initial commit of ebook 38024HEADmain

1 files changed, 3346 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/38024.txt b/38024.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0716b6b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38024.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,3346 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Dwarf Fruit Trees, by F. A. Waugh
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Dwarf Fruit Trees
+       Their propagation, pruning, and general management, adapted
+       to the United States and Canada
+
+Author: F. A. Waugh
+
+Release Date: November 15, 2011 [EBook #38024]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DWARF FRUIT TREES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by David Garcia, Cathy Maxam, Marilynda
+Fraser-Cunliffe and the Online Distributed Proofreading
+Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from
+images generously made available by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+DWARF FRUIT TREES
+
+
+
+
+  OTHER BOOKS
+  BY THE SAME AUTHOR
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  LANDSCAPE GARDENING
+  PLUMS AND PLUM CULTURE
+  FRUIT HARVESTING, STORING, MARKETING
+  SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY
+
+[Illustration: DWARF CHERRY TREE
+
+Two years planted]
+
+
+
+
+  DWARF
+  FRUIT TREES
+
+  THEIR PROPAGATION, PRUNING, AND
+  GENERAL MANAGEMENT, ADAPTED
+  TO THE UNITED STATES AND
+  CANADA
+
+  _By_
+  F. A. WAUGH
+
+  _ILLUSTRATED_
+
+  NEW YORK
+  ORANGE JUDD COMPANY
+  1906
+
+
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1906
+
+BY ORANGE JUDD COMPANY
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The commercial interests have so continuously and completely held the
+horticultural stage in America during the last two decades that it has
+been impossible for amateur horticulture to get in a word edgewise. Any
+public speaker or writer has had to talk about several acres at a time
+or he would not be listened to. He has been obliged to insist that his
+scheme would pay on a commercial scale before anyone would hear, much
+less consider, what he had to tell.
+
+But now a change is coming. Different conditions are already upon us. A
+thousand signs indicate the new era. With hundreds--yes thousands--of
+men and women now horticulture is an avocation, a pastime. They grow
+trees largely for the pleasure of it; and their gardens are built amidst
+surroundings which would make commercial pomology laugh at itself.
+
+And so I undertake to offer the first American fruit book in a quarter
+century which can boldly declare its independence of the professional
+element in fruit growing. I am confident that dwarf fruit trees have
+some commercial possibilities, but they are of far greater importance to
+the small householder, the owner of the private "estate," the village
+dweller, the suburbanite and the commuter.
+
+In other words, while I hope that all good people will be interested in
+dwarf fruit trees and that some of them will share the enthusiasm of
+which this book is begotten, I do not want anyone to think that I have
+issued any guaranty, expressed or implied, that dwarf trees will open a
+paying commercial enterprise. Because the argument that a thing pays has
+been so long the only recommendation offered for any horticultural
+scheme, many persons have formed the habit of assuming that every sort
+of praise stands on this one foundation.
+
+F. A. WAUGH.
+
+_Massachusetts Agricultural College, 1906._
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+
+                                       PAGE
+
+     PREFACE                              v
+
+     I. General Considerations            1
+
+    II. Advantages and Disadvantages      8
+
+   III. Propagation                      22
+
+    IV. Pruning                          33
+
+     V. Special Forms                    41
+
+    VI. General Management               51
+
+   VII. Dwarf Apples                     63
+
+  VIII. Dwarf Pears                      76
+
+    IX. Dwarf Peaches                    83
+
+     X. Dwarf Plums                      90
+
+    XI. Bush Fruits                      99
+
+   XII. Fruit Trees in Pots             106
+
+  XIII. Personalia                      112
+
+        Index                           125
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+     Dwarf Cherry Tree                     _Frontispiece_
+
+  FIG.                                                      PAGE
+
+   1 Dwarf Apple Trees in Western New York                     3
+
+   2 Trained Cordon Apple Trees                                5
+
+   3 Bismarck Apple                                            7
+
+   4 Pear Tree Trained as an Espalier                          9
+
+   5 Bush Apple Tree                                          11
+
+   6 Plums as Upright Cordons                                 17
+
+   7 Paradise Apple Stocks in Early Spring                    25
+
+   8 The Western Sand Cherry                                  30
+
+   9 Upright Cordon Plum                                      31
+
+  10 Bush Apple                                               34
+
+  11 Bush Apple, Three Years Old, Before Pruning              37
+
+  12 Bush Apple, Same Tree, After Pruning                     37
+
+  13 Cordon Pears Before Pruning                              39
+
+  14 Cordon Pears After Pruning                               39
+
+  15 Pears in Double U Form                                   43
+
+  16 Pears in U Form                                          45
+
+  17 Apricots in U Form                                       47
+
+  18 Pear in Espalier                                         48
+
+  19 Old Espalier Pears on Farm House Wall                    49
+
+  20 Horizontal Cordon Apple and Other Dwarf Trees            52
+
+  21 Design for a Back Yard Fruit Garden                      53
+
+  22 Dwarf Fruit Garden                                       55
+
+  23 Fruit Gardening and Landscape Gardening Combined         59
+
+  24 A Fruit Garden Containing Many Dwarf Trees               61
+
+  25 Dwarf Apples on Prof. L. H. Bailey's Farm, New York      65
+
+  26 Upright Cordon Apples                                    67
+
+  27 Horizontal Cordon Apple Trees                            71
+
+  28 Young Orchard of Dwarf Pear in Western New York          76
+
+  29 Dwarf Pear in the Old and Profitable Yeomans
+       Orchard, New York                                      77
+
+  30 Orchard of Dwarf Duchess Pear, Lockport, N. Y.           79
+
+  31 Pyramid Pears in a German Orchard                        80
+
+  32 Dwarf Peach in Nursery                                   84
+
+  33 Espalier Peach, Hartford, Conn.                          85
+
+  34 Peach in Fan Espalier on Wall--England                   87
+
+  35 Peach Trees Trained Under Glass                          88
+
+  36 Plum Trees Trained as Upright Cordons                    91
+
+  37 Burbank Plums on Upright Cordons Trained to Trellis      95
+
+  38 Currants as Fan Espaliers on Trellis                    100
+
+  39 Gooseberry Fan Espalier                                 102
+
+  40 Tree Form Gooseberry                                    104
+
+  41 A Fruiting Peach in Pot                                 108
+
+  42 A Fig Tree in a Pot                                     110
+
+  43 Dwarf Pear                                              117
+
+  44 Chenango Apples in Prof. L. H. Bailey's Orchard         121
+
+
+
+
+DWARF FRUIT TREES
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
+
+
+A dwarf fruit tree is simply one which does not reach full size. It is
+not so large as it might be expected to be. It is smaller than a normal
+tree of the same variety and age.
+
+There are indeed some trees which are normally dwarf, so to speak. They
+never reach a considerable size. They are smaller than other better
+known and related species. For example, the species _Prunus pumila
+besseyi_ is sometimes called the dwarf sand cherry, simply because it is
+always notably smaller than related species. The Paradise apple is
+spoken of as a dwarf because it never attains the stature which other
+apples attain.
+
+But in the technical sense, as the term is used by nurserymen and
+pomologists, a dwarf tree is one which is made, by some artificial
+means, to grow smaller than normal trees of the same variety.
+
+These artificial means used for making dwarf trees are chiefly three:
+(1) propagation on dwarfing stocks, (2) repressive pruning, and (3)
+training to some prescribed form.
+
+
+DWARFING STOCKS
+
+The most common and important means of securing dwarf trees is that of
+propagating them on dwarfing stocks. These are simply such roots as make
+a slower and weaker growth than the trees from which cions are taken.
+This will be understood better from a concrete example. The quince tree
+normally grows slower than the pear, and usually reaches about half the
+size at maturity. Now pear cions will unite readily with quince roots
+and will grow in good health for many years. But when a pear tree is
+thus dependent for daily food on a quince root it fares like Oliver
+Twist. It never gets enough. It is always starved. It makes considerably
+less annual growth, and never (or at least seldom) reaches the size
+which it might have reached if it had been growing on a pear root.
+
+This is, somewhat roughly stated, the whole theory of dwarfing fruit
+trees by grafting them on slow-growing stocks. The tree top is always
+under-nourished and thus restrained in its ambitious growth of branches,
+as seen in Fig. 1.
+
+While the tree is made thus smaller by being grafted on a restraining
+root, it is not affected in its other characteristics. At least
+theoretically it is not. It still bears the same kind of fruit and
+foliage. Bartlett pear trees budded on quince roots yield fruit true to
+name. The pears are still Bartletts, and can not be told from those
+grown on an ordinary tree. Sometimes the fruit from dwarf trees seems
+to be better colored or better flavored than that from standard trees;
+but such differences are very delicate and usually receive slight
+thought.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1--DWARF APPLE TREES IN WESTERN NEW YORK]
+
+Dwarf fruit trees have not been very largely grown in America, but have
+been much more widely used in Europe. This statement holds good either
+for commercial plantations or for private fruit gardens. They are coming
+into more common use in this country because, in both market orchards
+and amateur gardens, our pomology is coming to be somewhat more like
+that of Europe. Our conditions are approaching those of the Old World,
+even though they will always be very different from those of Europe in
+horticultural matters.
+
+Dwarf fruit trees are particularly valuable in small gardens; and small
+gardens are becoming constantly more popular among our urban, and
+especially our suburban, population. This matter is discussed more fully
+in another chapter. Fruit of finer quality can be grown on dwarf trees,
+as a general rule, than can usually be grown on standard trees. Every
+year there are more people in America who are willing to take any
+necessary pains to secure fruit of extra quality. This remark applies
+particularly to amateur fruit growers and to owners of private estates
+who grow fruit for their own tables, but it is no less true of a certain
+class of fruit buyers, especially in the richer cities. Although $3 a
+barrel is still a high price for ordinary good apples, sales of fancy
+apples at $3 a dozen fruits are by no means infrequent in the city
+markets every winter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2--TRAINED CORDON APPLE TREES
+
+From Loebner's "Zwergobstbaeume"]
+
+In this respect also we are approaching European conditions. In the
+markets of the continental capitals in particular fancy fruits are
+frequently sold at prices which seem almost incredible to an American.
+Single apples sometimes bring 50 cents to a dollar, and peaches an equal
+price. Just recently a story has been going the rounds of the newspapers
+that the caterer for the Czar's table sometimes pays as high as $15
+apiece for peaches for the royal table. Hereupon a solemn American
+editor remarked that if the whole royal family should live upon nothing
+but peaches it would still be cheaper than carrying on the Japanese war.
+
+Now if there is anywhere within reach a market for apples or peaches at
+$3 a dozen specimens--and there unquestionably is--then it will pay to
+grow fancy fruits with special care to meet this demand. This kind of
+fruit can be grown better upon dwarf trees than upon standards in many
+cases, if not in most. At least such is the conviction of the present
+writer. Moreover this has been the experience in the old country.
+
+With such facts in view there seems to be a possible future for dwarf
+fruit trees, even for commercial purposes. Their present utility in
+amateur gardens and on wealthy private estates can not be questioned.
+These various amateur and commercial adaptations of dwarf trees will
+have to be more carefully analyzed and discussed in a future chapter,
+and the subject may therefore be dropped for the present.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3--BISMARCK APPLE, FIRST YEAR PLANTED
+
+22 inches high; bearing 4 fruits]
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
+
+
+It is a good prejudice which expects every man who writes anything to be
+enthusiastic over his subject. Such enthusiasm doubtless leads a writer
+many times to over-state his case, and to claim more than the calm
+judgment of the multitude will ratify. And on the other hand, readers
+usually tacitly discount the statements of any man who writes about any
+matter in which he is plainly interested. The present writer knows that
+he is also under the ban, and that the reader firmly expects him to
+claim more for dwarf fruit trees than their merits will fairly warrant.
+This expectation the writer hopes to disappoint. It will be enough to
+set down here the obvious advantages and disadvantages which the
+horticulturist will meet in handling dwarf fruit trees. These statements
+are mostly of matters of common experience and they need no coloring to
+make them serve their present purpose.
+
+We may fairly set down the following good points standing more or less
+generally to the credit of dwarf fruit trees:
+
+1. _Early bearing._--This is a sufficiently obvious advantage. The
+Alexander apple will bear the second year after planting when grown as a
+dwarf, while it requires six to ten years to come into bearing as a
+standard. This habit of early bearing proves valuable in many ways. It
+encourages men to plant trees. The disinclination of old men to plant
+trees rests upon the slenderness of the chance that they will ever
+gather of the fruit. But a man may plant dwarf trees whenever his
+expectation of life is two years or more. Such trees would serve
+octogenarians, consumptives and those sentenced to be hanged for murder.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4--PEAR TREE, TRAINED AS AN ESPALIER]
+
+Early bearing--to return to the subject--makes dwarf trees valuable to
+that large and unfortunately growing class of citizens who rent the
+premises where they live. They do not expect to stay more than five or
+six years in any one place. In that length of time ordinary trees would
+not begin to yield any fruit. But with dwarf trees there is excellent
+probability of seeing something ripen. Then again early bearing is a
+great advantage when one is testing new or old varieties. It is a great
+advantage when a commercial orchard is designed and when dwarf trees are
+used for fillers as explained below.
+
+2. _Small size._--The very smallness of the dwarf trees has many
+advantages in it. The trees are easier to reach and to care for. They
+are easier to prune and to spray. This facility in spraying is what has
+chiefly recommended smaller fruit trees to commercial fruit growers in
+recent years. Particularly in those places where the San Jose scale is a
+perennial problem a very large tree becomes an impossibility, and the
+smaller the trees can be the better it suits.
+
+The small size of dwarf trees permits the planting of larger numbers on
+a given area. This is specially worth while to the amateur who has a
+small garden where only three or four standard trees could grow, but
+where he can comfortably handle forty or fifty dwarfs. Yet it is also
+worth the consideration of the commercial fruit grower who is trying to
+earn a profit on expensive land. If he can increase the number of
+bearing trees on each acre, especially during the early years of
+establishing his orchard, it almost certainly means increased income.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5--BUSH APPLE TREE, THREE YEARS PLANTED]
+
+3. _High quality._--It is not perfectly certain that every kind of fruit
+can be produced in higher quality on dwarf trees than on standards, but
+such is the general rule. This is notably true of certain pears, as
+Buerre Giffard and Doyenne du Comice, and it is generally the case with
+all apples that can be successfully grown on Paradise roots. One can
+secure size, color, flavor and finish on an Alexander or a Ribston
+Pippin, for example, which can never be secured on a standard tree. One
+who has not seen this thing done will hardly understand it; those who
+have will not need more argument. Such plums as we have fruited on dwarf
+trees have shown similar improvement in quality, being always distinctly
+superior to the same varieties grown on standard trees. The significance
+of these facts will appear at once to any one familiar with the course
+of the fruit markets in America. There are greater rewards awaiting the
+fruit grower who can produce fruit of superior quality than the one who
+succeeds merely in increasing the quantity of his output.
+
+
+SPECIAL USES FOR DWARF TREES
+
+These various items of advantage recommend dwarf fruit trees for several
+specific purposes, some of which are worth pointing out in detail.
+
+1. _For suburban places._--A large and increasing percentage of our
+population now lives the suburban life--in that zone where city and
+country meet. They have small tracts of land, which, however, they too
+often lease instead of owning. On these they do more or less
+gardening,--usually more, in proportion to the size of their holdings.
+For them dwarf fruit trees are a precious boon. It is possible to plant
+three hundred to five hundred dwarf fruit trees on a quarter of an acre,
+where less than a dozen standard trees would flourish. This gives the
+opportunity to experiment with all sorts and varieties of fruits, a
+privilege very dear to the heart of the commuter. The dwarf fruit trees
+also work more readily into a scheme of more or less ornamental
+gardening, where fruits are combined with vegetables and flowers.
+Especially if some sort of formal gardening is attempted, the cordons,
+espaliers and pyramids exactly suit the demands. Then the fact, already
+mentioned, that the dwarf trees come into bearing much sooner, is a
+consideration of the highest value to the suburban gardener. He fully
+expects to move from one home to another at least once in ten years, if
+not once in five. With the best of intentions and the most favorable of
+opportunities he can hardly expect to settle down anywhere for life. The
+suburbs themselves change too rapidly for that; and the place which
+today is away off in the country may be all covered with factories five
+years from now. It is terribly discouraging, under such circumstances,
+to plant a tree knowing that ten years must pass before any considerable
+fruitage can be expected from it. It is altogether another feeling with
+which one plants a tree which promises fruit within two or three years.
+
+So that, whatever the drawbacks to the planting of dwarfs, they are the
+salvation of the suburban garden. For such circumstances they can be
+freely recommended, without exception or reservation.
+
+2. _For orchard fillers._--As commercial orcharding becomes more
+refined, under the stress of modern competition, and as good orchard
+land increases in value, up to one hundred, two hundred, or even three
+hundred dollars an acre, new methods must be adopted with a view to
+increasing the returns. This opportunity looms especially large for the
+first few years after the establishment of the commercial orchard, more
+particularly the apple orchard. When standard trees are planted
+thirty-five to the acre, which is now the usual practice, the land is
+not more than one-fourth occupied for the first five years, and not more
+than half occupied for the first ten years. Indeed it is full twenty
+years from the time of planting before the thirty-five apple trees will
+use the whole acre. And since a good farmer can not afford to let
+expensive land lie idle he has before him a very pretty problem to
+determine how the space between the standard trees shall be utilized
+during the early years of the orchard's growth.
+
+Several different methods are in vogue for the solution of this problem;
+but probably the best one is that system which supplies fillers or
+temporary trees between the standard or permanent ones. In an orchard of
+standard apple trees these fillers may very properly be dwarf apple
+trees; or between standard pears dwarf pears may be planted. If there
+are thirty-five standard apple trees to an acre, and if a dwarf tree is
+placed half way between each two standards in every direction, including
+the diagonal direction, this will make one hundred and five dwarf trees,
+or one hundred and forty trees in all, instead of the thirty-five trees
+with which the acre of apple orchard land is more commonly furnished.
+The dwarf apple trees will be bearing good crops at the end of five
+years at most; and they can be kept on the land for five years longer
+at the least, before they will begin to crowd the permanent standards.
+During these five years, if the orchard has a paying management at all,
+they will easily pay all the expenses of the enterprise, and should
+leave a substantial balance of profit.
+
+As this system of filling, or interplanting, commercial orchards is
+becoming more and more common, the suitability of dwarf trees, for this
+purpose, becomes more generally evident.
+
+3. _For school gardens._--Thus far school gardens in America have been
+mostly temporary and experimental affairs. But we are already satisfied
+that they have come to stay, and that gardening in some form will be a
+permanent feature of the curriculum in many of our best schools. As soon
+as a school garden becomes a permanent institution, with ground of its
+own to be held in use year after year, the dependence on annual crops
+will give way to the use of various perennial plants, shrubs and trees.
+
+And among these dwarf fruit trees will naturally be one of the first
+introductions. Their small size adapts them to the school premises,
+their habit of early bearing again serves to recommend them most
+strikingly, and the special opportunity which they offer to pupils to
+observe details of pruning and other items of tree management, make them
+almost a first necessity in the permanent school garden.
+
+4. _For covering walls and fences._--There are many places about every
+farm, suburban establishment, or even about many city homes, where back
+walls and fences could be put out of sight very agreeably by almost any
+sort of foliage. Various ornamental climbers and creepers are in vogue
+for this service; but a certain number of such unattractive walls and
+fences could be treated quite as acceptably, from the esthetic point of
+view, with trained fruit trees, and the result would be more
+satisfactory in some other ways. Apples or pears trained as cordons or
+espaliers, or peaches, nectarines, or cherries in fan forms, will thrive
+on almost any brick or wooden wall, except those with a northern front.
+It is necessary only to supply a proper soil, to plant sound trees of
+proper sorts, and to give them the prescribed care. The result is not
+only a thing of beauty but one of practical utility as well.
+
+There are many places where the owner of a city or suburban lot can
+secure the fun and the substantial benefits belonging to the fruit
+grower on land that would be otherwise wasted, if he will only build a
+woven wire fence on the property line between him and his
+not-too-agreeable neighbor, using this fence as a support for a row of
+cordon plums, pears or apples. If he has time and inclination to do a
+little more work with the trees he can better plant U-form peaches,
+nectarines or apricots, or he can grow plums in U-form, or he can have
+fan-form cherry trees, or apples or pears in Verrier-palmettes. One of
+the most interesting and productive lots in the author's dwarf fruit
+garden is a row of plum trees on such a woven wire trellis. The trees in
+this row stand two feet apart, and form a perfect screen. (Fig. 6.) The
+majority of the trees which were necessarily taken for planting this row
+were not propagated on suitable stocks, and many varieties were
+introduced for experimental purposes which were obviously unadapted to
+this mode of training, but nevertheless the net result has been highly
+satisfactory.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6--PLUMS AS UPRIGHT CORDONS, SET TWO FEET APART]
+
+In a very similar manner apple, pear or plum trees may be trained so as
+to form an arched arbor way. In this kind of make-up they present a most
+agreeable novelty. An example of this kind of training is shown in the
+illustration, page 5. For this purpose cordon trees are usually best;
+though peach or apricot trees in U-form or double U-form will answer
+very well. Even apple trees or pears formed as palmettes-Verrier can be
+carried up over an arched trellis.
+
+Mr. Geo. Bunyard in "The Fruit Garden" tells of carrying apple trees up
+over the slate roof of an outbuilding, with marked success. The
+fruit-bearing portion of the trees, lying there on the slate roof
+beautifully exposed to the sun above, and assisted by the heat absorbed
+and radiated by the slate, yielded large crops of apples of very
+superior quality.
+
+
+SOME DISADVANTAGES
+
+There are, of course, some disadvantages in growing dwarf fruit trees,
+and these should be examined with as much care as the advantages. The
+more important ones are as follows:
+
+1. _Greater expense._--The trees are somewhat harder to propagate, and
+therefore cost more. There is no general demand for them in America, so
+that they are carried by only a few nurseries and are not looked upon as
+staple goods even with those dealers; and on this account the price is
+necessarily increased. Thus each tree costs more than a similar tree of
+the same age and variety propagated in the usual way. But the greatest
+increase of expense comes from the fact that many more trees are
+required to plant the same area. There is often an advantage, as already
+argued, in planting more trees to the acre, but it costs something to
+gain this advantage. An acre of ground can be planted with thirty-five
+standard apple trees set thirty-five feet apart each way, and these
+trees will cost, roughly estimating retail prices at $12 a hundred,
+$4.20. To plant an acre to dwarf apple trees, setting them six feet
+apart each way, which is about as thick as these trees should ever be
+planted, will require 1,210 trees. Estimating the retail price roughly
+at $15 a hundred this would make the first cost $181.50--a considerably
+greater initial investment in the orchard.
+
+2. _The trees are shorter lived._--This statement is true for certain
+kinds of dwarf trees, but not for others. Certain varieties of pears,
+for example, which do not unite well with the quince root, naturally
+make short lived trees. On the other hand other varieties of pears
+appear to live as long and thrive fully as well on quince roots as on
+pear roots. There is a common belief, especially in England, that apples
+worked on French paradise roots are apt to be short-lived. The
+nurserymen who hold this belief contend, however, that the so-called
+English Paradise, more properly called Doucin, supplies a stock on which
+apples will live to as great an age as on any other stock whatever.
+There is some evidence to show that vigorous varieties of plums worked
+on Americana roots or on dwarf sand cherry are shorter lived than the
+same varieties on freer growing stocks. In many cases, however, dwarf
+trees live as long as standards; and in almost all cases they live long
+enough.
+
+3. _They require more care._--This objection stands particularly against
+the dwarf trees trained in special and intricate forms. Such trees
+undoubtedly do require more careful attention, more frequent
+going-over, and more hand work in the course of the year. It is
+probably not true that apples, pears, plums or peaches in bush or
+pyramid forms require any more labor or attention than standard trees to
+secure equally good results. On the other hand it must not be forgotten,
+as has already been pointed out, that whatever care may be required is
+much more easily given the dwarf trees than the standards.
+
+4. _They are not a commercial success._--This statement, too, though
+undoubtedly having some truth in it, can not stand without
+qualification. It is certainly true that no one could grow ordinary
+varieties of apples, like Baldwin or Ben Davis for instance, on dwarf
+trees in competition with men who are growing the same varieties on
+standards. It is probably true that fancy varieties of apples can be
+grown with profit on dwarf trees, but even this can not be strongly
+urged. So far as apples are concerned the chief value of dwarf trees for
+modern commercial enterprises in America will come through their use as
+fillers between rows of standard trees. In the case of pears the
+situation is somewhat more favorable to dwarf trees. There are a number
+of orchards in this country where pears have been successfully grown for
+market, these many years, on dwarf trees. The famous and everywhere
+planted Bartlett succeeds admirably on the quince stock wherever the
+soil is suited to it. No successful commercial orchards of dwarf peaches
+or plums can be cited in this country, individual trees of these kinds
+even being extremely rare; yet there is good reason to suppose that
+under favorable conditions dwarf peaches and plums may have some
+commercial value. Such value may be more in the way of supplementing
+standard trees than in superseding them, but it is still worth
+consideration. So that, after all, when we say that dwarf fruit trees
+are not a commercial success we mean merely that they will not take the
+place of standard trees. The large market orchards must always continue
+to be made up of standard trees; but in their own way the dwarf trees
+will find a limited place even in commercial operations, and this use of
+them seems destined to be more general in the future than it has been in
+the past.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+PROPAGATION
+
+
+The propagation of dwarf fruit trees is in some senses a more critical
+and interesting problem than the propagation of ordinary nursery stock.
+The successful production of a dwarf fruit tree depends primarily on its
+propagation. The selection of stocks for dwarfing purposes is
+necessarily a complicated matter. Under the terms of the problem it is
+impossible that the stock and the cion which are wedded together should
+be very closely related. The stock must be distinctly different and
+pronouncedly dwarfer in his habit of growth.
+
+It is not always an easy matter to find a stock which is thus distinctly
+different from the tree which it is desired to grow and which will at
+the same time form with it a vigorous and long lived union. It is
+necessary further that the propagation can be carried on with ease and
+with a fair degree of success in commercial nurseries. If difficult
+methods of grafting are required, or if only a small stand of nursery
+trees can be secured, the undertaking becomes too expensive from the
+nurseryman's point of view.
+
+The methods of propagating dwarf trees are for the most part the same as
+those used in reproducing the same kinds of fruit on standard stocks. As
+a matter of fact nearly all dwarf trees are propagated by budding.
+Apples, pears, and plums can be readily grafted, but budding is
+simpler, speedier, and usually the cheaper process in the nursery. In
+the upper Mississippi Valley, where plums are somewhat extensively
+worked on Americana plum roots, grafting is rather common. The side
+graft and the whip graft are the forms most used.
+
+The theory of the production of a dwarf fruit tree by the restraining of
+its growth has already been mentioned in another chapter. The dwarf
+stock simply supplies less food than is required for the normal growth
+of the variety under propagation, and the tree is, in a sense, starved
+or stunted into its dwarf stature.
+
+As the selection of proper stocks--the adaptation of stock to cion--is
+one of the fundamental problems in dwarf fruit growing, we may now
+address ourselves to that. We will take up the different classes of
+fruit in order.
+
+
+THE APPLE
+
+Everyone who has observed the wild or native apples which grow in New
+England pastures must frequently have noticed certain dwarf and
+slow-growing specimens. It it not difficult to find such which do not
+reach a height of five feet in ten years of unobstructed growth. If the
+cions of ordinary varieties of apples like Greening and Winesap should
+be grafted upon these stocks, the result would be a dwarf Greening or
+Winesap. If these dwarf wild apples could be produced with certainty and
+at a low price, they would furnish a source of supply for dwarf apple
+stocks.
+
+The Paradise apple so-called (Fig. 7) is simply one of these dwarf
+varieties which can be reproduced freely and cheaply. This reproduction
+is secured nearly always by means of mound layerage. As the variety does
+not come true to seed, any more than such varieties as King or
+Hubbardston do, some such method of propagation is necessary. This
+Paradise apple is naturally inclined to stool out somewhat from the
+roots. This habit is encouraged by cutting the plants back to the
+ground. When the young shoots are thrown up they are banked up with a
+hoe or by plowing furrows up against the rows of plants. The young
+shoots then form roots at the base and these rooted shoots or layers are
+removed when one year old. They are then planted in nursery rows in the
+spring, where they are usually budded the following July or August.
+
+These Paradise stocks are largely grown in France. Practically all the
+supply comes from that country. The nurserymen who grow dwarf apple
+trees in America import their stocks from France during the winter,
+plant them in nursery rows early in the spring, bud the stocks the
+following July or August, and have the dwarf apple trees for sale the
+second year following.
+
+This Paradise is the dwarfest stock known for apples. Its effect on
+nearly all varieties is very marked, causing them to form very small
+trees and to bear very early. Some of the more vigorous varieties, like
+Northern Spy for instance, do not submit kindly to such treatment. For
+this, or possibly for more recondite reasons, a few varieties do not
+succeed well on Paradise roots. The writer would be glad to give a
+list of such varieties which are not adapted to the Paradise stock, but
+confesses he is unable to do so.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7--PARADISE APPLE STOCKS IN EARLY SPRING]
+
+The Doucin stock is simply another variety of dwarf apple. It is more
+vigorous and larger growing than the Paradise, and, therefore, produces
+a tree, when ordinary varieties are grafted upon it, about midway in
+size between the ordinary standard apple and the same variety growing
+upon Paradise.
+
+This Doucin is sometimes called the English or Broad-Leaved Paradise,
+but this name is misleading. It will be well to remember this in buying
+stocks or in buying trees in England. Dwarf apples are largely
+propagated in England, but the trees which are said to be on Paradise
+roots are often on Doucin. This confusion comes about from the
+Englishman's habit of calling Doucin the Broad-Leaved Paradise.
+
+The Doucin is perhaps better for the free-growing bush form trees,
+especially where excessive dwarfing is not needed. For orchard planting
+in the United States this Doucin stock would be likely to suit many
+growers better than Paradise. For trees which are to be kept within very
+narrow bounds, or those which are to be trained in particular forms, the
+Paradise stock is better. For all sorts of cordon apple trees, the
+Paradise is essential.
+
+
+THE PEAR
+
+Dwarf pears are always propagated on quince roots. Any kind of a quince
+may be used as a stock for pears, but the one commonly employed by
+nurserymen is the Angers quince, named after Angers, France, from which
+place the supply largely comes. Almost all the quince stocks used by
+nurserymen in America are imported from France. As in dealing with apple
+stocks, the importation is made during the winter, the stocks are
+planted in nursery rows in the early spring, and are usually budded in
+July or August of the same year.
+
+A few varieties of pears do not make good unions with the quince. In
+some cases this antipathy is overcome by the expedient of
+double-working. The quince root is first budded with some variety which
+unites well with it. After this pear cion has grown one year, the
+refractory variety is budded upon this pear shoot. The complete tree,
+when it leaves the nursery, consists of three pieces,--a quince root
+below, a pear top above, and a short section of only one or two inches
+in length of some other variety of pear which simply holds together the
+two essential parts of the tree.
+
+This practise of double-working is sometimes undertaken with other kinds
+of fruit for special purposes. There are no other cases, however, in
+which it becomes a generally recognized commercial practise.
+
+
+THE PEACH
+
+The peach is dwarfed by budding it upon almost any kind of a plum root,
+especially upon the smaller growing species of plums. The stock most
+used is the ordinary Myrobalan plum. This is simply because the
+Myrobalan stock is commoner and cheaper. The St. Julien plum probably
+furnishes a better dwarfing stock for peaches, but it is more expensive
+and harder to work.
+
+The Americana plum, now somewhat largely grown for stocks in the States
+of the upper Mississippi valley, furnishes a good dwarfing stock for the
+peach. According to the writer's experience the Americana stock gives
+better results with peaches than either Myrobalan or St. Julien. It
+should be observed that this stock requires budding rather early in the
+season.
+
+The dwarf sand cherry, which is further discussed below under plums,
+also makes a good stock for peaches. As this stock is very dwarf, it
+produces the smallest possible peach tree. The peach cion rapidly
+overgrows the stock and the tree can hardly be expected to be long
+lived. The growth is very vigorous and satisfactory during early years,
+however. I have not had an opportunity to determine how long peaches
+will live and thrive on this stock.
+
+Nectarines can be grown in dwarf form in exactly the same manner
+employed for peaches.
+
+
+THE PLUM
+
+In all the old books it is said that dwarf plum trees are secured by
+working on Myrobalan stocks. This statement is hardly true according to
+our present standards, and is certainly far from satisfactory. This rule
+came into vogue at the time when only large growing Domestica plums were
+propagated in this country and the stocks used were mostly either "horse
+plums" or Myrobalan. The Myrobalan stock does give a somewhat smaller
+tree than the old fashioned horse plums; but this Myrobalan stock has
+been for many years the one principally used for propagating all kinds
+of plums in America. It has come to be looked upon as a standard rather
+than a dwarf stock. When we think of dwarf trees, therefore, we expect
+to see something smaller than what will grow under ordinary
+circumstances on a Myrobalan root.
+
+The Americana plum, already mentioned, is a first-rate stock in nearly
+all respects except that it can not be bought so cheaply as the
+Myrobalan. It is now grown to a considerable extent by nurserymen in
+Minnesota, Iowa and the neighboring States. If grafted, or budded early,
+all varieties of plums take well upon it. The trees on Americana roots
+make a good growth in the nursery and are easily transplanted. The tree
+produced on this stock is only moderately dwarf. Still this dwarfing
+effect is always well marked, this result being shown by the overgrowing
+of the cion. The top thus appears to outgrow the root, and such trees
+are apt to blow over during wind storms. Suitable precautions should be
+taken to guard against damage of this sort.
+
+Prof. A. T. Erwin of Iowa writes on this subject as follows:
+
+     "Regarding the Americana as a plum stock, I would state that we are
+     using it by the thousands out here; in fact, have about quit using
+     anything else. As a stock for the European and Japanese sorts, it
+     does dwarf them, and the cion tends to outgrow the stock at the
+     point of union, causing an enlargement. The union is also not very
+     congenial, and they frequently break off on account of high winds.
+     However, in my experience and observation, this is not the case
+     when the Americana is used as a stock for Americana varieties. It
+     does not dwarf the trees seriously and the union is splendid. It is
+     by all odds the best stock we have for plums, and since we do not
+     grow anything but Americana varieties, it works first rate. It does
+     tend to sprout some, though there is little trouble in this regard
+     after the trees come into bearing."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8
+
+THE WESTERN SAND CHERRY
+
+_Prunus pumila besseyi_]
+
+The sand cherry seems to be the dwarfing stock par excellence for the
+plum. This sand cherry is a heterogeneous species, or as some botanists
+think, is three species, ranging throughout the Northern States from
+Maine to Colorado. The narrow leaf upright form growing about five feet
+tall, known as _Prunus pumila_, is found along the Atlantic coast. The
+broad leafed dwarfer form known as _Prunus pumila besseyi_ or _P.
+besseyi_, is found in the Western States. Another rarer form of more
+irregular growth known as _Prunus pumila cuneata_, or as _P. cuneata_,
+is found in the North Central States.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9--UPRIGHT CORDON PLUM
+
+With buds set into the naked trunk]
+
+All of these different forms may be used for propagating plums or
+peaches. The western form (_P. besseyi_) (Fig. 8) is in some respects
+the best, producing the dwarfest and apparently the best trees. In our
+experience, however, nearly all varieties of plums and peaches give a
+better stand of trees when budded on _P. pumila_. _Prunus cuneata_ is
+inferior to the others.
+
+The eastern form, _P. pumila_, has another advantage from the standpoint
+of the nurseryman in that it is more easily propagated from cuttings.
+For the most part the western sand cherry is propagated from seed. Both
+forms can be propagated from layers.
+
+
+NURSERY MANAGEMENT
+
+Dwarf trees are managed in the nursery very much the same as standards
+of the same varieties. There are no special points to be observed except
+in the formation of the tops. Western New York nurserymen, who now grow
+the principal supply of dwarf apple and pear trees, have the custom of
+forming their nursery stock with high heads. That is, the heads are
+formed at a height of eighteen inches to three feet from the ground. In
+this matter the pattern is taken after the usual style of standard
+trees. This is quite wrong. Of course, some planters might like to have
+dwarf trees with trunks two or three feet tall, but the best form has a
+much shorter stem. At any rate the buyer of dwarf trees ought to be at
+liberty to form the head within three or four inches of the ground if he
+so desires. This becomes very difficult if the tree is once pruned up to
+a height of two or three feet.
+
+In order that the planter may reach his own ideal perfectly in this
+matter, it is sometimes necessary to buy one year old trees, what the
+English nurserymen call maidens. This, of course, enables the tree
+planter to form the head wherever he desires.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+PRUNING DWARF FRUIT TREES
+
+
+The pruning of dwarf fruit trees is a matter of the greatest
+consequence, for on proper pruning depend both the form and the
+productivity of the trees. Some of the details of management will be
+explained in the succeeding chapters, dealing with the particular kinds
+of fruits, but a few general statements should be set down here.
+
+1. The trees are severely headed in. This applies more particularly to
+bush and pyramid forms. By the term "heading in" we refer to the
+shortening of the leaders. Such shortening is usually given at the
+spring pruning, while the trees are dormant. The leaders may be headed
+in at times, however, during the latter part of the growing season, in
+July. Such stopping of growing leaders will be practised more often on
+young trees just coming into bearing than on old trees. (Fig. 10).
+Constant heading back of some sort, however, is required in nearly all
+cases, if the tree is to be retained in its dwarf form. The mistake has
+often been made of thinking that a tree propagated on a dwarf root would
+take care of itself.
+
+2. Summer pruning is essential. In most American orchard practise one
+annual pruning (sometimes one pruning every five years!) is considered
+sufficient, and systematic summer pruning is seldom or never given. Now
+summer pruning tends much more to repress the growth of a tree than
+winter pruning does. In fact, heavy winter pruning leads rather to
+increased vegetative vigor. Aside from any special system of pruning,
+therefore, this rule is to be remembered, that summer pruning is
+desirable, on general principles, for dwarf fruit trees.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10--BUSH APPLE, THREE YEARS OLD
+
+Showing strong leaders formed during the summer]
+
+3. Side shoots usually need pinching during the growing season. Leaders
+are more frequently allowed to grow unchecked throughout the season, or
+are stopped only late in their period of development. In the pomaceous
+fruits, which form distinct fruit spurs, the checking of these side
+shoots helps toward the production of fruit buds. As long as every bud
+is allowed to push out into a strong shoot no fruit spurs can become
+established. Thus the summer pinching of the side shoots on apples and
+pears has the purpose of encouraging the formation of fruit spurs. On
+peach and plum trees equally distinct fruit spurs do not form; but if
+the side shoots are allowed to push forth unrestricted they are apt to
+choke one another. There will be too many of them, they will not get
+light enough, their growth will be weak and sappy, and they will not
+form fruit buds. Good fruit buds on a peach tree, for example, form on
+strong, clean, healthy shoots of this year's growth for next year's crop
+of fruit. It is seen, therefore, that in nearly all sorts of dwarf fruit
+trees the summer pruning is especially directed to the suppression or
+regulation of the growth of side shoots.
+
+This part of the treatment becomes of prime importance in dealing with
+cordons and espaliers.
+
+4. The control of the fruit spurs or of the side shoots here
+contemplated requires that the trees be gone over more than once during
+the growing season. In fact, four successive examinations of the tree
+are usually required. Old trees can sometimes be managed with two or
+three, but young ones, on the other hand, will sometimes require six or
+more. Of course, there are usually only a few shoots that need attention
+at each succeeding visit, and the work can be very rapidly performed.
+The first pruning, or pinching, falls about three weeks after the trees
+have started into growth. The next one comes ten days later, the next
+one ten days later again, and the fourth pruning two weeks after the
+third. From this time onward the intervals lengthen. These
+specifications, of course, are only approximate and suggestive. Some
+judgment is required to select just the proper moment for pinching back
+a shoot and even more to select the time for a general summer pruning.
+Those trees which enjoy the sympathetic presence of the gardener every
+day are sure to fare best. The bulk of this pruning can be done with the
+thumb nail and forefinger, but I find a light pair of pruning scissors
+pleasanter to work with.
+
+5. Root pruning is sometimes advisable. Since the whole program is
+arranged to check the growth of the dwarf tree, root pruning would
+naturally fit well with the other practises recommended. Root pruning
+checks the growth of a tree about as positively as any treatment that
+can be devised. When dwarf pear or apple trees seem to be making too
+much wood growth and not enough fruit, they can be taken up, as for
+transplanting, during the dormant season and set right back into place.
+This digging up and replanting is always accompanied by some cutting
+of roots. The whole root system is disturbed and has to re-establish
+itself before the top vegetates very strongly once more. Such root
+pruning ought to be done late in the fall. It is a special practice,
+suited to refractory cases, and the gardener is not recommended to
+indulge in it too freely.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11--BUSH APPLE
+
+Three years old, before pruning]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12--BUSH APPLE
+
+Same tree after pruning]
+
+6. A certain equilibrium between vegetative growth and fruit bearing
+should be established at the earliest possible moment, and should be
+maintained thereafter. Of course, some such equilibrium is sought in the
+management of a standard tree; but it is secured earlier in the life of
+the dwarf tree and should be much more accurately maintained. The tree
+must make a certain amount of growth each year, but this must be only
+enough to keep it in good health, and to furnish foliage enough to
+mature the fruit. Beyond this wood growth the tree should bear a certain
+amount of fruit every year, for annual bearing is not only an ideal but
+a rule in the management of dwarf trees. This equilibrium once
+established must be maintained not by haphazard pruning, but by some
+suitable system. If there is the proper balance between summer pruning
+and winter pruning, combined with proper control of cultivation and
+fertilization, then the balance between vegetation and fruitage can be
+kept up. It is a delicate business, like courting two girls at once, but
+it can be carried out successfully.
+
+7. The training of trees into mathematical forms is largely a mechanical
+process. For the most part the trees are shaped while they are growing.
+The young shoots are twisted and bent to the desired positions, and
+are tied into place until the stems become hardened. There are many
+clever little tricks for expediting this sort of work and for making the
+results more sure, but a rehearsal of them here would be tedious. The
+most important rule to remember is that constant attention must be given
+the shoots while they are growing. Mistakes are corrected with
+difficulty after an undesirable form has been allowed to harden.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13--CORDON PEARS
+
+Before pruning]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14--CORDON PEARS
+
+After pruning]
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+SPECIAL FORMS FOR TRAINED TREES
+
+
+We have already explained the connection between dwarf trees and the
+practise of training them in special forms. It is true that this
+practise looks childish to American eyes. It seems to be only a kind of
+play, and a rather juvenile sport at that. Nevertheless we should
+understand that in some parts of the world it is a real and profitable
+commercial undertaking. We should consider also that in other places,
+where fruit of very high quality is better appreciated, perhaps, than it
+is in America, the extra trouble is thought to be worth while for the
+superior quality which it gives the fruit. As this matter is coming to
+be of more importance in America also, and as the interest in amateur
+fruit growing is enormously increasing, we may fairly begin to talk
+about these methods.
+
+The formation of trees into bushes and pyramids, by means of systematic
+pruning according to a definite plan, as explained in the succeeding
+chapters, while apparently simpler and more reasonable to our American
+eyes, it is still a method of training the tree. The fruiting branches
+are placed at definite points and the fruit spurs are encouraged to grow
+in regular succession. It is not a very great step from this to a
+distribution of the branches into a more precise form.
+
+The different forms which are used most commonly are named and
+classified in the following outline:
+
+  _A._--_Forms of three dimensions_:
+                  _a._ Vase or bush
+                  _b._ Pyramid
+                  _c._ Winged pyramid, etc.
+  _B._--_Forms of two dimensions_:
+                  _a._ Various espaliers
+                  _b._ Palmette-Verrier
+                  _c._ Fans or Fan-espaliers
+                  _d._ U-form and double U-form
+  _C._--_Trained to a single stem_:
+                  _a._ Upright cordon
+                  _b._ Oblique cordon
+                  _c._ Horizontal cordon
+                           (with one arm)
+                           (with two arms)
+                  _d._ Serpentine cordon, etc.
+
+Among the forms of three dimensions none is of much practical importance
+besides the pyramid and bush or vase form. These are sufficiently
+explained in the chapters on pears and apples. Here we need only to
+define them. The pyramid tree is one which has a straight central stem
+with branches radiating therefrom. It is especially adapted to upright
+growing varieties of pears. The bush or vase form has several main arms
+or branches, all standing out from approximately the same point and
+growing upward at a more or less acute angle, thus forming roughly a
+vase. The secondary branches put out from these, bearing fruiting wood,
+as the gardener may order.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15--PEARS IN DOUBLE U-FORM
+
+From Loebner's "Zwergobstbaeume"]
+
+The flying pyramid or winged pyramid, described in all European books,
+is considerably different from the ordinary pyramid and is more precise
+in its design. Usually six arms are brought out at the base of the tree.
+These are grown in a direction approximately horizontal until they reach
+a convenient length,--say two to three feet. They are then suddenly bent
+upward and inward and are conducted along wires set for this purpose
+until they meet in a common point with the main stem of the tree some
+four to eight feet above where the branches put out. There is thus
+formed a precise mathematical pyramid. Along these main arms fruiting
+spurs are allowed to grow, but no branches are expected to develop.
+
+Sometimes the flying pyramid is made more elaborate by bending the arms
+into a spiral form. Other more or less complex modifications are
+practised to some extent. All of them are to be regarded merely as
+curiosities and as of no practical value.
+
+The various forms of espaliers and fan-shaped trees have their special
+and legitimate uses. It may be said here that the Palmette-Verrier is
+regarded generally as being the most successful for the largest number
+of varieties of fruits. It is a safe rule also that the simpler forms
+are generally the better. With rare exceptions a tree confined to a
+moderately small space is more satisfactory than one trained over a
+large space.
+
+Great care must be exercised in forming these trees. If the geometrical
+style of training is undertaken at all, it should be carried out with
+considerable precision. If one arm happens to be placed a little higher,
+or at a little more moderate angle, or otherwise more favorably than the
+corresponding arm, it will very soon divert to its own use the major
+portion of food supplied by the top. It will outgrow its mate and the
+form which the gardener designed will eventually be lost. It will be
+seen at once that this condition makes the same care and precision
+necessary in all forms of training.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16--PEARS IN U-FORM
+
+Sometimes called two-arm upright cordons]
+
+The U-form classifies somewhere between the cordon and the espalier. It
+consists of two upright branches joined to a single trunk below by an
+arc of a circle. The fruit is all borne on the two parallel stems
+which are treated essentially the same as upright cordons. (Fig. 17.)
+
+The double U-form is made by growing two U's from the same tree. The
+stem is first divided near the ground into two branches and each of
+these is immediately divided into two more. The tree thus provides four
+parallel and equally spaced upright and fruiting stems equal to four
+upright cordons, except that they are all supported from a single trunk.
+The U- and double U-forms are employed mostly for plums, apricots,
+peaches and nectarines.
+
+One occasionally sees much more elaborate schemes of training than any
+here mentioned. There are complex geometrical designs, even pictorial
+figures--birds, dogs, and beer-steins--and sometimes the initials of the
+gardener, or the name of his kingly and imperial majesty. In every case
+the method of producing these forms is practically the same. A frame is
+built of wood or wire in the form which it is desired to give the tree.
+Branches are developed at suitable points on the tree and these are tied
+out while they are growing to the wooden or metal form. It does not
+require any special care or ingenuity to produce the most elaborate
+designs in this method. It is essentially a job of carpentry.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17--APRICOTS IN U-FORM]
+
+We come now to the cordons. If we take the simplest form, namely the
+upright cordon, we have what we may call a tree of one dimension only.
+The upright cordon has nothing but height, eschewing both breadth and
+thickness. A cordon is simply a tree trained to a single stem and this
+stem may be placed in any position. The position or direction of the
+stem classifies the cordon. There are, therefore, besides the upright
+cordon, others which are oblique, that is, which make an angle with the
+horizontal, those which are horizontal, and those which are bent into
+various forms. The serpent form is one of the simplest of these. This
+form of cordon is simply bent back and forth against a trellis forming a
+series of S's one above another. The horizontal cordons are of two
+varieties, namely one-arm and two-arm forms. It is altogether a matter
+of convenience which one of these forms is chosen.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18--PEAR IN ESPALIER
+
+This tree is carrying over 200 fruits]
+
+In conclusion it may be pointed out that the slower growing trees, pears
+and apples, are the better suited to the more elaborate forms of
+training. The more free and rapid growing species, such as peaches,
+nectarines, cherries, and Japanese plums, are better managed in somewhat
+simpler forms, preferably the fan. Such trees do well, however, in the
+U-form or double U-form.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19--OLD ESPALIER PEARS ON FARM HOUSE WALL]
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+GENERAL MANAGEMENT
+
+
+The general management of dwarf trees is naturally very much like the
+management of ordinary standard trees. As dwarf trees are grown more
+often in gardens rather than in orchards they will receive garden
+treatment. Heavy tools and extensive methods of culture will hardly find
+application.
+
+Good soil culture may be regarded as essential. Whatever some American
+fruit growers may be saying about the propriety of growing apple
+orchards in sod, no one has yet undertaken to adapt the sod system into
+the kitchen garden. The close planting which is customary with dwarf
+trees makes culture comparatively difficult, yet not unreasonably so.
+Apple and pear trees planted six feet apart each way can be worked for
+several years with a single horse and cultivator. In fact if the trees
+are kept carefully headed in, the time need never come when the
+cultivator will have to be abandoned. When cordons or espaliers are
+planted in a garden large enough to warrant horse cultivation under
+ordinary circumstances then the rows of trained trees should be set six
+feet apart, which will be enough to permit the continued use of the
+horse and cultivator between the rows.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20--HORIZONTAL CORDON APPLE AND OTHER DWARF TREES
+
+With cover crop of hairy vetch]
+
+However, the horse cultivator is certain to be definitely crowded out of
+some dwarf fruit gardens. Many of the men who have greatest reason for
+growing dwarf fruit trees are those whose backyard gardens were never
+large enough to justify the presence of a horse or horse tools. In such
+cases the spading fork and the hand cultivator are the ready and proper
+substitutes. Our extensive methods of farming in America have bred a
+strong prejudice against all sorts of hand labor like this, but
+experience will show that under some conditions it is quite worth while.
+A very common mistake in all kinds of agriculture is to allow prejudice
+to rule experience.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21--DESIGN FOR A BACK YARD FRUIT GARDEN 50 FT.
+SQUARE
+
+North fence (top of map), peach espalier (4); Row 1, bush apple (7); Row
+2, pyramid pear (7); Row 3, currants and gooseberries (11); Row 4 and 5,
+horizontal cordon apples, with grass walk between; Row 6, raspberry
+bushes (7); Row 7, strawberries; Row 8, plums in bush form (7); Row 9,
+apples in horizontal cordons (4); East fence, apples as upright cordons
+(31); West fence, pears in espalier.]
+
+Garden culture means not only good tillage of the soil, but good
+treatment in other respects. It means good feeding and good spraying. As
+for spraying we need make only two observations. First, the treatment to
+be given is almost precisely the same as that which is given to standard
+trees of the same species; second, the work is much more easily
+performed because the trees are smaller. If one happens to have a
+considerable block of dwarf trees closely planted. There may be
+difficulty, it is true, in driving in with a spray pump. This difficulty
+is overcome by having long runs of hose on the spray pump, so that the
+cart may stand on the borders of the garden while the operator carries
+the nozzle in among the trees. In case of large plantings of dwarf trees
+alley-ways should be left every one hundred feet, or better, every
+eighty feet, between the blocks. These alleys will be useful for other
+purposes besides spraying.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22--DWARF FRUIT GARDEN 111 BY 144 FEET
+
+From Lucas' Handbuch des Obstbaues]
+
+In the management of a small garden the gardener is expected to be
+liberal in his allowance of fertilizers. While it is true that dwarf
+fruit trees should be liberally fed there is a possibility of overdoing
+it. It has already been explained that the dwarfing of the tree depends
+in a certain way on its well-regulated starvation. If the tree top could
+get all the food which its nature calls for it would not be dwarfed. The
+rule in feeding dwarf fruit trees therefore should be to give enough
+fertilizer to keep them in perfect health and in good growing condition,
+but not enough to force unnecessary growth. Fertilizer rich in nitrogen
+should be especially avoided, and, as the object in view is to secure an
+early maturity of the tree and to produce fruit always in preference to
+wood, a larger proportion of potash would naturally be substituted for
+the diminished proportion of nitrogen. Of course the amounts and
+proportions of the different elements (nitrogen, potash and phosphoric
+acid) to be applied will vary greatly with different conditions,--with
+the nature of the soil, the age of the trees, etc. As a sort of standard
+we may say that under normal conditions of good soil with dwarf apple
+and pear trees in bearing there should be given annually for each acre:
+
+  400 pounds ground bone
+  400 pounds muriate of potash
+  100 pounds Peruvian guano
+
+Peaches and plums require more nitrogen during early growth, and more
+potash when in full bearing. For a new plantation of these trees the
+following amounts should be given annually for each acre:
+
+  300 pounds ground bone
+  400 pounds muriate of potash
+  150 pounds nitrate of soda
+
+For peach and plum trees in bearing, the following formula may be
+suggested:
+
+  400 pounds ground bone
+  500 pounds muriate of potash
+  100 pounds Peruvian guano
+
+Inasmuch as many owners of dwarf fruit trees will have so much less
+than an acre for treatment it will be best to repeat these formulas,
+reducing them to a smaller unit. Making this reduction somewhat freely,
+in order to avoid long and useless decimals, we may compute the quantity
+needed annually for each one hundred square feet of land as follows:
+
+  FOR APPLES AND PEARS IN BEARING
+
+      1 pound ground bone
+      1 pound muriate of potash
+    1/4 pound Peruvian guano
+
+  FOR PEACHES AND PLUMS NEWLY PLANTED
+
+    3/4 pound ground bone
+      1 pound muriate of potash
+    3/8 pound nitrate of soda
+
+  FOR PEACHES AND PLUMS IN BEARING
+
+    1/4 pound Peruvian guano
+  1-1/4 pound muriate of potash
+      1 pound ground bone
+
+Cherries should be treated like plums; gooseberries, currants, and most
+other fruits, like apples.
+
+In the home of dwarf tree culture, that is, in Europe, trained trees are
+extensively grown upon walls. The gardeners utilize for this purpose not
+only the walls of stables and outbuildings, and of the enclosed gardens,
+but long ranges of brick are built for the special and exclusive purpose
+of accommodating fruit trees. In southern Germany, in Switzerland, in
+Belgium, in France, and especially in the neighborhood of Paris, there
+are hundreds of miles of these walls. The walls may run north and south
+or east and west. Both sides of the walls are used, even when one side
+faces the north. Currants and gooseberries are expected to thrive on
+north walls. West walls are considered especially favorable for pears
+and plums. The walls are nearly always built of brick. They should have
+a height of ten to fourteen feet. Each wall usually has a coping at the
+top with a projection of ten to eighteen inches, which sheds the rain,
+protecting both the wall and the fruit trees. Where extreme pains are
+spent on the culture of fancy table fruits there are curtains hung from
+rods along the outer edge of these copings, and the curtains are drawn
+to protect ripening fruit from too hot sunshine, or to protect the
+blossoms in the spring season from late frosts.
+
+Brick walls, with all their appurtenances, are less important in America
+than in Europe and the advantages to be expected from this particular
+method of culture are decidedly less. Walls would more probably be
+useful for peaches and nectarines in northern latitudes than for any
+other fruits.
+
+Cordons and espaliers require some sort of support, however, and where
+walls are not used trellises are necessary. These may be of wood or
+wire. There is a belief current that the wooden trellises are better
+because they reflect less heat, but wire is so much cheaper and more
+durable that it will usually be chosen.
+
+Five or six wires are needed to make a good trellis for upright cordons.
+These should be placed twelve to fourteen inches apart, with the lowest
+wire thirty inches from the ground. All wires should be tight, and to
+this end stout, well-set posts are necessary. The wires should be
+loosened in the autumn, before freezing weather begins, and should be
+tightened again in the spring.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23--FRUIT GARDENING AND LANDSCAPE GARDENING COMBINED
+
+From Lucas' Handbuch des Obstbaues
+
+The entire planting, exclusive of the borders, is made up of fruit trees
+and bushes. Dimensions, 752 x 1,362 feet.]
+
+For espaliers the woven wire fences are better. In fact, the woven wire
+fencing is excellent for all sorts of fruit trellises. Poultry netting
+makes a cheap and convenient trellis, but it is neither so strong nor so
+durable as the better grades of woven wire fencing. On the whole it is
+very poor economy to buy a cheap trellis or to put it up on poor posts.
+
+These trellises will need to be comparatively high. Nothing less than
+eight feet will be satisfactory, and for upright cordons a trellis ten
+to fifteen feet high will be much better. Of course, this entire height
+is not needed the first year, but upright cordon apples will cover a
+twelve foot trellis in five years. Peaches or Japanese plums will cover
+the same trellis in three years.
+
+In the selection of varieties for growing in a garden of dwarf fruit
+trees the horticulturist will naturally be guided by principles
+altogether different from those which control him in the selection of
+varieties for a commercial orchard. He must, of course, consider which
+varieties are best adapted to the special stocks on which they have to
+be propagated. He must also bear in mind that certain varieties are
+better adapted than others for the special forms in which he may wish to
+train his dwarf trees. Beyond all this lies the great consideration that
+in the very large majority of cases dwarf fruit trees are grown to
+secure fancy fruit, not to produce a large quantity for a general
+market. All varieties of inferior quality would therefore be eliminated
+from consideration at the beginning, no matter how productive they might
+be, nor how famous for other things.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24--A FRUIT GARDEN CONTAINING MANY DWARF TREES
+
+A is the entrance; B, well or cistern; C, space to turn a horse and
+cart.
+
+From P. Barry's "Fruit Garden"]
+
+Varieties of specially good flavor would be given special thought, even
+though they might lack in hardiness or productivity. The special
+favorites of the man who owns the garden should be chosen, no matter
+whether they are popular or not. Then for similar reasons a
+comparatively long list of varieties will be chosen instead of the very
+short list always held to by the commercial grower. From first to last
+one should remember that the growing of dwarf fruit trees is essentially
+the enterprise of an amateur, not of a man who grows fruit for money.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+DWARF APPLES
+
+
+Dwarf apples are the most interesting and valuable of dwarf fruits. We
+have become so thoroughly accustomed to the standard apple tree in this
+country, however, and it so fully meets all the apparent requirements,
+that there seems to be no call for dwarf apples. Nevertheless dwarf
+trees have some real advantages under certain circumstances. Some of
+these have already been pointed out in the general discussion in
+previous chapters, and some of them will bear reiteration here. Where so
+much interest is taken in apple culture as in America, the advantage
+which dwarf trees offer for the rapid testing of new varieties cannot be
+overlooked. Still more important is the value of the dwarf trees in
+producing extra fancy specimens. Thus in growing very fine apples for
+exhibition or for a particularly fastidious market, one would naturally
+choose the dwarf trees.
+
+Inasmuch as dwarf trees are recommended chiefly to the amateur and are
+grown generally less for cash profit than for other considerations, the
+great and obvious advantages of standard trees quickly disappear. For
+men who like to play at fruit growing, nothing can equal a selection of
+apple trees on Paradise stocks. They are the most engaging of all dwarf
+trees, in fact of all fruit trees whatsoever.
+
+The general matter of selecting stocks has been referred to under the
+head of propagation, but the statement should be repeated here that the
+French Paradise stock is preferable for very dwarf garden trees, and is
+almost necessary for cordons and espaliers, while the Doucin (sometimes
+called the English or broad-leaved Paradise) may be chosen where only a
+moderate amount of dwarfing is desired. Some of the most expert apple
+growers of North America are beginning to think that the Doucin may be
+required for the commercial orchards in the future, when spraying for
+the San Jose scale becomes an established routine and smaller trees are
+an accepted necessity.
+
+Dwarf apple trees may be cultivated in nearly all the artificial forms
+ever given to fruit trees. Undoubtedly the simplest is the bush or vase
+form. This requires less care and attention and probably gives as much
+fruit to the same area as any other. The pyramid form is somewhat
+difficult to produce. It can be secured successfully only with the
+varieties which have a tendency to grow strong, straight branches, as
+for instance Sutton, Gravenstein and Northern Spy. On the whole the
+pyramid is not to be recommended for dwarf apples.
+
+Apples succeed very well as upright cordons and in all the simpler
+modifications of this form. As these trees can be planted very close
+together--as close as fifteen inches certainly--thus occupying very
+little room, a large number of them can be planted in very limited areas
+of the city lot or backyard. They are especially adapted to stand on the
+property line where they seem to use no space whatever, and where in
+fact they do occupy space which otherwise would be lost. The upright
+cordon can be bent into the form of an arch in order to make delightful
+arbors along the walks. The illustration, Fig. 2, shows a good example
+of this sort.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25--DWARF APPLES ON PROF. L. H. BAILEY'S FARM, NEW
+YORK]
+
+Nearly all varieties of apples--indeed all as far as I know--succeed in
+this form. The trees are not very long-lived, however. That is they
+cannot be maintained in good presentable form and prolific bearing
+indefinitely, because it is difficult to reproduce the fruit spurs on
+the lower part of the stem. Nevertheless the trees are inexpensive and
+can be cheaply replaced. As they come into bearing the first or second
+year after planting, this task of replacing worn-out trees is a small
+one. Very fine specimens of fruit can be produced on these upright
+cordons. Indeed this form is superior to the bush form in this respect.
+
+The apple is the best of all trees for horizontal cordons. In this form
+it becomes the most entertaining plaything in the garden, as well as one
+of the most rewarding trees in its product of fruit. Either the single
+arm or the double arm cordon can be used with success. These horizontal
+cordons are naturally used along the borders of walks, flower beds or
+plots devoted to vegetables. They may sometimes be used along
+foundations of buildings, where it is not desired to grow upright
+cordons or espaliers against the walls. The fruit produced by horizontal
+cordons is probably superior in size, color and finish to that produced
+on any other form of tree. In climates where the summer's heat and
+sunshine are apt to be meager, this advantage of the horizontal cordon
+will be comparatively greater. Conversely it will be less in places
+where sunshine and heat are very abundant during the summer. It is
+probably true that on the plains of Arizona and Texas the horizontal
+cordon will not be a brilliant success.
+
+Dwarf apples need practically the same care and cultivation, aside from
+pruning, as standard apples. The soil should be cultivated during the
+early part of the summer and allowed to rest during the latter part of
+the year. Cover crops may be sown during June or July, according to the
+custom practised in the usual orchard management; but the advantages of
+a cover crop in a small garden are less material than in a large
+commercial orchard.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26--UPRIGHT CORDON APPLES
+
+18 inches apart; in author's garden]
+
+The formation of the tree is discussed under another head. It remains to
+be said only that careful and intelligent pruning are required to keep
+any dwarf apple tree to its work. The more complicated and the more
+restricted the form of the tree, the more careful and continuous must be
+this pruning. The general system may be outlined in comparatively few
+words, and may be explained in its simplest form as applied to the
+treatment of a horizontal cordon. Each horizontal cordon, perfectly
+formed and full grown, should have fruit spurs throughout its horizontal
+length, which may be from three to fifteen feet. The upright portion of
+the trunk, from the point where the graft is set to the angle made by
+the bending down of the stem, should be kept clean and bare. Constant
+care is required to remove the sprouts from this portion of the tree,
+especially such as come up from the stock. At the further end of the
+horizontal portion there should be one, two, or three strong shoots
+allowed to push forth each year. These may be called leaders. They
+represent the principal wood growth in each tree. They draw up the sap
+from the roots, their leaves elaborate this sap, and from them the
+digested material is sent back for the support of the tree and the
+ripening of the fruit. They are allowed to take an upright or nearly
+upright position and their growth is encouraged. On all other portions
+of the tree growth is sternly restricted, when not altogether repressed.
+
+There is a constant tendency for strong shoots to start into growth all
+along the horizontal part of the stem and especially near the bend. If
+any of these shoots are allowed to make headway, the form of the tree
+is spoiled. Even if they are cut out after a year's growth, thus
+retaining somewhat the form of the tree, the fruit spurs are thereby
+lost. It is the business of the fruit grower, therefore, to pinch back
+these shoots which start along the horizontal stem, and this pinching is
+done at a comparatively early stage of their growth. Usually the first
+pinching should be given when the stems have grown long enough so as to
+have seven or eight leaves. These shoots are then cut or pinched back to
+three leaves. If the tree is in good vigorous condition, these shoots
+will soon start into growth once more. Again they have to be pinched.
+This time the pinching comes a little earlier, taking the shoot when it
+reaches only about five leaves and the pinching is still more severe.
+The shoots may start into growth a third time or even a fourth time, but
+each time they are pinched back sooner and more severely than before. In
+most cases two or three pinchings will suffice. These constant
+repressions of growth tend to secure the formation of fruit spurs and
+fruit buds along the horizontal trunk of the tree.
+
+Some slight modifications of the plan here outlined will develop
+themselves in experience. In particular it will be found that different
+varieties require slightly different handling. Some form fruit spurs
+more readily than others. With certain varieties it is very difficult to
+repress the rampant habit of growth and to secure a proper formation of
+fruit buds. These differences, however, are of minor importance as
+compared with the general management of the tree.
+
+The system just outlined has in view the summer pruning of the
+horizontal cordon apple. The upright cordon is pruned in almost exactly
+the same manner. Various forms of espaliers are handled in much the same
+way. Strong shoots or leaders are allowed to grow at the ends of the
+main branches to keep up a proper circulation and elaboration of sap,
+while the growth of fruit spurs is encouraged along the sides of the
+stems by frequent and regular pruning.
+
+In a somewhat less precise manner the same system of pruning can be
+applied to bush and pyramid forms. Each bush, for instance, is made up
+of a certain number of fruiting branches. The fruit is borne on spurs on
+the sides of these branches, while the woody growth is made by the
+leaders appearing at the ends of these branches. These leaders are
+annually cut back and the constant formation of fruit spurs is
+encouraged by pinching whatever shoots are on the sides of the main
+stems.
+
+It will be seen that the whole business of pruning falls into two
+general categories, viz., winter pruning and summer pruning. The winter
+or spring pruning is given any time after the stress of winter is over
+and before the sap starts running in the spring. This is the time when
+the ordinary fruit trees are customarily pruned. The work at this season
+consists chiefly in cutting back leaders. These are pruned off short,
+that is the whole stem is taken off down to within two or three buds of
+where it started growth the previous year. In some cases it is worth
+while to cut even further back, going into wood two or three years old.
+At this spring pruning the defective or diseased branches are of course
+removed wherever they are found. Cases requiring such treatment always
+occur even on the best trained cordons and espaliers. Whenever it
+becomes necessary an entire branch, sometimes composing half the tree,
+is taken out. Usually such branches can be replaced without great loss
+of time.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27--HORIZONTAL CORDON APPLE TREES]
+
+After this winter or spring pruning comes the summer pruning which has
+been outlined above. This usually begins May 15-25, and continues until
+July 25-31, differing, of course, in different latitudes.
+
+Practically all varieties of apples can be grown as dwarfs, though some
+succeed on Paradise roots better than others. Some varieties also are
+better adapted for special forms, as for cordons, than are others. Such
+requirements are not very strict, and a careful gardener can grow
+practically anything he wants to. Patrick Barry, in his "Fruit Garden,"
+recommends "twenty very large and beautiful sorts for dwarfs," having in
+mind American conditions, and especially his own experience in
+Rochester, N. Y. His list is as follows:
+
+  Red Astrachan
+  Large Sweet Bough
+  Primate
+  Beauty of Kent
+  Alexander
+  Duchess of Oldenburg
+  Fall Pippin
+  Williams' Favorite
+  Gravenstein
+  Hawthornden
+  Maiden's Blush
+  Porter
+  Menagere
+  Red Bietigheimer
+  Bailey Sweet
+  Canada Reinette
+  Northern Spy
+  Mother
+  King of Tompkins County
+  Twenty Ounce
+  Wagener
+
+In Europe, where greater attention has been paid to these matters, the
+opinion has settled down to a comparatively limited number. For example,
+Mr. George Bunyard in "The Fruit Garden" recommends the following
+varieties for cordons:
+
+  Mr. Gladstone            Aug.
+  Devonshire Quarrenden    Aug.
+  James Grieve             Sept.
+  Wealthy                  Oct.
+  Margil                   Oct.
+  King of Pippins          Oct.
+  Mother                   Oct.
+  Calville Rouge Precoce   Oct.
+  Cox's Orange Pippin      Oct., Feb.
+  St. Edmund's Pippin      Nov.
+  Ross Nonpareil           Nov.
+  Duchess of Oldenburg     Aug.
+  Pott's Seedling          Sept.
+  Lord Grosvenor           Sept.
+  Adams' Pearmain          Dec.
+  Hubbard's Pearmain       Dec.
+  Allington Pippin         Nov., Feb.
+  Scarlet Nonpareil        Jan., Feb.
+  Norman's Pippin          Jan.
+  Lord Burghley            Feb.
+  Duke of Devonshire       Feb.
+  Rosemary Russet          Feb.
+  Sturmer Pippin           Very late
+  Allen's Everlasting      Very late
+  Fearn's Pippin.          Very late
+  Lord Derby               Nov.
+  Bismarck                 Dec.
+  Lane's Prince Albert     Jan., March
+  Lord Suffield            Sept.
+  Grenadier                Sept., Oct.
+  Golden Spire             Sept., Oct.
+  Seaton House             Sept., Oct.
+  Sandringham              Feb.
+  Alfriston                Feb., March
+  Calville Malingre        Feb. to Mch.
+  Calville Rouge           Feb. to Mch.
+
+The same authority recommends the following varieties to be grown on
+Paradise stocks as bushes:
+
+  Beauty of Bath           July, Aug.
+  Red Quarrenden           July, Aug.
+  Lady Sudeley             Sept.
+  Worcester Pearmain       Sept., Oct.
+  Yellow Angestrie         Sept.
+  Duchess' Favorite        Sept. to Oct.
+  King of the Pippins      Oct.
+  Early White Transparent  J'ly.
+  Lord Suffield            Aug., Sept.
+  Pott's Seedling          Aug., Sept.
+  Lord Grosvenor           Aug., Sept.
+  Early Julien             Aug., Sept.
+  Ecklinville Seedling     Sept., Oct.
+  Grenadier                Sept., Oct.
+  Stirling Castle          Sept., Oct.
+  Golden Spire             Sept., Oct.
+  Cox's Orange Pippin      Nov., Feb.
+  Beauty of Barnack        Nov.
+  Allington Pippin         Dec., Feb.
+  Gascoigne's Scarlet      Dec.
+  Christmas Pearmain       Dec.
+  Winter Quarrenden        Dec.
+  Baumann's Reinette       Jan.
+  Lord Derby               Oct., Nov.
+  Stone's Apple            Oct., Nov.
+  Tower of Glamis          Oct., Nov.
+  Warner's King            Oct., Nov.
+  Bismarck                 Oct., Nov.
+  Lane's Prince Albert     Dec., Mch.
+  Bramley's Seedling       Dec., Mch.
+  Newton Wonder            Dec., Mch.
+
+Max Loebener in his book on dwarf fruits recommends the following
+varieties for dwarf apples:
+
+  Red Astrachan            July, Aug.
+  Yellow Transparent       Aug., Sept.
+  Charlamowsky             Aug., Sept.
+  Transparent de Croncels  Sept., Oct.
+  Prince Apple             Sept., Jan.
+  Danzig                   Oct., Dec.
+  Dean's Codlin            Oct. to Feb.
+  Landbury Reinette        Nov., Feb.
+  Cox's Orange             Nov. to Mch.
+    _Requires good soil_
+  Winter Gold Pearmain     Nov., March
+  Ribston Pippin           Nov., April
+    _Good warm soil_
+  Canada Reinette.         Nov., April
+    _Hardy_
+  Belle de Boskoop         Nov., May
+  Virginia Rose            Aug.
+  Red Peach Summer Apple   Aug., Sept.
+  Lord Suffield            Aug., Oct.
+  Cellini                  Sept., Nov.
+  Alexander                Oct., Dec.
+  Gravenstein              Oct. to Jan.
+    _For moist soils, bears late_
+  Yellow Richard           Nov., Dec.
+  Bismarck                 Nov., Feb.
+  Yellow Bellflower        Nov. to April
+    _Requires good position_
+  Baumann's Reinette       Dec., May
+
+Inasmuch as the advantages of the dwarf trees apply especially to the
+growing of fine fruit, only the better varieties should generally be
+propagated in this way. On this basis, therefore, rather than on the
+basis of adaptation learned from experience, the following varieties may
+be suggested among the well known American sorts for growing in dwarf
+form:
+
+  Baldwin
+  Esopus
+  Mother
+  Williams' Favorite
+  Sutton
+  King
+  Northern Spy
+  Grimes
+  Winesap
+  Yellow Transparent
+  McIntosh
+  Red Astrachan
+  Alexander
+  Wolf River
+  Ribston Pippin
+  Wealthy
+  Wagener
+
+Of course, one propagating dwarf apples would always select his own
+favorites. It should be noticed that in the list given above are some
+varieties which are notable for beauty of appearance rather than for
+superior quality. They are recommended on the former consideration.
+Certain varieties in the list, for instance Alexander, are known to
+succeed especially well as dwarfs.
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+DWARF PEARS
+
+
+Pears are the fruit most largely grown in dwarf form in America. There
+are a few well established and successful commercial orchards of pears,
+especially in western New York and Michigan. The pear is the fruit most
+assiduously cultivated in dwarf and trained forms in Europe. At the same
+time it is the one with which I confess I have had the least
+satisfaction. This is perhaps because I have always experimented in a
+country where pears do not naturally succeed, and because, further, my
+fancies have run more to other kinds of fruit.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28--YOUNG ORCHARD OF DWARF PEARS IN WESTERN NEW
+YORK]
+
+It is probably true that the pear is improved more in quality than any
+other fruit by being grown in dwarf form and trained as cordons and
+espaliers on a suitable frame or wall. This is emphatically true in cold
+and inclement climates, where indeed some of the best varieties of
+pears will not succeed at all unless given this advantage. A west wall
+is recommended as giving the very finest results. It should be noted,
+however, that some varieties do better on walls than others. Those which
+grow vigorously in bush, pyramid, or standard forms receive
+comparatively less benefit from wall training.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29--DWARF PEARS IN THE OLD AND PROFITABLE YEOMANS
+ORCHARD, NEW YORK]
+
+The pear is the best of all trees for training in pyramid form.
+Sometimes very tall slim pyramids are made, becoming almost pillars of
+foliage and fruit in their old age. These may be in fact upright cordons
+which are trained with strong stems and allowed to support themselves
+without a trellis. Some of the less upright growing varieties are
+difficult to form into pyramids, and such may be pruned in the ordinary
+bush or vase form. In growing dwarf pears commercially, as is sometimes
+done, it is probably best to give most varieties the bush form. The
+pyramid is rather harder to maintain.
+
+The pear succeeds well as a cordon tree. Perhaps the best form is the
+oblique cordon, one placed at an angle of about forty-five degrees with
+the horizon. The upright and horizontal cordons may also be used, though
+neither of these forms is specially well adapted to pears.
+
+All of the better types of espaliers are suited to pear trees. Probably
+the Palmette-Verrier is the best, although the old fashioned espaliers
+are often used. The U-form and the double U-form also succeed if well
+built.
+
+The pruning of the pear tree is substantially the same as that of the
+apple. Where pear blight is a factor in the problem, due allowance must
+be made for it. It sometimes happens that entire branches or arms have
+to be cut away on account of blighting. The system of pruning therefore
+should furnish a means of renewing such members promptly when necessity
+requires.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30--ORCHARD OF DWARF DUCHESS PEARS, LOCKPORT, N. Y.]
+
+The quince root prefers a fairly heavy and even moist soil. A heavy clay
+loam is best, although a strong clay will answer. Light sandy soils or
+loose gravelly soils will not give such good results. On the other hand
+any clay soil which holds water to a considerable extent will answer. As
+these are the requirements for quince roots, they become also the
+requirements for dwarf pears. Any attempt to grow dwarf pears on a light
+loose soil is almost certain to prove a failure.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31--PYRAMID PEARS IN A GERMAN ORCHARD]
+
+It is often said that dwarf pears should be planted deep in the ground
+when they are set out. The rule is to put them deep enough so that the
+bud union will be buried beneath the surface of the soil. With such
+treatment the pear itself often throws out roots and eventually
+establishes a feeding system of its own, becoming independent of the
+quince stock. It is then no longer a dwarf tree except by the authority
+of the pruning knife. It is probably true that many varieties of dwarf
+pears are longer lived when treated in this way. In planting, therefore,
+it becomes a question whether one desires chiefly a long-lived tree or a
+strictly dwarf one. The ease with which dwarf trees are replaced makes
+longevity a less important factor than in commercial orchards of
+standard trees.
+
+Of course, it is understood that if the dwarfest form is to be
+maintained, the tree must be planted high enough to leave the union out
+of the ground, thus preventing the pear from throwing out roots of its
+own.
+
+The varieties principally grown in this country as dwarfs are Angouleme,
+Bartlett, Anjou, and Louise Bonne.
+
+In European nurseries the list of pears propagated on quince roots is
+much larger. The following varieties are recommended for England by Mr.
+Owen Thomas, and are said to be particularly good for training on walls:
+
+  Buerre Giffard
+  Clapp's Favorite
+  Jargonelle
+  Williams' (Bartlett)
+  Buerre d'Amanlis
+  Fondante d'Automne
+  Triomphe de Vienne
+  Buerre Bosc
+  Buerre Hardy
+  Buerre Brown
+  Comte de Lamy
+  Louise Bonne de Jersey
+  Pitmaston Duchess
+  La France
+  Buerre d'Anjou
+  Buerre de Jonghe
+  Doyenne d'Alencon
+  Glou Morceau
+  Marie Benoist
+  Winter Nelis
+  Buerre Diel
+  Nouvelle Fulvie
+  Buerre Sterckmans
+  Easter Buerre
+  Le Lectier
+  Olivier de Serres
+  Seckel
+  Conference
+  Doyenne du Comice
+  Marie Louise
+  Thompson's
+  Duchesse d'Angouleme
+  Passe Crassane
+  Ne Plus Meuris
+  Bergamotte Esperen
+  Buerre Rance
+  Josephine de Malines
+
+
+
+
+IX
+
+DWARF PEACHES
+
+
+The peach as a dwarf tree is almost unknown in America. It is not very
+often grown as a dwarf even in Europe, except when it is trained on
+walls or grown in houses. The species, however, is easily dwarfed and
+makes a good tree in various forms when well propagated. The methods by
+which dwarf peaches are propagated are fully described in the chapter
+devoted to that subject.
+
+Peach trees growing on plum stocks and formed in vases or bushes make
+excellent garden trees. Naturally they should be headed low, best within
+three to six inches of the ground. They then make fine, regular, well
+balanced tops which are easily kept opened out in the desired vase form.
+Such trees usually come into bearing one or two years earlier than those
+propagated and trained in the usual way. In a country like New England
+where peach growing is largely a system of gambling against cold
+weather, and where the business largely resolves itself into a race for
+getting a crop before the trees freeze back, the smaller stature and the
+earlier bearing of the dwarf tree are obvious advantages. It has not yet
+been shown that this may be turned to account on a commercial scale, but
+there seem to be possibilities in it. In case the peach grower
+undertakes the method of laying down his peach trees and covering them
+during the winter to save them from freezing, the smaller growth of the
+dwarf trees would prove a decided advantage. This method of handling
+peach trees has proved a practical success under certain conditions.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32--DWARF PEACH IN NURSERY
+
+Headed back and formed into bushes]
+
+The peach does not succeed as a cordon. The nearest that this form can
+be successfully approached is the U-form. The double U-form is probably
+even better. The fan form of training is the best of all methods of
+training for the peach. The tree makes wood so rapidly that considerable
+space has to be provided for the annual growth. The fan form being less
+definite in its makeup can be more readily adapted to the exigencies of
+rapid growth and severe cutting out.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33--ESPALIER PEACH, HARTFORD, CONN.]
+
+On account of its more vigorous growth the peach demands even more
+drastic pruning than that already described for apples and pears. The
+method of managing a peach tree, however, differs in some details. There
+is not such a distinct establishment of leaders at the end of the shoot;
+and since the peach never forms fruit spurs like those of the apple, the
+pruning of the fruit-bearing wood is necessarily different. The best
+fruit buds are formed on the strong clean shoots of the current season's
+growth. These must be allowed to grow far enough and vigorously enough
+to ripen good fruit buds. If they make too much growth, however, the
+side buds start secondary branches and the fruiting prospects are
+reduced. The management of the tree must be such as to keep this growth
+of new wood in just the proper balance.
+
+In order to carry out the idea thus outlined, an early spring pruning is
+given while the trees are dormant, and several successive prunings are
+administered during the growing season. At the spring pruning a
+considerable amount of wood is cut out from all portions of the tree,
+the amount thus removed being much greater than that from the pear or
+apple trees at the same season. The old decrepit and diseased branches
+are taken first for removal, and then one year old wood is cut back
+where necessary, so as to leave two or three buds at the base of each
+branch.
+
+The first summer pruning is given about May 15th to 20th, after the
+growth has well begun. A vigorous tree will start more shoots than there
+is room for, and these are thinned out until all have sufficient space.
+A few of the most vigorous ones are pinched back at this time. One week
+to ten days later the trees are gone over again, at which time the
+principal pinching back is done. The shoots which are making too much
+growth, especially on the interior of the tree or on the main arms, are
+stopped. A third pruning is given about June first, and consists chiefly
+in removing weak shoots or those which are crowding one another, and
+cutting back those which are growing too far.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34--PEACH IN FAN ESPALIER ON WALL, ENGLAND]
+
+The peach usually requires a comparatively light soil and a warm
+exposure. The plum root upon which a dwarf peach is budded will usually
+succeed in a considerably heavier soil, and the method of budding on
+plum is therefore sometimes practised with the specific object of
+adapting the peach tree to heavier soils. Inasmuch as various kinds of
+plums succeed in all soils on which any crop can be grown, from light
+sand to heavy clay, it is not difficult to meet any reasonable
+requirements in this respect.
+
+All varieties of peaches and nectarines seem to succeed equally well as
+dwarfs. Those varieties which are grown as dwarfs in Europe are
+naturally the ones which are favorites there. In this country the
+favorite varieties are almost altogether different and we would expect
+to choose such sorts as Late Crawford, Foster, Old Mixon, Belle of
+Georgia, Champion, Waddell, and other choice American varieties for our
+use.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35--PEACH TREES TRAINED UNDER GLASS]
+
+The nectarine is in large favor in Europe and is much more extensively
+grown than in America. The merits of this fruit seem to have been
+strangely overlooked in this country. When nectarines are properly
+grown under glass, they are one of the most delicious and beautiful
+fruits known in this world of limitations and disappointments. The
+nectarine is a fruit which will in general bear more extensive
+cultivation in America and which is to be especially recommended for
+dwarf fruit gardens. This is not to say that it should supersede the
+peach, or even that it should take equal prominence, but simply that it
+should be well represented in every selection of fruits for an amateur's
+collection.
+
+
+
+
+X
+
+DWARF PLUMS
+
+
+Most amateur and professional fruit growers are less interested in plums
+than in other tree fruits. Perhaps I am prejudiced, but I feel that this
+is not fair to the plum. Plums yield some profit when rightly cultivated
+commercially, and no end of satisfaction when cultivated for the
+gardener's own entertainment. The large assortment of varieties which
+one may secure is in itself a claim to interest, and a source of much
+delight to the collector. The fact that different types of plums furnish
+fruit of very diverse characters makes the collection more valuable from
+every standpoint. So far as the writer knows dwarf plums have seldom
+been grown to any extent in America. They certainly have no present
+claim based on experience for recognition in commercial orchards.
+Nevertheless they have possibilities even for the growing of market
+fruit, and for cultivation in the garden, dwarf trees are altogether
+worth while.
+
+In the chapter on propagation, reference has been made to the stocks
+used for plums and that subject need not be discussed here.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36--PLUM TREES TRAINED AS UPRIGHT CORDONS]
+
+When plum trees have been secured budded on suitable dwarfing stocks,
+as, for example, Americana or sand cherry, they may be trained in a
+variety of ways. Probably the ordinary bush form is the best. Most
+varieties of plums do not form either a satisfactory pyramid or a
+strictly vase form. Some of the better growing Japanese varieties of
+plums approach the latter form fairly well. Red June, Satsuma, and
+Chabot may be mentioned as particular examples. With such varieties a
+true vase form can be maintained as well as with peaches. In dealing
+with a majority of varieties, however, a simple bush-like head without a
+mathematically constructed frame work is about the best that can be
+secured. In most cases the head should be formed low, preferably not
+more than six inches from the ground. Still considerable latitude has to
+be allowed the gardener's fancy in dealing with dwarf trees, and the
+writer can easily imagine a garden design which would require trees to
+be high headed. It would be practicable and excusable in some cases to
+form heads four, five, or even six feet from the ground. This is often
+done in England and Germany with all sorts of fruit trees, this form
+being referred to as a "standard."
+
+A head can be secured at almost any point on a plum tree of good growth,
+by heading back at the desired height. Four to six branches should be
+allowed to grow the first year and in course of time these will be
+increased to eight, twelve, or even more. That is, there will be this
+number of what we might call main branches because they are all of
+approximately equal importance.
+
+At the end of the first year after the tree has been headed back the
+main branches, which have now formed, are to be cut back in turn. With
+all strong-growing varieties it is best to remove from one-half to
+two-thirds of the annual growth from these main branches, if the tree
+is to be restricted to a comparatively narrow spread. A considerable
+number of strong shoots will put forth the next year. These should be
+thinned out as soon as they start to a number approximately twice that
+of the main arms. These new branches should be distributed as
+symmetrically as possible. The tree top is now formed and subsequent
+pruning consists essentially of a severe heading in during the latter
+part of the dormant season, that is, about March, followed by two,
+three, or four summer prunings somewhat after the manner described for
+the peach. At the time of these summer prunings the young growing shoots
+should be thinned out enough to prevent any choking of the tree top and
+should be headed in wherever it is necessary to retain the symmetrical
+growth.
+
+The manner of forming the fruit buds or spurs is so diverse in the
+different kinds of plums that no general rule can be given for
+encouraging them. Close observation of each variety will soon enable the
+gardener to direct his pruning in such a way as to assist in this
+important process of fruit bud formation. In a rough general way it may
+be said that the Domestica and Americana varieties of plums form
+distinct fruit spurs along the sides of one and two year old branches,
+and that, for the encouragement of these, considerable light should be
+admitted and the growth of the interior shoots rather rigidly checked.
+The Japanese and Hortulana varieties on the other hand fruit best from
+very short spurs or clusters of buds which form along from the strong
+one and two year old branches. The main object, therefore, with these
+latter varieties is to maintain a succession of clean, sound, well
+matured shoots. This is done by a moderate thinning of the main shoots
+early in the year, resulting in the forcing of those which are left.
+These strong growing shoots are checked late in the summer in order that
+they may ripen up thoroughly, but the pinching which is done to this end
+is delayed long enough so that the pinched shoots will not start into
+growth again. Moreover, this pinching is done well out to the ends of
+the shoots.
+
+Certain varieties of plums succeed fairly well as vertical cordons. The
+varieties least adapted to this purpose are the Hortulana offspring and
+their hybrids and a few of the rank-growing Japanese, like Hale and
+October Purple. In the dwarf tree garden at the Massachusetts
+Agricultural College the writer has a row of plum trees containing a
+large assortment of varieties and species. These trees were picked out
+at random from various sources and very few of them were propagated on
+dwarfing stocks. On this account the trees were set two feet apart,
+which is more than is usually recommended for upright cordons. They have
+now been growing three years, and they furnish much interesting
+testimony regarding the feasibility of growing plums in this form.
+Contrary to expectation such varieties as Red June, Abundance, and
+Burbank have done well under this treatment. These varieties all fruited
+the next year after planting. Some varieties of the Domestica group are
+bearing the third year after planting, which is unusually early. All
+of them seem to be fairly well adapted to this method of treatment.
+Varieties like Wildgoose and Wayland, and such hybrids as Gonzales,
+Waugh and Red May, can hardly be controlled in the restricted space
+allowed them in a row of vertical cordons. They give very little promise
+of success. It is probable that all these varieties would make a better
+showing if they were propagated on some such stock as sand cherry.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37--BURBANK PLUMS ON UPRIGHT CORDONS TRAINED TO
+TRELLIS]
+
+Plums are seldom--almost never--propagated as horizontal cordons. I have
+never yet undertaken it myself, but propose to do so at the first
+opportunity and with some expectation of moderate success with certain
+varieties. The slow growing sorts like Green Gage, Italian Prune, and
+Agen seem to offer special promise.
+
+In the form of espaliers plums are often trained against walls. Indeed
+this is the favorite way of producing fancy plums in England, and the
+same practise prevails to a considerable extent on the continent of
+Europe. In this country walls are not required, and in most cases would
+be of no advantage. Where it is desired to cover back fences or sides of
+buildings, however, plum trees in espalier form can be confidently
+recommended. The Domestica varieties of highest quality such as Bavay,
+Jefferson, Victoria, Pond, Bradshaw, and Coe's Golden Drop would have
+first choice. The Japanese varieties can also be grown on trellises or
+walls, but the freer forms, such as the fan espalier used for the peach,
+are better suited to their habits of growth.
+
+The following varieties of plums can be recommended for dwarf bush
+forms:
+
+  Green Gage
+  Jefferson
+  Bradshaw
+  Agen
+  Grand Duke
+  Bavay (Reine Claude)
+  McLaughlin
+  Pond
+  Bleeker
+  Italian Prune
+  Cluster Damson (or other Damsons)
+
+Such varieties of the Japanese class as Abundance, Chabot, Red June,
+Satsuma, Burbank may be grown on dwarf stocks in bush forms, but they
+are not altogether satisfactory. There are two objections against them:
+(1) It is difficult to keep them in restricted bounds, such a result
+being dependent on constant and severe heading in. (2) They overgrow the
+dwarf stocks very strongly and thus do not have a very firm hold on the
+ground. They are apt to blow over or break off after a few years, unless
+carefully staked up.
+
+The following varieties can be recommended for upright cordons, in which
+form they will give moderate success if properly managed:
+
+  Coe's Golden Drop
+  Agen
+  Victoria
+  Grand Duke
+  Abundance
+  Burbank
+  Bradshaw
+  Bavay
+  Lombard
+  Chabot
+  Cheney
+  Aubert (Yellow Egg or Magnum Bonum)
+
+Also most of the clean-growing Americana varieties such as Smith, Terry,
+Stoddard, etc.
+
+Mr. Owen Thomas recommends for growing on walls in England the following
+varieties:
+
+  Green Gage
+  Brandy Gage
+  Denniston's Superb Gage
+  Comte d'Athem's Gage
+  Transparent Gage
+  Transparent Late Gage
+  Jefferson
+  Reine Claude Violette
+  Brahy's Green Gage
+  Bryanstone Gage
+  Oullin's Golden Gage
+  Golden Transparent Gage
+  Reine Claude de Bavay
+  Coe's Golden Drop
+  Kirke's Blue
+  Washington
+
+
+
+
+XI
+
+BUSH FRUITS
+
+
+The bush fruits, so far as I know, are never cultivated as dwarfs. To
+speak more exactly I should say that no dwarf stock is ever used to
+reduce the size to which the plants grow. On the other hand, bush fruits
+are often systematically pruned back in order to restrict their size,
+and are sometimes trained in elaborate forms as dwarf fruit trees are.
+To this extent they are managed in the same way and might properly be
+treated in the same general category. What is more to our purpose, they
+are almost always included in the plan of any private fruit garden on a
+restricted area, such as we have had chiefly in view in this discussion
+of dwarf fruit trees. These reasons make it appropriate, if not indeed
+essential, that something should be said regarding these fruits here.
+
+All bush fruits can be grown in such forms as cordons, espaliers, etc.
+Anything of this sort which the gardener wishes can become a part of his
+garden of little trees. Gooseberries and currants offer the most
+entertainment and remuneration when subjected to special pruning and
+training, and indeed they should not be omitted from any garden scheme
+of this kind. Raspberries are less amenable to this kind of education
+and should be introduced with some care. Blackberries are necessarily
+difficult to handle and no very complicated schemes of pruning and
+training can be successfully applied to them. Such other fruits as
+Loganberries, strawberry-raspberries, June berries, etc., may be
+introduced "at the owner's risk." Any of them will submit to a certain
+amount of correction with the pruning knife, and may add to the variety
+of fruits grown in the amateur's garden. Of course, it is distinctly
+understood that these special methods of treatment are not commercially
+recommended for any of the bush fruits in America.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38--CURRANTS AS FAN ESPALIERS ON TRELLIS, HARTFORD,
+CONN.]
+
+Probably the most interesting and practical way for handling
+gooseberries and currants in dwarf fruit gardens is the form known as
+standards. This form consists of a small round fruiting top of almost
+any desired variety grafted high upon a straight clean trunk or stem.
+This stem may have any convenient height from two to ten feet, the most
+common and practical height being about four feet. The stock used is the
+flowering currant, _Ribes aureum_, which forms a sufficiently strong and
+upright growth for this purpose. Nevertheless it is almost always
+necessary to support these standards with a convenient stake apiece. For
+the present these standard gooseberries and currants can be obtained
+only of the European nurserymen. At least the writer knows of no one who
+propagates them in America. There are several importers, however, who
+make a business of supplying European stock and who are always glad to
+import these on order.
+
+The finer varieties are especially chosen for growing as standards. This
+applies particularly to gooseberries, which are more widely grown and
+which are more highly prized in Europe than in this country. The
+varieties grown in Europe are usually finer table fruits than the
+American varieties. It is generally understood that the finest fruits
+for eating fresh out of hand are secured from the standard gooseberries.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39--GOOSEBERRY FAN ESPALIER
+
+Variety Industry, trained on wire trellis]
+
+Gooseberries and currants are also adapted easily to the espalier form.
+The most elaborate palmettes and other geometrical designs can be worked
+out. Nevertheless the simplest and most practical form for trained
+gooseberries and currants is the fan shape. If a suitable trellis is
+provided, the vines may be easily tied out upon it in very attractive
+fan forms and these are found to be quite satisfactory, both as regards
+their looks and their product of fruit. They are also easily sprayed,
+which is a consideration worth mentioning when one has to fight the
+currant worm. In general, it is best in our latitude to run these
+espaliers north and south, because they receive too much sun when the
+trellis runs east and west. This rule, however, is not absolute.
+
+Probably the most convenient and practical way for growing these fruits
+in the dwarf tree garden is to plant standards at regular intervals in a
+row, say six feet apart, and to plant a certain number of fan shaped
+bushes between each pair of standards in the row. If these standards
+were six feet apart, two plants for fan training would be enough between
+each pair. The top of the trellis on which the fan forms are tied, would
+not be above four feet high, better only three. The heads of the
+standards then rise well above the top of the trellis. This furnishes
+some support for the stem of the standard and economizes space. Economy
+of space is one of the first principles of this style of gardening.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40--TREE FORM GOOSEBERRY]
+
+No list need be given here of the varieties of gooseberries and currants
+to be recommended for this class of planting. It may be said that any of
+the favorite varieties of currants grown in this country, as for
+example, Fay, Victoria, Red Versailles, etc., may be chosen, and that
+these are indeed the varieties usually preferred in Europe. With respect
+to gooseberries it may be remarked that the English, French, and German
+varieties are mostly very different from those grown in America, and
+that while they have some shortcomings in our climate, they are for the
+most part to be recommended for the purposes which we here have in
+view.
+
+
+
+
+XII
+
+FRUIT TREES IN POTS
+
+
+Those who are used to seeing large fruit trees in orchard plantations
+where each specimen has 1,000 to 2,000 square feet of space, with
+unlimited opportunities downward, find a fruit tree in a pot a
+curiosity. It seems remarkable to see a tree in vigorous health and
+bearing fruit with less than one cubic foot of soil. Nevertheless this
+method of handling fruit trees is entirely practicable. In some places
+it is practised extensively in an amateur way, and occasionally reaches
+almost commercial proportions. For those who grow fruit trees for
+recreation there could hardly be a more interesting experiment.
+
+The pots mostly used are the nine, ten, eleven and twelve inch standard
+earthenware pots. With most trees it is best to begin with small sizes
+and gradually shift forward to the larger ones. A bearing tree may be
+maintained for several years in a twelve inch pot or even in a ten inch
+size. Sometimes wooden tubs are substituted for pots. These look better,
+but are not so good in any other way.
+
+Trees may be grown in pots out of doors, although there is no particular
+advantage in doing this. If such practise is undertaken the pots should
+be plunged their full depth in good garden soil. Perfect drainage should
+be secured by having some broken brick or coarse cinders underneath.
+
+Usually potted trees are grown under glass. They are kept in a cool
+greenhouse, that is one with little heat. Sometimes they are without
+artificial heat. In fact this is probably the best way. The houses which
+are purposely constructed for fruit trees may have a single line of pipe
+if this is convenient, so that the chill may be taken off the air in
+severe cold weather. To reach anything like real success, houses must be
+devoted exclusively to fruit trees. Occasionally trees may be grown with
+other plants, as in cold graperies, but the results are not the best and
+often come very close to failure.
+
+In building houses for fruit trees exclusively, the even span
+construction is nearly always used. Houses eighteen or twenty feet wide,
+and five feet high at the eaves, will answer the purpose very well. The
+leading greenhouse designers are prepared to furnish plans for such
+houses and it is usually best to follow the advice of their experts.
+
+All kinds of fruit trees can be grown in pots. This includes apples,
+pears, peaches, plums, nectarines, and cherries. Those which give the
+best returns are plums and nectarines. Apples in pots are very
+interesting and furnish a superior quality of fruit when grown under
+glass. Apples, plums and nectarines take a finer finish and a higher
+flavor when grown in this way than when grown in any other.
+
+All fruit trees to be grown in pots should be propagated on the dwarfest
+of dwarfing stocks. This means practically that apples should be on
+Paradise, pears on quince, peaches and nectarines on sand cherry, plum
+on sand cherry or St. Julien plum, and cherries on Mahaleb.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41--A FRUITING PEACH IN POT]
+
+The trees should be potted in good rich soil, preferably the best garden
+loam. This should have enough sand and gravel in it to insure good
+drainage. A considerable amount of drainage material should be placed
+in the bottom of each pot. The trees should be repotted in fresh soil
+annually in October or November.
+
+Trees in pots require liberal feeding. Besides being given well enriched
+earth at the time of repotting, they should be supplied from time to
+time with small amounts of fertilizer. Good soluble chemical fertilizers
+can be applied either dry or dissolved. A good formula is one part
+nitrate of soda, two parts of muriate of potash, two parts of high grade
+phosphoric acid. A very little sprinkling, say a tablespoonful, of this
+can be given on each pot once a month during the growing season which
+lasts roughly from December to May. In place of this, or alternately
+with this, moderate waterings with liquid manure may also be given.
+These small doses of food are especially useful at the time when the
+fruit is forming on the trees.
+
+The trees are usually brought into the house at the time of potting, say
+November 1. If early fruit is desired, they are kept in a house with
+some heat. It is necessary only that the temperature should be kept
+constantly and safely above the freezing point. Rapid forcing with a
+high temperature is not desirable and is hardly possible. If kept simply
+above the freezing point, these trees will start into growth in January.
+They can then be kept somewhat warmer during February, the heat being
+slightly increased in March. Peaches and nectarines will stand fairly
+high temperatures after the fruit is well set and especially toward
+ripening time. By this method of mild forcing, plums, peaches, and
+nectarines can be brought into fruit as early as the latter part of
+May.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42--A FIG TREE IN A POT]
+
+The main crop of potted fruits, however, need not be expected until June
+or July; that is not very much in advance of the outdoor crop. The
+object of growing fruit under glass is not so much to force it ahead of
+season as it is to improve the quality. Trees which are to be kept in a
+cool house without heat need no particular attention except to see that
+they are watered occasionally and that some plant food is given after
+growth begins. Even if the temperature goes down considerably below
+freezing during the winter months in this cold house where the potted
+fruit trees are, no damage need be expected.
+
+Of course, special care will be given to prevent damage from attacks of
+fungi or insects which occasionally become troublesome in the houses.
+The small size of these trees makes such work comparatively easy.
+
+The methods of pruning are the same as those recommended for pyramid and
+bush form trees. These forms are the most practical for pot culture,
+though pot trees are occasionally trained in cordon forms.
+
+
+
+
+XIII
+
+PERSONALIA
+
+
+Many persons have a strong prejudice in favor of the concrete. On
+general principles they object to generalities. They choose rather the
+specific case. Personal experience, they say, means more to them than
+theory, even though the theory be the sublimation of all experience. For
+the benefit of such people I am going to set down an account of some of
+my own attempts at growing dwarf fruit trees, and to that I will add
+brief opinions and experiences of some friends of mine.
+
+The first dwarf fruit tree that I ever saw, so far as I remember, was in
+the grounds of the Kansas State Agricultural College when I was a
+student there. This tree was an apple, on Paradise stock, and at two
+years after planting it bore six or eight very fine Yellow Transparent
+apples. It was one of several dwarf apples planted by Professor E. A.
+Popenoe, but the other trees did not much attract my attention. This
+particular specimen had a straight, clean trunk of about thirty inches,
+after the absurd style of heading dwarf apples practised in most
+American nurseries. But the crown was full and symmetrical, and the
+fruit was incomparable. That particular tree has always been a sort of
+ideal and inspiration to me.
+
+Later, when I planted an orchard in Oklahoma, I put in some dwarf trees,
+particularly pears, but I did not stay there long enough to see what
+came of them.
+
+The next fruit garden in which I became interested was in Vermont. This
+had in it some dwarf pear trees, dwarf apples and dwarf plums, and my
+own personal experience had fairly begun. The dwarf apples proved to be
+an almost complete failure, for reasons which I can not now
+satisfactorily explain. A few years later I planted a few dwarf apple
+trees in another Vermont garden, where they did reasonably well. But, at
+any rate, the whole undertaking was unsatisfactory, for it did not give
+me a vital understanding of the trees. I never got onto terms of real
+personal goodfellowship with them; and until a gardener does that his
+work is some sort of a failure.
+
+The dwarf pears did somewhat better. They seemed to understand their
+business, and they kept about it without much attention from me. I never
+cared much for pears, anyway.
+
+But the plums were the brilliant success, at least with reference to my
+own interior personal experience. Every plum tree meant something to me.
+A stub of a root and two scrawny plum branches would at any time arouse
+my imagination like the circus posters' appeal to a boy. In this Vermont
+garden which I adopted when it was about four years old, there were
+various plum trees, mostly of domestica varieties, growing on Americana
+roots. They had come from the Iowa State College, where they had been
+educated that way. They had been given those Americana roots, not
+primarily to dwarf them, but to insure them against damage from the cold
+winters. The tops had not been cut back, and the whole treatment was
+just such as would have been applied to standards. Later I saw the bad
+results of this treatment, for several of the trees blew over in high
+winds. From subsequent experience I feel sure that if they had been
+headed low at first, if they had been kept closely headed back and
+otherwise handled like real dwarfs, they would have lived to a greater
+age and would have made everybody happier.
+
+At this time also I began, on a somewhat comprehensive plan, the
+propagation of plums on all sorts of stocks, including Americana,
+Wayland seedlings, Miner root cuttings and sand cherry, all more or less
+efficient dwarfing stocks. By this time I was into it head over ears, as
+far as the plums were concerned.
+
+This having been the largest chapter in my personal pomological
+experience, I suppose it ought to form the largest portion of this
+chapter in the book; but my plum work and my experiments in propagation
+have been so often and so fully reported elsewhere that it would be a
+vain repetition to go over them again now. They are all written down in
+the proper places where they may be consulted by the enthusiastic or
+ill-advised student.
+
+And then I came to Massachusetts; and here the first project, almost, to
+which my hand was turned was the installation of a garden of dwarf fruit
+trees. From the following memorandum of the trees growing in this garden
+any reader may surmise the enjoyment I have found in it. There is one
+row of dwarf plum trees set six feet apart and trained, rather
+unsatisfactorily, into bush form. The trees were many of them too large
+when they came from France, and, though I cut them back severely, they
+did not form such low bushy heads as my ideal species. They are on St.
+Julien roots, which serve the purposes in hand fairly well. Though the
+trees had a hard trip across the water only one out of forty-six has
+died in three years. Unfortunately these trees have not yet borne
+fruit,--not one of them. Next year many of them will bear. Earlier
+fruitage can certainly be secured on sand cherry stocks and under other
+methods of training.
+
+Besides the bush plums, the garden contains a row of upright cordons.
+Most of these were not propagated on dwarf stocks at all, and were not
+expected to suffer any such drastic training as I have put upon them.
+They were taken from the college nursery and from the nurseries of
+several of my correspondents, just wherever I could find the varieties I
+wanted, and without reference to the stocks on which they were growing.
+A few are on Americana stocks, several are on peach roots (of all
+things), and probably a majority are growing on the usual Myrobalan
+roots. These trees are planted two feet apart in the row and are tied up
+to a trellis of chicken wire. There are about thirty varieties in the
+row, numbering most of the different botanical types more frequently
+cultivated in North America. Many of the varieties are totally and very
+obviously unsuited to this method of treatment, and presently I will
+replace them with more amenable varieties. But many of the varieties
+have fruited, especially the Japanese kinds, and some of them, like
+Burbank, have proved most unexpectedly docile. Altogether this row of
+unsuitably propagated and unsuitably selected varieties of plum trees
+has been one of the most interesting, instructive and entertaining
+elements in my dwarf fruit garden.
+
+Next there comes a trellis bearing some espaliers, including plums,
+pears, apples, peaches and cherries; but these have been recently
+planted, and as yet they have done nothing worth relating.
+
+There is one row of twenty-three dwarf pears, mostly trained in pyramid
+form. These have not done well, but the reason is not far to seek. The
+soil is light and full of gravel, and quite unsuited to pear or quince.
+Pears never thrive on it. Several of the trees are bearing a crop this
+year, but some of the trees are also dead, and the whole row looks like
+the finish of a bargain sale on the remnant ribbon counter.
+
+The row of upright cordon pears is a trifle better, but that is only an
+accident, I think. The varieties which are growing there seem to be
+rather better adapted to withstand the unpropitious surroundings. These
+trees also are bearing.
+
+When we come to the two rows of horizontal cordon apples, though, the
+real fun has begun. Nearly all these trees are in bearing, and a few of
+them have borne every year since they were planted out. They are set
+only three feet apart in the row, which is not enough; and they suffered
+terribly the first year from a midsummer attack of aphides; and the
+pruning was neglected to allow them to recover from that scourge, so
+that the form was somewhat injured; but they have never ceased to be a
+joy to me and a wonderment to visitors. They are mostly of European
+varieties, but Bismarck is the showiest and most fruitful one in the
+collection, though far from the best to eat.
+
+Then there are standard gooseberries and currants, of which there is
+little to be said. They haven't been there long, but they are at home
+and are going to stay. Next year I am going to put in some gooseberries
+and currants in espalier form.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43--DWARF PEAR IN PYRAMID FORM
+
+Two years planted; author's garden]
+
+Very few persons know what a medlar is. For the benefit of the ignorant
+and to increase the kaleidoscopic effect on my fruit garden, I have
+some medlar trees,--Hollaendische Monstroese,--which I bought of Louis
+Spaeth, Baumschulenweg, Berlin.
+
+A wire trellis, built much like a grape trellis, only higher, carries
+the row of upright cordon apples. Some of these bore fruit the first
+year they were planted, and there has been a fair sprinkling of fruit
+every year since then. This has been one of the most satisfactory lots
+in the make-up.
+
+There are two rows containing forty-six bush-form apples on paradise
+roots set six feet apart. Some of these have borne every year since
+planting out, many of them showing a good crop this year. Again Bismarck
+is the most fruitful, but the least pleasing to eat. Alexander has made
+a good record, and this year Calville d'Automne shows a very pretty
+crop. It is customary with visitors, especially those already interested
+in fruit-growing and those of a practical turn of mind, to depart with
+the judgment that "all those other schemes are curious and interesting,
+but the bush form apple trees look the most like business." I think so
+too. In fact my experience with dwarf apples might be summarized by
+saying, "bush trees for business, cordons for fun."
+
+One row of peach trees on St. Julien plum roots set fruit buds in
+abundance the first year, but they were killed by the freeze of the
+following winter. The second year the experience was the same, except
+that the tops froze with the fruit buds. New tops were grown at once,
+however, and the following year nearly every tree bore a small crop of
+fruit. Dwarf peach trees are worth while.
+
+This garden has also a row of cherry trees, including Morello, Richmond
+and Montmorency; but these trees were set the second year of the garden
+making and have borne only a small crop of sample cherries.
+
+The last planting in this garden consists of one row of nectarines,
+twenty-two trees.
+
+This little garden, containing considerably less than a quarter of an
+acre of land, has now growing upon it 548 fruit trees of the kinds
+named. And I am not yet done planting. There are various other things
+that I want to put in,--quinces, apricots, and perhaps raspberries,
+dewberries, and other bush fruits. In fact, I should like to make it a
+"Paradise" like good old Gerarde's or Dodoens', in which all the fruits
+"good for food or physic" might be brought together and represented in a
+little space.
+
+It would be quite wrong to close this experience meeting without giving
+the observations and quoting the opinions of some other and better men.
+Patrick Barry, in his delightful "Fruit Garden," recorded his belief
+that dwarf fruit trees were well worth while. "The apple," said he,
+"worked on the Paradise, makes a beautiful little dwarf bush. We know of
+nothing more interesting in the fruit garden than a row or little square
+of these miniature fruit trees. They begin to bear the third year from
+the bud, and the same variety is always larger and finer on them than on
+standards." Speaking of pears, he said: "On the quince stock the trees
+bear much earlier, are more prolific, more manageable, and consequently
+preferable for small gardens."
+
+The late Mr. E. G. Lodeman, who wrote the most comprehensive American
+monograph on dwarf apples, concluded his essay rather pessimistically in
+these words: "From all the evidence which I have been able to collect,
+therefore, I cannot advise the planting of dwarf apple trees for
+commercial rewards, but it seems to me, nevertheless, that they are
+worth experimenting with for this purpose." Mr. Lodeman recorded and
+endorsed the common opinion "that apples grown on dwarf trees are
+handsomer and of better quality than those grown upon standards"; but he
+did not seem to consider that fact of much importance.
+
+Those who are acquainted at the Lazy Club in Cornell University, and
+especially those who know Bailiwick, have heard of Professor L. H.
+Bailey's dwarf apples. (Fig. 44.) These were planted six or eight years
+ago, and most of them are now in bearing. There are a good many
+different varieties, nearly all French. My understanding of the scheme
+is that it was as much as half intended to be a commercial venture; but
+up to the present time little else but confusion and fun have been
+gathered with the fruit from those dwarf apple trees. When last I asked
+the proprietor for his experience with dwarf apples he said that he was
+having a lot of experience, only he didn't know what it was.
+
+Dwarf pears have been planted frequently, especially in Western New York
+and Michigan. I asked Professor S. A. Beach for his observations of
+them, to which he replied: "With regard to dwarf pears I will say that
+the variety which is most generally grown in commercial orchards is
+Bartlett. Almost without exception this is grown as a standard. Other
+important commercial varieties are Seckel, Bosc and Winter Nelis. All
+these are generally grown as standards. The variety commonly grown as
+dwarf is Angouleme. A few fruit growers of my acquaintance are making
+some money from orchards of dwarf Angouleme. The other varieties which
+are often propagated on dwarf stock as Clairgeau, Anjou and so forth,
+are seldom profitable. In fact I have heard it stated that outside of
+Ellwanger and Barry's orchard there is not a profitable orchard of Anjou
+in this State. From these statements I wish you to derive the conclusion
+that in New York State under present conditions there is little
+encouragement for planting dwarf pears commercially."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44--IN PROFESSOR BAILEY'S ORCHARD
+
+Chenango apple on Doucin stocks, interplanted between standard trees]
+
+Mr. E. W. Wood, for many years chairman of the fruit committee of the
+Massachusetts Horticultural Society, says that "under the right
+conditions the dwarf pear tree is a necessity for commercial pear
+growing. The growers in Revere and Cambridge would feel they could not
+get along without the dwarf trees. Putting the pear on the quince stock
+does not change the wants of the roots of the latter, and it is no use
+setting them on a light, dry soil, as the roots being confined to a
+small area of unsuitable soil, will make a feeble growth and finally die
+outright; or, if in an exposed situation, blow over. Most all the
+varieties may be grown as dwarfs. The Angouleme and Clairgeau, both good
+market varieties, cannot be successfully grown in any other way."
+
+Recently Mr. M. B. Waite has written me the letter quoted below, giving
+some conclusions from his experience with dwarf pears in Anne Arundel
+County, Maryland. He says:
+
+"I planted out 1,000 dwarf pear trees nine years ago. They were largely
+Duchess (Angouleme), but there are some Manning, Howell, Anjou, Louise
+Bonne and Lawrence. I have not been entirely satisfied with the results.
+We have not had the proper quantity of fruit. There has been some fruit
+every year since the fourth year, and two years ago there was quite a
+good crop, but nothing to compare with the yield per acre of Kieffer,
+LeConte and Garber, for instance. Of course, these are higher-priced
+fruit and large yields are not required for good returns. Only the
+Duchess and Manning, however, have produced sufficient to pay at all,
+and the orchard has not as yet really paid financially. We have a nice
+crop this year, however, more than the total yield up to this season,
+and perhaps from now on we may win out. My dwarf pears are on a soil too
+dry and sandy for the best results, and I think we are at Washington
+pretty near the southern limit, at least at low altitudes. In the
+mountains of Virginia and North Carolina they can be grown further
+southward. They require a moist, preferably clay-loam soil even in their
+naturally favored districts, such as New England, New York and Michigan,
+but such a soil is still more desirable when rather too far south for
+their normal range. They require high culture, manuring and fertilizing,
+and thorough pruning and spraying in any locality, and these
+requirements are still more exacting in Maryland. A slight neglect in
+cultivation, pruning or spraying in one season results in a mass of
+blooms the next spring, but little or no fruit set. Of course, this
+extra attention which has to be devoted to dwarf pears as compared with
+Oriental pears, peaches, apples, etc., to be profitable should result in
+larger yields, but does not usually do so in this latitude. On the other
+hand, we may say in favor of the dwarf pear that the quince root is a
+healthy, reliable root for the pear tree; that the trees attain their
+seasonal growth early, and therefore are not as susceptible to pear
+blight as standard pears. Furthermore, they are more easily sprayed,
+pruned, and otherwise handled than the high standard trees."
+
+My friend, Mr. J. W. Kerr, of the Eastern Shore of Maryland, who owns
+one of the oldest and most picturesque orchards of dwarf pears I ever
+saw, says that Angouleme (Duchess) is the only variety that pays for
+growing in that form.
+
+Thus the experience of many men in many parts of America sums up as we
+began. The conclusion of the whole matter seems to be about this: Dwarf
+fruit trees have not yet played any prominent role in American
+commercial horticulture; but they have been profitable in a few special
+cases, and the probability seems strong almost to the point of certainty
+that, with the development, refinement and specialization of our
+commercial fruit growing, a wider field of usefulness will be opened for
+dwarf trees. In the realm of amateur fruit growing, on the other
+hand,--a realm now daily widening,--dwarf fruit trees are of capital
+importance. The owners and renters of small grounds, the cultivators of
+little gardens--the great majority of American home-makers, in
+fact,--will find in them an unfailing source of pleasure, inspiration,
+and even of profit.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+                          PAGE
+
+  Advantages of dwarf trees, 8
+
+  Apple, propagation of, 23
+
+  Apples, 63
+
+  Apples, recommended varieties, 72
+
+
+  Bailey, H., quoted, 120
+
+  Barry's "Fruit Garden," 119
+
+  Bismarck apple, 7
+
+  Boundary fences, 16
+
+  Bush fruits, 99
+
+
+  Commercial value, 20
+
+  Cordon trees, 46
+
+  Currants, 101
+
+
+  Definition of dwarf tree, 1
+
+  Designs for fruit gardens, 53, 55, 59, 61
+
+  Disadvantages of dwarf trees, 18
+
+  Double-working, 27
+
+  Doucin apple, 26
+
+  Dwarf tree, definition, 1
+
+
+  Early bearing, 8
+
+  Erwin, A. T., quoted, 29
+
+  Expense of dwarf trees, 18
+
+
+  Fertilizers, 54
+
+  Fillers in orchards, 13
+
+  Forms for trees, 41
+
+
+  Gooseberries, 101
+
+
+  Heading young trees, 32
+
+  Houses for dwarf fruits, 107
+
+
+  J. W. Kerr, quoted, 124
+
+
+  Lodeman, E. G., quoted, 119
+
+  Longevity of dwarf trees, 19
+
+
+  Management of dwarf trees, 51
+
+  Management of trees in pots, 109
+
+
+  Nectarine, propagation of, 28
+
+  Nursery management, 31
+
+
+  Paradise apple, 24
+
+  Peach, propagation of, 27
+
+  Peaches, 83
+
+  Pear, propagation of, 26
+
+  Pears, 76
+
+  Pears, recommended varieties, 81
+
+  Personalia, 112
+
+  Pinching, 35
+
+  Plum, propagation of, 28
+
+  Plums, 90
+
+  Plums, recommended varieties, 97
+
+  Pots for fruit trees, 106
+
+  Propagation, 22
+
+  Pruning apple trees, 68
+
+  Pruning dwarf trees, 33
+
+  Pruning peach trees, 86
+
+  Pruning plum trees, 92
+
+  Pyramid tree, 42
+
+
+  Quality of fruit, 10
+
+
+  Root pruning, 36
+
+
+  Sand cherry, 30
+
+  San Jose scale, 10
+
+  School gardens, 15
+
+  Selection of varieties, 60
+
+  Suburban places, 12
+
+
+  Tillage, 54
+
+  Training in special forms, 38
+
+  Trellises for trees, 58
+
+
+  U-form trees, 44
+
+  Uses for dwarf trees, 12
+
+
+  Waite, M. B., quoted, 122
+
+  Walls and fences, 15
+
+  Walls for dwarf trees, 57
+
+  Wood, E. W., quoted, 122
+
+.............
+
+TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE:
+
+In the plain-text version of this ebook italics are indicated by
+_underscores_.
+
+Obvious typographical errors in spelling and punctuation have been
+corrected without comment. One example of an obvious typographical error
+is on page 124 where the word "an" was changed to "on" in the phrase
+"... on the other hand...." Other than obvious typographical errors, the
+author's original spelling, punctuation, hyphenation and use of accents
+has been left intact with the following three exceptions:
+
+     1. On page 92 a hyphen was added to the term "one-half".
+
+     2. In the Index (page 125) an accent mark was added in the term:
+     "San Jose scale".
+
+     3. In the Index (page 125) the entry "J. W. Kerr" was changed to
+     "Kerr, J. W." to correspond with other similar entries.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Dwarf Fruit Trees, by F. A. Waugh
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DWARF FRUIT TREES ***
+
+***** This file should be named 38024.txt or 38024.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/0/2/38024/
+
+Produced by David Garcia, Cathy Maxam, Marilynda
+Fraser-Cunliffe and the Online Distributed Proofreading
+Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from
+images generously made available by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.