">339</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">endorsement, methods of, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">express money order, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">postal money order, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bank draft, <a href="#Page_341">341</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">time draft, <a href="#Page_343">343</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sight draft, <a href="#Page_344">344</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +Rent, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Reproduction, oral, from magazines, <a href="#Page_147">147</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">from newspapers, <a href="#Page_154">154</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +Requesting payment, letters, <a href="#Page_253">253</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Restricting the subject, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Restrictive relative pronouns, <a href="#Page_59">59</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Retail merchant, the, <a href="#Page_286">286</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Richards' baby stocking fund, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Rise</i> and <i>raise</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Roots, Greek, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Rules.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">For spelling:</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">regular plurals in <i>s</i> and <i>es</i>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">changing final <i>y</i> to <i>i</i>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">nouns in <i>o</i>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">nouns in <i>f</i> and <i>fe</i>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">plural by change of vowel, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">by adding <i>en</i>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">no change for the plural, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">two plurals, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">compound nouns, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">plurals of letters and figures, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">foreign plurals, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">doubling final consonant, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>-<a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">retaining <i>y</i> before <i>ing</i>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>ie</i> or <i>ei</i>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">soft <i>c</i> and <i>g</i>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">dropping final silent <i>e</i>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">retaining final <i>e</i>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>-<a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">For punctuation:</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">the apostrophe, to show the possessive case of nouns, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">to show omission of letters, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">to show plurals of letters, figures, and words not regularly nouns, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">capitals, <a href="#Page_160">160</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">the period, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">the interrogation mark, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[379]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 2em;">the exclamation mark, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">quotation marks, <a href="#Page_163">163</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">comma in direct quotations, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">comma in series, <a href="#Page_171">171</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">comma in compound sentence, <a href="#Page_173">173</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">comma after initial clause or participial phrase, <a href="#Page_175">175</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">comma to separate month from year, etc., <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">comma to show omission of words, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">comma to set off appositive, <a href="#Page_179">179</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">comma to set off parenthetical expressions, <a href="#Page_180">180</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">comma to set off independent elements, <a href="#Page_182">182</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">comma to set off non-restrictive relative clause, <a href="#Page_185">185</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">comma to set off subordinate element at the end of the sentence, <a href="#Page_188">188</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">the semicolon, <a href="#Page_192">192</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">the colon, <a href="#Page_194">194</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">the dash, <a href="#Page_195">195</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">parenthesis marks, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">the hyphen, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>S 1</i>, comma fault, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>S 2</i>, use of phrase or clause as sentence, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sacramento City, paragraph on, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Salary</i>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sales letter, the, <a href="#Page_244">244</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Salesman, the, <a href="#Page_298">298</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">letters to help the, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>-<a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Salutation, the, of business letters, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>-<a href="#Page_237">237</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Same</i>, not a pronoun, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>-<a href="#Page_73">73</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">distinctly business blunder, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Saving, paragraphs on, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Savings banks, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>; postal, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Savings department of bank, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Saw</i> and <i>seen</i>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>-<a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sawdust, paragraph on, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Second object, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Secretary's report, the, <a href="#Page_115">115</a> (note).<br /> +<br /> +<i>Sede</i>, <i>cede</i>, <i>ceed</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Selection of seed, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>-<a href="#Page_331">331</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Semicolon, uses of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Sentence, the, and its elements, <a href="#Page_41">41</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">subject of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">simple, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">complex, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">compound, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">compound, punctuation of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">predicate of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">declarative, defined, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">interrogative, defined, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">imperative, defined, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">exclamatory, defined, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">simple, defined, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">compound, defined, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">complex, defined, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">errors, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Separation, the keynote of punctuation, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Series, punctuation of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Set</i>, and <i>sit</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Shall</i> and <i>will</i>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Shareholders, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Shares, of capital stock, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Shift in construction, <a href="#Page_211">211</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Short sentences, combination of, <a href="#Page_202">202</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Should</i> and <i>would</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>-<a href="#Page_94">94</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sight draft, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>-<a href="#Page_345">345</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Signature, the, in business letters, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>-<a href="#Page_238">238</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Silent consonant, words containing, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Silent vowels, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Silver certificates, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Simple sentence, defined, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Since</i>, as preposition and conjunction, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>sion</i>, <i>tion</i>, <i>cion</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Sit</i> and <i>set</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Slang, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Slurring of syllables, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Smooth connection, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>-<a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">methods of securing, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Snappy style, in letter writing, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>So—as</i>, in negative comparisons, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>So</i> habit, to avoid the, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Soudan, cotton in the, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.<br /> +<br /> +South Africa, parcel post in, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Specials, railroad farming, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Spectator, The</i>, paragraph from Macaulay, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>-<a href="#Page_219">219</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Speech, parts of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Speech, plan in making, <a href="#Page_131">131</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">outline for, <a href="#Page_151">151</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +Spelling, rules, <a href="#Page_18">18</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">500 words for, <a href="#Page_36">36</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +Split infinitive, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.<br /> +<br /> +States, abbreviation of names of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>-<a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Steamship company, the, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Steel, trouble in introducing, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Stenographic efficiency, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Still-life advertisements, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Stock, capital, common and preferred, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">authorized capital, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Stockholders, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Stocks, of a corporation, <a href="#Page_354">354</a> ff.<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[380]</a></span><br /> +Straight bill of lading, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Style, in letter writing, <a href="#Page_244">244</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Subject, as a whole, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">divisions of, <a href="#Page_149">149</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">making outline of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">restricting the, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the sentence, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">simple, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">complete, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of subordinate clause, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">compound, number of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">incorrect omission of, in business letters, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Subjective complement, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Subjects" id="Subjects"></a>Subjects, how to choose, <a href="#Page_146">146</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for debates, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for compositions on manufacture, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>-<a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on distribution, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on advertising, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">suggested by personal experience, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">suggested by reading, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Subjunctive mode, defined, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of <i>be</i>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used to denote possibility, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Subordinate clauses, adjective, adverb, noun, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">subject of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Subordinate conjunctions, list of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Subordination, in the sentence, <a href="#Page_201">201</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Subscription, outline of letters to sell, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Success, elements of, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Successful men and women, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Suffix, usually constituting a syllable, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Anglo-Saxon, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">adjective, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">verb, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">noun, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><i>able</i> and <i>ible</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><i>ant</i> and <i>ent</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Suggestions for debates, <a href="#Page_139">139</a> ff., <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on manufacture, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on distribution, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Suggestive names in advertisements, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">headlines, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>-<a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Superlative degree, of adjectives, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of adverbs, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Superlatives, to be avoided, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Syllabication, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Syllables, slurred, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">division of words into, <a href="#Page_15">15</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +Synopsis of <i>write</i>, active voice, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>Teach</i> and <i>learn</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Technical words, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Tense, defined, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of participle, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of infinitive, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Tenses, distinguished, <a href="#Page_88">88</a> ff.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(See <i><a href="#Present_tense">Present tense</a></i>, <i><a href="#Past_tense">Past tense</a></i>, <i><a href="#Perfect_tenses">Perfect tenses</a></i>.)</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Than</i> and <i>as</i>, case following, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>That</i>, restrictive relative, <a href="#Page_59">59</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +<i>That is</i>, punctuation with, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>The following</i>, punctuation with, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Themes, oral, <a href="#Page_127">127</a> ff.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(See <i><a href="#Oral_exercises">Oral themes</a></i>.)</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>There</i>, <i>their</i>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Thinking, business, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Thus</i>, punctuation with, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Tilde, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Time draft, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>-<a href="#Page_344">344</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Tion</i>, <i>sion</i>, <i>cion</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Tious</i>, troublesome ending, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Title, clear, to property, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Titles, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of officials and of honor, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of books and plays, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>To</i>, <i>too</i>, <i>two</i>, distinguished, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>-<a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Tone, of the letter, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Topic sentence, in the paragraph, <a href="#Page_216">216</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Topics for investigation and discussion, on manufacture, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>-<a href="#Page_279">279</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on distribution, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on real estate, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on banking, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>-<a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the corporation, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Trade, Latin-American, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Traffic department of railroad, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Transitive verb, followed by objective case, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defined, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Transportation, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Troublesome verbs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>lie</i> and <i>lay</i>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>sit</i>, <i>set</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>fly</i>, <i>flow</i>, <i>flee</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>rise</i>, <i>raise</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>teach</i>, <i>learn</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>may</i>, <i>can</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>might</i>, <i>could</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>accept</i>, <i>except</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>affect</i>, <i>effect</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>lose</i>, <i>loose</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Trust companies, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Trust department of a bank, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Uncertain antecedents, pronouns with, <a href="#Page_207">207</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +United States treasury notes, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Unity, in the sentence, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the paragraph, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Unless, a conjunction, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Until, as preposition and conjunction, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Usefulness, its appeal in advertising, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[381]</a></span><br /> +Utility corporations, public, <a href="#Page_36">36</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Value, par of stock, <a href="#Page_355">355</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">market, <a href="#Page_355">355</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +Vanity, its appeal in advertising, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Variety of expression, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Verb, the, <a href="#Page_83">83</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defined, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">transitive, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">intransitive, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">copulative, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">active voice of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">passive voice of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">number of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">person of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">singular with certain words, <a href="#Page_85">85</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plural with certain subjects, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tense of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>shall</i> and <i>will</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>should</i> and <i>would</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conjugation of <i>be</i>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>be</i> used to make progressive tenses, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>be</i> used to make passive voice, <a href="#Page_105">105</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the participle, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the infinitive, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mode, <a href="#Page_112">112</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conjugation of <i>write</i>, active voice, <a href="#Page_88">88</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>follow</i>, passive voice, <a href="#Page_105">105</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">synopsis of <i>write</i>, active voice, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">synopsis of <i>follow</i>, passive voice, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Verbal noun, defined, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">possessive case with, <a href="#Page_67">67</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +Verbs, incorrectly used, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">participles of verbs in <i>y</i>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">taking two objects, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">taking indirect and direct objects, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">principal parts of irregular, <a href="#Page_95">95</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">troublesome, <a href="#Page_100">100</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>lie</i>, <i>lay</i>, distinguished, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>sit</i> and <i>set</i>, distinguished, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>fly</i>, <i>flow</i>, <i>flee</i>, distinguished, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>rise</i> and <i>raise</i>, distinguished, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>teach</i> and <i>learn</i>, distinguished, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>may</i> and <i>can</i>, distinguished, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>might</i> and <i>could</i>, distinguished, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>accept</i> and <i>except</i>, distinguished, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>affect</i> and <i>effect</i>, distinguished, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>lose</i> and <i>loose</i>, distinguished, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>had ought</i>, incorrectly used, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">certain prepositions used with, <a href="#Page_116">116</a> ff.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Very</i> and <i>real</i>, distinguished, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br /> +<br /> +Voice, active and passive, defined, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the participle, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the infinitive, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Vowels, pronunciation of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">length of, in monosyllables ending in <i>e</i>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">words containing silent, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Warranty deed, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Washed money, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>-<a href="#Page_352">352</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Washing machine, letters to sell, outline, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Watered stock, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Way-bill, railroad, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Were</i>, <i>where</i>, distinguished, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>What</i>, double relative, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Who</i>, and <i>which</i>, used restrictively, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Who</i> and <i>whom</i>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Whoever</i> and <i>whomever</i>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Wholesale merchant, the, <a href="#Page_291">291</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Why</i>, childish use of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Will</i> and <i>shall</i>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Will you be so good as to</i>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Wish, subjunctive to express, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Without</i>, a preposition, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">incorrectly used as conjunction, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Word analysis, <a href="#Page_29">29</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Words, interesting, <a href="#Page_1">1</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">obsolete, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">technical, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">similarly pronounced 14, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">frequently mispronounced, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">containing <i>dg</i>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ending in silent <i>e</i>, retain or drop <i>e</i>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">analysis of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">easily confused, list of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">500 for spelling, <a href="#Page_36">36</a> ff.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used as different parts of speech, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">omission of, punctuation to show, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Wordiness, <a href="#Page_130">130</a> ff, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>-<a href="#Page_201">201</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Would</i> and <i>should</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Would say</i>, to be avoided, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Write</i>, conjugation of, active voice, <a href="#Page_88">88</a> ff.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">synopsis of, passive voice, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Writing advertisements, exercises in, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>-<a href="#Page_316">316</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Written composition, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Written expression, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>Y</i>, nouns ending in, plural of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br /> +<br /> +"Yellow" invasion, paragraph on the, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>You</i> attitude, the, in letter writing, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Yze</i>, <i>ize</i>, <i>ise</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br /> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> If one of the words so joined is plural, the verb should be plural.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> See note on <a href="#Page_115">page 115</a></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> <i>Loan</i> for <i>lend</i>, though common in the United States, is not in approved use except +sometimes in financial language.—<i>Webster's New International Dictionary.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Supply heading and introduction (see <a href="#Page_232">page 232</a>).</p></div></div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<div class='tnote'><h3>Transcriber's Note:</h3> + +<p>Text uses both "to-day" and "today."</p> +<p>Obvious punctuation errors were corrected.</p> +<p>Pages 116-117, entry for "confide" was originally placed after "correspond." It was relocated +to be in the correct alphabetical order.</p> +<p>Pages 171-172, the examples were placed out of order. The section beginning "reporter, business +manager" to the end of the paragraph was originally located after a space following the Abraham +Lincoln paragraph. The first part of the Abraham Lincoln paragraph originally ended with "nor a year +it". The rest of that paragraph was originally located at the top of the next page. These paragraphs +have been adjusted to read correctly. Links to images of the original pages +follow.</p> +<div class='blockquot2'> +<a href="images/page_171.png">Page 171</a><br /> +<a href="images/page_172.png">Page 172</a> +</div> +<p>The remaining corrections made are indicated by faint dotted lines under the +corrected text. Hover the cursor over the word and the original text +will <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'apprear'">appear</ins>.</p></div> + + +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<hr class="full" /> +<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUSINESS ENGLISH***</p> +<p>******* This file should be named 38046-h.txt or 38046-h.zip *******</p> +<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/3/8/0/4/38046">http://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/0/4/38046</a></p> +<p>Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed.</p> + +<p>Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution.</p> + + + +<pre> +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/license">http://www.gutenberg.org/license)</a>. + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS,' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/pglaf. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://www.gutenberg.org/about/contact + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/pglaf + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +Each eBook is in a subdirectory of the same number as the eBook's +eBook number, often in several formats including plain vanilla ASCII, +compressed (zipped), HTML and others. + +Corrected EDITIONS of our eBooks replace the old file and take over +the old filename and etext number. The replaced older file is renamed. +VERSIONS based on separate sources are treated as new eBooks receiving +new filenames and etext numbers. + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org">http://www.gutenberg.org</a> + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + +EBooks posted prior to November 2003, with eBook numbers BELOW #10000, +are filed in directories based on their release date. If you want to +download any of these eBooks directly, rather than using the regular +search system you may utilize the following addresses and just +download by the etext year. + +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext06/">http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext06/</a> + + (Or /etext 05, 04, 03, 02, 01, 00, 99, + 98, 97, 96, 95, 94, 93, 92, 92, 91 or 90) + +EBooks posted since November 2003, with etext numbers OVER #10000, are +filed in a different way. The year of a release date is no longer part +of the directory path. The path is based on the etext number (which is +identical to the filename). The path to the file is made up of single +digits corresponding to all but the last digit in the filename. For +example an eBook of filename 10234 would be found at: + +http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/0/2/3/10234 + +or filename 24689 would be found at: +http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/4/6/8/24689 + +An alternative method of locating eBooks: +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/GUTINDEX.ALL">http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/GUTINDEX.ALL</a> + +*** END: FULL LICENSE *** +</pre> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/38046-h/images/a_with_tack.png b/38046-h/images/a_with_tack.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..635e14f --- /dev/null +++ b/38046-h/images/a_with_tack.png diff --git a/38046-h/images/bracket.png b/38046-h/images/bracket.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..bbb447a --- /dev/null +++ b/38046-h/images/bracket.png diff --git a/38046-h/images/bracket2-l.png b/38046-h/images/bracket2-l.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..88c59cd --- /dev/null +++ b/38046-h/images/bracket2-l.png diff --git a/38046-h/images/bracket2-l2.png b/38046-h/images/bracket2-l2.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..184922f --- /dev/null +++ b/38046-h/images/bracket2-l2.png diff --git a/38046-h/images/bracket2-r.png b/38046-h/images/bracket2-r.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..df8dc19 --- /dev/null +++ b/38046-h/images/bracket2-r.png diff --git a/38046-h/images/bracket3-l.png b/38046-h/images/bracket3-l.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1d750e6 --- /dev/null +++ b/38046-h/images/bracket3-l.png diff --git a/38046-h/images/bracket3-r.png b/38046-h/images/bracket3-r.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..54f0abd --- /dev/null +++ b/38046-h/images/bracket3-r.png diff --git a/38046-h/images/bracket_106a.png b/38046-h/images/bracket_106a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8d86002 --- /dev/null +++ b/38046-h/images/bracket_106a.png diff --git a/38046-h/images/bracket_106b.png b/38046-h/images/bracket_106b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d950a73 --- /dev/null +++ b/38046-h/images/bracket_106b.png diff --git a/38046-h/images/gs241.png b/38046-h/images/gs241.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9195fe7 --- /dev/null +++ b/38046-h/images/gs241.png diff --git a/38046-h/images/gs340.png b/38046-h/images/gs340.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9b75044 --- /dev/null +++ b/38046-h/images/gs340.png diff --git a/38046-h/images/gs341.png b/38046-h/images/gs341.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e99789c --- /dev/null +++ b/38046-h/images/gs341.png diff --git a/38046-h/images/gs345.png b/38046-h/images/gs345.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3e56636 --- /dev/null +++ b/38046-h/images/gs345.png diff --git a/38046-h/images/gs346.png b/38046-h/images/gs346.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..cc22ff9 --- /dev/null +++ b/38046-h/images/gs346.png diff --git a/38046-h/images/gs347.png b/38046-h/images/gs347.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ec40e5a --- /dev/null +++ b/38046-h/images/gs347.png diff --git a/38046-h/images/gs348a.png b/38046-h/images/gs348a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..97c0326 --- /dev/null +++ b/38046-h/images/gs348a.png diff --git a/38046-h/images/gs348b.png b/38046-h/images/gs348b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1435739 --- /dev/null +++ b/38046-h/images/gs348b.png diff --git a/38046-h/images/gs349.png b/38046-h/images/gs349.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..bfe5e9d --- /dev/null +++ b/38046-h/images/gs349.png diff --git a/38046-h/images/gs350.png b/38046-h/images/gs350.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d945bef --- /dev/null +++ b/38046-h/images/gs350.png diff --git a/38046-h/images/long_bracket_l.png b/38046-h/images/long_bracket_l.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8e78f2c --- /dev/null +++ b/38046-h/images/long_bracket_l.png diff --git a/38046-h/images/med_bracket_l.png b/38046-h/images/med_bracket_l.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..94f9d51 --- /dev/null +++ b/38046-h/images/med_bracket_l.png diff --git a/38046-h/images/page_171.png b/38046-h/images/page_171.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d2f6095 --- /dev/null +++ b/38046-h/images/page_171.png diff --git a/38046-h/images/page_172.png b/38046-h/images/page_172.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1219b38 --- /dev/null +++ b/38046-h/images/page_172.png |
