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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Dwarf Fruit Trees, by F. A. Waugh
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Dwarf Fruit Trees
+       Their propagation, pruning, and general management, adapted
+       to the United States and Canada
+
+Author: F. A. Waugh
+
+Release Date: November 15, 2011 [EBook #38024]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DWARF FRUIT TREES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by David Garcia, Cathy Maxam, Marilynda
+Fraser-Cunliffe and the Online Distributed Proofreading
+Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from
+images generously made available by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+DWARF FRUIT TREES
+
+
+
+
+  OTHER BOOKS
+  BY THE SAME AUTHOR
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  LANDSCAPE GARDENING
+  PLUMS AND PLUM CULTURE
+  FRUIT HARVESTING, STORING, MARKETING
+  SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY
+
+[Illustration: DWARF CHERRY TREE
+
+Two years planted]
+
+
+
+
+  DWARF
+  FRUIT TREES
+
+  THEIR PROPAGATION, PRUNING, AND
+  GENERAL MANAGEMENT, ADAPTED
+  TO THE UNITED STATES AND
+  CANADA
+
+  _By_
+  F. A. WAUGH
+
+  _ILLUSTRATED_
+
+  NEW YORK
+  ORANGE JUDD COMPANY
+  1906
+
+
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1906
+
+BY ORANGE JUDD COMPANY
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The commercial interests have so continuously and completely held the
+horticultural stage in America during the last two decades that it has
+been impossible for amateur horticulture to get in a word edgewise. Any
+public speaker or writer has had to talk about several acres at a time
+or he would not be listened to. He has been obliged to insist that his
+scheme would pay on a commercial scale before anyone would hear, much
+less consider, what he had to tell.
+
+But now a change is coming. Different conditions are already upon us. A
+thousand signs indicate the new era. With hundreds--yes thousands--of
+men and women now horticulture is an avocation, a pastime. They grow
+trees largely for the pleasure of it; and their gardens are built amidst
+surroundings which would make commercial pomology laugh at itself.
+
+And so I undertake to offer the first American fruit book in a quarter
+century which can boldly declare its independence of the professional
+element in fruit growing. I am confident that dwarf fruit trees have
+some commercial possibilities, but they are of far greater importance to
+the small householder, the owner of the private "estate," the village
+dweller, the suburbanite and the commuter.
+
+In other words, while I hope that all good people will be interested in
+dwarf fruit trees and that some of them will share the enthusiasm of
+which this book is begotten, I do not want anyone to think that I have
+issued any guaranty, expressed or implied, that dwarf trees will open a
+paying commercial enterprise. Because the argument that a thing pays has
+been so long the only recommendation offered for any horticultural
+scheme, many persons have formed the habit of assuming that every sort
+of praise stands on this one foundation.
+
+F. A. WAUGH.
+
+_Massachusetts Agricultural College, 1906._
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+
+                                       PAGE
+
+     PREFACE                              v
+
+     I. General Considerations            1
+
+    II. Advantages and Disadvantages      8
+
+   III. Propagation                      22
+
+    IV. Pruning                          33
+
+     V. Special Forms                    41
+
+    VI. General Management               51
+
+   VII. Dwarf Apples                     63
+
+  VIII. Dwarf Pears                      76
+
+    IX. Dwarf Peaches                    83
+
+     X. Dwarf Plums                      90
+
+    XI. Bush Fruits                      99
+
+   XII. Fruit Trees in Pots             106
+
+  XIII. Personalia                      112
+
+        Index                           125
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+     Dwarf Cherry Tree                     _Frontispiece_
+
+  FIG.                                                      PAGE
+
+   1 Dwarf Apple Trees in Western New York                     3
+
+   2 Trained Cordon Apple Trees                                5
+
+   3 Bismarck Apple                                            7
+
+   4 Pear Tree Trained as an Espalier                          9
+
+   5 Bush Apple Tree                                          11
+
+   6 Plums as Upright Cordons                                 17
+
+   7 Paradise Apple Stocks in Early Spring                    25
+
+   8 The Western Sand Cherry                                  30
+
+   9 Upright Cordon Plum                                      31
+
+  10 Bush Apple                                               34
+
+  11 Bush Apple, Three Years Old, Before Pruning              37
+
+  12 Bush Apple, Same Tree, After Pruning                     37
+
+  13 Cordon Pears Before Pruning                              39
+
+  14 Cordon Pears After Pruning                               39
+
+  15 Pears in Double U Form                                   43
+
+  16 Pears in U Form                                          45
+
+  17 Apricots in U Form                                       47
+
+  18 Pear in Espalier                                         48
+
+  19 Old Espalier Pears on Farm House Wall                    49
+
+  20 Horizontal Cordon Apple and Other Dwarf Trees            52
+
+  21 Design for a Back Yard Fruit Garden                      53
+
+  22 Dwarf Fruit Garden                                       55
+
+  23 Fruit Gardening and Landscape Gardening Combined         59
+
+  24 A Fruit Garden Containing Many Dwarf Trees               61
+
+  25 Dwarf Apples on Prof. L. H. Bailey's Farm, New York      65
+
+  26 Upright Cordon Apples                                    67
+
+  27 Horizontal Cordon Apple Trees                            71
+
+  28 Young Orchard of Dwarf Pear in Western New York          76
+
+  29 Dwarf Pear in the Old and Profitable Yeomans
+       Orchard, New York                                      77
+
+  30 Orchard of Dwarf Duchess Pear, Lockport, N. Y.           79
+
+  31 Pyramid Pears in a German Orchard                        80
+
+  32 Dwarf Peach in Nursery                                   84
+
+  33 Espalier Peach, Hartford, Conn.                          85
+
+  34 Peach in Fan Espalier on Wall--England                   87
+
+  35 Peach Trees Trained Under Glass                          88
+
+  36 Plum Trees Trained as Upright Cordons                    91
+
+  37 Burbank Plums on Upright Cordons Trained to Trellis      95
+
+  38 Currants as Fan Espaliers on Trellis                    100
+
+  39 Gooseberry Fan Espalier                                 102
+
+  40 Tree Form Gooseberry                                    104
+
+  41 A Fruiting Peach in Pot                                 108
+
+  42 A Fig Tree in a Pot                                     110
+
+  43 Dwarf Pear                                              117
+
+  44 Chenango Apples in Prof. L. H. Bailey's Orchard         121
+
+
+
+
+DWARF FRUIT TREES
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
+
+
+A dwarf fruit tree is simply one which does not reach full size. It is
+not so large as it might be expected to be. It is smaller than a normal
+tree of the same variety and age.
+
+There are indeed some trees which are normally dwarf, so to speak. They
+never reach a considerable size. They are smaller than other better
+known and related species. For example, the species _Prunus pumila
+besseyi_ is sometimes called the dwarf sand cherry, simply because it is
+always notably smaller than related species. The Paradise apple is
+spoken of as a dwarf because it never attains the stature which other
+apples attain.
+
+But in the technical sense, as the term is used by nurserymen and
+pomologists, a dwarf tree is one which is made, by some artificial
+means, to grow smaller than normal trees of the same variety.
+
+These artificial means used for making dwarf trees are chiefly three:
+(1) propagation on dwarfing stocks, (2) repressive pruning, and (3)
+training to some prescribed form.
+
+
+DWARFING STOCKS
+
+The most common and important means of securing dwarf trees is that of
+propagating them on dwarfing stocks. These are simply such roots as make
+a slower and weaker growth than the trees from which cions are taken.
+This will be understood better from a concrete example. The quince tree
+normally grows slower than the pear, and usually reaches about half the
+size at maturity. Now pear cions will unite readily with quince roots
+and will grow in good health for many years. But when a pear tree is
+thus dependent for daily food on a quince root it fares like Oliver
+Twist. It never gets enough. It is always starved. It makes considerably
+less annual growth, and never (or at least seldom) reaches the size
+which it might have reached if it had been growing on a pear root.
+
+This is, somewhat roughly stated, the whole theory of dwarfing fruit
+trees by grafting them on slow-growing stocks. The tree top is always
+under-nourished and thus restrained in its ambitious growth of branches,
+as seen in Fig. 1.
+
+While the tree is made thus smaller by being grafted on a restraining
+root, it is not affected in its other characteristics. At least
+theoretically it is not. It still bears the same kind of fruit and
+foliage. Bartlett pear trees budded on quince roots yield fruit true to
+name. The pears are still Bartletts, and can not be told from those
+grown on an ordinary tree. Sometimes the fruit from dwarf trees seems
+to be better colored or better flavored than that from standard trees;
+but such differences are very delicate and usually receive slight
+thought.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1--DWARF APPLE TREES IN WESTERN NEW YORK]
+
+Dwarf fruit trees have not been very largely grown in America, but have
+been much more widely used in Europe. This statement holds good either
+for commercial plantations or for private fruit gardens. They are coming
+into more common use in this country because, in both market orchards
+and amateur gardens, our pomology is coming to be somewhat more like
+that of Europe. Our conditions are approaching those of the Old World,
+even though they will always be very different from those of Europe in
+horticultural matters.
+
+Dwarf fruit trees are particularly valuable in small gardens; and small
+gardens are becoming constantly more popular among our urban, and
+especially our suburban, population. This matter is discussed more fully
+in another chapter. Fruit of finer quality can be grown on dwarf trees,
+as a general rule, than can usually be grown on standard trees. Every
+year there are more people in America who are willing to take any
+necessary pains to secure fruit of extra quality. This remark applies
+particularly to amateur fruit growers and to owners of private estates
+who grow fruit for their own tables, but it is no less true of a certain
+class of fruit buyers, especially in the richer cities. Although $3 a
+barrel is still a high price for ordinary good apples, sales of fancy
+apples at $3 a dozen fruits are by no means infrequent in the city
+markets every winter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2--TRAINED CORDON APPLE TREES
+
+From Loebner's "Zwergobstbäume"]
+
+In this respect also we are approaching European conditions. In the
+markets of the continental capitals in particular fancy fruits are
+frequently sold at prices which seem almost incredible to an American.
+Single apples sometimes bring 50 cents to a dollar, and peaches an equal
+price. Just recently a story has been going the rounds of the newspapers
+that the caterer for the Czar's table sometimes pays as high as $15
+apiece for peaches for the royal table. Hereupon a solemn American
+editor remarked that if the whole royal family should live upon nothing
+but peaches it would still be cheaper than carrying on the Japanese war.
+
+Now if there is anywhere within reach a market for apples or peaches at
+$3 a dozen specimens--and there unquestionably is--then it will pay to
+grow fancy fruits with special care to meet this demand. This kind of
+fruit can be grown better upon dwarf trees than upon standards in many
+cases, if not in most. At least such is the conviction of the present
+writer. Moreover this has been the experience in the old country.
+
+With such facts in view there seems to be a possible future for dwarf
+fruit trees, even for commercial purposes. Their present utility in
+amateur gardens and on wealthy private estates can not be questioned.
+These various amateur and commercial adaptations of dwarf trees will
+have to be more carefully analyzed and discussed in a future chapter,
+and the subject may therefore be dropped for the present.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3--BISMARCK APPLE, FIRST YEAR PLANTED
+
+22 inches high; bearing 4 fruits]
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
+
+
+It is a good prejudice which expects every man who writes anything to be
+enthusiastic over his subject. Such enthusiasm doubtless leads a writer
+many times to over-state his case, and to claim more than the calm
+judgment of the multitude will ratify. And on the other hand, readers
+usually tacitly discount the statements of any man who writes about any
+matter in which he is plainly interested. The present writer knows that
+he is also under the ban, and that the reader firmly expects him to
+claim more for dwarf fruit trees than their merits will fairly warrant.
+This expectation the writer hopes to disappoint. It will be enough to
+set down here the obvious advantages and disadvantages which the
+horticulturist will meet in handling dwarf fruit trees. These statements
+are mostly of matters of common experience and they need no coloring to
+make them serve their present purpose.
+
+We may fairly set down the following good points standing more or less
+generally to the credit of dwarf fruit trees:
+
+1. _Early bearing._--This is a sufficiently obvious advantage. The
+Alexander apple will bear the second year after planting when grown as a
+dwarf, while it requires six to ten years to come into bearing as a
+standard. This habit of early bearing proves valuable in many ways. It
+encourages men to plant trees. The disinclination of old men to plant
+trees rests upon the slenderness of the chance that they will ever
+gather of the fruit. But a man may plant dwarf trees whenever his
+expectation of life is two years or more. Such trees would serve
+octogenarians, consumptives and those sentenced to be hanged for murder.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4--PEAR TREE, TRAINED AS AN ESPALIER]
+
+Early bearing--to return to the subject--makes dwarf trees valuable to
+that large and unfortunately growing class of citizens who rent the
+premises where they live. They do not expect to stay more than five or
+six years in any one place. In that length of time ordinary trees would
+not begin to yield any fruit. But with dwarf trees there is excellent
+probability of seeing something ripen. Then again early bearing is a
+great advantage when one is testing new or old varieties. It is a great
+advantage when a commercial orchard is designed and when dwarf trees are
+used for fillers as explained below.
+
+2. _Small size._--The very smallness of the dwarf trees has many
+advantages in it. The trees are easier to reach and to care for. They
+are easier to prune and to spray. This facility in spraying is what has
+chiefly recommended smaller fruit trees to commercial fruit growers in
+recent years. Particularly in those places where the San José scale is a
+perennial problem a very large tree becomes an impossibility, and the
+smaller the trees can be the better it suits.
+
+The small size of dwarf trees permits the planting of larger numbers on
+a given area. This is specially worth while to the amateur who has a
+small garden where only three or four standard trees could grow, but
+where he can comfortably handle forty or fifty dwarfs. Yet it is also
+worth the consideration of the commercial fruit grower who is trying to
+earn a profit on expensive land. If he can increase the number of
+bearing trees on each acre, especially during the early years of
+establishing his orchard, it almost certainly means increased income.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5--BUSH APPLE TREE, THREE YEARS PLANTED]
+
+3. _High quality._--It is not perfectly certain that every kind of fruit
+can be produced in higher quality on dwarf trees than on standards, but
+such is the general rule. This is notably true of certain pears, as
+Buerré Giffard and Doyenne du Comice, and it is generally the case with
+all apples that can be successfully grown on Paradise roots. One can
+secure size, color, flavor and finish on an Alexander or a Ribston
+Pippin, for example, which can never be secured on a standard tree. One
+who has not seen this thing done will hardly understand it; those who
+have will not need more argument. Such plums as we have fruited on dwarf
+trees have shown similar improvement in quality, being always distinctly
+superior to the same varieties grown on standard trees. The significance
+of these facts will appear at once to any one familiar with the course
+of the fruit markets in America. There are greater rewards awaiting the
+fruit grower who can produce fruit of superior quality than the one who
+succeeds merely in increasing the quantity of his output.
+
+
+SPECIAL USES FOR DWARF TREES
+
+These various items of advantage recommend dwarf fruit trees for several
+specific purposes, some of which are worth pointing out in detail.
+
+1. _For suburban places._--A large and increasing percentage of our
+population now lives the suburban life--in that zone where city and
+country meet. They have small tracts of land, which, however, they too
+often lease instead of owning. On these they do more or less
+gardening,--usually more, in proportion to the size of their holdings.
+For them dwarf fruit trees are a precious boon. It is possible to plant
+three hundred to five hundred dwarf fruit trees on a quarter of an acre,
+where less than a dozen standard trees would flourish. This gives the
+opportunity to experiment with all sorts and varieties of fruits, a
+privilege very dear to the heart of the commuter. The dwarf fruit trees
+also work more readily into a scheme of more or less ornamental
+gardening, where fruits are combined with vegetables and flowers.
+Especially if some sort of formal gardening is attempted, the cordons,
+espaliers and pyramids exactly suit the demands. Then the fact, already
+mentioned, that the dwarf trees come into bearing much sooner, is a
+consideration of the highest value to the suburban gardener. He fully
+expects to move from one home to another at least once in ten years, if
+not once in five. With the best of intentions and the most favorable of
+opportunities he can hardly expect to settle down anywhere for life. The
+suburbs themselves change too rapidly for that; and the place which
+today is away off in the country may be all covered with factories five
+years from now. It is terribly discouraging, under such circumstances,
+to plant a tree knowing that ten years must pass before any considerable
+fruitage can be expected from it. It is altogether another feeling with
+which one plants a tree which promises fruit within two or three years.
+
+So that, whatever the drawbacks to the planting of dwarfs, they are the
+salvation of the suburban garden. For such circumstances they can be
+freely recommended, without exception or reservation.
+
+2. _For orchard fillers._--As commercial orcharding becomes more
+refined, under the stress of modern competition, and as good orchard
+land increases in value, up to one hundred, two hundred, or even three
+hundred dollars an acre, new methods must be adopted with a view to
+increasing the returns. This opportunity looms especially large for the
+first few years after the establishment of the commercial orchard, more
+particularly the apple orchard. When standard trees are planted
+thirty-five to the acre, which is now the usual practice, the land is
+not more than one-fourth occupied for the first five years, and not more
+than half occupied for the first ten years. Indeed it is full twenty
+years from the time of planting before the thirty-five apple trees will
+use the whole acre. And since a good farmer can not afford to let
+expensive land lie idle he has before him a very pretty problem to
+determine how the space between the standard trees shall be utilized
+during the early years of the orchard's growth.
+
+Several different methods are in vogue for the solution of this problem;
+but probably the best one is that system which supplies fillers or
+temporary trees between the standard or permanent ones. In an orchard of
+standard apple trees these fillers may very properly be dwarf apple
+trees; or between standard pears dwarf pears may be planted. If there
+are thirty-five standard apple trees to an acre, and if a dwarf tree is
+placed half way between each two standards in every direction, including
+the diagonal direction, this will make one hundred and five dwarf trees,
+or one hundred and forty trees in all, instead of the thirty-five trees
+with which the acre of apple orchard land is more commonly furnished.
+The dwarf apple trees will be bearing good crops at the end of five
+years at most; and they can be kept on the land for five years longer
+at the least, before they will begin to crowd the permanent standards.
+During these five years, if the orchard has a paying management at all,
+they will easily pay all the expenses of the enterprise, and should
+leave a substantial balance of profit.
+
+As this system of filling, or interplanting, commercial orchards is
+becoming more and more common, the suitability of dwarf trees, for this
+purpose, becomes more generally evident.
+
+3. _For school gardens._--Thus far school gardens in America have been
+mostly temporary and experimental affairs. But we are already satisfied
+that they have come to stay, and that gardening in some form will be a
+permanent feature of the curriculum in many of our best schools. As soon
+as a school garden becomes a permanent institution, with ground of its
+own to be held in use year after year, the dependence on annual crops
+will give way to the use of various perennial plants, shrubs and trees.
+
+And among these dwarf fruit trees will naturally be one of the first
+introductions. Their small size adapts them to the school premises,
+their habit of early bearing again serves to recommend them most
+strikingly, and the special opportunity which they offer to pupils to
+observe details of pruning and other items of tree management, make them
+almost a first necessity in the permanent school garden.
+
+4. _For covering walls and fences._--There are many places about every
+farm, suburban establishment, or even about many city homes, where back
+walls and fences could be put out of sight very agreeably by almost any
+sort of foliage. Various ornamental climbers and creepers are in vogue
+for this service; but a certain number of such unattractive walls and
+fences could be treated quite as acceptably, from the esthetic point of
+view, with trained fruit trees, and the result would be more
+satisfactory in some other ways. Apples or pears trained as cordons or
+espaliers, or peaches, nectarines, or cherries in fan forms, will thrive
+on almost any brick or wooden wall, except those with a northern front.
+It is necessary only to supply a proper soil, to plant sound trees of
+proper sorts, and to give them the prescribed care. The result is not
+only a thing of beauty but one of practical utility as well.
+
+There are many places where the owner of a city or suburban lot can
+secure the fun and the substantial benefits belonging to the fruit
+grower on land that would be otherwise wasted, if he will only build a
+woven wire fence on the property line between him and his
+not-too-agreeable neighbor, using this fence as a support for a row of
+cordon plums, pears or apples. If he has time and inclination to do a
+little more work with the trees he can better plant U-form peaches,
+nectarines or apricots, or he can grow plums in U-form, or he can have
+fan-form cherry trees, or apples or pears in Verrier-palmettes. One of
+the most interesting and productive lots in the author's dwarf fruit
+garden is a row of plum trees on such a woven wire trellis. The trees in
+this row stand two feet apart, and form a perfect screen. (Fig. 6.) The
+majority of the trees which were necessarily taken for planting this row
+were not propagated on suitable stocks, and many varieties were
+introduced for experimental purposes which were obviously unadapted to
+this mode of training, but nevertheless the net result has been highly
+satisfactory.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6--PLUMS AS UPRIGHT CORDONS, SET TWO FEET APART]
+
+In a very similar manner apple, pear or plum trees may be trained so as
+to form an arched arbor way. In this kind of make-up they present a most
+agreeable novelty. An example of this kind of training is shown in the
+illustration, page 5. For this purpose cordon trees are usually best;
+though peach or apricot trees in U-form or double U-form will answer
+very well. Even apple trees or pears formed as palmettes-Verrier can be
+carried up over an arched trellis.
+
+Mr. Geo. Bunyard in "The Fruit Garden" tells of carrying apple trees up
+over the slate roof of an outbuilding, with marked success. The
+fruit-bearing portion of the trees, lying there on the slate roof
+beautifully exposed to the sun above, and assisted by the heat absorbed
+and radiated by the slate, yielded large crops of apples of very
+superior quality.
+
+
+SOME DISADVANTAGES
+
+There are, of course, some disadvantages in growing dwarf fruit trees,
+and these should be examined with as much care as the advantages. The
+more important ones are as follows:
+
+1. _Greater expense._--The trees are somewhat harder to propagate, and
+therefore cost more. There is no general demand for them in America, so
+that they are carried by only a few nurseries and are not looked upon as
+staple goods even with those dealers; and on this account the price is
+necessarily increased. Thus each tree costs more than a similar tree of
+the same age and variety propagated in the usual way. But the greatest
+increase of expense comes from the fact that many more trees are
+required to plant the same area. There is often an advantage, as already
+argued, in planting more trees to the acre, but it costs something to
+gain this advantage. An acre of ground can be planted with thirty-five
+standard apple trees set thirty-five feet apart each way, and these
+trees will cost, roughly estimating retail prices at $12 a hundred,
+$4.20. To plant an acre to dwarf apple trees, setting them six feet
+apart each way, which is about as thick as these trees should ever be
+planted, will require 1,210 trees. Estimating the retail price roughly
+at $15 a hundred this would make the first cost $181.50--a considerably
+greater initial investment in the orchard.
+
+2. _The trees are shorter lived._--This statement is true for certain
+kinds of dwarf trees, but not for others. Certain varieties of pears,
+for example, which do not unite well with the quince root, naturally
+make short lived trees. On the other hand other varieties of pears
+appear to live as long and thrive fully as well on quince roots as on
+pear roots. There is a common belief, especially in England, that apples
+worked on French paradise roots are apt to be short-lived. The
+nurserymen who hold this belief contend, however, that the so-called
+English Paradise, more properly called Doucin, supplies a stock on which
+apples will live to as great an age as on any other stock whatever.
+There is some evidence to show that vigorous varieties of plums worked
+on Americana roots or on dwarf sand cherry are shorter lived than the
+same varieties on freer growing stocks. In many cases, however, dwarf
+trees live as long as standards; and in almost all cases they live long
+enough.
+
+3. _They require more care._--This objection stands particularly against
+the dwarf trees trained in special and intricate forms. Such trees
+undoubtedly do require more careful attention, more frequent
+going-over, and more hand work in the course of the year. It is
+probably not true that apples, pears, plums or peaches in bush or
+pyramid forms require any more labor or attention than standard trees to
+secure equally good results. On the other hand it must not be forgotten,
+as has already been pointed out, that whatever care may be required is
+much more easily given the dwarf trees than the standards.
+
+4. _They are not a commercial success._--This statement, too, though
+undoubtedly having some truth in it, can not stand without
+qualification. It is certainly true that no one could grow ordinary
+varieties of apples, like Baldwin or Ben Davis for instance, on dwarf
+trees in competition with men who are growing the same varieties on
+standards. It is probably true that fancy varieties of apples can be
+grown with profit on dwarf trees, but even this can not be strongly
+urged. So far as apples are concerned the chief value of dwarf trees for
+modern commercial enterprises in America will come through their use as
+fillers between rows of standard trees. In the case of pears the
+situation is somewhat more favorable to dwarf trees. There are a number
+of orchards in this country where pears have been successfully grown for
+market, these many years, on dwarf trees. The famous and everywhere
+planted Bartlett succeeds admirably on the quince stock wherever the
+soil is suited to it. No successful commercial orchards of dwarf peaches
+or plums can be cited in this country, individual trees of these kinds
+even being extremely rare; yet there is good reason to suppose that
+under favorable conditions dwarf peaches and plums may have some
+commercial value. Such value may be more in the way of supplementing
+standard trees than in superseding them, but it is still worth
+consideration. So that, after all, when we say that dwarf fruit trees
+are not a commercial success we mean merely that they will not take the
+place of standard trees. The large market orchards must always continue
+to be made up of standard trees; but in their own way the dwarf trees
+will find a limited place even in commercial operations, and this use of
+them seems destined to be more general in the future than it has been in
+the past.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+PROPAGATION
+
+
+The propagation of dwarf fruit trees is in some senses a more critical
+and interesting problem than the propagation of ordinary nursery stock.
+The successful production of a dwarf fruit tree depends primarily on its
+propagation. The selection of stocks for dwarfing purposes is
+necessarily a complicated matter. Under the terms of the problem it is
+impossible that the stock and the cion which are wedded together should
+be very closely related. The stock must be distinctly different and
+pronouncedly dwarfer in his habit of growth.
+
+It is not always an easy matter to find a stock which is thus distinctly
+different from the tree which it is desired to grow and which will at
+the same time form with it a vigorous and long lived union. It is
+necessary further that the propagation can be carried on with ease and
+with a fair degree of success in commercial nurseries. If difficult
+methods of grafting are required, or if only a small stand of nursery
+trees can be secured, the undertaking becomes too expensive from the
+nurseryman's point of view.
+
+The methods of propagating dwarf trees are for the most part the same as
+those used in reproducing the same kinds of fruit on standard stocks. As
+a matter of fact nearly all dwarf trees are propagated by budding.
+Apples, pears, and plums can be readily grafted, but budding is
+simpler, speedier, and usually the cheaper process in the nursery. In
+the upper Mississippi Valley, where plums are somewhat extensively
+worked on Americana plum roots, grafting is rather common. The side
+graft and the whip graft are the forms most used.
+
+The theory of the production of a dwarf fruit tree by the restraining of
+its growth has already been mentioned in another chapter. The dwarf
+stock simply supplies less food than is required for the normal growth
+of the variety under propagation, and the tree is, in a sense, starved
+or stunted into its dwarf stature.
+
+As the selection of proper stocks--the adaptation of stock to cion--is
+one of the fundamental problems in dwarf fruit growing, we may now
+address ourselves to that. We will take up the different classes of
+fruit in order.
+
+
+THE APPLE
+
+Everyone who has observed the wild or native apples which grow in New
+England pastures must frequently have noticed certain dwarf and
+slow-growing specimens. It it not difficult to find such which do not
+reach a height of five feet in ten years of unobstructed growth. If the
+cions of ordinary varieties of apples like Greening and Winesap should
+be grafted upon these stocks, the result would be a dwarf Greening or
+Winesap. If these dwarf wild apples could be produced with certainty and
+at a low price, they would furnish a source of supply for dwarf apple
+stocks.
+
+The Paradise apple so-called (Fig. 7) is simply one of these dwarf
+varieties which can be reproduced freely and cheaply. This reproduction
+is secured nearly always by means of mound layerage. As the variety does
+not come true to seed, any more than such varieties as King or
+Hubbardston do, some such method of propagation is necessary. This
+Paradise apple is naturally inclined to stool out somewhat from the
+roots. This habit is encouraged by cutting the plants back to the
+ground. When the young shoots are thrown up they are banked up with a
+hoe or by plowing furrows up against the rows of plants. The young
+shoots then form roots at the base and these rooted shoots or layers are
+removed when one year old. They are then planted in nursery rows in the
+spring, where they are usually budded the following July or August.
+
+These Paradise stocks are largely grown in France. Practically all the
+supply comes from that country. The nurserymen who grow dwarf apple
+trees in America import their stocks from France during the winter,
+plant them in nursery rows early in the spring, bud the stocks the
+following July or August, and have the dwarf apple trees for sale the
+second year following.
+
+This Paradise is the dwarfest stock known for apples. Its effect on
+nearly all varieties is very marked, causing them to form very small
+trees and to bear very early. Some of the more vigorous varieties, like
+Northern Spy for instance, do not submit kindly to such treatment. For
+this, or possibly for more recondite reasons, a few varieties do not
+succeed well on Paradise roots. The writer would be glad to give a
+list of such varieties which are not adapted to the Paradise stock, but
+confesses he is unable to do so.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7--PARADISE APPLE STOCKS IN EARLY SPRING]
+
+The Doucin stock is simply another variety of dwarf apple. It is more
+vigorous and larger growing than the Paradise, and, therefore, produces
+a tree, when ordinary varieties are grafted upon it, about midway in
+size between the ordinary standard apple and the same variety growing
+upon Paradise.
+
+This Doucin is sometimes called the English or Broad-Leaved Paradise,
+but this name is misleading. It will be well to remember this in buying
+stocks or in buying trees in England. Dwarf apples are largely
+propagated in England, but the trees which are said to be on Paradise
+roots are often on Doucin. This confusion comes about from the
+Englishman's habit of calling Doucin the Broad-Leaved Paradise.
+
+The Doucin is perhaps better for the free-growing bush form trees,
+especially where excessive dwarfing is not needed. For orchard planting
+in the United States this Doucin stock would be likely to suit many
+growers better than Paradise. For trees which are to be kept within very
+narrow bounds, or those which are to be trained in particular forms, the
+Paradise stock is better. For all sorts of cordon apple trees, the
+Paradise is essential.
+
+
+THE PEAR
+
+Dwarf pears are always propagated on quince roots. Any kind of a quince
+may be used as a stock for pears, but the one commonly employed by
+nurserymen is the Angers quince, named after Angers, France, from which
+place the supply largely comes. Almost all the quince stocks used by
+nurserymen in America are imported from France. As in dealing with apple
+stocks, the importation is made during the winter, the stocks are
+planted in nursery rows in the early spring, and are usually budded in
+July or August of the same year.
+
+A few varieties of pears do not make good unions with the quince. In
+some cases this antipathy is overcome by the expedient of
+double-working. The quince root is first budded with some variety which
+unites well with it. After this pear cion has grown one year, the
+refractory variety is budded upon this pear shoot. The complete tree,
+when it leaves the nursery, consists of three pieces,--a quince root
+below, a pear top above, and a short section of only one or two inches
+in length of some other variety of pear which simply holds together the
+two essential parts of the tree.
+
+This practise of double-working is sometimes undertaken with other kinds
+of fruit for special purposes. There are no other cases, however, in
+which it becomes a generally recognized commercial practise.
+
+
+THE PEACH
+
+The peach is dwarfed by budding it upon almost any kind of a plum root,
+especially upon the smaller growing species of plums. The stock most
+used is the ordinary Myrobalan plum. This is simply because the
+Myrobalan stock is commoner and cheaper. The St. Julien plum probably
+furnishes a better dwarfing stock for peaches, but it is more expensive
+and harder to work.
+
+The Americana plum, now somewhat largely grown for stocks in the States
+of the upper Mississippi valley, furnishes a good dwarfing stock for the
+peach. According to the writer's experience the Americana stock gives
+better results with peaches than either Myrobalan or St. Julien. It
+should be observed that this stock requires budding rather early in the
+season.
+
+The dwarf sand cherry, which is further discussed below under plums,
+also makes a good stock for peaches. As this stock is very dwarf, it
+produces the smallest possible peach tree. The peach cion rapidly
+overgrows the stock and the tree can hardly be expected to be long
+lived. The growth is very vigorous and satisfactory during early years,
+however. I have not had an opportunity to determine how long peaches
+will live and thrive on this stock.
+
+Nectarines can be grown in dwarf form in exactly the same manner
+employed for peaches.
+
+
+THE PLUM
+
+In all the old books it is said that dwarf plum trees are secured by
+working on Myrobalan stocks. This statement is hardly true according to
+our present standards, and is certainly far from satisfactory. This rule
+came into vogue at the time when only large growing Domestica plums were
+propagated in this country and the stocks used were mostly either "horse
+plums" or Myrobalan. The Myrobalan stock does give a somewhat smaller
+tree than the old fashioned horse plums; but this Myrobalan stock has
+been for many years the one principally used for propagating all kinds
+of plums in America. It has come to be looked upon as a standard rather
+than a dwarf stock. When we think of dwarf trees, therefore, we expect
+to see something smaller than what will grow under ordinary
+circumstances on a Myrobalan root.
+
+The Americana plum, already mentioned, is a first-rate stock in nearly
+all respects except that it can not be bought so cheaply as the
+Myrobalan. It is now grown to a considerable extent by nurserymen in
+Minnesota, Iowa and the neighboring States. If grafted, or budded early,
+all varieties of plums take well upon it. The trees on Americana roots
+make a good growth in the nursery and are easily transplanted. The tree
+produced on this stock is only moderately dwarf. Still this dwarfing
+effect is always well marked, this result being shown by the overgrowing
+of the cion. The top thus appears to outgrow the root, and such trees
+are apt to blow over during wind storms. Suitable precautions should be
+taken to guard against damage of this sort.
+
+Prof. A. T. Erwin of Iowa writes on this subject as follows:
+
+     "Regarding the Americana as a plum stock, I would state that we are
+     using it by the thousands out here; in fact, have about quit using
+     anything else. As a stock for the European and Japanese sorts, it
+     does dwarf them, and the cion tends to outgrow the stock at the
+     point of union, causing an enlargement. The union is also not very
+     congenial, and they frequently break off on account of high winds.
+     However, in my experience and observation, this is not the case
+     when the Americana is used as a stock for Americana varieties. It
+     does not dwarf the trees seriously and the union is splendid. It is
+     by all odds the best stock we have for plums, and since we do not
+     grow anything but Americana varieties, it works first rate. It does
+     tend to sprout some, though there is little trouble in this regard
+     after the trees come into bearing."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8
+
+THE WESTERN SAND CHERRY
+
+_Prunus pumila besseyi_]
+
+The sand cherry seems to be the dwarfing stock par excellence for the
+plum. This sand cherry is a heterogeneous species, or as some botanists
+think, is three species, ranging throughout the Northern States from
+Maine to Colorado. The narrow leaf upright form growing about five feet
+tall, known as _Prunus pumila_, is found along the Atlantic coast. The
+broad leafed dwarfer form known as _Prunus pumila besseyi_ or _P.
+besseyi_, is found in the Western States. Another rarer form of more
+irregular growth known as _Prunus pumila cuneata_, or as _P. cuneata_,
+is found in the North Central States.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9--UPRIGHT CORDON PLUM
+
+With buds set into the naked trunk]
+
+All of these different forms may be used for propagating plums or
+peaches. The western form (_P. besseyi_) (Fig. 8) is in some respects
+the best, producing the dwarfest and apparently the best trees. In our
+experience, however, nearly all varieties of plums and peaches give a
+better stand of trees when budded on _P. pumila_. _Prunus cuneata_ is
+inferior to the others.
+
+The eastern form, _P. pumila_, has another advantage from the standpoint
+of the nurseryman in that it is more easily propagated from cuttings.
+For the most part the western sand cherry is propagated from seed. Both
+forms can be propagated from layers.
+
+
+NURSERY MANAGEMENT
+
+Dwarf trees are managed in the nursery very much the same as standards
+of the same varieties. There are no special points to be observed except
+in the formation of the tops. Western New York nurserymen, who now grow
+the principal supply of dwarf apple and pear trees, have the custom of
+forming their nursery stock with high heads. That is, the heads are
+formed at a height of eighteen inches to three feet from the ground. In
+this matter the pattern is taken after the usual style of standard
+trees. This is quite wrong. Of course, some planters might like to have
+dwarf trees with trunks two or three feet tall, but the best form has a
+much shorter stem. At any rate the buyer of dwarf trees ought to be at
+liberty to form the head within three or four inches of the ground if he
+so desires. This becomes very difficult if the tree is once pruned up to
+a height of two or three feet.
+
+In order that the planter may reach his own ideal perfectly in this
+matter, it is sometimes necessary to buy one year old trees, what the
+English nurserymen call maidens. This, of course, enables the tree
+planter to form the head wherever he desires.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+PRUNING DWARF FRUIT TREES
+
+
+The pruning of dwarf fruit trees is a matter of the greatest
+consequence, for on proper pruning depend both the form and the
+productivity of the trees. Some of the details of management will be
+explained in the succeeding chapters, dealing with the particular kinds
+of fruits, but a few general statements should be set down here.
+
+1. The trees are severely headed in. This applies more particularly to
+bush and pyramid forms. By the term "heading in" we refer to the
+shortening of the leaders. Such shortening is usually given at the
+spring pruning, while the trees are dormant. The leaders may be headed
+in at times, however, during the latter part of the growing season, in
+July. Such stopping of growing leaders will be practised more often on
+young trees just coming into bearing than on old trees. (Fig. 10).
+Constant heading back of some sort, however, is required in nearly all
+cases, if the tree is to be retained in its dwarf form. The mistake has
+often been made of thinking that a tree propagated on a dwarf root would
+take care of itself.
+
+2. Summer pruning is essential. In most American orchard practise one
+annual pruning (sometimes one pruning every five years!) is considered
+sufficient, and systematic summer pruning is seldom or never given. Now
+summer pruning tends much more to repress the growth of a tree than
+winter pruning does. In fact, heavy winter pruning leads rather to
+increased vegetative vigor. Aside from any special system of pruning,
+therefore, this rule is to be remembered, that summer pruning is
+desirable, on general principles, for dwarf fruit trees.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10--BUSH APPLE, THREE YEARS OLD
+
+Showing strong leaders formed during the summer]
+
+3. Side shoots usually need pinching during the growing season. Leaders
+are more frequently allowed to grow unchecked throughout the season, or
+are stopped only late in their period of development. In the pomaceous
+fruits, which form distinct fruit spurs, the checking of these side
+shoots helps toward the production of fruit buds. As long as every bud
+is allowed to push out into a strong shoot no fruit spurs can become
+established. Thus the summer pinching of the side shoots on apples and
+pears has the purpose of encouraging the formation of fruit spurs. On
+peach and plum trees equally distinct fruit spurs do not form; but if
+the side shoots are allowed to push forth unrestricted they are apt to
+choke one another. There will be too many of them, they will not get
+light enough, their growth will be weak and sappy, and they will not
+form fruit buds. Good fruit buds on a peach tree, for example, form on
+strong, clean, healthy shoots of this year's growth for next year's crop
+of fruit. It is seen, therefore, that in nearly all sorts of dwarf fruit
+trees the summer pruning is especially directed to the suppression or
+regulation of the growth of side shoots.
+
+This part of the treatment becomes of prime importance in dealing with
+cordons and espaliers.
+
+4. The control of the fruit spurs or of the side shoots here
+contemplated requires that the trees be gone over more than once during
+the growing season. In fact, four successive examinations of the tree
+are usually required. Old trees can sometimes be managed with two or
+three, but young ones, on the other hand, will sometimes require six or
+more. Of course, there are usually only a few shoots that need attention
+at each succeeding visit, and the work can be very rapidly performed.
+The first pruning, or pinching, falls about three weeks after the trees
+have started into growth. The next one comes ten days later, the next
+one ten days later again, and the fourth pruning two weeks after the
+third. From this time onward the intervals lengthen. These
+specifications, of course, are only approximate and suggestive. Some
+judgment is required to select just the proper moment for pinching back
+a shoot and even more to select the time for a general summer pruning.
+Those trees which enjoy the sympathetic presence of the gardener every
+day are sure to fare best. The bulk of this pruning can be done with the
+thumb nail and forefinger, but I find a light pair of pruning scissors
+pleasanter to work with.
+
+5. Root pruning is sometimes advisable. Since the whole program is
+arranged to check the growth of the dwarf tree, root pruning would
+naturally fit well with the other practises recommended. Root pruning
+checks the growth of a tree about as positively as any treatment that
+can be devised. When dwarf pear or apple trees seem to be making too
+much wood growth and not enough fruit, they can be taken up, as for
+transplanting, during the dormant season and set right back into place.
+This digging up and replanting is always accompanied by some cutting
+of roots. The whole root system is disturbed and has to re-establish
+itself before the top vegetates very strongly once more. Such root
+pruning ought to be done late in the fall. It is a special practice,
+suited to refractory cases, and the gardener is not recommended to
+indulge in it too freely.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11--BUSH APPLE
+
+Three years old, before pruning]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12--BUSH APPLE
+
+Same tree after pruning]
+
+6. A certain equilibrium between vegetative growth and fruit bearing
+should be established at the earliest possible moment, and should be
+maintained thereafter. Of course, some such equilibrium is sought in the
+management of a standard tree; but it is secured earlier in the life of
+the dwarf tree and should be much more accurately maintained. The tree
+must make a certain amount of growth each year, but this must be only
+enough to keep it in good health, and to furnish foliage enough to
+mature the fruit. Beyond this wood growth the tree should bear a certain
+amount of fruit every year, for annual bearing is not only an ideal but
+a rule in the management of dwarf trees. This equilibrium once
+established must be maintained not by haphazard pruning, but by some
+suitable system. If there is the proper balance between summer pruning
+and winter pruning, combined with proper control of cultivation and
+fertilization, then the balance between vegetation and fruitage can be
+kept up. It is a delicate business, like courting two girls at once, but
+it can be carried out successfully.
+
+7. The training of trees into mathematical forms is largely a mechanical
+process. For the most part the trees are shaped while they are growing.
+The young shoots are twisted and bent to the desired positions, and
+are tied into place until the stems become hardened. There are many
+clever little tricks for expediting this sort of work and for making the
+results more sure, but a rehearsal of them here would be tedious. The
+most important rule to remember is that constant attention must be given
+the shoots while they are growing. Mistakes are corrected with
+difficulty after an undesirable form has been allowed to harden.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13--CORDON PEARS
+
+Before pruning]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14--CORDON PEARS
+
+After pruning]
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+SPECIAL FORMS FOR TRAINED TREES
+
+
+We have already explained the connection between dwarf trees and the
+practise of training them in special forms. It is true that this
+practise looks childish to American eyes. It seems to be only a kind of
+play, and a rather juvenile sport at that. Nevertheless we should
+understand that in some parts of the world it is a real and profitable
+commercial undertaking. We should consider also that in other places,
+where fruit of very high quality is better appreciated, perhaps, than it
+is in America, the extra trouble is thought to be worth while for the
+superior quality which it gives the fruit. As this matter is coming to
+be of more importance in America also, and as the interest in amateur
+fruit growing is enormously increasing, we may fairly begin to talk
+about these methods.
+
+The formation of trees into bushes and pyramids, by means of systematic
+pruning according to a definite plan, as explained in the succeeding
+chapters, while apparently simpler and more reasonable to our American
+eyes, it is still a method of training the tree. The fruiting branches
+are placed at definite points and the fruit spurs are encouraged to grow
+in regular succession. It is not a very great step from this to a
+distribution of the branches into a more precise form.
+
+The different forms which are used most commonly are named and
+classified in the following outline:
+
+  _A._--_Forms of three dimensions_:
+                  _a._ Vase or bush
+                  _b._ Pyramid
+                  _c._ Winged pyramid, etc.
+  _B._--_Forms of two dimensions_:
+                  _a._ Various espaliers
+                  _b._ Palmette-Verrier
+                  _c._ Fans or Fan-espaliers
+                  _d._ U-form and double U-form
+  _C._--_Trained to a single stem_:
+                  _a._ Upright cordon
+                  _b._ Oblique cordon
+                  _c._ Horizontal cordon
+                           (with one arm)
+                           (with two arms)
+                  _d._ Serpentine cordon, etc.
+
+Among the forms of three dimensions none is of much practical importance
+besides the pyramid and bush or vase form. These are sufficiently
+explained in the chapters on pears and apples. Here we need only to
+define them. The pyramid tree is one which has a straight central stem
+with branches radiating therefrom. It is especially adapted to upright
+growing varieties of pears. The bush or vase form has several main arms
+or branches, all standing out from approximately the same point and
+growing upward at a more or less acute angle, thus forming roughly a
+vase. The secondary branches put out from these, bearing fruiting wood,
+as the gardener may order.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15--PEARS IN DOUBLE U-FORM
+
+From Loebner's "Zwergobstbäume"]
+
+The flying pyramid or winged pyramid, described in all European books,
+is considerably different from the ordinary pyramid and is more precise
+in its design. Usually six arms are brought out at the base of the tree.
+These are grown in a direction approximately horizontal until they reach
+a convenient length,--say two to three feet. They are then suddenly bent
+upward and inward and are conducted along wires set for this purpose
+until they meet in a common point with the main stem of the tree some
+four to eight feet above where the branches put out. There is thus
+formed a precise mathematical pyramid. Along these main arms fruiting
+spurs are allowed to grow, but no branches are expected to develop.
+
+Sometimes the flying pyramid is made more elaborate by bending the arms
+into a spiral form. Other more or less complex modifications are
+practised to some extent. All of them are to be regarded merely as
+curiosities and as of no practical value.
+
+The various forms of espaliers and fan-shaped trees have their special
+and legitimate uses. It may be said here that the Palmette-Verrier is
+regarded generally as being the most successful for the largest number
+of varieties of fruits. It is a safe rule also that the simpler forms
+are generally the better. With rare exceptions a tree confined to a
+moderately small space is more satisfactory than one trained over a
+large space.
+
+Great care must be exercised in forming these trees. If the geometrical
+style of training is undertaken at all, it should be carried out with
+considerable precision. If one arm happens to be placed a little higher,
+or at a little more moderate angle, or otherwise more favorably than the
+corresponding arm, it will very soon divert to its own use the major
+portion of food supplied by the top. It will outgrow its mate and the
+form which the gardener designed will eventually be lost. It will be
+seen at once that this condition makes the same care and precision
+necessary in all forms of training.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16--PEARS IN U-FORM
+
+Sometimes called two-arm upright cordons]
+
+The U-form classifies somewhere between the cordon and the espalier. It
+consists of two upright branches joined to a single trunk below by an
+arc of a circle. The fruit is all borne on the two parallel stems
+which are treated essentially the same as upright cordons. (Fig. 17.)
+
+The double U-form is made by growing two U's from the same tree. The
+stem is first divided near the ground into two branches and each of
+these is immediately divided into two more. The tree thus provides four
+parallel and equally spaced upright and fruiting stems equal to four
+upright cordons, except that they are all supported from a single trunk.
+The U- and double U-forms are employed mostly for plums, apricots,
+peaches and nectarines.
+
+One occasionally sees much more elaborate schemes of training than any
+here mentioned. There are complex geometrical designs, even pictorial
+figures--birds, dogs, and beer-steins--and sometimes the initials of the
+gardener, or the name of his kingly and imperial majesty. In every case
+the method of producing these forms is practically the same. A frame is
+built of wood or wire in the form which it is desired to give the tree.
+Branches are developed at suitable points on the tree and these are tied
+out while they are growing to the wooden or metal form. It does not
+require any special care or ingenuity to produce the most elaborate
+designs in this method. It is essentially a job of carpentry.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17--APRICOTS IN U-FORM]
+
+We come now to the cordons. If we take the simplest form, namely the
+upright cordon, we have what we may call a tree of one dimension only.
+The upright cordon has nothing but height, eschewing both breadth and
+thickness. A cordon is simply a tree trained to a single stem and this
+stem may be placed in any position. The position or direction of the
+stem classifies the cordon. There are, therefore, besides the upright
+cordon, others which are oblique, that is, which make an angle with the
+horizontal, those which are horizontal, and those which are bent into
+various forms. The serpent form is one of the simplest of these. This
+form of cordon is simply bent back and forth against a trellis forming a
+series of S's one above another. The horizontal cordons are of two
+varieties, namely one-arm and two-arm forms. It is altogether a matter
+of convenience which one of these forms is chosen.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18--PEAR IN ESPALIER
+
+This tree is carrying over 200 fruits]
+
+In conclusion it may be pointed out that the slower growing trees, pears
+and apples, are the better suited to the more elaborate forms of
+training. The more free and rapid growing species, such as peaches,
+nectarines, cherries, and Japanese plums, are better managed in somewhat
+simpler forms, preferably the fan. Such trees do well, however, in the
+U-form or double U-form.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19--OLD ESPALIER PEARS ON FARM HOUSE WALL]
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+GENERAL MANAGEMENT
+
+
+The general management of dwarf trees is naturally very much like the
+management of ordinary standard trees. As dwarf trees are grown more
+often in gardens rather than in orchards they will receive garden
+treatment. Heavy tools and extensive methods of culture will hardly find
+application.
+
+Good soil culture may be regarded as essential. Whatever some American
+fruit growers may be saying about the propriety of growing apple
+orchards in sod, no one has yet undertaken to adapt the sod system into
+the kitchen garden. The close planting which is customary with dwarf
+trees makes culture comparatively difficult, yet not unreasonably so.
+Apple and pear trees planted six feet apart each way can be worked for
+several years with a single horse and cultivator. In fact if the trees
+are kept carefully headed in, the time need never come when the
+cultivator will have to be abandoned. When cordons or espaliers are
+planted in a garden large enough to warrant horse cultivation under
+ordinary circumstances then the rows of trained trees should be set six
+feet apart, which will be enough to permit the continued use of the
+horse and cultivator between the rows.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20--HORIZONTAL CORDON APPLE AND OTHER DWARF TREES
+
+With cover crop of hairy vetch]
+
+However, the horse cultivator is certain to be definitely crowded out of
+some dwarf fruit gardens. Many of the men who have greatest reason for
+growing dwarf fruit trees are those whose backyard gardens were never
+large enough to justify the presence of a horse or horse tools. In such
+cases the spading fork and the hand cultivator are the ready and proper
+substitutes. Our extensive methods of farming in America have bred a
+strong prejudice against all sorts of hand labor like this, but
+experience will show that under some conditions it is quite worth while.
+A very common mistake in all kinds of agriculture is to allow prejudice
+to rule experience.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21--DESIGN FOR A BACK YARD FRUIT GARDEN 50 FT.
+SQUARE
+
+North fence (top of map), peach espalier (4); Row 1, bush apple (7); Row
+2, pyramid pear (7); Row 3, currants and gooseberries (11); Row 4 and 5,
+horizontal cordon apples, with grass walk between; Row 6, raspberry
+bushes (7); Row 7, strawberries; Row 8, plums in bush form (7); Row 9,
+apples in horizontal cordons (4); East fence, apples as upright cordons
+(31); West fence, pears in espalier.]
+
+Garden culture means not only good tillage of the soil, but good
+treatment in other respects. It means good feeding and good spraying. As
+for spraying we need make only two observations. First, the treatment to
+be given is almost precisely the same as that which is given to standard
+trees of the same species; second, the work is much more easily
+performed because the trees are smaller. If one happens to have a
+considerable block of dwarf trees closely planted. There may be
+difficulty, it is true, in driving in with a spray pump. This difficulty
+is overcome by having long runs of hose on the spray pump, so that the
+cart may stand on the borders of the garden while the operator carries
+the nozzle in among the trees. In case of large plantings of dwarf trees
+alley-ways should be left every one hundred feet, or better, every
+eighty feet, between the blocks. These alleys will be useful for other
+purposes besides spraying.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22--DWARF FRUIT GARDEN 111 BY 144 FEET
+
+From Lucas' Handbuch des Obstbaues]
+
+In the management of a small garden the gardener is expected to be
+liberal in his allowance of fertilizers. While it is true that dwarf
+fruit trees should be liberally fed there is a possibility of overdoing
+it. It has already been explained that the dwarfing of the tree depends
+in a certain way on its well-regulated starvation. If the tree top could
+get all the food which its nature calls for it would not be dwarfed. The
+rule in feeding dwarf fruit trees therefore should be to give enough
+fertilizer to keep them in perfect health and in good growing condition,
+but not enough to force unnecessary growth. Fertilizer rich in nitrogen
+should be especially avoided, and, as the object in view is to secure an
+early maturity of the tree and to produce fruit always in preference to
+wood, a larger proportion of potash would naturally be substituted for
+the diminished proportion of nitrogen. Of course the amounts and
+proportions of the different elements (nitrogen, potash and phosphoric
+acid) to be applied will vary greatly with different conditions,--with
+the nature of the soil, the age of the trees, etc. As a sort of standard
+we may say that under normal conditions of good soil with dwarf apple
+and pear trees in bearing there should be given annually for each acre:
+
+  400 pounds ground bone
+  400 pounds muriate of potash
+  100 pounds Peruvian guano
+
+Peaches and plums require more nitrogen during early growth, and more
+potash when in full bearing. For a new plantation of these trees the
+following amounts should be given annually for each acre:
+
+  300 pounds ground bone
+  400 pounds muriate of potash
+  150 pounds nitrate of soda
+
+For peach and plum trees in bearing, the following formula may be
+suggested:
+
+  400 pounds ground bone
+  500 pounds muriate of potash
+  100 pounds Peruvian guano
+
+Inasmuch as many owners of dwarf fruit trees will have so much less
+than an acre for treatment it will be best to repeat these formulas,
+reducing them to a smaller unit. Making this reduction somewhat freely,
+in order to avoid long and useless decimals, we may compute the quantity
+needed annually for each one hundred square feet of land as follows:
+
+  FOR APPLES AND PEARS IN BEARING
+
+      1 pound ground bone
+      1 pound muriate of potash
+    1/4 pound Peruvian guano
+
+  FOR PEACHES AND PLUMS NEWLY PLANTED
+
+    3/4 pound ground bone
+      1 pound muriate of potash
+    3/8 pound nitrate of soda
+
+  FOR PEACHES AND PLUMS IN BEARING
+
+    1/4 pound Peruvian guano
+  1-1/4 pound muriate of potash
+      1 pound ground bone
+
+Cherries should be treated like plums; gooseberries, currants, and most
+other fruits, like apples.
+
+In the home of dwarf tree culture, that is, in Europe, trained trees are
+extensively grown upon walls. The gardeners utilize for this purpose not
+only the walls of stables and outbuildings, and of the enclosed gardens,
+but long ranges of brick are built for the special and exclusive purpose
+of accommodating fruit trees. In southern Germany, in Switzerland, in
+Belgium, in France, and especially in the neighborhood of Paris, there
+are hundreds of miles of these walls. The walls may run north and south
+or east and west. Both sides of the walls are used, even when one side
+faces the north. Currants and gooseberries are expected to thrive on
+north walls. West walls are considered especially favorable for pears
+and plums. The walls are nearly always built of brick. They should have
+a height of ten to fourteen feet. Each wall usually has a coping at the
+top with a projection of ten to eighteen inches, which sheds the rain,
+protecting both the wall and the fruit trees. Where extreme pains are
+spent on the culture of fancy table fruits there are curtains hung from
+rods along the outer edge of these copings, and the curtains are drawn
+to protect ripening fruit from too hot sunshine, or to protect the
+blossoms in the spring season from late frosts.
+
+Brick walls, with all their appurtenances, are less important in America
+than in Europe and the advantages to be expected from this particular
+method of culture are decidedly less. Walls would more probably be
+useful for peaches and nectarines in northern latitudes than for any
+other fruits.
+
+Cordons and espaliers require some sort of support, however, and where
+walls are not used trellises are necessary. These may be of wood or
+wire. There is a belief current that the wooden trellises are better
+because they reflect less heat, but wire is so much cheaper and more
+durable that it will usually be chosen.
+
+Five or six wires are needed to make a good trellis for upright cordons.
+These should be placed twelve to fourteen inches apart, with the lowest
+wire thirty inches from the ground. All wires should be tight, and to
+this end stout, well-set posts are necessary. The wires should be
+loosened in the autumn, before freezing weather begins, and should be
+tightened again in the spring.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23--FRUIT GARDENING AND LANDSCAPE GARDENING COMBINED
+
+From Lucas' Handbuch des Obstbaues
+
+The entire planting, exclusive of the borders, is made up of fruit trees
+and bushes. Dimensions, 752 × 1,362 feet.]
+
+For espaliers the woven wire fences are better. In fact, the woven wire
+fencing is excellent for all sorts of fruit trellises. Poultry netting
+makes a cheap and convenient trellis, but it is neither so strong nor so
+durable as the better grades of woven wire fencing. On the whole it is
+very poor economy to buy a cheap trellis or to put it up on poor posts.
+
+These trellises will need to be comparatively high. Nothing less than
+eight feet will be satisfactory, and for upright cordons a trellis ten
+to fifteen feet high will be much better. Of course, this entire height
+is not needed the first year, but upright cordon apples will cover a
+twelve foot trellis in five years. Peaches or Japanese plums will cover
+the same trellis in three years.
+
+In the selection of varieties for growing in a garden of dwarf fruit
+trees the horticulturist will naturally be guided by principles
+altogether different from those which control him in the selection of
+varieties for a commercial orchard. He must, of course, consider which
+varieties are best adapted to the special stocks on which they have to
+be propagated. He must also bear in mind that certain varieties are
+better adapted than others for the special forms in which he may wish to
+train his dwarf trees. Beyond all this lies the great consideration that
+in the very large majority of cases dwarf fruit trees are grown to
+secure fancy fruit, not to produce a large quantity for a general
+market. All varieties of inferior quality would therefore be eliminated
+from consideration at the beginning, no matter how productive they might
+be, nor how famous for other things.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24--A FRUIT GARDEN CONTAINING MANY DWARF TREES
+
+A is the entrance; B, well or cistern; C, space to turn a horse and
+cart.
+
+From P. Barry's "Fruit Garden"]
+
+Varieties of specially good flavor would be given special thought, even
+though they might lack in hardiness or productivity. The special
+favorites of the man who owns the garden should be chosen, no matter
+whether they are popular or not. Then for similar reasons a
+comparatively long list of varieties will be chosen instead of the very
+short list always held to by the commercial grower. From first to last
+one should remember that the growing of dwarf fruit trees is essentially
+the enterprise of an amateur, not of a man who grows fruit for money.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+DWARF APPLES
+
+
+Dwarf apples are the most interesting and valuable of dwarf fruits. We
+have become so thoroughly accustomed to the standard apple tree in this
+country, however, and it so fully meets all the apparent requirements,
+that there seems to be no call for dwarf apples. Nevertheless dwarf
+trees have some real advantages under certain circumstances. Some of
+these have already been pointed out in the general discussion in
+previous chapters, and some of them will bear reiteration here. Where so
+much interest is taken in apple culture as in America, the advantage
+which dwarf trees offer for the rapid testing of new varieties cannot be
+overlooked. Still more important is the value of the dwarf trees in
+producing extra fancy specimens. Thus in growing very fine apples for
+exhibition or for a particularly fastidious market, one would naturally
+choose the dwarf trees.
+
+Inasmuch as dwarf trees are recommended chiefly to the amateur and are
+grown generally less for cash profit than for other considerations, the
+great and obvious advantages of standard trees quickly disappear. For
+men who like to play at fruit growing, nothing can equal a selection of
+apple trees on Paradise stocks. They are the most engaging of all dwarf
+trees, in fact of all fruit trees whatsoever.
+
+The general matter of selecting stocks has been referred to under the
+head of propagation, but the statement should be repeated here that the
+French Paradise stock is preferable for very dwarf garden trees, and is
+almost necessary for cordons and espaliers, while the Doucin (sometimes
+called the English or broad-leaved Paradise) may be chosen where only a
+moderate amount of dwarfing is desired. Some of the most expert apple
+growers of North America are beginning to think that the Doucin may be
+required for the commercial orchards in the future, when spraying for
+the San José scale becomes an established routine and smaller trees are
+an accepted necessity.
+
+Dwarf apple trees may be cultivated in nearly all the artificial forms
+ever given to fruit trees. Undoubtedly the simplest is the bush or vase
+form. This requires less care and attention and probably gives as much
+fruit to the same area as any other. The pyramid form is somewhat
+difficult to produce. It can be secured successfully only with the
+varieties which have a tendency to grow strong, straight branches, as
+for instance Sutton, Gravenstein and Northern Spy. On the whole the
+pyramid is not to be recommended for dwarf apples.
+
+Apples succeed very well as upright cordons and in all the simpler
+modifications of this form. As these trees can be planted very close
+together--as close as fifteen inches certainly--thus occupying very
+little room, a large number of them can be planted in very limited areas
+of the city lot or backyard. They are especially adapted to stand on the
+property line where they seem to use no space whatever, and where in
+fact they do occupy space which otherwise would be lost. The upright
+cordon can be bent into the form of an arch in order to make delightful
+arbors along the walks. The illustration, Fig. 2, shows a good example
+of this sort.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25--DWARF APPLES ON PROF. L. H. BAILEY'S FARM, NEW
+YORK]
+
+Nearly all varieties of apples--indeed all as far as I know--succeed in
+this form. The trees are not very long-lived, however. That is they
+cannot be maintained in good presentable form and prolific bearing
+indefinitely, because it is difficult to reproduce the fruit spurs on
+the lower part of the stem. Nevertheless the trees are inexpensive and
+can be cheaply replaced. As they come into bearing the first or second
+year after planting, this task of replacing worn-out trees is a small
+one. Very fine specimens of fruit can be produced on these upright
+cordons. Indeed this form is superior to the bush form in this respect.
+
+The apple is the best of all trees for horizontal cordons. In this form
+it becomes the most entertaining plaything in the garden, as well as one
+of the most rewarding trees in its product of fruit. Either the single
+arm or the double arm cordon can be used with success. These horizontal
+cordons are naturally used along the borders of walks, flower beds or
+plots devoted to vegetables. They may sometimes be used along
+foundations of buildings, where it is not desired to grow upright
+cordons or espaliers against the walls. The fruit produced by horizontal
+cordons is probably superior in size, color and finish to that produced
+on any other form of tree. In climates where the summer's heat and
+sunshine are apt to be meager, this advantage of the horizontal cordon
+will be comparatively greater. Conversely it will be less in places
+where sunshine and heat are very abundant during the summer. It is
+probably true that on the plains of Arizona and Texas the horizontal
+cordon will not be a brilliant success.
+
+Dwarf apples need practically the same care and cultivation, aside from
+pruning, as standard apples. The soil should be cultivated during the
+early part of the summer and allowed to rest during the latter part of
+the year. Cover crops may be sown during June or July, according to the
+custom practised in the usual orchard management; but the advantages of
+a cover crop in a small garden are less material than in a large
+commercial orchard.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26--UPRIGHT CORDON APPLES
+
+18 inches apart; in author's garden]
+
+The formation of the tree is discussed under another head. It remains to
+be said only that careful and intelligent pruning are required to keep
+any dwarf apple tree to its work. The more complicated and the more
+restricted the form of the tree, the more careful and continuous must be
+this pruning. The general system may be outlined in comparatively few
+words, and may be explained in its simplest form as applied to the
+treatment of a horizontal cordon. Each horizontal cordon, perfectly
+formed and full grown, should have fruit spurs throughout its horizontal
+length, which may be from three to fifteen feet. The upright portion of
+the trunk, from the point where the graft is set to the angle made by
+the bending down of the stem, should be kept clean and bare. Constant
+care is required to remove the sprouts from this portion of the tree,
+especially such as come up from the stock. At the further end of the
+horizontal portion there should be one, two, or three strong shoots
+allowed to push forth each year. These may be called leaders. They
+represent the principal wood growth in each tree. They draw up the sap
+from the roots, their leaves elaborate this sap, and from them the
+digested material is sent back for the support of the tree and the
+ripening of the fruit. They are allowed to take an upright or nearly
+upright position and their growth is encouraged. On all other portions
+of the tree growth is sternly restricted, when not altogether repressed.
+
+There is a constant tendency for strong shoots to start into growth all
+along the horizontal part of the stem and especially near the bend. If
+any of these shoots are allowed to make headway, the form of the tree
+is spoiled. Even if they are cut out after a year's growth, thus
+retaining somewhat the form of the tree, the fruit spurs are thereby
+lost. It is the business of the fruit grower, therefore, to pinch back
+these shoots which start along the horizontal stem, and this pinching is
+done at a comparatively early stage of their growth. Usually the first
+pinching should be given when the stems have grown long enough so as to
+have seven or eight leaves. These shoots are then cut or pinched back to
+three leaves. If the tree is in good vigorous condition, these shoots
+will soon start into growth once more. Again they have to be pinched.
+This time the pinching comes a little earlier, taking the shoot when it
+reaches only about five leaves and the pinching is still more severe.
+The shoots may start into growth a third time or even a fourth time, but
+each time they are pinched back sooner and more severely than before. In
+most cases two or three pinchings will suffice. These constant
+repressions of growth tend to secure the formation of fruit spurs and
+fruit buds along the horizontal trunk of the tree.
+
+Some slight modifications of the plan here outlined will develop
+themselves in experience. In particular it will be found that different
+varieties require slightly different handling. Some form fruit spurs
+more readily than others. With certain varieties it is very difficult to
+repress the rampant habit of growth and to secure a proper formation of
+fruit buds. These differences, however, are of minor importance as
+compared with the general management of the tree.
+
+The system just outlined has in view the summer pruning of the
+horizontal cordon apple. The upright cordon is pruned in almost exactly
+the same manner. Various forms of espaliers are handled in much the same
+way. Strong shoots or leaders are allowed to grow at the ends of the
+main branches to keep up a proper circulation and elaboration of sap,
+while the growth of fruit spurs is encouraged along the sides of the
+stems by frequent and regular pruning.
+
+In a somewhat less precise manner the same system of pruning can be
+applied to bush and pyramid forms. Each bush, for instance, is made up
+of a certain number of fruiting branches. The fruit is borne on spurs on
+the sides of these branches, while the woody growth is made by the
+leaders appearing at the ends of these branches. These leaders are
+annually cut back and the constant formation of fruit spurs is
+encouraged by pinching whatever shoots are on the sides of the main
+stems.
+
+It will be seen that the whole business of pruning falls into two
+general categories, viz., winter pruning and summer pruning. The winter
+or spring pruning is given any time after the stress of winter is over
+and before the sap starts running in the spring. This is the time when
+the ordinary fruit trees are customarily pruned. The work at this season
+consists chiefly in cutting back leaders. These are pruned off short,
+that is the whole stem is taken off down to within two or three buds of
+where it started growth the previous year. In some cases it is worth
+while to cut even further back, going into wood two or three years old.
+At this spring pruning the defective or diseased branches are of course
+removed wherever they are found. Cases requiring such treatment always
+occur even on the best trained cordons and espaliers. Whenever it
+becomes necessary an entire branch, sometimes composing half the tree,
+is taken out. Usually such branches can be replaced without great loss
+of time.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27--HORIZONTAL CORDON APPLE TREES]
+
+After this winter or spring pruning comes the summer pruning which has
+been outlined above. This usually begins May 15-25, and continues until
+July 25-31, differing, of course, in different latitudes.
+
+Practically all varieties of apples can be grown as dwarfs, though some
+succeed on Paradise roots better than others. Some varieties also are
+better adapted for special forms, as for cordons, than are others. Such
+requirements are not very strict, and a careful gardener can grow
+practically anything he wants to. Patrick Barry, in his "Fruit Garden,"
+recommends "twenty very large and beautiful sorts for dwarfs," having in
+mind American conditions, and especially his own experience in
+Rochester, N. Y. His list is as follows:
+
+  Red Astrachan
+  Large Sweet Bough
+  Primate
+  Beauty of Kent
+  Alexander
+  Duchess of Oldenburg
+  Fall Pippin
+  Williams' Favorite
+  Gravenstein
+  Hawthornden
+  Maiden's Blush
+  Porter
+  Menagere
+  Red Bietigheimer
+  Bailey Sweet
+  Canada Reinette
+  Northern Spy
+  Mother
+  King of Tompkins County
+  Twenty Ounce
+  Wagener
+
+In Europe, where greater attention has been paid to these matters, the
+opinion has settled down to a comparatively limited number. For example,
+Mr. George Bunyard in "The Fruit Garden" recommends the following
+varieties for cordons:
+
+  Mr. Gladstone            Aug.
+  Devonshire Quarrenden    Aug.
+  James Grieve             Sept.
+  Wealthy                  Oct.
+  Margil                   Oct.
+  King of Pippins          Oct.
+  Mother                   Oct.
+  Calville Rouge Precoce   Oct.
+  Cox's Orange Pippin      Oct., Feb.
+  St. Edmund's Pippin      Nov.
+  Ross Nonpareil           Nov.
+  Duchess of Oldenburg     Aug.
+  Pott's Seedling          Sept.
+  Lord Grosvenor           Sept.
+  Adams' Pearmain          Dec.
+  Hubbard's Pearmain       Dec.
+  Allington Pippin         Nov., Feb.
+  Scarlet Nonpareil        Jan., Feb.
+  Norman's Pippin          Jan.
+  Lord Burghley            Feb.
+  Duke of Devonshire       Feb.
+  Rosemary Russet          Feb.
+  Sturmer Pippin           Very late
+  Allen's Everlasting      Very late
+  Fearn's Pippin.          Very late
+  Lord Derby               Nov.
+  Bismarck                 Dec.
+  Lane's Prince Albert     Jan., March
+  Lord Suffield            Sept.
+  Grenadier                Sept., Oct.
+  Golden Spire             Sept., Oct.
+  Seaton House             Sept., Oct.
+  Sandringham              Feb.
+  Alfriston                Feb., March
+  Calville Malingre        Feb. to Mch.
+  Calville Rouge           Feb. to Mch.
+
+The same authority recommends the following varieties to be grown on
+Paradise stocks as bushes:
+
+  Beauty of Bath           July, Aug.
+  Red Quarrenden           July, Aug.
+  Lady Sudeley             Sept.
+  Worcester Pearmain       Sept., Oct.
+  Yellow Angestrie         Sept.
+  Duchess' Favorite        Sept. to Oct.
+  King of the Pippins      Oct.
+  Early White Transparent  J'ly.
+  Lord Suffield            Aug., Sept.
+  Pott's Seedling          Aug., Sept.
+  Lord Grosvenor           Aug., Sept.
+  Early Julien             Aug., Sept.
+  Ecklinville Seedling     Sept., Oct.
+  Grenadier                Sept., Oct.
+  Stirling Castle          Sept., Oct.
+  Golden Spire             Sept., Oct.
+  Cox's Orange Pippin      Nov., Feb.
+  Beauty of Barnack        Nov.
+  Allington Pippin         Dec., Feb.
+  Gascoigne's Scarlet      Dec.
+  Christmas Pearmain       Dec.
+  Winter Quarrenden        Dec.
+  Baumann's Reinette       Jan.
+  Lord Derby               Oct., Nov.
+  Stone's Apple            Oct., Nov.
+  Tower of Glamis          Oct., Nov.
+  Warner's King            Oct., Nov.
+  Bismarck                 Oct., Nov.
+  Lane's Prince Albert     Dec., Mch.
+  Bramley's Seedling       Dec., Mch.
+  Newton Wonder            Dec., Mch.
+
+Max Loebener in his book on dwarf fruits recommends the following
+varieties for dwarf apples:
+
+  Red Astrachan            July, Aug.
+  Yellow Transparent       Aug., Sept.
+  Charlamowsky             Aug., Sept.
+  Transparent de Croncels  Sept., Oct.
+  Prince Apple             Sept., Jan.
+  Danzig                   Oct., Dec.
+  Dean's Codlin            Oct. to Feb.
+  Landbury Reinette        Nov., Feb.
+  Cox's Orange             Nov. to Mch.
+    _Requires good soil_
+  Winter Gold Pearmain     Nov., March
+  Ribston Pippin           Nov., April
+    _Good warm soil_
+  Canada Reinette.         Nov., April
+    _Hardy_
+  Belle de Boskoop         Nov., May
+  Virginia Rose            Aug.
+  Red Peach Summer Apple   Aug., Sept.
+  Lord Suffield            Aug., Oct.
+  Cellini                  Sept., Nov.
+  Alexander                Oct., Dec.
+  Gravenstein              Oct. to Jan.
+    _For moist soils, bears late_
+  Yellow Richard           Nov., Dec.
+  Bismarck                 Nov., Feb.
+  Yellow Bellflower        Nov. to April
+    _Requires good position_
+  Baumann's Reinette       Dec., May
+
+Inasmuch as the advantages of the dwarf trees apply especially to the
+growing of fine fruit, only the better varieties should generally be
+propagated in this way. On this basis, therefore, rather than on the
+basis of adaptation learned from experience, the following varieties may
+be suggested among the well known American sorts for growing in dwarf
+form:
+
+  Baldwin
+  Esopus
+  Mother
+  Williams' Favorite
+  Sutton
+  King
+  Northern Spy
+  Grimes
+  Winesap
+  Yellow Transparent
+  McIntosh
+  Red Astrachan
+  Alexander
+  Wolf River
+  Ribston Pippin
+  Wealthy
+  Wagener
+
+Of course, one propagating dwarf apples would always select his own
+favorites. It should be noticed that in the list given above are some
+varieties which are notable for beauty of appearance rather than for
+superior quality. They are recommended on the former consideration.
+Certain varieties in the list, for instance Alexander, are known to
+succeed especially well as dwarfs.
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+DWARF PEARS
+
+
+Pears are the fruit most largely grown in dwarf form in America. There
+are a few well established and successful commercial orchards of pears,
+especially in western New York and Michigan. The pear is the fruit most
+assiduously cultivated in dwarf and trained forms in Europe. At the same
+time it is the one with which I confess I have had the least
+satisfaction. This is perhaps because I have always experimented in a
+country where pears do not naturally succeed, and because, further, my
+fancies have run more to other kinds of fruit.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28--YOUNG ORCHARD OF DWARF PEARS IN WESTERN NEW
+YORK]
+
+It is probably true that the pear is improved more in quality than any
+other fruit by being grown in dwarf form and trained as cordons and
+espaliers on a suitable frame or wall. This is emphatically true in cold
+and inclement climates, where indeed some of the best varieties of
+pears will not succeed at all unless given this advantage. A west wall
+is recommended as giving the very finest results. It should be noted,
+however, that some varieties do better on walls than others. Those which
+grow vigorously in bush, pyramid, or standard forms receive
+comparatively less benefit from wall training.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29--DWARF PEARS IN THE OLD AND PROFITABLE YEOMANS
+ORCHARD, NEW YORK]
+
+The pear is the best of all trees for training in pyramid form.
+Sometimes very tall slim pyramids are made, becoming almost pillars of
+foliage and fruit in their old age. These may be in fact upright cordons
+which are trained with strong stems and allowed to support themselves
+without a trellis. Some of the less upright growing varieties are
+difficult to form into pyramids, and such may be pruned in the ordinary
+bush or vase form. In growing dwarf pears commercially, as is sometimes
+done, it is probably best to give most varieties the bush form. The
+pyramid is rather harder to maintain.
+
+The pear succeeds well as a cordon tree. Perhaps the best form is the
+oblique cordon, one placed at an angle of about forty-five degrees with
+the horizon. The upright and horizontal cordons may also be used, though
+neither of these forms is specially well adapted to pears.
+
+All of the better types of espaliers are suited to pear trees. Probably
+the Palmette-Verrier is the best, although the old fashioned espaliers
+are often used. The U-form and the double U-form also succeed if well
+built.
+
+The pruning of the pear tree is substantially the same as that of the
+apple. Where pear blight is a factor in the problem, due allowance must
+be made for it. It sometimes happens that entire branches or arms have
+to be cut away on account of blighting. The system of pruning therefore
+should furnish a means of renewing such members promptly when necessity
+requires.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30--ORCHARD OF DWARF DUCHESS PEARS, LOCKPORT, N. Y.]
+
+The quince root prefers a fairly heavy and even moist soil. A heavy clay
+loam is best, although a strong clay will answer. Light sandy soils or
+loose gravelly soils will not give such good results. On the other hand
+any clay soil which holds water to a considerable extent will answer. As
+these are the requirements for quince roots, they become also the
+requirements for dwarf pears. Any attempt to grow dwarf pears on a light
+loose soil is almost certain to prove a failure.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31--PYRAMID PEARS IN A GERMAN ORCHARD]
+
+It is often said that dwarf pears should be planted deep in the ground
+when they are set out. The rule is to put them deep enough so that the
+bud union will be buried beneath the surface of the soil. With such
+treatment the pear itself often throws out roots and eventually
+establishes a feeding system of its own, becoming independent of the
+quince stock. It is then no longer a dwarf tree except by the authority
+of the pruning knife. It is probably true that many varieties of dwarf
+pears are longer lived when treated in this way. In planting, therefore,
+it becomes a question whether one desires chiefly a long-lived tree or a
+strictly dwarf one. The ease with which dwarf trees are replaced makes
+longevity a less important factor than in commercial orchards of
+standard trees.
+
+Of course, it is understood that if the dwarfest form is to be
+maintained, the tree must be planted high enough to leave the union out
+of the ground, thus preventing the pear from throwing out roots of its
+own.
+
+The varieties principally grown in this country as dwarfs are Angouleme,
+Bartlett, Anjou, and Louise Bonne.
+
+In European nurseries the list of pears propagated on quince roots is
+much larger. The following varieties are recommended for England by Mr.
+Owen Thomas, and are said to be particularly good for training on walls:
+
+  Buerré Giffard
+  Clapp's Favorite
+  Jargonelle
+  Williams' (Bartlett)
+  Buerré d'Amanlis
+  Fondante d'Automne
+  Triomphe de Vienne
+  Buerré Bosc
+  Buerré Hardy
+  Buerré Brown
+  Comte de Lamy
+  Louise Bonne de Jersey
+  Pitmaston Duchess
+  La France
+  Buerré d'Anjou
+  Buerré de Jonghe
+  Doyenne d'Alençon
+  Glou Morceau
+  Marie Benoist
+  Winter Nelis
+  Buerré Diel
+  Nouvelle Fulvie
+  Buerré Sterckmans
+  Easter Buerré
+  Le Lectier
+  Olivier de Serres
+  Seckel
+  Conference
+  Doyenne du Comice
+  Marie Louise
+  Thompson's
+  Duchesse d'Angouleme
+  Passe Crassane
+  Ne Plus Meuris
+  Bergamotte Esperen
+  Buerré Rance
+  Josephine de Malines
+
+
+
+
+IX
+
+DWARF PEACHES
+
+
+The peach as a dwarf tree is almost unknown in America. It is not very
+often grown as a dwarf even in Europe, except when it is trained on
+walls or grown in houses. The species, however, is easily dwarfed and
+makes a good tree in various forms when well propagated. The methods by
+which dwarf peaches are propagated are fully described in the chapter
+devoted to that subject.
+
+Peach trees growing on plum stocks and formed in vases or bushes make
+excellent garden trees. Naturally they should be headed low, best within
+three to six inches of the ground. They then make fine, regular, well
+balanced tops which are easily kept opened out in the desired vase form.
+Such trees usually come into bearing one or two years earlier than those
+propagated and trained in the usual way. In a country like New England
+where peach growing is largely a system of gambling against cold
+weather, and where the business largely resolves itself into a race for
+getting a crop before the trees freeze back, the smaller stature and the
+earlier bearing of the dwarf tree are obvious advantages. It has not yet
+been shown that this may be turned to account on a commercial scale, but
+there seem to be possibilities in it. In case the peach grower
+undertakes the method of laying down his peach trees and covering them
+during the winter to save them from freezing, the smaller growth of the
+dwarf trees would prove a decided advantage. This method of handling
+peach trees has proved a practical success under certain conditions.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32--DWARF PEACH IN NURSERY
+
+Headed back and formed into bushes]
+
+The peach does not succeed as a cordon. The nearest that this form can
+be successfully approached is the U-form. The double U-form is probably
+even better. The fan form of training is the best of all methods of
+training for the peach. The tree makes wood so rapidly that considerable
+space has to be provided for the annual growth. The fan form being less
+definite in its makeup can be more readily adapted to the exigencies of
+rapid growth and severe cutting out.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33--ESPALIER PEACH, HARTFORD, CONN.]
+
+On account of its more vigorous growth the peach demands even more
+drastic pruning than that already described for apples and pears. The
+method of managing a peach tree, however, differs in some details. There
+is not such a distinct establishment of leaders at the end of the shoot;
+and since the peach never forms fruit spurs like those of the apple, the
+pruning of the fruit-bearing wood is necessarily different. The best
+fruit buds are formed on the strong clean shoots of the current season's
+growth. These must be allowed to grow far enough and vigorously enough
+to ripen good fruit buds. If they make too much growth, however, the
+side buds start secondary branches and the fruiting prospects are
+reduced. The management of the tree must be such as to keep this growth
+of new wood in just the proper balance.
+
+In order to carry out the idea thus outlined, an early spring pruning is
+given while the trees are dormant, and several successive prunings are
+administered during the growing season. At the spring pruning a
+considerable amount of wood is cut out from all portions of the tree,
+the amount thus removed being much greater than that from the pear or
+apple trees at the same season. The old decrepit and diseased branches
+are taken first for removal, and then one year old wood is cut back
+where necessary, so as to leave two or three buds at the base of each
+branch.
+
+The first summer pruning is given about May 15th to 20th, after the
+growth has well begun. A vigorous tree will start more shoots than there
+is room for, and these are thinned out until all have sufficient space.
+A few of the most vigorous ones are pinched back at this time. One week
+to ten days later the trees are gone over again, at which time the
+principal pinching back is done. The shoots which are making too much
+growth, especially on the interior of the tree or on the main arms, are
+stopped. A third pruning is given about June first, and consists chiefly
+in removing weak shoots or those which are crowding one another, and
+cutting back those which are growing too far.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34--PEACH IN FAN ESPALIER ON WALL, ENGLAND]
+
+The peach usually requires a comparatively light soil and a warm
+exposure. The plum root upon which a dwarf peach is budded will usually
+succeed in a considerably heavier soil, and the method of budding on
+plum is therefore sometimes practised with the specific object of
+adapting the peach tree to heavier soils. Inasmuch as various kinds of
+plums succeed in all soils on which any crop can be grown, from light
+sand to heavy clay, it is not difficult to meet any reasonable
+requirements in this respect.
+
+All varieties of peaches and nectarines seem to succeed equally well as
+dwarfs. Those varieties which are grown as dwarfs in Europe are
+naturally the ones which are favorites there. In this country the
+favorite varieties are almost altogether different and we would expect
+to choose such sorts as Late Crawford, Foster, Old Mixon, Belle of
+Georgia, Champion, Waddell, and other choice American varieties for our
+use.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35--PEACH TREES TRAINED UNDER GLASS]
+
+The nectarine is in large favor in Europe and is much more extensively
+grown than in America. The merits of this fruit seem to have been
+strangely overlooked in this country. When nectarines are properly
+grown under glass, they are one of the most delicious and beautiful
+fruits known in this world of limitations and disappointments. The
+nectarine is a fruit which will in general bear more extensive
+cultivation in America and which is to be especially recommended for
+dwarf fruit gardens. This is not to say that it should supersede the
+peach, or even that it should take equal prominence, but simply that it
+should be well represented in every selection of fruits for an amateur's
+collection.
+
+
+
+
+X
+
+DWARF PLUMS
+
+
+Most amateur and professional fruit growers are less interested in plums
+than in other tree fruits. Perhaps I am prejudiced, but I feel that this
+is not fair to the plum. Plums yield some profit when rightly cultivated
+commercially, and no end of satisfaction when cultivated for the
+gardener's own entertainment. The large assortment of varieties which
+one may secure is in itself a claim to interest, and a source of much
+delight to the collector. The fact that different types of plums furnish
+fruit of very diverse characters makes the collection more valuable from
+every standpoint. So far as the writer knows dwarf plums have seldom
+been grown to any extent in America. They certainly have no present
+claim based on experience for recognition in commercial orchards.
+Nevertheless they have possibilities even for the growing of market
+fruit, and for cultivation in the garden, dwarf trees are altogether
+worth while.
+
+In the chapter on propagation, reference has been made to the stocks
+used for plums and that subject need not be discussed here.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36--PLUM TREES TRAINED AS UPRIGHT CORDONS]
+
+When plum trees have been secured budded on suitable dwarfing stocks,
+as, for example, Americana or sand cherry, they may be trained in a
+variety of ways. Probably the ordinary bush form is the best. Most
+varieties of plums do not form either a satisfactory pyramid or a
+strictly vase form. Some of the better growing Japanese varieties of
+plums approach the latter form fairly well. Red June, Satsuma, and
+Chabot may be mentioned as particular examples. With such varieties a
+true vase form can be maintained as well as with peaches. In dealing
+with a majority of varieties, however, a simple bush-like head without a
+mathematically constructed frame work is about the best that can be
+secured. In most cases the head should be formed low, preferably not
+more than six inches from the ground. Still considerable latitude has to
+be allowed the gardener's fancy in dealing with dwarf trees, and the
+writer can easily imagine a garden design which would require trees to
+be high headed. It would be practicable and excusable in some cases to
+form heads four, five, or even six feet from the ground. This is often
+done in England and Germany with all sorts of fruit trees, this form
+being referred to as a "standard."
+
+A head can be secured at almost any point on a plum tree of good growth,
+by heading back at the desired height. Four to six branches should be
+allowed to grow the first year and in course of time these will be
+increased to eight, twelve, or even more. That is, there will be this
+number of what we might call main branches because they are all of
+approximately equal importance.
+
+At the end of the first year after the tree has been headed back the
+main branches, which have now formed, are to be cut back in turn. With
+all strong-growing varieties it is best to remove from one-half to
+two-thirds of the annual growth from these main branches, if the tree
+is to be restricted to a comparatively narrow spread. A considerable
+number of strong shoots will put forth the next year. These should be
+thinned out as soon as they start to a number approximately twice that
+of the main arms. These new branches should be distributed as
+symmetrically as possible. The tree top is now formed and subsequent
+pruning consists essentially of a severe heading in during the latter
+part of the dormant season, that is, about March, followed by two,
+three, or four summer prunings somewhat after the manner described for
+the peach. At the time of these summer prunings the young growing shoots
+should be thinned out enough to prevent any choking of the tree top and
+should be headed in wherever it is necessary to retain the symmetrical
+growth.
+
+The manner of forming the fruit buds or spurs is so diverse in the
+different kinds of plums that no general rule can be given for
+encouraging them. Close observation of each variety will soon enable the
+gardener to direct his pruning in such a way as to assist in this
+important process of fruit bud formation. In a rough general way it may
+be said that the Domestica and Americana varieties of plums form
+distinct fruit spurs along the sides of one and two year old branches,
+and that, for the encouragement of these, considerable light should be
+admitted and the growth of the interior shoots rather rigidly checked.
+The Japanese and Hortulana varieties on the other hand fruit best from
+very short spurs or clusters of buds which form along from the strong
+one and two year old branches. The main object, therefore, with these
+latter varieties is to maintain a succession of clean, sound, well
+matured shoots. This is done by a moderate thinning of the main shoots
+early in the year, resulting in the forcing of those which are left.
+These strong growing shoots are checked late in the summer in order that
+they may ripen up thoroughly, but the pinching which is done to this end
+is delayed long enough so that the pinched shoots will not start into
+growth again. Moreover, this pinching is done well out to the ends of
+the shoots.
+
+Certain varieties of plums succeed fairly well as vertical cordons. The
+varieties least adapted to this purpose are the Hortulana offspring and
+their hybrids and a few of the rank-growing Japanese, like Hale and
+October Purple. In the dwarf tree garden at the Massachusetts
+Agricultural College the writer has a row of plum trees containing a
+large assortment of varieties and species. These trees were picked out
+at random from various sources and very few of them were propagated on
+dwarfing stocks. On this account the trees were set two feet apart,
+which is more than is usually recommended for upright cordons. They have
+now been growing three years, and they furnish much interesting
+testimony regarding the feasibility of growing plums in this form.
+Contrary to expectation such varieties as Red June, Abundance, and
+Burbank have done well under this treatment. These varieties all fruited
+the next year after planting. Some varieties of the Domestica group are
+bearing the third year after planting, which is unusually early. All
+of them seem to be fairly well adapted to this method of treatment.
+Varieties like Wildgoose and Wayland, and such hybrids as Gonzales,
+Waugh and Red May, can hardly be controlled in the restricted space
+allowed them in a row of vertical cordons. They give very little promise
+of success. It is probable that all these varieties would make a better
+showing if they were propagated on some such stock as sand cherry.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37--BURBANK PLUMS ON UPRIGHT CORDONS TRAINED TO
+TRELLIS]
+
+Plums are seldom--almost never--propagated as horizontal cordons. I have
+never yet undertaken it myself, but propose to do so at the first
+opportunity and with some expectation of moderate success with certain
+varieties. The slow growing sorts like Green Gage, Italian Prune, and
+Agen seem to offer special promise.
+
+In the form of espaliers plums are often trained against walls. Indeed
+this is the favorite way of producing fancy plums in England, and the
+same practise prevails to a considerable extent on the continent of
+Europe. In this country walls are not required, and in most cases would
+be of no advantage. Where it is desired to cover back fences or sides of
+buildings, however, plum trees in espalier form can be confidently
+recommended. The Domestica varieties of highest quality such as Bavay,
+Jefferson, Victoria, Pond, Bradshaw, and Coe's Golden Drop would have
+first choice. The Japanese varieties can also be grown on trellises or
+walls, but the freer forms, such as the fan espalier used for the peach,
+are better suited to their habits of growth.
+
+The following varieties of plums can be recommended for dwarf bush
+forms:
+
+  Green Gage
+  Jefferson
+  Bradshaw
+  Agen
+  Grand Duke
+  Bavay (Reine Claude)
+  McLaughlin
+  Pond
+  Bleeker
+  Italian Prune
+  Cluster Damson (or other Damsons)
+
+Such varieties of the Japanese class as Abundance, Chabot, Red June,
+Satsuma, Burbank may be grown on dwarf stocks in bush forms, but they
+are not altogether satisfactory. There are two objections against them:
+(1) It is difficult to keep them in restricted bounds, such a result
+being dependent on constant and severe heading in. (2) They overgrow the
+dwarf stocks very strongly and thus do not have a very firm hold on the
+ground. They are apt to blow over or break off after a few years, unless
+carefully staked up.
+
+The following varieties can be recommended for upright cordons, in which
+form they will give moderate success if properly managed:
+
+  Coe's Golden Drop
+  Agen
+  Victoria
+  Grand Duke
+  Abundance
+  Burbank
+  Bradshaw
+  Bavay
+  Lombard
+  Chabot
+  Cheney
+  Aubert (Yellow Egg or Magnum Bonum)
+
+Also most of the clean-growing Americana varieties such as Smith, Terry,
+Stoddard, etc.
+
+Mr. Owen Thomas recommends for growing on walls in England the following
+varieties:
+
+  Green Gage
+  Brandy Gage
+  Denniston's Superb Gage
+  Comte d'Athem's Gage
+  Transparent Gage
+  Transparent Late Gage
+  Jefferson
+  Reine Claude Violette
+  Brahy's Green Gage
+  Bryanstone Gage
+  Oullin's Golden Gage
+  Golden Transparent Gage
+  Reine Claude de Bavay
+  Coe's Golden Drop
+  Kirke's Blue
+  Washington
+
+
+
+
+XI
+
+BUSH FRUITS
+
+
+The bush fruits, so far as I know, are never cultivated as dwarfs. To
+speak more exactly I should say that no dwarf stock is ever used to
+reduce the size to which the plants grow. On the other hand, bush fruits
+are often systematically pruned back in order to restrict their size,
+and are sometimes trained in elaborate forms as dwarf fruit trees are.
+To this extent they are managed in the same way and might properly be
+treated in the same general category. What is more to our purpose, they
+are almost always included in the plan of any private fruit garden on a
+restricted area, such as we have had chiefly in view in this discussion
+of dwarf fruit trees. These reasons make it appropriate, if not indeed
+essential, that something should be said regarding these fruits here.
+
+All bush fruits can be grown in such forms as cordons, espaliers, etc.
+Anything of this sort which the gardener wishes can become a part of his
+garden of little trees. Gooseberries and currants offer the most
+entertainment and remuneration when subjected to special pruning and
+training, and indeed they should not be omitted from any garden scheme
+of this kind. Raspberries are less amenable to this kind of education
+and should be introduced with some care. Blackberries are necessarily
+difficult to handle and no very complicated schemes of pruning and
+training can be successfully applied to them. Such other fruits as
+Loganberries, strawberry-raspberries, June berries, etc., may be
+introduced "at the owner's risk." Any of them will submit to a certain
+amount of correction with the pruning knife, and may add to the variety
+of fruits grown in the amateur's garden. Of course, it is distinctly
+understood that these special methods of treatment are not commercially
+recommended for any of the bush fruits in America.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38--CURRANTS AS FAN ESPALIERS ON TRELLIS, HARTFORD,
+CONN.]
+
+Probably the most interesting and practical way for handling
+gooseberries and currants in dwarf fruit gardens is the form known as
+standards. This form consists of a small round fruiting top of almost
+any desired variety grafted high upon a straight clean trunk or stem.
+This stem may have any convenient height from two to ten feet, the most
+common and practical height being about four feet. The stock used is the
+flowering currant, _Ribes aureum_, which forms a sufficiently strong and
+upright growth for this purpose. Nevertheless it is almost always
+necessary to support these standards with a convenient stake apiece. For
+the present these standard gooseberries and currants can be obtained
+only of the European nurserymen. At least the writer knows of no one who
+propagates them in America. There are several importers, however, who
+make a business of supplying European stock and who are always glad to
+import these on order.
+
+The finer varieties are especially chosen for growing as standards. This
+applies particularly to gooseberries, which are more widely grown and
+which are more highly prized in Europe than in this country. The
+varieties grown in Europe are usually finer table fruits than the
+American varieties. It is generally understood that the finest fruits
+for eating fresh out of hand are secured from the standard gooseberries.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39--GOOSEBERRY FAN ESPALIER
+
+Variety Industry, trained on wire trellis]
+
+Gooseberries and currants are also adapted easily to the espalier form.
+The most elaborate palmettes and other geometrical designs can be worked
+out. Nevertheless the simplest and most practical form for trained
+gooseberries and currants is the fan shape. If a suitable trellis is
+provided, the vines may be easily tied out upon it in very attractive
+fan forms and these are found to be quite satisfactory, both as regards
+their looks and their product of fruit. They are also easily sprayed,
+which is a consideration worth mentioning when one has to fight the
+currant worm. In general, it is best in our latitude to run these
+espaliers north and south, because they receive too much sun when the
+trellis runs east and west. This rule, however, is not absolute.
+
+Probably the most convenient and practical way for growing these fruits
+in the dwarf tree garden is to plant standards at regular intervals in a
+row, say six feet apart, and to plant a certain number of fan shaped
+bushes between each pair of standards in the row. If these standards
+were six feet apart, two plants for fan training would be enough between
+each pair. The top of the trellis on which the fan forms are tied, would
+not be above four feet high, better only three. The heads of the
+standards then rise well above the top of the trellis. This furnishes
+some support for the stem of the standard and economizes space. Economy
+of space is one of the first principles of this style of gardening.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40--TREE FORM GOOSEBERRY]
+
+No list need be given here of the varieties of gooseberries and currants
+to be recommended for this class of planting. It may be said that any of
+the favorite varieties of currants grown in this country, as for
+example, Fay, Victoria, Red Versailles, etc., may be chosen, and that
+these are indeed the varieties usually preferred in Europe. With respect
+to gooseberries it may be remarked that the English, French, and German
+varieties are mostly very different from those grown in America, and
+that while they have some shortcomings in our climate, they are for the
+most part to be recommended for the purposes which we here have in
+view.
+
+
+
+
+XII
+
+FRUIT TREES IN POTS
+
+
+Those who are used to seeing large fruit trees in orchard plantations
+where each specimen has 1,000 to 2,000 square feet of space, with
+unlimited opportunities downward, find a fruit tree in a pot a
+curiosity. It seems remarkable to see a tree in vigorous health and
+bearing fruit with less than one cubic foot of soil. Nevertheless this
+method of handling fruit trees is entirely practicable. In some places
+it is practised extensively in an amateur way, and occasionally reaches
+almost commercial proportions. For those who grow fruit trees for
+recreation there could hardly be a more interesting experiment.
+
+The pots mostly used are the nine, ten, eleven and twelve inch standard
+earthenware pots. With most trees it is best to begin with small sizes
+and gradually shift forward to the larger ones. A bearing tree may be
+maintained for several years in a twelve inch pot or even in a ten inch
+size. Sometimes wooden tubs are substituted for pots. These look better,
+but are not so good in any other way.
+
+Trees may be grown in pots out of doors, although there is no particular
+advantage in doing this. If such practise is undertaken the pots should
+be plunged their full depth in good garden soil. Perfect drainage should
+be secured by having some broken brick or coarse cinders underneath.
+
+Usually potted trees are grown under glass. They are kept in a cool
+greenhouse, that is one with little heat. Sometimes they are without
+artificial heat. In fact this is probably the best way. The houses which
+are purposely constructed for fruit trees may have a single line of pipe
+if this is convenient, so that the chill may be taken off the air in
+severe cold weather. To reach anything like real success, houses must be
+devoted exclusively to fruit trees. Occasionally trees may be grown with
+other plants, as in cold graperies, but the results are not the best and
+often come very close to failure.
+
+In building houses for fruit trees exclusively, the even span
+construction is nearly always used. Houses eighteen or twenty feet wide,
+and five feet high at the eaves, will answer the purpose very well. The
+leading greenhouse designers are prepared to furnish plans for such
+houses and it is usually best to follow the advice of their experts.
+
+All kinds of fruit trees can be grown in pots. This includes apples,
+pears, peaches, plums, nectarines, and cherries. Those which give the
+best returns are plums and nectarines. Apples in pots are very
+interesting and furnish a superior quality of fruit when grown under
+glass. Apples, plums and nectarines take a finer finish and a higher
+flavor when grown in this way than when grown in any other.
+
+All fruit trees to be grown in pots should be propagated on the dwarfest
+of dwarfing stocks. This means practically that apples should be on
+Paradise, pears on quince, peaches and nectarines on sand cherry, plum
+on sand cherry or St. Julien plum, and cherries on Mahaleb.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41--A FRUITING PEACH IN POT]
+
+The trees should be potted in good rich soil, preferably the best garden
+loam. This should have enough sand and gravel in it to insure good
+drainage. A considerable amount of drainage material should be placed
+in the bottom of each pot. The trees should be repotted in fresh soil
+annually in October or November.
+
+Trees in pots require liberal feeding. Besides being given well enriched
+earth at the time of repotting, they should be supplied from time to
+time with small amounts of fertilizer. Good soluble chemical fertilizers
+can be applied either dry or dissolved. A good formula is one part
+nitrate of soda, two parts of muriate of potash, two parts of high grade
+phosphoric acid. A very little sprinkling, say a tablespoonful, of this
+can be given on each pot once a month during the growing season which
+lasts roughly from December to May. In place of this, or alternately
+with this, moderate waterings with liquid manure may also be given.
+These small doses of food are especially useful at the time when the
+fruit is forming on the trees.
+
+The trees are usually brought into the house at the time of potting, say
+November 1. If early fruit is desired, they are kept in a house with
+some heat. It is necessary only that the temperature should be kept
+constantly and safely above the freezing point. Rapid forcing with a
+high temperature is not desirable and is hardly possible. If kept simply
+above the freezing point, these trees will start into growth in January.
+They can then be kept somewhat warmer during February, the heat being
+slightly increased in March. Peaches and nectarines will stand fairly
+high temperatures after the fruit is well set and especially toward
+ripening time. By this method of mild forcing, plums, peaches, and
+nectarines can be brought into fruit as early as the latter part of
+May.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42--A FIG TREE IN A POT]
+
+The main crop of potted fruits, however, need not be expected until June
+or July; that is not very much in advance of the outdoor crop. The
+object of growing fruit under glass is not so much to force it ahead of
+season as it is to improve the quality. Trees which are to be kept in a
+cool house without heat need no particular attention except to see that
+they are watered occasionally and that some plant food is given after
+growth begins. Even if the temperature goes down considerably below
+freezing during the winter months in this cold house where the potted
+fruit trees are, no damage need be expected.
+
+Of course, special care will be given to prevent damage from attacks of
+fungi or insects which occasionally become troublesome in the houses.
+The small size of these trees makes such work comparatively easy.
+
+The methods of pruning are the same as those recommended for pyramid and
+bush form trees. These forms are the most practical for pot culture,
+though pot trees are occasionally trained in cordon forms.
+
+
+
+
+XIII
+
+PERSONALIA
+
+
+Many persons have a strong prejudice in favor of the concrete. On
+general principles they object to generalities. They choose rather the
+specific case. Personal experience, they say, means more to them than
+theory, even though the theory be the sublimation of all experience. For
+the benefit of such people I am going to set down an account of some of
+my own attempts at growing dwarf fruit trees, and to that I will add
+brief opinions and experiences of some friends of mine.
+
+The first dwarf fruit tree that I ever saw, so far as I remember, was in
+the grounds of the Kansas State Agricultural College when I was a
+student there. This tree was an apple, on Paradise stock, and at two
+years after planting it bore six or eight very fine Yellow Transparent
+apples. It was one of several dwarf apples planted by Professor E. A.
+Popenoe, but the other trees did not much attract my attention. This
+particular specimen had a straight, clean trunk of about thirty inches,
+after the absurd style of heading dwarf apples practised in most
+American nurseries. But the crown was full and symmetrical, and the
+fruit was incomparable. That particular tree has always been a sort of
+ideal and inspiration to me.
+
+Later, when I planted an orchard in Oklahoma, I put in some dwarf trees,
+particularly pears, but I did not stay there long enough to see what
+came of them.
+
+The next fruit garden in which I became interested was in Vermont. This
+had in it some dwarf pear trees, dwarf apples and dwarf plums, and my
+own personal experience had fairly begun. The dwarf apples proved to be
+an almost complete failure, for reasons which I can not now
+satisfactorily explain. A few years later I planted a few dwarf apple
+trees in another Vermont garden, where they did reasonably well. But, at
+any rate, the whole undertaking was unsatisfactory, for it did not give
+me a vital understanding of the trees. I never got onto terms of real
+personal goodfellowship with them; and until a gardener does that his
+work is some sort of a failure.
+
+The dwarf pears did somewhat better. They seemed to understand their
+business, and they kept about it without much attention from me. I never
+cared much for pears, anyway.
+
+But the plums were the brilliant success, at least with reference to my
+own interior personal experience. Every plum tree meant something to me.
+A stub of a root and two scrawny plum branches would at any time arouse
+my imagination like the circus posters' appeal to a boy. In this Vermont
+garden which I adopted when it was about four years old, there were
+various plum trees, mostly of domestica varieties, growing on Americana
+roots. They had come from the Iowa State College, where they had been
+educated that way. They had been given those Americana roots, not
+primarily to dwarf them, but to insure them against damage from the cold
+winters. The tops had not been cut back, and the whole treatment was
+just such as would have been applied to standards. Later I saw the bad
+results of this treatment, for several of the trees blew over in high
+winds. From subsequent experience I feel sure that if they had been
+headed low at first, if they had been kept closely headed back and
+otherwise handled like real dwarfs, they would have lived to a greater
+age and would have made everybody happier.
+
+At this time also I began, on a somewhat comprehensive plan, the
+propagation of plums on all sorts of stocks, including Americana,
+Wayland seedlings, Miner root cuttings and sand cherry, all more or less
+efficient dwarfing stocks. By this time I was into it head over ears, as
+far as the plums were concerned.
+
+This having been the largest chapter in my personal pomological
+experience, I suppose it ought to form the largest portion of this
+chapter in the book; but my plum work and my experiments in propagation
+have been so often and so fully reported elsewhere that it would be a
+vain repetition to go over them again now. They are all written down in
+the proper places where they may be consulted by the enthusiastic or
+ill-advised student.
+
+And then I came to Massachusetts; and here the first project, almost, to
+which my hand was turned was the installation of a garden of dwarf fruit
+trees. From the following memorandum of the trees growing in this garden
+any reader may surmise the enjoyment I have found in it. There is one
+row of dwarf plum trees set six feet apart and trained, rather
+unsatisfactorily, into bush form. The trees were many of them too large
+when they came from France, and, though I cut them back severely, they
+did not form such low bushy heads as my ideal species. They are on St.
+Julien roots, which serve the purposes in hand fairly well. Though the
+trees had a hard trip across the water only one out of forty-six has
+died in three years. Unfortunately these trees have not yet borne
+fruit,--not one of them. Next year many of them will bear. Earlier
+fruitage can certainly be secured on sand cherry stocks and under other
+methods of training.
+
+Besides the bush plums, the garden contains a row of upright cordons.
+Most of these were not propagated on dwarf stocks at all, and were not
+expected to suffer any such drastic training as I have put upon them.
+They were taken from the college nursery and from the nurseries of
+several of my correspondents, just wherever I could find the varieties I
+wanted, and without reference to the stocks on which they were growing.
+A few are on Americana stocks, several are on peach roots (of all
+things), and probably a majority are growing on the usual Myrobalan
+roots. These trees are planted two feet apart in the row and are tied up
+to a trellis of chicken wire. There are about thirty varieties in the
+row, numbering most of the different botanical types more frequently
+cultivated in North America. Many of the varieties are totally and very
+obviously unsuited to this method of treatment, and presently I will
+replace them with more amenable varieties. But many of the varieties
+have fruited, especially the Japanese kinds, and some of them, like
+Burbank, have proved most unexpectedly docile. Altogether this row of
+unsuitably propagated and unsuitably selected varieties of plum trees
+has been one of the most interesting, instructive and entertaining
+elements in my dwarf fruit garden.
+
+Next there comes a trellis bearing some espaliers, including plums,
+pears, apples, peaches and cherries; but these have been recently
+planted, and as yet they have done nothing worth relating.
+
+There is one row of twenty-three dwarf pears, mostly trained in pyramid
+form. These have not done well, but the reason is not far to seek. The
+soil is light and full of gravel, and quite unsuited to pear or quince.
+Pears never thrive on it. Several of the trees are bearing a crop this
+year, but some of the trees are also dead, and the whole row looks like
+the finish of a bargain sale on the remnant ribbon counter.
+
+The row of upright cordon pears is a trifle better, but that is only an
+accident, I think. The varieties which are growing there seem to be
+rather better adapted to withstand the unpropitious surroundings. These
+trees also are bearing.
+
+When we come to the two rows of horizontal cordon apples, though, the
+real fun has begun. Nearly all these trees are in bearing, and a few of
+them have borne every year since they were planted out. They are set
+only three feet apart in the row, which is not enough; and they suffered
+terribly the first year from a midsummer attack of aphides; and the
+pruning was neglected to allow them to recover from that scourge, so
+that the form was somewhat injured; but they have never ceased to be a
+joy to me and a wonderment to visitors. They are mostly of European
+varieties, but Bismarck is the showiest and most fruitful one in the
+collection, though far from the best to eat.
+
+Then there are standard gooseberries and currants, of which there is
+little to be said. They haven't been there long, but they are at home
+and are going to stay. Next year I am going to put in some gooseberries
+and currants in espalier form.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43--DWARF PEAR IN PYRAMID FORM
+
+Two years planted; author's garden]
+
+Very few persons know what a medlar is. For the benefit of the ignorant
+and to increase the kaleidoscopic effect on my fruit garden, I have
+some medlar trees,--Holländische Monströse,--which I bought of Louis
+Späth, Baumschulenweg, Berlin.
+
+A wire trellis, built much like a grape trellis, only higher, carries
+the row of upright cordon apples. Some of these bore fruit the first
+year they were planted, and there has been a fair sprinkling of fruit
+every year since then. This has been one of the most satisfactory lots
+in the make-up.
+
+There are two rows containing forty-six bush-form apples on paradise
+roots set six feet apart. Some of these have borne every year since
+planting out, many of them showing a good crop this year. Again Bismarck
+is the most fruitful, but the least pleasing to eat. Alexander has made
+a good record, and this year Calville d'Automne shows a very pretty
+crop. It is customary with visitors, especially those already interested
+in fruit-growing and those of a practical turn of mind, to depart with
+the judgment that "all those other schemes are curious and interesting,
+but the bush form apple trees look the most like business." I think so
+too. In fact my experience with dwarf apples might be summarized by
+saying, "bush trees for business, cordons for fun."
+
+One row of peach trees on St. Julien plum roots set fruit buds in
+abundance the first year, but they were killed by the freeze of the
+following winter. The second year the experience was the same, except
+that the tops froze with the fruit buds. New tops were grown at once,
+however, and the following year nearly every tree bore a small crop of
+fruit. Dwarf peach trees are worth while.
+
+This garden has also a row of cherry trees, including Morello, Richmond
+and Montmorency; but these trees were set the second year of the garden
+making and have borne only a small crop of sample cherries.
+
+The last planting in this garden consists of one row of nectarines,
+twenty-two trees.
+
+This little garden, containing considerably less than a quarter of an
+acre of land, has now growing upon it 548 fruit trees of the kinds
+named. And I am not yet done planting. There are various other things
+that I want to put in,--quinces, apricots, and perhaps raspberries,
+dewberries, and other bush fruits. In fact, I should like to make it a
+"Paradise" like good old Gerarde's or Dodoens', in which all the fruits
+"good for food or physic" might be brought together and represented in a
+little space.
+
+It would be quite wrong to close this experience meeting without giving
+the observations and quoting the opinions of some other and better men.
+Patrick Barry, in his delightful "Fruit Garden," recorded his belief
+that dwarf fruit trees were well worth while. "The apple," said he,
+"worked on the Paradise, makes a beautiful little dwarf bush. We know of
+nothing more interesting in the fruit garden than a row or little square
+of these miniature fruit trees. They begin to bear the third year from
+the bud, and the same variety is always larger and finer on them than on
+standards." Speaking of pears, he said: "On the quince stock the trees
+bear much earlier, are more prolific, more manageable, and consequently
+preferable for small gardens."
+
+The late Mr. E. G. Lodeman, who wrote the most comprehensive American
+monograph on dwarf apples, concluded his essay rather pessimistically in
+these words: "From all the evidence which I have been able to collect,
+therefore, I cannot advise the planting of dwarf apple trees for
+commercial rewards, but it seems to me, nevertheless, that they are
+worth experimenting with for this purpose." Mr. Lodeman recorded and
+endorsed the common opinion "that apples grown on dwarf trees are
+handsomer and of better quality than those grown upon standards"; but he
+did not seem to consider that fact of much importance.
+
+Those who are acquainted at the Lazy Club in Cornell University, and
+especially those who know Bailiwick, have heard of Professor L. H.
+Bailey's dwarf apples. (Fig. 44.) These were planted six or eight years
+ago, and most of them are now in bearing. There are a good many
+different varieties, nearly all French. My understanding of the scheme
+is that it was as much as half intended to be a commercial venture; but
+up to the present time little else but confusion and fun have been
+gathered with the fruit from those dwarf apple trees. When last I asked
+the proprietor for his experience with dwarf apples he said that he was
+having a lot of experience, only he didn't know what it was.
+
+Dwarf pears have been planted frequently, especially in Western New York
+and Michigan. I asked Professor S. A. Beach for his observations of
+them, to which he replied: "With regard to dwarf pears I will say that
+the variety which is most generally grown in commercial orchards is
+Bartlett. Almost without exception this is grown as a standard. Other
+important commercial varieties are Seckel, Bosc and Winter Nelis. All
+these are generally grown as standards. The variety commonly grown as
+dwarf is Angouleme. A few fruit growers of my acquaintance are making
+some money from orchards of dwarf Angouleme. The other varieties which
+are often propagated on dwarf stock as Clairgeau, Anjou and so forth,
+are seldom profitable. In fact I have heard it stated that outside of
+Ellwanger and Barry's orchard there is not a profitable orchard of Anjou
+in this State. From these statements I wish you to derive the conclusion
+that in New York State under present conditions there is little
+encouragement for planting dwarf pears commercially."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44--IN PROFESSOR BAILEY'S ORCHARD
+
+Chenango apple on Doucin stocks, interplanted between standard trees]
+
+Mr. E. W. Wood, for many years chairman of the fruit committee of the
+Massachusetts Horticultural Society, says that "under the right
+conditions the dwarf pear tree is a necessity for commercial pear
+growing. The growers in Revere and Cambridge would feel they could not
+get along without the dwarf trees. Putting the pear on the quince stock
+does not change the wants of the roots of the latter, and it is no use
+setting them on a light, dry soil, as the roots being confined to a
+small area of unsuitable soil, will make a feeble growth and finally die
+outright; or, if in an exposed situation, blow over. Most all the
+varieties may be grown as dwarfs. The Angouleme and Clairgeau, both good
+market varieties, cannot be successfully grown in any other way."
+
+Recently Mr. M. B. Waite has written me the letter quoted below, giving
+some conclusions from his experience with dwarf pears in Anne Arundel
+County, Maryland. He says:
+
+"I planted out 1,000 dwarf pear trees nine years ago. They were largely
+Duchess (Angouleme), but there are some Manning, Howell, Anjou, Louise
+Bonne and Lawrence. I have not been entirely satisfied with the results.
+We have not had the proper quantity of fruit. There has been some fruit
+every year since the fourth year, and two years ago there was quite a
+good crop, but nothing to compare with the yield per acre of Kieffer,
+LeConte and Garber, for instance. Of course, these are higher-priced
+fruit and large yields are not required for good returns. Only the
+Duchess and Manning, however, have produced sufficient to pay at all,
+and the orchard has not as yet really paid financially. We have a nice
+crop this year, however, more than the total yield up to this season,
+and perhaps from now on we may win out. My dwarf pears are on a soil too
+dry and sandy for the best results, and I think we are at Washington
+pretty near the southern limit, at least at low altitudes. In the
+mountains of Virginia and North Carolina they can be grown further
+southward. They require a moist, preferably clay-loam soil even in their
+naturally favored districts, such as New England, New York and Michigan,
+but such a soil is still more desirable when rather too far south for
+their normal range. They require high culture, manuring and fertilizing,
+and thorough pruning and spraying in any locality, and these
+requirements are still more exacting in Maryland. A slight neglect in
+cultivation, pruning or spraying in one season results in a mass of
+blooms the next spring, but little or no fruit set. Of course, this
+extra attention which has to be devoted to dwarf pears as compared with
+Oriental pears, peaches, apples, etc., to be profitable should result in
+larger yields, but does not usually do so in this latitude. On the other
+hand, we may say in favor of the dwarf pear that the quince root is a
+healthy, reliable root for the pear tree; that the trees attain their
+seasonal growth early, and therefore are not as susceptible to pear
+blight as standard pears. Furthermore, they are more easily sprayed,
+pruned, and otherwise handled than the high standard trees."
+
+My friend, Mr. J. W. Kerr, of the Eastern Shore of Maryland, who owns
+one of the oldest and most picturesque orchards of dwarf pears I ever
+saw, says that Angouleme (Duchess) is the only variety that pays for
+growing in that form.
+
+Thus the experience of many men in many parts of America sums up as we
+began. The conclusion of the whole matter seems to be about this: Dwarf
+fruit trees have not yet played any prominent role in American
+commercial horticulture; but they have been profitable in a few special
+cases, and the probability seems strong almost to the point of certainty
+that, with the development, refinement and specialization of our
+commercial fruit growing, a wider field of usefulness will be opened for
+dwarf trees. In the realm of amateur fruit growing, on the other
+hand,--a realm now daily widening,--dwarf fruit trees are of capital
+importance. The owners and renters of small grounds, the cultivators of
+little gardens--the great majority of American home-makers, in
+fact,--will find in them an unfailing source of pleasure, inspiration,
+and even of profit.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+                          PAGE
+
+  Advantages of dwarf trees, 8
+
+  Apple, propagation of, 23
+
+  Apples, 63
+
+  Apples, recommended varieties, 72
+
+
+  Bailey, H., quoted, 120
+
+  Barry's "Fruit Garden," 119
+
+  Bismarck apple, 7
+
+  Boundary fences, 16
+
+  Bush fruits, 99
+
+
+  Commercial value, 20
+
+  Cordon trees, 46
+
+  Currants, 101
+
+
+  Definition of dwarf tree, 1
+
+  Designs for fruit gardens, 53, 55, 59, 61
+
+  Disadvantages of dwarf trees, 18
+
+  Double-working, 27
+
+  Doucin apple, 26
+
+  Dwarf tree, definition, 1
+
+
+  Early bearing, 8
+
+  Erwin, A. T., quoted, 29
+
+  Expense of dwarf trees, 18
+
+
+  Fertilizers, 54
+
+  Fillers in orchards, 13
+
+  Forms for trees, 41
+
+
+  Gooseberries, 101
+
+
+  Heading young trees, 32
+
+  Houses for dwarf fruits, 107
+
+
+  J. W. Kerr, quoted, 124
+
+
+  Lodeman, E. G., quoted, 119
+
+  Longevity of dwarf trees, 19
+
+
+  Management of dwarf trees, 51
+
+  Management of trees in pots, 109
+
+
+  Nectarine, propagation of, 28
+
+  Nursery management, 31
+
+
+  Paradise apple, 24
+
+  Peach, propagation of, 27
+
+  Peaches, 83
+
+  Pear, propagation of, 26
+
+  Pears, 76
+
+  Pears, recommended varieties, 81
+
+  Personalia, 112
+
+  Pinching, 35
+
+  Plum, propagation of, 28
+
+  Plums, 90
+
+  Plums, recommended varieties, 97
+
+  Pots for fruit trees, 106
+
+  Propagation, 22
+
+  Pruning apple trees, 68
+
+  Pruning dwarf trees, 33
+
+  Pruning peach trees, 86
+
+  Pruning plum trees, 92
+
+  Pyramid tree, 42
+
+
+  Quality of fruit, 10
+
+
+  Root pruning, 36
+
+
+  Sand cherry, 30
+
+  San José scale, 10
+
+  School gardens, 15
+
+  Selection of varieties, 60
+
+  Suburban places, 12
+
+
+  Tillage, 54
+
+  Training in special forms, 38
+
+  Trellises for trees, 58
+
+
+  U-form trees, 44
+
+  Uses for dwarf trees, 12
+
+
+  Waite, M. B., quoted, 122
+
+  Walls and fences, 15
+
+  Walls for dwarf trees, 57
+
+  Wood, E. W., quoted, 122
+
+.............
+
+TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE:
+
+In the plain-text version of this ebook italics are indicated by
+_underscores_.
+
+Obvious typographical errors in spelling and punctuation have been
+corrected without comment. One example of an obvious typographical error
+is on page 124 where the word "an" was changed to "on" in the phrase
+"... on the other hand...." Other than obvious typographical errors, the
+author's original spelling, punctuation, hyphenation and use of accents
+has been left intact with the following three exceptions:
+
+     1. On page 92 a hyphen was added to the term "one-half".
+
+     2. In the Index (page 125) an accent mark was added in the term:
+     "San José scale".
+
+     3. In the Index (page 125) the entry "J. W. Kerr" was changed to
+     "Kerr, J. W." to correspond with other similar entries.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Dwarf Fruit Trees, by F. A. Waugh
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Dwarf Fruit Trees, by F. A. Waugh
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Dwarf Fruit Trees
+       Their propagation, pruning, and general management, adapted
+              to the United States and Canada
+
+Author: F. A. Waugh
+
+Release Date: November 15, 2011 [EBook #38024]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DWARF FRUIT TREES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by David Garcia, Cathy Maxam, Marilynda
+Fraser-Cunliffe and the Online Distributed Proofreading
+Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from
+images generously made available by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h1>DWARF FRUIT TREES</h1>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+
+<table summary="list" class="bbox" style="width: 70%;" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="2" class="tdc bbox" style="vertical-align: middle; width: 25%;"><a id="i0002" name="i0002"></a>
+<img src="images/i0002.jpg" alt="logo" />
+</td>
+<td class="tdc big bbox" style="width: 75%;">OTHER BOOKS<br />
+BY THE SAME AUTHOR</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl1 bbox">LANDSCAPE GARDENING<br />
+PLUMS AND PLUM CULTURE<br />
+FRUIT HARVESTING, STORING, MARKETING<br />
+SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0004" name="i0004"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0004.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">DWARF CHERRY TREE</p>
+<p class="ctext">Two years planted</p>
+</div></div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class="bbox1"><h1>DWARF
+FRUIT TREES</h1>
+</div>
+
+<div class="bbox2">
+<p class="ind">THEIR PROPAGATION, PRUNING, AND
+GENERAL MANAGEMENT, ADAPTED
+TO THE UNITED STATES AND
+CANADA</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>By</i></p>
+
+<p class="center big">F. A. WAUGH</p>
+
+<p class="center ind"><i>ILLUSTRATED</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="bbox3">
+<p class="center small">NEW YORK</p>
+<p class="center">ORANGE JUDD COMPANY</p>
+<p class="center small">1906</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p class="center small ind">
+<span class="smcap">Copyright, 1906</span><br />
+BY ORANGE JUDD COMPANY
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p>The commercial interests have so continuously and
+completely held the horticultural stage in America during
+the last two decades that it has been impossible
+for amateur horticulture to get in a word edgewise.
+Any public speaker or writer has had to talk about
+several acres at a time or he would not be listened to.
+He has been obliged to insist that his scheme would
+pay on a commercial scale before anyone would hear,
+much less consider, what he had to tell.</p>
+
+<p>But now a change is coming. Different conditions
+are already upon us. A thousand signs indicate the
+new era. With hundreds&mdash;yes thousands&mdash;of men
+and women now horticulture is an avocation, a pastime.
+They grow trees largely for the pleasure of it;
+and their gardens are built amidst surroundings which
+would make commercial pomology laugh at itself.</p>
+
+<p>And so I undertake to offer the first American fruit
+book in a quarter century which can boldly declare
+its independence of the professional element in fruit
+growing. I am confident that dwarf fruit trees have
+some commercial possibilities, but they are of far
+greater importance to the small householder, the owner
+of the private "estate," the village dweller, the suburbanite<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span>
+and the commuter.</p>
+
+<p>In other words, while I hope that all good people
+will be interested in dwarf fruit trees and that some
+of them will share the enthusiasm of which this book
+is begotten, I do not want anyone to think that I
+have issued any guaranty, expressed or implied, that
+dwarf trees will open a paying commercial enterprise.
+Because the argument that a thing pays has been so
+long the only recommendation offered for any horticultural
+scheme, many persons have formed the habit
+of assuming that every sort of praise stands on this
+one foundation.</p>
+
+<p class="attr">
+<span class="smcap">F. A. Waugh.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><i>Massachusetts Agricultural College, 1906.</i></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></p>
+<h2>TABLE OF CONTENTS</h2>
+
+
+<table summary="contents">
+
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdr">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center"><span class="smcap"><a href="#PREFACE">Preface</a></span></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdr">v</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad">I.</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#I">General Considerations</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad">II.</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#II">Advantages and Disadvantages</a> </td>
+<td class="tdr">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad">III.</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#III">Propagation</a> </td>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad">IV.</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#IV">Pruning</a> </td>
+<td class="tdr">33</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad">V.</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#V">Special Forms</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">41</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad">VI.</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#VI">General Management</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">51</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad">VII. </td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#VII">Dwarf Apples</a> </td>
+<td class="tdr">63</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad">VIII.</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#VIII">Dwarf Pears</a></td>
+<td class="tdr"> 76</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad">IX.</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#IX">Dwarf Peaches</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">83</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad">X.</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#X">Dwarf Plums</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">90</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad">XI.</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#XI">Bush Fruits</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">99</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad">XII.</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#XII">Fruit Trees in Pots</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">106</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad">XIII. </td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#XIII">Personalia</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">112</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#INDEX">Index</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">125</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></p>
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+
+<table summary="illustrations">
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0004">Dwarf Cherry Tree</a></td>
+<td class="tdrpad"><i>Frontispiece</i></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center">FIG.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdr">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">1 </td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0015">Dwarf Apple Trees in Western New York</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">2 </td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0017">Trained Cordon Apple Trees</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">3 </td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0019">Bismarck Apple</a> </td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">4</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0021">Pear Tree Trained as an Espalier</a> </td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">5</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0023">Bush Apple Tree</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">6 </td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0029">Plums as Upright Cordons</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">7</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0037">Paradise Apple Stocks in Early Spring</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">8</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0042">The Western Sand Cherry</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">9 </td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0043">Upright Cordon Plum</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">31</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">10</td>
+<td class="tdl"> <a href="#i0046">Bush Apple</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">34</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">11</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0049a">Bush Apple, Three Years Old, Before Pruning</a></td>
+<td class="tdr"> 37</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">12</td>
+<td class="tdl"> <a href="#i0049b">Bush Apple, Same Tree, After Pruning</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">37</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">13</td>
+<td class="tdl"> <a href="#i0051a">Cordon Pears Before Pruning</a></td>
+<td class="tdr"> 39</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">14 </td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0051b">Cordon Pears After Pruning</a></td>
+<td class="tdr"> 39</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">15</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0055">Pears in Double U Form</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">43</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">16</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0057">Pears in U Form</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">45</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">17</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0059">Apricots in U Form</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">47</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">18</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0060">Pear in Espalier</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">48</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">19</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0061">Old Espalier Pears on Farm House Wall</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">49</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">20</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0064">Horizontal Cordon Apple and Other Dwarf Trees</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">52</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">21</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0065">Design for a Back Yard Fruit Garden</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">53</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">22</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0067">Dwarf Fruit Garden</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">55</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">23 </td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0067">Fruit Gardening and Landscape Gardening Combined</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">59</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">24</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0073">A Fruit Garden Containing Many Dwarf Trees</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">61</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">25 </td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0077">Dwarf Apples on Prof. L. H. Bailey's Farm, New York</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">65</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+
+
+<td class="tdrpad1">26<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span></td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0079">Upright Cordon Apples</a> </td>
+<td class="tdr">67</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">27</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0083">Horizontal Cordon Apple Trees</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">71</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">28</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0088">Young Orchard of Dwarf Pear in Western New York</a> </td>
+<td class="tdr">76</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">29</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0089">Dwarf Pear in the Old and Profitable Yeomans Orchard, New York</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">77</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">30</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0091">Orchard of Dwarf Duchess Pear, Lockport, N. Y.</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">79</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">31</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0092">Pyramid Pears in a German Orchard</a> </td>
+<td class="tdr">80</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">32 </td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0096">Dwarf Peach in Nursery</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">84</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">33</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0097">Espalier Peach, Hartford, Conn.</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">85</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">34 </td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0099">Peach in Fan Espalier on Wall&mdash;England</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">87</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">35</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0100">Peach Trees Trained Under Glass</a> </td>
+<td class="tdr">88</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">36</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0103">Plum Trees Trained as Upright Cordons</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">91</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">37</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0107">Burbank Plums on Upright Cordons Trained to Trellis</a> </td>
+<td class="tdr">95</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">38</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0112">Currants as Fan Espaliers on Trellis</a> </td>
+<td class="tdr">100</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">39 </td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0114">Gooseberry Fan Espalier</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">102</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">40</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0116">Tree Form Gooseberry</a> </td>
+<td class="tdr">104</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">41</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0120">A Fruiting Peach in Pot</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">108</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">42</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0122">A Fig Tree in a Pot</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">110</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">43 </td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0129">Dwarf Pear</a></td>
+<td class="tdr">117</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrpad1">44</td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#i0133">Chenango Apples in Prof. L. H. Bailey's Orchard</a> </td>
+<td class="tdr">121</td>
+</tr>
+
+
+</table>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>DWARF FRUIT TREES</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="I" id="I"></a>I</h2>
+
+<h3>GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS</h3>
+
+
+<p>A dwarf fruit tree is simply one which does not
+reach full size. It is not so large as it might be expected
+to be. It is smaller than a normal tree of the
+same variety and age.</p>
+
+<p>There are indeed some trees which are normally
+dwarf, so to speak. They never reach a considerable
+size. They are smaller than other better known and
+related species. For example, the species <i>Prunus pumila
+besseyi</i> is sometimes called the dwarf sand cherry,
+simply because it is always notably smaller than related
+species. The Paradise apple is spoken of as a
+dwarf because it never attains the stature which other
+apples attain.</p>
+
+<p>But in the technical sense, as the term is used by
+nurserymen and pomologists, a dwarf tree is one
+which is made, by some artificial means, to grow
+smaller than normal trees of the same variety.</p>
+
+<p>These artificial means used for making dwarf trees
+are chiefly three: (1) propagation on dwarfing stocks,
+(2) repressive pruning, and (3) training to some prescribed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span>
+form.</p>
+
+
+<h4>DWARFING STOCKS</h4>
+
+<p>The most common and important means of securing
+dwarf trees is that of propagating them on dwarfing
+stocks. These are simply such roots as make a
+slower and weaker growth than the trees from which
+cions are taken. This will be understood better from
+a concrete example. The quince tree normally grows
+slower than the pear, and usually reaches about half
+the size at maturity. Now pear cions will unite readily
+with quince roots and will grow in good health
+for many years. But when a pear tree is thus dependent
+for daily food on a quince root it fares like
+Oliver Twist. It never gets enough. It is always
+starved. It makes considerably less annual growth,
+and never (or at least seldom) reaches the size which
+it might have reached if it had been growing on a
+pear root.</p>
+
+<p>This is, somewhat roughly stated, the whole theory
+of dwarfing fruit trees by grafting them on slow-growing
+stocks. The tree top is always under-nourished
+and thus restrained in its ambitious growth of
+branches, as seen in Fig. 1.</p>
+
+<p>While the tree is made thus smaller by being grafted
+on a restraining root, it is not affected in its other
+characteristics. At least theoretically it is not. It
+still bears the same kind of fruit and foliage. Bartlett
+pear trees budded on quince roots yield fruit true
+to name. The pears are still Bartletts, and can not
+be told from those grown on an ordinary tree. Sometimes
+the fruit from dwarf trees seems to be better<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span>
+colored or better flavored than that from standard
+trees; but such differences are very delicate and usually
+receive slight thought.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0015" name="i0015"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0015.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 1&mdash;DWARF APPLE TREES IN WESTERN NEW YORK</p>
+
+</div></div>
+
+
+<p>Dwarf fruit trees have not been very largely grown
+in America, but have been much more widely used in
+Europe. This statement holds good either for commercial
+plantations or for private fruit gardens. They
+are coming into more common use in this country
+because, in both market orchards and amateur gardens,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>
+our pomology is coming to be somewhat more like
+that of Europe. Our conditions are approaching those
+of the Old World, even though they will always be
+very different from those of Europe in horticultural
+matters.</p>
+
+<p>Dwarf fruit trees are particularly valuable in small
+gardens; and small gardens are becoming constantly
+more popular among our urban, and especially our
+suburban, population. This matter is discussed more
+fully in another chapter. Fruit of finer quality can
+be grown on dwarf trees, as a general rule, than can
+usually be grown on standard trees. Every year there
+are more people in America who are willing to take
+any necessary pains to secure fruit of extra quality.
+This remark applies particularly to amateur fruit
+growers and to owners of private estates who grow
+fruit for their own tables, but it is no less true of a
+certain class of fruit buyers, especially in the richer
+cities. Although $3 a barrel is still a high price for
+ordinary good apples, sales of fancy apples at $3 a
+dozen fruits are by no means infrequent in the city
+markets every winter.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0017" name="i0017"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0017.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 2&mdash;TRAINED CORDON APPLE TREES</p>
+<p class="ctext">From Loebner's "Zwergobstbäume"</p>
+</div></div>
+
+
+<p>In this respect also we are approaching European
+conditions. In the markets of the continental capitals
+in particular fancy fruits are frequently sold at
+prices which seem almost incredible to an American.
+Single apples sometimes bring 50 cents to a dollar,
+and peaches an equal price. Just recently a story has
+been going the rounds of the newspapers that the
+caterer for the Czar's table sometimes pays as high
+as $15 apiece for peaches for the royal table. Hereupon
+a solemn American editor remarked that if the
+whole royal family should live upon nothing but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>
+peaches it would still be cheaper than carrying on the
+Japanese war.</p>
+
+<p>Now if there is anywhere within reach a market
+for apples or peaches at $3 a dozen specimens&mdash;and
+there unquestionably is&mdash;then it will pay to grow
+fancy fruits with special care to meet this demand.
+This kind of fruit can be grown better upon dwarf
+trees than upon standards in many cases, if not in
+most. At least such is the conviction of the present
+writer. Moreover this has been the experience in the
+old country.</p>
+
+<p>With such facts in view there seems to be a
+possible future for dwarf fruit trees, even for commercial
+purposes. Their present utility in amateur
+gardens and on wealthy private estates can not be
+questioned. These various amateur and commercial
+adaptations of dwarf trees will have to be more carefully
+analyzed and discussed in a future chapter, and
+the subject may therefore be dropped for the present.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0019" name="i0019"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0019.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 3&mdash;BISMARCK APPLE, FIRST YEAR PLANTED</p>
+<p class="ctext">22 inches high; bearing 4 fruits</p>
+</div></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="II" id="II"></a>II</h2>
+
+<h3>ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES</h3>
+
+
+<p>It is a good prejudice which expects every man
+who writes anything to be enthusiastic over his subject.
+Such enthusiasm doubtless leads a writer many
+times to over-state his case, and to claim more than
+the calm judgment of the multitude will ratify. And
+on the other hand, readers usually tacitly discount
+the statements of any man who writes about any
+matter in which he is plainly interested. The present
+writer knows that he is also under the ban, and that
+the reader firmly expects him to claim more for dwarf
+fruit trees than their merits will fairly warrant. This
+expectation the writer hopes to disappoint. It will
+be enough to set down here the obvious advantages
+and disadvantages which the horticulturist will meet
+in handling dwarf fruit trees. These statements are
+mostly of matters of common experience and they
+need no coloring to make them serve their present
+purpose.</p>
+
+<p>We may fairly set down the following good points
+standing more or less generally to the credit of dwarf
+fruit trees:</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Early bearing.</i>&mdash;This is a sufficiently obvious advantage.
+The Alexander apple will bear the second
+year after planting when grown as a dwarf, while
+it requires six to ten years to come into bearing as a
+standard. This habit of early bearing proves valuable
+in many ways. It encourages men to plant trees. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>
+disinclination of old men to plant trees rests upon
+the slenderness of the chance that they will ever gather
+of the fruit. But a man may plant dwarf trees whenever
+his expectation of life is two years or more.
+Such trees would serve octogenarians, consumptives
+and those sentenced to be hanged for murder.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0021" name="i0021"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0021.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 4&mdash;PEAR TREE, TRAINED AS AN ESPALIER</p>
+
+</div></div>
+
+
+<p>Early bearing&mdash;to return to the subject&mdash;makes
+dwarf trees valuable to that large and unfortunately
+growing class of citizens who rent the premises where
+they live. They do not expect to stay more than five
+or six years in any one place. In that length of time<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
+ordinary trees would not begin to yield any fruit.
+But with dwarf trees there is excellent probability
+of seeing something ripen. Then again early bearing
+is a great advantage when one is testing new or old
+varieties. It is a great advantage when a commercial
+orchard is designed and when dwarf trees are used
+for fillers as explained below.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Small size.</i>&mdash;The very smallness of the dwarf
+trees has many advantages in it. The trees are easier
+to reach and to care for. They are easier to prune and
+to spray. This facility in spraying is what has chiefly
+recommended smaller fruit trees to commercial fruit
+growers in recent years. Particularly in those places
+where the San José scale is a perennial problem a
+very large tree becomes an impossibility, and the
+smaller the trees can be the better it suits.</p>
+
+<p>The small size of dwarf trees permits the planting
+of larger numbers on a given area. This is specially
+worth while to the amateur who has a small garden
+where only three or four standard trees could
+grow, but where he can comfortably handle forty or
+fifty dwarfs. Yet it is also worth the consideration
+of the commercial fruit grower who is trying to earn
+a profit on expensive land. If he can increase the
+number of bearing trees on each acre, especially
+during the early years of establishing his orchard, it
+almost certainly means increased income.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0023" name="i0023"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0023.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 5&mdash;BUSH APPLE TREE, THREE YEARS PLANTED</p>
+
+</div></div>
+
+
+<p>3. <i>High quality.</i>&mdash;It is not perfectly certain that
+every kind of fruit can be produced in higher quality
+on dwarf trees than on standards, but such is the general
+rule. This is notably true of certain pears, as
+Buerré Giffard and Doyenne du Comice, and it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>
+generally the case with all apples that can be successfully
+grown on Paradise roots. One can secure size,
+color, flavor and finish on an Alexander or a Ribston
+Pippin, for example, which can never be secured on
+a standard tree. One who has not seen this thing
+done will hardly understand it; those who have will
+not need more argument. Such plums as we have
+fruited on dwarf trees have shown similar improvement
+in quality, being always distinctly superior to the
+same varieties grown on standard trees. The significance
+of these facts will appear at once to any one
+familiar with the course of the fruit markets in America.
+There are greater rewards awaiting the fruit
+grower who can produce fruit of superior quality than
+the one who succeeds merely in increasing the quantity
+of his output.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SPECIAL USES FOR DWARF TREES</h4>
+
+<p>These various items of advantage recommend dwarf
+fruit trees for several specific purposes, some of which
+are worth pointing out in detail.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>For suburban places.</i>&mdash;A large and increasing
+percentage of our population now lives the suburban
+life&mdash;in that zone where city and country meet. They
+have small tracts of land, which, however, they too
+often lease instead of owning. On these they do
+more or less gardening,&mdash;usually more, in proportion
+to the size of their holdings. For them dwarf fruit
+trees are a precious boon. It is possible to plant three
+hundred to five hundred dwarf fruit trees on a quarter
+of an acre, where less than a dozen standard trees
+would flourish. This gives the opportunity to experiment<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>
+with all sorts and varieties of fruits, a privilege
+very dear to the heart of the commuter. The dwarf
+fruit trees also work more readily into a scheme of
+more or less ornamental gardening, where fruits are
+combined with vegetables and flowers. Especially if
+some sort of formal gardening is attempted, the cordons,
+espaliers and pyramids exactly suit the demands.
+Then the fact, already mentioned, that the
+dwarf trees come into bearing much sooner, is a
+consideration of the highest value to the suburban
+gardener. He fully expects to move from one home
+to another at least once in ten years, if not once in five.
+With the best of intentions and the most favorable
+of opportunities he can hardly expect to settle down
+anywhere for life. The suburbs themselves change
+too rapidly for that; and the place which today is
+away off in the country may be all covered with factories
+five years from now. It is terribly discouraging,
+under such circumstances, to plant a tree knowing
+that ten years must pass before any considerable fruitage
+can be expected from it. It is altogether another
+feeling with which one plants a tree which promises
+fruit within two or three years.</p>
+
+<p>So that, whatever the drawbacks to the planting of
+dwarfs, they are the salvation of the suburban garden.
+For such circumstances they can be freely recommended,
+without exception or reservation.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>For orchard fillers.</i>&mdash;As commercial orcharding
+becomes more refined, under the stress of modern competition,
+and as good orchard land increases in value,
+up to one hundred, two hundred, or even three hundred
+dollars an acre, new methods must be adopted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
+with a view to increasing the returns. This opportunity
+looms especially large for the first few years
+after the establishment of the commercial orchard,
+more particularly the apple orchard. When standard
+trees are planted thirty-five to the acre, which is now
+the usual practice, the land is not more than one-fourth
+occupied for the first five years, and not more
+than half occupied for the first ten years. Indeed it
+is full twenty years from the time of planting before
+the thirty-five apple trees will use the whole acre. And
+since a good farmer can not afford to let expensive
+land lie idle he has before him a very pretty problem
+to determine how the space between the standard
+trees shall be utilized during the early years of the
+orchard's growth.</p>
+
+<p>Several different methods are in vogue for the solution
+of this problem; but probably the best one is
+that system which supplies fillers or temporary trees
+between the standard or permanent ones. In an orchard
+of standard apple trees these fillers may very
+properly be dwarf apple trees; or between standard
+pears dwarf pears may be planted. If there are thirty-five
+standard apple trees to an acre, and if a dwarf
+tree is placed half way between each two standards
+in every direction, including the diagonal direction,
+this will make one hundred and five dwarf trees, or
+one hundred and forty trees in all, instead of the
+thirty-five trees with which the acre of apple orchard
+land is more commonly furnished. The dwarf apple
+trees will be bearing good crops at the end of five years
+at most; and they can be kept on the land for five
+years longer at the least, before they will begin to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>
+crowd the permanent standards. During these five
+years, if the orchard has a paying management at all,
+they will easily pay all the expenses of the enterprise,
+and should leave a substantial balance of profit.</p>
+
+<p>As this system of filling, or interplanting, commercial
+orchards is becoming more and more common, the
+suitability of dwarf trees, for this purpose, becomes
+more generally evident.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>For school gardens.</i>&mdash;Thus far school gardens
+in America have been mostly temporary and experimental
+affairs. But we are already satisfied that they
+have come to stay, and that gardening in some form
+will be a permanent feature of the curriculum in many
+of our best schools. As soon as a school garden becomes
+a permanent institution, with ground of its
+own to be held in use year after year, the dependence
+on annual crops will give way to the use of various
+perennial plants, shrubs and trees.</p>
+
+<p>And among these dwarf fruit trees will naturally
+be one of the first introductions. Their small size
+adapts them to the school premises, their habit of
+early bearing again serves to recommend them most
+strikingly, and the special opportunity which they
+offer to pupils to observe details of pruning and other
+items of tree management, make them almost a first
+necessity in the permanent school garden.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>For covering walls and fences.</i>&mdash;There are many
+places about every farm, suburban establishment, or
+even about many city homes, where back walls and
+fences could be put out of sight very agreeably by
+almost any sort of foliage. Various ornamental climbers
+and creepers are in vogue for this service; but a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>
+certain number of such unattractive walls and fences
+could be treated quite as acceptably, from the esthetic
+point of view, with trained fruit trees, and the result
+would be more satisfactory in some other ways. Apples
+or pears trained as cordons or espaliers, or peaches,
+nectarines, or cherries in fan forms, will thrive on
+almost any brick or wooden wall, except those with
+a northern front. It is necessary only to supply a
+proper soil, to plant sound trees of proper sorts,
+and to give them the prescribed care. The result is
+not only a thing of beauty but one of practical utility
+as well.</p>
+
+<p>There are many places where the owner of a city
+or suburban lot can secure the fun and the substantial
+benefits belonging to the fruit grower on land that
+would be otherwise wasted, if he will only build a
+woven wire fence on the property line between him
+and his not-too-agreeable neighbor, using this fence
+as a support for a row of cordon plums, pears or apples.
+If he has time and inclination to do a little more work
+with the trees he can better plant U-form peaches,
+nectarines or apricots, or he can grow plums in U-form,
+or he can have fan-form cherry trees, or apples or
+pears in Verrier-palmettes. One of the most interesting
+and productive lots in the author's dwarf fruit
+garden is a row of plum trees on such a woven wire
+trellis. The trees in this row stand two feet apart,
+and form a perfect screen. (Fig. 6.) The majority of
+the trees which were necessarily taken for planting
+this row were not propagated on suitable stocks, and
+many varieties were introduced for experimental purposes
+which were obviously unadapted to this mode<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>
+of training, but nevertheless the net result has been
+highly satisfactory.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0029" name="i0029"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0029.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 6&mdash;PLUMS AS UPRIGHT CORDONS, SET TWO FEET APART</p>
+</div></div>
+
+
+
+<p>In a very similar manner apple, pear or plum trees
+may be trained so as to form an arched arbor way.
+In this kind of make-up they present a most agreeable
+novelty. An example of this kind of training is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>
+shown in the illustration, page 5. For this purpose
+cordon trees are usually best; though peach or apricot
+trees in U-form or double U-form will answer
+very well. Even apple trees or pears formed as palmettes-Verrier
+can be carried up over an arched trellis.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Geo. Bunyard in "The Fruit Garden" tells of
+carrying apple trees up over the slate roof of an outbuilding,
+with marked success. The fruit-bearing
+portion of the trees, lying there on the slate roof
+beautifully exposed to the sun above, and assisted
+by the heat absorbed and radiated by the slate, yielded
+large crops of apples of very superior quality.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SOME DISADVANTAGES</h4>
+
+<p>There are, of course, some disadvantages in growing
+dwarf fruit trees, and these should be examined with
+as much care as the advantages. The more important
+ones are as follows:</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Greater expense.</i>&mdash;The trees are somewhat harder
+to propagate, and therefore cost more. There is no
+general demand for them in America, so that they
+are carried by only a few nurseries and are not looked
+upon as staple goods even with those dealers; and
+on this account the price is necessarily increased. Thus
+each tree costs more than a similar tree of the same
+age and variety propagated in the usual way. But the
+greatest increase of expense comes from the fact that
+many more trees are required to plant the same area.
+There is often an advantage, as already argued, in
+planting more trees to the acre, but it costs something
+to gain this advantage. An acre of ground can be
+planted with thirty-five standard apple trees set thirty-five<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>
+feet apart each way, and these trees will cost,
+roughly estimating retail prices at $12 a hundred, $4.20.
+To plant an acre to dwarf apple trees, setting them
+six feet apart each way, which is about as thick as
+these trees should ever be planted, will require 1,210
+trees. Estimating the retail price roughly at $15 a
+hundred this would make the first cost $181.50&mdash;a
+considerably greater initial investment in the orchard.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>The trees are shorter lived.</i>&mdash;This statement is
+true for certain kinds of dwarf trees, but not for others.
+Certain varieties of pears, for example, which do not
+unite well with the quince root, naturally make short
+lived trees. On the other hand other varieties of
+pears appear to live as long and thrive fully as well
+on quince roots as on pear roots. There is a common
+belief, especially in England, that apples worked on
+French paradise roots are apt to be short-lived. The
+nurserymen who hold this belief contend, however,
+that the so-called English Paradise, more properly
+called Doucin, supplies a stock on which apples will
+live to as great an age as on any other stock whatever.
+There is some evidence to show that vigorous
+varieties of plums worked on Americana roots or on
+dwarf sand cherry are shorter lived than the same
+varieties on freer growing stocks. In many cases,
+however, dwarf trees live as long as standards; and
+in almost all cases they live long enough.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>They require more care.</i>&mdash;This objection stands
+particularly against the dwarf trees trained in special
+and intricate forms. Such trees undoubtedly do require
+more careful attention, more frequent going-over,
+and more hand work in the course of the year.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
+It is probably not true that apples, pears, plums or
+peaches in bush or pyramid forms require any more
+labor or attention than standard trees to secure equally
+good results. On the other hand it must not be forgotten,
+as has already been pointed out, that whatever
+care may be required is much more easily given the
+dwarf trees than the standards.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>They are not a commercial success.</i>&mdash;This statement,
+too, though undoubtedly having some truth in
+it, can not stand without qualification. It is certainly
+true that no one could grow ordinary varieties of
+apples, like Baldwin or Ben Davis for instance, on
+dwarf trees in competition with men who are growing
+the same varieties on standards. It is probably true
+that fancy varieties of apples can be grown with profit
+on dwarf trees, but even this can not be strongly urged.
+So far as apples are concerned the chief value of
+dwarf trees for modern commercial enterprises in
+America will come through their use as fillers between
+rows of standard trees. In the case of pears the
+situation is somewhat more favorable to dwarf trees.
+There are a number of orchards in this country where
+pears have been successfully grown for market, these
+many years, on dwarf trees. The famous and everywhere
+planted Bartlett succeeds admirably on the
+quince stock wherever the soil is suited to it. No
+successful commercial orchards of dwarf peaches or
+plums can be cited in this country, individual trees
+of these kinds even being extremely rare; yet there
+is good reason to suppose that under favorable conditions
+dwarf peaches and plums may have some commercial
+value. Such value may be more in the way<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>
+of supplementing standard trees than in superseding
+them, but it is still worth consideration. So that,
+after all, when we say that dwarf fruit trees are not
+a commercial success we mean merely that they will
+not take the place of standard trees. The large market
+orchards must always continue to be made up of standard
+trees; but in their own way the dwarf trees will
+find a limited place even in commercial operations,
+and this use of them seems destined to be more general
+in the future than it has been in the past.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="III" id="III"></a>III</h2>
+
+<h3>PROPAGATION</h3>
+
+
+<p>The propagation of dwarf fruit trees is in some
+senses a more critical and interesting problem than the
+propagation of ordinary nursery stock. The successful
+production of a dwarf fruit tree depends primarily
+on its propagation. The selection of stocks for dwarfing
+purposes is necessarily a complicated matter.
+Under the terms of the problem it is impossible that
+the stock and the cion which are wedded together
+should be very closely related. The stock must be
+distinctly different and pronouncedly dwarfer in his
+habit of growth.</p>
+
+<p>It is not always an easy matter to find a stock
+which is thus distinctly different from the tree which
+it is desired to grow and which will at the same time
+form with it a vigorous and long lived union. It is
+necessary further that the propagation can be carried
+on with ease and with a fair degree of success in commercial
+nurseries. If difficult methods of grafting
+are required, or if only a small stand of nursery trees
+can be secured, the undertaking becomes too expensive
+from the nurseryman's point of view.</p>
+
+<p>The methods of propagating dwarf trees are for the
+most part the same as those used in reproducing the
+same kinds of fruit on standard stocks. As a matter
+of fact nearly all dwarf trees are propagated by budding.
+Apples, pears, and plums can be readily grafted,
+but budding is simpler, speedier, and usually the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>
+cheaper process in the nursery. In the upper Mississippi
+Valley, where plums are somewhat extensively
+worked on Americana plum roots, grafting is rather
+common. The side graft and the whip graft are the
+forms most used.</p>
+
+<p>The theory of the production of a dwarf fruit tree
+by the restraining of its growth has already been
+mentioned in another chapter. The dwarf stock
+simply supplies less food than is required for the
+normal growth of the variety under propagation, and
+the tree is, in a sense, starved or stunted into its dwarf
+stature.</p>
+
+<p>As the selection of proper stocks&mdash;the adaptation
+of stock to cion&mdash;is one of the fundamental problems
+in dwarf fruit growing, we may now address ourselves
+to that. We will take up the different classes
+of fruit in order.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE APPLE</h4>
+
+<p>Everyone who has observed the wild or native
+apples which grow in New England pastures must
+frequently have noticed certain dwarf and slow-growing
+specimens. It it not difficult to find such which
+do not reach a height of five feet in ten years of
+unobstructed growth. If the cions of ordinary varieties
+of apples like Greening and Winesap should be
+grafted upon these stocks, the result would be a dwarf
+Greening or Winesap. If these dwarf wild apples
+could be produced with certainty and at a low price,
+they would furnish a source of supply for dwarf apple
+stocks.</p>
+
+<p>The Paradise apple so-called (Fig. 7) is simply one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
+of these dwarf varieties which can be reproduced freely
+and cheaply. This reproduction is secured nearly always
+by means of mound layerage. As the variety
+does not come true to seed, any more than such varieties
+as King or Hubbardston do, some such method
+of propagation is necessary. This Paradise apple is
+naturally inclined to stool out somewhat from the
+roots. This habit is encouraged by cutting the plants
+back to the ground. When the young shoots are
+thrown up they are banked up with a hoe or by
+plowing furrows up against the rows of plants. The
+young shoots then form roots at the base and these
+rooted shoots or layers are removed when one year
+old. They are then planted in nursery rows in the
+spring, where they are usually budded the following
+July or August.</p>
+
+<p>These Paradise stocks are largely grown in France.
+Practically all the supply comes from that country.
+The nurserymen who grow dwarf apple trees in America
+import their stocks from France during the winter,
+plant them in nursery rows early in the spring, bud
+the stocks the following July or August, and have
+the dwarf apple trees for sale the second year following.</p>
+
+<p>This Paradise is the dwarfest stock known for
+apples. Its effect on nearly all varieties is very marked,
+causing them to form very small trees and to bear
+very early. Some of the more vigorous varieties, like
+Northern Spy for instance, do not submit kindly to
+such treatment. For this, or possibly for more recondite
+reasons, a few varieties do not succeed well on
+Paradise roots. The writer would be glad to give<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>
+a list of such varieties which are not adapted to the
+Paradise stock, but confesses he is unable to do so.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0037" name="i0037"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0037.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 7&mdash;PARADISE APPLE STOCKS IN EARLY SPRING</p>
+
+</div></div>
+
+
+
+<p>The Doucin stock is simply another variety of dwarf
+apple. It is more vigorous and larger growing than
+the Paradise, and, therefore, produces a tree, when
+ordinary varieties are grafted upon it, about midway
+in size between the ordinary standard apple and the
+same variety growing upon Paradise.</p>
+
+<p>This Doucin is sometimes called the English or
+Broad-Leaved Paradise, but this name is misleading.
+It will be well to remember this in buying stocks or
+in buying trees in England. Dwarf apples are largely
+propagated in England, but the trees which are said
+to be on Paradise roots are often on Doucin. This
+confusion comes about from the Englishman's habit
+of calling Doucin the Broad-Leaved Paradise.</p>
+
+<p>The Doucin is perhaps better for the free-growing
+bush form trees, especially where excessive dwarfing
+is not needed. For orchard planting in the United
+States this Doucin stock would be likely to suit many
+growers better than Paradise. For trees which are
+to be kept within very narrow bounds, or those which
+are to be trained in particular forms, the Paradise
+stock is better. For all sorts of cordon apple trees,
+the Paradise is essential.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE PEAR</h4>
+
+<p>Dwarf pears are always propagated on quince roots.
+Any kind of a quince may be used as a stock for pears,
+but the one commonly employed by nurserymen is the
+Angers quince, named after Angers, France, from
+which place the supply largely comes. Almost all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>
+the quince stocks used by nurserymen in America are
+imported from France. As in dealing with apple
+stocks, the importation is made during the winter, the
+stocks are planted in nursery rows in the early spring,
+and are usually budded in July or August of the same
+year.</p>
+
+<p>A few varieties of pears do not make good unions
+with the quince. In some cases this antipathy is overcome
+by the expedient of double-working. The quince
+root is first budded with some variety which unites
+well with it. After this pear cion has grown one year,
+the refractory variety is budded upon this pear shoot.
+The complete tree, when it leaves the nursery, consists
+of three pieces,&mdash;a quince root below, a pear
+top above, and a short section of only one or two
+inches in length of some other variety of pear which
+simply holds together the two essential parts of the
+tree.</p>
+
+<p>This practise of double-working is sometimes undertaken
+with other kinds of fruit for special purposes.
+There are no other cases, however, in which it becomes
+a generally recognized commercial practise.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE PEACH</h4>
+
+<p>The peach is dwarfed by budding it upon almost any
+kind of a plum root, especially upon the smaller growing
+species of plums. The stock most used is the
+ordinary Myrobalan plum. This is simply because
+the Myrobalan stock is commoner and cheaper. The
+St. Julien plum probably furnishes a better dwarfing
+stock for peaches, but it is more expensive and harder<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>
+to work.</p>
+
+<p>The Americana plum, now somewhat largely grown
+for stocks in the States of the upper Mississippi valley,
+furnishes a good dwarfing stock for the peach. According
+to the writer's experience the Americana stock
+gives better results with peaches than either Myrobalan
+or St. Julien. It should be observed that this stock
+requires budding rather early in the season.</p>
+
+<p>The dwarf sand cherry, which is further discussed
+below under plums, also makes a good stock for
+peaches. As this stock is very dwarf, it produces the
+smallest possible peach tree. The peach cion rapidly
+overgrows the stock and the tree can hardly be expected
+to be long lived. The growth is very vigorous
+and satisfactory during early years, however. I have
+not had an opportunity to determine how long peaches
+will live and thrive on this stock.</p>
+
+<p>Nectarines can be grown in dwarf form in exactly
+the same manner employed for peaches.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE PLUM</h4>
+
+<p>In all the old books it is said that dwarf plum trees
+are secured by working on Myrobalan stocks. This
+statement is hardly true according to our present
+standards, and is certainly far from satisfactory. This
+rule came into vogue at the time when only large
+growing Domestica plums were propagated in this
+country and the stocks used were mostly either "horse
+plums" or Myrobalan. The Myrobalan stock does
+give a somewhat smaller tree than the old fashioned
+horse plums; but this Myrobalan stock has been for
+many years the one principally used for propagating<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>
+all kinds of plums in America. It has come to be
+looked upon as a standard rather than a dwarf stock.
+When we think of dwarf trees, therefore, we expect
+to see something smaller than what will grow under
+ordinary circumstances on a Myrobalan root.</p>
+
+<p>The Americana plum, already mentioned, is a first-rate
+stock in nearly all respects except that it can not
+be bought so cheaply as the Myrobalan. It is now
+grown to a considerable extent by nurserymen in
+Minnesota, Iowa and the neighboring States. If
+grafted, or budded early, all varieties of plums take
+well upon it. The trees on Americana roots make
+a good growth in the nursery and are easily transplanted.
+The tree produced on this stock is only
+moderately dwarf. Still this dwarfing effect is always
+well marked, this result being shown by the overgrowing
+of the cion. The top thus appears to outgrow
+the root, and such trees are apt to blow over
+during wind storms. Suitable precautions should be
+taken to guard against damage of this sort.</p>
+
+<p>Prof. A. T. Erwin of Iowa writes on this subject
+as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"Regarding the Americana as a plum stock, I would
+state that we are using it by the thousands out here;
+in fact, have about quit using anything else. As a
+stock for the European and Japanese sorts, it does
+dwarf them, and the cion tends to outgrow the stock
+at the point of union, causing an enlargement. The
+union is also not very congenial, and they frequently
+break off on account of high winds. However, in my
+experience and observation, this is not the case when<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
+the Americana is used as a stock for Americana
+varieties. It does not dwarf the trees seriously and
+the union is splendid. It
+is by all odds the best
+stock we have for plums,
+and since we do not
+grow anything but Americana
+varieties, it works
+first rate. It does tend
+to sprout some, though
+there is little trouble in
+this regard after the
+trees come into bearing."</p></blockquote>
+
+<div class="figleft"><a id="i0042" name="i0042"></a>
+<img src="images/i0042.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 8</p>
+
+<p class="caption">THE WESTERN SAND CHERRY</p>
+<p class="ctext"><i>Prunus pumila besseyi</i></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The sand cherry seems
+to be the dwarfing stock
+par excellence for the
+plum. This sand cherry
+is a heterogeneous species,
+or as some botanists
+think, is three species,
+ranging throughout the
+Northern States from
+Maine to Colorado. The
+narrow leaf upright form
+growing about five feet
+tall, known as <i>Prunus pumila</i>, is found along the
+Atlantic coast. The broad leafed dwarfer form known
+as <i>Prunus pumila besseyi</i> or <i>P. besseyi</i>, is found in
+the Western States. Another rarer form of more irregular
+growth known as <i>Prunus pumila cuneata</i>, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>
+as <i>P. cuneata</i>, is found in the North Central States.</p>
+
+<div class="figright"><a id="i0043" name="i0043"></a>
+<img src="images/i0043.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 9&mdash;UPRIGHT CORDON PLUM</p>
+<p class="ctext">With buds set into the naked trunk</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>All of these different forms may be used for propagating
+plums or
+peaches. The western
+form (<i>P. besseyi</i>) (Fig.
+8) is in some respects
+the best, producing the
+dwarfest and apparently
+the best trees. In our
+experience, however,
+nearly all varieties of
+plums and peaches give
+a better stand of trees
+when budded on <i>P. pumila</i>.
+<i>Prunus cuneata</i> is
+inferior to the others.</p>
+
+<p>The eastern form, <i>P.
+pumila</i>, has another advantage
+from the standpoint
+of the nurseryman
+in that it is more easily
+propagated from cuttings.
+For the most part
+the western sand cherry
+is propagated from seed.
+Both forms can be propagated
+from layers.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h4>NURSERY MANAGEMENT</h4>
+
+<p>Dwarf trees are managed in the nursery very much
+the same as standards of the same varieties. There
+are no special points to be observed except in the
+formation of the tops. Western New York nurserymen,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
+who now grow the principal supply of dwarf
+apple and pear trees, have the custom of forming their
+nursery stock with high heads. That is, the heads
+are formed at a height of eighteen inches to three
+feet from the ground. In this matter the pattern is
+taken after the usual style of standard trees. This
+is quite wrong. Of course, some planters might like
+to have dwarf trees with trunks two or three feet tall,
+but the best form has a much shorter stem. At any
+rate the buyer of dwarf trees ought to be at liberty
+to form the head within three or four inches of the
+ground if he so desires. This becomes very difficult
+if the tree is once pruned up to a height of two or
+three feet.</p>
+
+<p>In order that the planter may reach his own ideal
+perfectly in this matter, it is sometimes necessary to
+buy one year old trees, what the English nurserymen
+call maidens. This, of course, enables the tree planter
+to form the head wherever he desires.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="IV" id="IV"></a>IV</h2>
+
+<h3>PRUNING DWARF FRUIT TREES</h3>
+
+
+<p>The pruning of dwarf fruit trees is a matter of the
+greatest consequence, for on proper pruning depend
+both the form and the productivity of the trees. Some
+of the details of management will be explained in the
+succeeding chapters, dealing with the particular kinds
+of fruits, but a few general statements should be set
+down here.</p>
+
+<p>1. The trees are severely headed in. This applies
+more particularly to bush and pyramid forms. By the
+term "heading in" we refer to the shortening of the
+leaders. Such shortening is usually given at the
+spring pruning, while the trees are dormant. The
+leaders may be headed in at times, however, during
+the latter part of the growing season, in July. Such
+stopping of growing leaders will be practised more
+often on young trees just coming into bearing than
+on old trees. (Fig. 10). Constant heading back of
+some sort, however, is required in nearly all cases, if
+the tree is to be retained in its dwarf form. The mistake
+has often been made of thinking that a tree
+propagated on a dwarf root would take care of itself.</p>
+
+<p>2. Summer pruning is essential. In most American
+orchard practise one annual pruning (sometimes
+one pruning every five years!) is considered
+sufficient, and systematic summer pruning is seldom
+or never given. Now summer pruning tends much
+more to repress the growth of a tree than winter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>
+pruning does. In fact, heavy winter pruning leads
+rather to increased vegetative vigor. Aside from any
+special system of pruning, therefore, this rule is to
+be remembered, that summer pruning is desirable, on
+general principles, for dwarf fruit trees.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0046" name="i0046"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0046.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 10&mdash;BUSH APPLE, THREE YEARS OLD</p>
+<p class="ctext">Showing strong leaders formed during the summer</p>
+</div></div>
+
+
+<p>3. Side shoots usually need pinching during the
+growing season. Leaders are more frequently allowed
+to grow unchecked throughout the season, or are
+stopped only late in their period of development. In
+the pomaceous fruits, which form distinct fruit spurs,
+the checking of these side shoots helps toward the
+production of fruit buds. As long as every bud is
+allowed to push out into a strong shoot no fruit spurs
+can become established. Thus the summer pinching
+of the side shoots on apples and pears has the purpose
+of encouraging the formation of fruit spurs. On
+peach and plum trees equally distinct fruit spurs do
+not form; but if the side shoots are allowed to push
+forth unrestricted they are apt to choke one another.
+There will be too many of them, they will not get light
+enough, their growth will be weak and sappy, and they
+will not form fruit buds. Good fruit buds on a peach
+tree, for example, form on strong, clean, healthy shoots
+of this year's growth for next year's crop of fruit. It
+is seen, therefore, that in nearly all sorts of dwarf fruit
+trees the summer pruning is especially directed to the
+suppression or regulation of the growth of side shoots.</p>
+
+<p>This part of the treatment becomes of prime importance
+in dealing with cordons and espaliers.</p>
+
+<p>4. The control of the fruit spurs or of the side
+shoots here contemplated requires that the trees be
+gone over more than once during the growing season.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>
+In fact, four successive examinations of the tree are
+usually required. Old trees can sometimes be managed
+with two or three, but young ones, on the other
+hand, will sometimes require six or more. Of course,
+there are usually only a few shoots that need attention
+at each succeeding visit, and the work can be very
+rapidly performed. The first pruning, or pinching,
+falls about three weeks after the trees have started
+into growth. The next one comes ten days later, the
+next one ten days later again, and the fourth pruning
+two weeks after the third. From this time onward the
+intervals lengthen. These specifications, of course,
+are only approximate and suggestive. Some judgment
+is required to select just the proper moment for
+pinching back a shoot and even more to select the
+time for a general summer pruning. Those trees
+which enjoy the sympathetic presence of the gardener
+every day are sure to fare best. The bulk of this
+pruning can be done with the thumb nail and forefinger,
+but I find a light pair of pruning scissors
+pleasanter to work with.</p>
+
+<p>5. Root pruning is sometimes advisable. Since the
+whole program is arranged to check the growth of
+the dwarf tree, root pruning would naturally fit well
+with the other practises recommended. Root pruning
+checks the growth of a tree about as positively as
+any treatment that can be devised. When dwarf pear
+or apple trees seem to be making too much wood
+growth and not enough fruit, they can be taken up,
+as for transplanting, during the dormant season and
+set right back into place. This digging up and replanting
+is always accompanied by some cutting of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>
+roots. The whole root system is disturbed and has to
+re-establish itself before the top vegetates very strongly
+once more. Such root pruning ought to be done late
+in the fall. It is a special practice, suited to refractory
+cases, and the gardener is not recommended
+to indulge in it too freely.</p>
+
+<div class="figborder2">
+
+<table summary="image">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlp"><div class="figcenter"><a id="i0049a" name="i0049a"></a>
+<img src="images/i0049a.jpg" alt="" />
+</div>
+</td>
+
+<td class="tdrp"><div class="figcenter"><a id="i0049b" name="i0049b"></a>
+<img src="images/i0049b.jpg" alt="" />
+</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlp">
+<p class="caption">FIG. 11&mdash;BUSH APPLE</p>
+<p class="ctext">Three years old, before pruning</p>
+</td>
+
+<td>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 12&mdash;BUSH APPLE</p>
+<p class="ctext">Same tree after pruning</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>6. A certain equilibrium between vegetative growth
+and fruit bearing should be established at the earliest
+possible moment, and should be maintained thereafter.
+Of course, some such equilibrium is sought in the
+management of a standard tree; but it is secured
+earlier in the life of the dwarf tree and should be
+much more accurately maintained. The tree must
+make a certain amount of growth each year, but this
+must be only enough to keep it in good health, and
+to furnish foliage enough to mature the fruit. Beyond
+this wood growth the tree should bear a certain
+amount of fruit every year, for annual bearing is not
+only an ideal but a rule in the management of dwarf
+trees. This equilibrium once established must be
+maintained not by haphazard pruning, but by some
+suitable system. If there is the proper balance between
+summer pruning and winter pruning, combined with
+proper control of cultivation and fertilization, then
+the balance between vegetation and fruitage can be
+kept up. It is a delicate business, like courting two
+girls at once, but it can be carried out successfully.</p>
+
+<p>7. The training of trees into mathematical forms
+is largely a mechanical process. For the most part
+the trees are shaped while they are growing. The
+young shoots are twisted and bent to the desired
+positions, and are tied into place until the stems become<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>
+hardened. There are many clever little tricks
+for expediting this sort of work and for making the
+results more sure, but a rehearsal of them here would
+be tedious. The most important rule to remember is
+that constant attention must be given the shoots while
+they are growing. Mistakes are corrected with difficulty
+after an undesirable form has been allowed to
+harden.</p>
+
+<div class="figborder2">
+
+<table summary="image">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlp"><div class="figcenter"><a id="i0051a" name="i0051a"></a>
+<img src="images/i0051a.jpg" alt="" />
+</div>
+</td>
+
+<td class="tdrp"><div class="figcenter"><a id="i0051b" name="i0051b"></a>
+<img src="images/i0051b.jpg" alt="" />
+</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlp">
+<p class="caption">FIG. 13&mdash;CORDON PEARS</p>
+<p class="ctext">Before pruning</p>
+</td>
+
+<td>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 14&mdash;CORDON PEARS</p>
+<p class="ctext">After pruning</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="V" id="V"></a>V</h2>
+
+<h3>SPECIAL FORMS FOR TRAINED TREES</h3>
+
+
+<p>We have already explained the connection between
+dwarf trees and the practise of training them in
+special forms. It is true that this practise looks childish
+to American eyes. It seems to be only a kind of
+play, and a rather juvenile sport at that. Nevertheless
+we should understand that in some parts of
+the world it is a real and profitable commercial undertaking.
+We should consider also that in other places,
+where fruit of very high quality is better appreciated,
+perhaps, than it is in America, the extra trouble is
+thought to be worth while for the superior quality
+which it gives the fruit. As this matter is coming to
+be of more importance in America also, and as the
+interest in amateur fruit growing is enormously increasing,
+we may fairly begin to talk about these
+methods.</p>
+
+<p>The formation of trees into bushes and pyramids,
+by means of systematic pruning according to a definite
+plan, as explained in the succeeding chapters,
+while apparently simpler and more reasonable to our
+American eyes, it is still a method of training the tree.
+The fruiting branches are placed at definite points
+and the fruit spurs are encouraged to grow in regular
+succession. It is not a very great step from this to
+a distribution of the branches into a more precise form.</p>
+
+<p>The different forms which are used most commonly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>
+are named and classified in the following outline:</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>A.</i>&mdash;<i>Forms of three dimensions</i>:</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 8em;"><i>a.</i> Vase or bush</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 8em;"><i>b.</i> Pyramid</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 8em;"><i>c.</i> Winged pyramid, etc.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>B.</i>&mdash;<i>Forms of two dimensions</i>:</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 8em;"><i>a.</i> Various espaliers</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 8em;"><i>b.</i> Palmette-Verrier</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 8em;"><i>c.</i> Fans or Fan-espaliers</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 8em;"><i>d.</i> U-form and double U-form</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>C.</i>&mdash;<i>Trained to a single stem</i>:</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 8em;"><i>a.</i> Upright cordon</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 8em;"><i>b.</i> Oblique cordon</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 8em;"><i>c.</i> Horizontal cordon</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 12.5em;">(with one arm)</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 12.5em;">(with two arms)</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 8em;"><i>d.</i> Serpentine cordon, etc.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Among the forms of three dimensions none is of
+much practical importance besides the pyramid and
+bush or vase form. These are sufficiently explained
+in the chapters on pears and apples. Here we need
+only to define them. The pyramid tree is one which
+has a straight central stem with branches radiating
+therefrom. It is especially adapted to upright growing
+varieties of pears. The bush or vase form has
+several main arms or branches, all standing out from
+approximately the same point and growing upward
+at a more or less acute angle, thus forming roughly
+a vase. The secondary branches put out from these,
+bearing fruiting wood, as the gardener may order.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0055" name="i0055"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0055.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 15&mdash;PEARS IN DOUBLE U-FORM</p>
+<p class="ctext">From Loebner's "Zwergobstbäume"</p>
+</div></div>
+
+
+<p>The flying pyramid or winged pyramid, described
+in all European books, is considerably different from
+the ordinary pyramid and is more precise in its design.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>
+Usually six arms are brought out at the base
+of the tree. These are grown in a direction approximately
+horizontal until they reach a convenient length,&mdash;say
+two to three feet. They are then suddenly bent
+upward and inward and are conducted along wires
+set for this purpose until they meet in a common point
+with the main stem of the tree some four to eight feet
+above where the branches put out. There is thus
+formed a precise mathematical pyramid. Along these
+main arms fruiting spurs are allowed to grow, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>
+no branches are expected to develop.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes the flying pyramid is made more elaborate
+by bending the arms into a spiral form. Other
+more or less complex modifications are practised to
+some extent. All of them are to be regarded merely
+as curiosities and as of no practical value.</p>
+
+<p>The various forms of espaliers and fan-shaped trees
+have their special and legitimate uses. It may be said
+here that the Palmette-Verrier is regarded generally
+as being the most successful for the largest number of
+varieties of fruits. It is a safe rule also that the
+simpler forms are generally the better. With rare
+exceptions a tree confined to a moderately small space
+is more satisfactory than one trained over a large space.</p>
+
+<p>Great care must be exercised in forming these trees.
+If the geometrical style of training is undertaken at
+all, it should be carried out with considerable precision.
+If one arm happens to be placed a little higher,
+or at a little more moderate angle, or otherwise more
+favorably than the corresponding arm, it will very
+soon divert to its own use the major portion of food
+supplied by the top. It will outgrow its mate and
+the form which the gardener designed will eventually
+be lost. It will be seen at once that this condition
+makes the same care and precision necessary in all
+forms of training.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0057" name="i0057"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0057.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 16&mdash;PEARS IN U-FORM</p>
+<p class="ctext">Sometimes called two-arm upright cordons</p>
+</div></div>
+
+
+<p>The U-form classifies somewhere between the cordon
+and the espalier. It consists of two upright
+branches joined to a single trunk below by an arc
+of a circle. The fruit is all borne on the two parallel
+stems which are treated essentially the same as upright<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>
+cordons. (Fig. 17.)</p>
+
+<p>The double U-form is made by growing two U's
+from the same tree. The stem is first divided near
+the ground into two branches and each of these is
+immediately divided into two more. The tree thus
+provides four parallel and equally spaced upright and
+fruiting stems equal to four upright cordons, except
+that they are all supported from a single trunk. The
+U- and double U-forms are employed mostly for
+plums, apricots, peaches and nectarines.</p>
+
+<p>One occasionally sees much more elaborate schemes
+of training than any here mentioned. There are complex
+geometrical designs, even pictorial figures&mdash;birds,
+dogs, and beer-steins&mdash;and sometimes the initials of
+the gardener, or the name of his kingly and imperial
+majesty. In every case the method of producing these
+forms is practically the same. A frame is built of
+wood or wire in the form which it is desired to give
+the tree. Branches are developed at suitable points
+on the tree and these are tied out while they are growing
+to the wooden or metal form. It does not require
+any special care or ingenuity to produce the most
+elaborate designs in this method. It is essentially a
+job of carpentry.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0059" name="i0059"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0059.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 17&mdash;APRICOTS IN U-FORM</p>
+
+</div></div>
+
+
+
+<p>We come now to the cordons. If we take the
+simplest form, namely the upright cordon, we have
+what we may call a tree of one dimension only. The
+upright cordon has nothing but height, eschewing both
+breadth and thickness. A cordon is simply a tree
+trained to a single stem and this stem may be placed
+in any position. The position or direction of the stem
+classifies the cordon. There are, therefore, besides<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>
+the upright cordon, others which are oblique, that is,
+which make an angle with the horizontal, those which
+are horizontal, and those which are bent into various
+forms. The serpent form is one of the simplest of
+these. This form of cordon is simply bent back and
+forth against a trellis forming a series of S's one above
+another. The horizontal cordons are of two varieties,
+namely one-arm and two-arm forms. It is altogether
+a matter of convenience which one of these forms is
+chosen.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0060" name="i0060"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0060.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 18&mdash;PEAR IN ESPALIER</p>
+<p class="ctext">This tree is carrying over 200 fruits</p>
+</div></div>
+
+
+<p>In conclusion it may be pointed out that the slower<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>
+growing trees, pears and apples, are the better suited
+to the more elaborate forms of training. The more
+free and rapid growing species, such as peaches, nectarines,
+cherries, and Japanese plums, are better managed
+in somewhat simpler forms, preferably the fan.
+Such trees do well, however, in the U-form or double
+U-form.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0061" name="i0061"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0061.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 19&mdash;OLD ESPALIER PEARS ON FARM HOUSE WALL</p>
+
+</div></div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="VI" id="VI"></a>VI</h2>
+
+<h3>GENERAL MANAGEMENT</h3>
+
+
+<p>The general management of dwarf trees is naturally
+very much like the management of ordinary standard
+trees. As dwarf trees are grown more often in
+gardens rather than in orchards they will receive
+garden treatment. Heavy tools and extensive methods
+of culture will hardly find application.</p>
+
+<p>Good soil culture may be regarded as essential.
+Whatever some American fruit growers may be saying
+about the propriety of growing apple orchards in
+sod, no one has yet undertaken to adapt the sod
+system into the kitchen garden. The close planting
+which is customary with dwarf trees makes culture
+comparatively difficult, yet not unreasonably so.
+Apple and pear trees planted six feet apart each way
+can be worked for several years with a single horse
+and cultivator. In fact if the trees are kept carefully
+headed in, the time need never come when the cultivator
+will have to be abandoned. When cordons or
+espaliers are planted in a garden large enough to
+warrant horse cultivation under ordinary circumstances
+then the rows of trained trees should be set six feet
+apart, which will be enough to permit the continued
+use of the horse and cultivator between the rows.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0064" name="i0064"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0064.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 20&mdash;HORIZONTAL CORDON APPLE AND OTHER DWARF TREES</p>
+<p class="ctext">With cover crop of hairy vetch</p>
+</div></div>
+
+
+<p>However, the horse cultivator is certain to be definitely
+crowded out of some dwarf fruit gardens.
+Many of the men who have greatest reason for growing
+dwarf fruit trees are those whose backyard gardens<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>
+were never large enough to justify the presence of a
+horse or horse tools. In such cases the spading fork
+and the hand cultivator are the ready and proper
+substitutes. Our extensive methods of farming in
+America have bred a strong prejudice against all sorts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>
+of hand labor like this, but experience will show that
+under some conditions it is quite worth while. A
+very common mistake in all kinds of agriculture is
+to allow prejudice to rule experience.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0065" name="i0065"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0065.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 21&mdash;DESIGN FOR A BACK YARD FRUIT GARDEN 50 FT. SQUARE</p>
+<p class="ctextl">North fence (top of map), peach espalier (4); Row 1, bush apple (7); Row
+2, pyramid pear (7); Row 3, currants and gooseberries (11); Row 4 and 5,
+horizontal cordon apples, with grass walk between; Row 6, raspberry
+bushes (7); Row 7, strawberries; Row 8, plums in bush form (7); Row 9,
+apples in horizontal cordons (4); East fence, apples as upright cordons (31);
+West fence, pears in espalier.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+
+<p>Garden culture means not only good tillage of the
+soil, but good treatment in other respects. It means
+good feeding and good spraying. As for spraying
+we need make only two observations. First, the
+treatment to be given is almost precisely the same
+as that which is given to standard trees of the same
+species; second, the work is much more easily performed
+because the trees are smaller. If one happens
+to have a considerable block of dwarf trees closely
+planted. There may be difficulty, it is true, in driving
+in with a spray pump. This difficulty is overcome by
+having long runs of hose on the spray pump, so that
+the cart may stand on the borders of the garden while
+the operator carries the nozzle in among the trees.
+In case of large plantings of dwarf trees alley-ways
+should be left every one hundred feet, or better, every
+eighty feet, between the blocks. These alleys will
+be useful for other purposes besides spraying.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0067" name="i0067"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0067.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 22&mdash;DWARF FRUIT GARDEN 111 BY 144 FEET</p>
+<p class="ctext">From Lucas' Handbuch des Obstbaues</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>In the management of a small garden the gardener
+is expected to be liberal in his allowance of fertilizers.
+While it is true that dwarf fruit trees should
+be liberally fed there is a possibility of overdoing
+it. It has already been explained that the dwarfing
+of the tree depends in a certain way on its well-regulated
+starvation. If the tree top could get all the
+food which its nature calls for it would not be dwarfed.
+The rule in feeding dwarf fruit trees therefore should
+be to give enough fertilizer to keep them in perfect<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>
+health and in good growing condition, but not enough
+to force unnecessary growth. Fertilizer rich in nitrogen
+should be especially avoided, and, as the object in
+view is to secure an early maturity of the tree and to
+produce fruit always in preference to wood, a larger
+proportion of potash would naturally be substituted
+for the diminished proportion of nitrogen. Of course
+the amounts and proportions of the different elements
+(nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid) to be applied
+will vary greatly with different conditions,&mdash;with the
+nature of the soil, the age of the trees, etc. As a sort
+of standard we may say that under normal conditions
+of good soil with dwarf apple and pear trees in bearing
+there should be given annually for each acre:</p>
+
+<p class="ind2">
+
+400 pounds ground bone<br />
+400 pounds muriate of potash<br />
+100 pounds Peruvian guano<br />
+
+</p>
+
+<p>Peaches and plums require more nitrogen during
+early growth, and more potash when in full bearing.
+For a new plantation of these trees the following
+amounts should be given annually for each acre:</p>
+
+<p class="ind2">
+300 pounds ground bone<br />
+400 pounds muriate of potash<br />
+150 pounds nitrate of soda<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>For peach and plum trees in bearing, the following
+formula may be suggested:</p>
+
+<p class="ind2">
+400 pounds ground bone<br />
+500 pounds muriate of potash<br />
+100 pounds Peruvian guano<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Inasmuch as many owners of dwarf fruit trees will
+have so much less than an acre for treatment it will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
+be best to repeat these formulas, reducing them to a
+smaller unit. Making this reduction somewhat freely,
+in order to avoid long and useless decimals, we may
+compute the quantity needed annually for each one
+hundred square feet of land as follows:</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+FOR APPLES AND PEARS IN BEARING</p>
+<p class="ind2">
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">1 pound ground bone</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">1 pound muriate of potash</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&frac14; pound Peruvian guano</span><br />
+</p>
+<p class="center">FOR PEACHES AND PLUMS NEWLY PLANTED</p>
+<p class="ind2">
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&frac34; pound ground bone</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">1 pound muriate of potash</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&#8540; pound nitrate of soda</span><br />
+</p>
+<p class="center">FOR PEACHES AND PLUMS IN BEARING</p>
+<p class="ind2">
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&frac14; pound Peruvian guano</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: .5em;">1&frac14; pound muriate of potash<br /></span>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">1 pound ground bone</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Cherries should be treated like plums; gooseberries,
+currants, and most other fruits, like apples.</p>
+
+<p>In the home of dwarf tree culture, that is, in Europe,
+trained trees are extensively grown upon walls. The
+gardeners utilize for this purpose not only the walls
+of stables and outbuildings, and of the enclosed gardens,
+but long ranges of brick are built for the special
+and exclusive purpose of accommodating fruit trees.
+In southern Germany, in Switzerland, in Belgium, in
+France, and especially in the neighborhood of Paris,
+there are hundreds of miles of these walls. The walls
+may run north and south or east and west. Both
+sides of the walls are used, even when one side faces
+the north. Currants and gooseberries are expected to
+thrive on north walls. West walls are considered especially<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
+favorable for pears and plums. The walls are
+nearly always built of brick. They should have a
+height of ten to fourteen feet. Each wall usually has
+a coping at the top with a projection of ten to eighteen
+inches, which sheds the rain, protecting both the wall
+and the fruit trees. Where extreme pains are spent
+on the culture of fancy table fruits there are curtains
+hung from rods along the outer edge of these copings,
+and the curtains are drawn to protect ripening fruit
+from too hot sunshine, or to protect the blossoms in
+the spring season from late frosts.</p>
+
+<p>Brick walls, with all their appurtenances, are less
+important in America than in Europe and the advantages
+to be expected from this particular method of
+culture are decidedly less. Walls would more probably
+be useful for peaches and nectarines in northern
+latitudes than for any other fruits.</p>
+
+<p>Cordons and espaliers require some sort of support,
+however, and where walls are not used trellises
+are necessary. These may be of wood or wire. There
+is a belief current that the wooden trellises are better
+because they reflect less heat, but wire is so much
+cheaper and more durable that it will usually be chosen.</p>
+
+<p>Five or six wires are needed to make a good trellis
+for upright cordons. These should be placed twelve
+to fourteen inches apart, with the lowest wire thirty
+inches from the ground. All wires should be tight,
+and to this end stout, well-set posts are necessary.
+The wires should be loosened in the autumn, before
+freezing weather begins, and should be tightened again
+in the spring.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0071" name="i0071"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0071.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 23&mdash;FRUIT GARDENING AND LANDSCAPE GARDENING COMBINED</p>
+<p class="ctext">From Lucas' Handbuch des Obstbaues</p>
+<p class="ctextl">The entire planting, exclusive of the borders, is made up of fruit trees
+and bushes. Dimensions, 752 × 1,362 feet.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+
+<p>For espaliers the woven wire fences are better. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
+fact, the woven wire fencing is excellent for all sorts
+of fruit trellises. Poultry netting makes a cheap and
+convenient trellis, but it is neither so strong nor so
+durable as the better grades of woven wire fencing.
+On the whole it is very poor economy to buy a cheap
+trellis or to put it up on poor posts.</p>
+
+<p>These trellises will need to be comparatively high.
+Nothing less than eight feet will be satisfactory, and
+for upright cordons a trellis ten to fifteen feet high
+will be much better. Of course, this entire height is
+not needed the first year, but upright cordon apples
+will cover a twelve foot trellis in five years. Peaches
+or Japanese plums will cover the same trellis in three
+years.</p>
+
+<p>In the selection of varieties for growing in a garden
+of dwarf fruit trees the horticulturist will naturally
+be guided by principles altogether different from
+those which control him in the selection of varieties
+for a commercial orchard. He must, of course, consider
+which varieties are best adapted to the special
+stocks on which they have to be propagated. He must
+also bear in mind that certain varieties are better
+adapted than others for the special forms in which
+he may wish to train his dwarf trees. Beyond all
+this lies the great consideration that in the very large
+majority of cases dwarf fruit trees are grown to secure
+fancy fruit, not to produce a large quantity for a
+general market. All varieties of inferior quality would
+therefore be eliminated from consideration at the beginning,
+no matter how productive they might be,
+nor how famous for other things.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0073" name="i0073"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0073.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 24&mdash;A FRUIT GARDEN CONTAINING MANY DWARF TREES</p>
+<p class="ctextl">A is the entrance; B, well or cistern; C, space to turn a horse and cart.</p>
+<p class="ctext">From P. Barry's "Fruit Garden"]</p>
+</div></div>
+
+
+<p>Varieties of specially good flavor would be given<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
+special thought, even though they might lack in hardiness
+or productivity. The special favorites of the
+man who owns the garden should be chosen, no
+matter whether they are popular or not. Then for
+similar reasons a comparatively long list of varieties
+will be chosen instead of the very short list always
+held to by the commercial grower. From first to last
+one should remember that the growing of dwarf fruit
+trees is essentially the enterprise of an amateur, not
+of a man who grows fruit for money.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="VII" id="VII"></a>VII</h2>
+
+<h3>DWARF APPLES</h3>
+
+
+<p>Dwarf apples are the most interesting and valuable
+of dwarf fruits. We have become so thoroughly accustomed
+to the standard apple tree in this country,
+however, and it so fully meets all the apparent requirements,
+that there seems to be no call for dwarf
+apples. Nevertheless dwarf trees have some real advantages
+under certain circumstances. Some of these
+have already been pointed out in the general discussion
+in previous chapters, and some of them will bear
+reiteration here. Where so much interest is taken
+in apple culture as in America, the advantage which
+dwarf trees offer for the rapid testing of new varieties
+cannot be overlooked. Still more important is the
+value of the dwarf trees in producing extra fancy
+specimens. Thus in growing very fine apples for exhibition
+or for a particularly fastidious market, one
+would naturally choose the dwarf trees.</p>
+
+<p>Inasmuch as dwarf trees are recommended chiefly
+to the amateur and are grown generally less for cash
+profit than for other considerations, the great and obvious
+advantages of standard trees quickly disappear.
+For men who like to play at fruit growing, nothing
+can equal a selection of apple trees on Paradise stocks.
+They are the most engaging of all dwarf trees, in fact
+of all fruit trees whatsoever.</p>
+
+<p>The general matter of selecting stocks has been
+referred to under the head of propagation, but the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
+statement should be repeated here that the French
+Paradise stock is preferable for very dwarf garden
+trees, and is almost necessary for cordons and espaliers,
+while the Doucin (sometimes called the English or
+broad-leaved Paradise) may be chosen where only
+a moderate amount of dwarfing is desired. Some of
+the most expert apple growers of North America are
+beginning to think that the Doucin may be required
+for the commercial orchards in the future, when spraying
+for the San José scale becomes an established
+routine and smaller trees are an accepted necessity.</p>
+
+<p>Dwarf apple trees may be cultivated in nearly all
+the artificial forms ever given to fruit trees. Undoubtedly
+the simplest is the bush or vase form. This
+requires less care and attention and probably gives
+as much fruit to the same area as any other. The
+pyramid form is somewhat difficult to produce. It
+can be secured successfully only with the varieties
+which have a tendency to grow strong, straight
+branches, as for instance Sutton, Gravenstein and
+Northern Spy. On the whole the pyramid is not to
+be recommended for dwarf apples.</p>
+
+<p>Apples succeed very well as upright cordons and
+in all the simpler modifications of this form. As these
+trees can be planted very close together&mdash;as close as
+fifteen inches certainly&mdash;thus occupying very little
+room, a large number of them can be planted in very
+limited areas of the city lot or backyard. They are
+especially adapted to stand on the property line where
+they seem to use no space whatever, and where in
+fact they do occupy space which otherwise would be
+lost. The upright cordon can be bent into the form of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
+an arch in order to make delightful arbors along the
+walks. The illustration, Fig. 2, shows a good example
+of this sort.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0077" name="i0077"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0077.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 25&mdash;DWARF APPLES ON PROF. L. H. BAILEY'S FARM, NEW YORK</p>
+
+</div></div>
+
+
+<p>Nearly all varieties of apples&mdash;indeed all as far
+as I know&mdash;succeed in this form. The trees are not
+very long-lived, however. That is they cannot be
+maintained in good presentable form and prolific bearing
+indefinitely, because it is difficult to reproduce
+the fruit spurs on the lower part of the stem. Nevertheless
+the trees are inexpensive and can be cheaply
+replaced. As they come into bearing the first or
+second year after planting, this task of replacing worn-out
+trees is a small one. Very fine specimens of fruit<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>
+can be produced on these upright cordons. Indeed this
+form is superior to the bush form in this respect.</p>
+
+<p>The apple is the best of all trees for horizontal cordons.
+In this form it becomes the most entertaining
+plaything in the garden, as well as one of the most
+rewarding trees in its product of fruit. Either the
+single arm or the double arm cordon can be used with
+success. These horizontal cordons are naturally used
+along the borders of walks, flower beds or plots devoted
+to vegetables. They may sometimes be used
+along foundations of buildings, where it is not desired
+to grow upright cordons or espaliers against the walls.
+The fruit produced by horizontal cordons is probably
+superior in size, color and finish to that produced on
+any other form of tree. In climates where the summer's
+heat and sunshine are apt to be meager, this
+advantage of the horizontal cordon will be comparatively
+greater. Conversely it will be less in places
+where sunshine and heat are very abundant during
+the summer. It is probably true that on the plains of
+Arizona and Texas the horizontal cordon will not be
+a brilliant success.</p>
+
+<p>Dwarf apples need practically the same care and
+cultivation, aside from pruning, as standard apples.
+The soil should be cultivated during the early part
+of the summer and allowed to rest during the latter
+part of the year. Cover crops may be sown during
+June or July, according to the custom practised in the
+usual orchard management; but the advantages of
+a cover crop in a small garden are less material than
+in a large commercial orchard.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0079" name="i0079"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0079.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 26&mdash;UPRIGHT CORDON APPLES</p>
+<p class="ctext">18 inches apart; in author's garden</p>
+</div></div>
+
+
+<p>The formation of the tree is discussed under another<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>
+head. It remains to be said only that careful and
+intelligent pruning are required to keep any dwarf
+apple tree to its work. The more complicated and
+the more restricted the form of the tree, the more
+careful and continuous must be this pruning. The
+general system may be outlined in comparatively few
+words, and may be explained in its simplest form as
+applied to the treatment of a horizontal cordon. Each
+horizontal cordon, perfectly formed and full grown,
+should have fruit spurs throughout its horizontal
+length, which may be from three to fifteen feet. The
+upright portion of the trunk, from the point where
+the graft is set to the angle made by the bending down
+of the stem, should be kept clean and bare. Constant
+care is required to remove the sprouts from this portion
+of the tree, especially such as come up from the
+stock. At the further end of the horizontal portion
+there should be one, two, or three strong shoots
+allowed to push forth each year. These may be
+called leaders. They represent the principal wood
+growth in each tree. They draw up the sap from the
+roots, their leaves elaborate this sap, and from them
+the digested material is sent back for the support of
+the tree and the ripening of the fruit. They are allowed
+to take an upright or nearly upright position
+and their growth is encouraged. On all other portions
+of the tree growth is sternly restricted, when
+not altogether repressed.</p>
+
+<p>There is a constant tendency for strong shoots to
+start into growth all along the horizontal part of the
+stem and especially near the bend. If any of these
+shoots are allowed to make headway, the form of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>
+the tree is spoiled. Even if they are cut out after a
+year's growth, thus retaining somewhat the form of
+the tree, the fruit spurs are thereby lost. It is the business
+of the fruit grower, therefore, to pinch back these
+shoots which start along the horizontal stem, and
+this pinching is done at a comparatively early stage
+of their growth. Usually the first pinching should be
+given when the stems have grown long enough so
+as to have seven or eight leaves. These shoots are then
+cut or pinched back to three leaves. If the tree is in
+good vigorous condition, these shoots will soon start
+into growth once more. Again they have to be
+pinched. This time the pinching comes a little earlier,
+taking the shoot when it reaches only about five
+leaves and the pinching is still more severe. The
+shoots may start into growth a third time or even a
+fourth time, but each time they are pinched back
+sooner and more severely than before. In most cases
+two or three pinchings will suffice. These constant
+repressions of growth tend to secure the formation
+of fruit spurs and fruit buds along the horizontal
+trunk of the tree.</p>
+
+<p>Some slight modifications of the plan here outlined
+will develop themselves in experience. In particular
+it will be found that different varieties require
+slightly different handling. Some form fruit spurs
+more readily than others. With certain varieties it
+is very difficult to repress the rampant habit of growth
+and to secure a proper formation of fruit buds. These
+differences, however, are of minor importance as
+compared with the general management of the tree.</p>
+
+<p>The system just outlined has in view the summer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>
+pruning of the horizontal cordon apple. The upright
+cordon is pruned in almost exactly the same manner.
+Various forms of espaliers are handled in much the
+same way. Strong shoots or leaders are allowed to
+grow at the ends of the main branches to keep up a
+proper circulation and elaboration of sap, while the
+growth of fruit spurs is encouraged along the sides
+of the stems by frequent and regular pruning.</p>
+
+<p>In a somewhat less precise manner the same system
+of pruning can be applied to bush and pyramid forms.
+Each bush, for instance, is made up of a certain
+number of fruiting branches. The fruit is borne on
+spurs on the sides of these branches, while the woody
+growth is made by the leaders appearing at the ends
+of these branches. These leaders are annually cut
+back and the constant formation of fruit spurs is
+encouraged by pinching whatever shoots are on the
+sides of the main stems.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen that the whole business of pruning
+falls into two general categories, viz., winter pruning
+and summer pruning. The winter or spring pruning
+is given any time after the stress of winter is over
+and before the sap starts running in the spring. This
+is the time when the ordinary fruit trees are customarily
+pruned. The work at this season consists chiefly
+in cutting back leaders. These are pruned off short,
+that is the whole stem is taken off down to within
+two or three buds of where it started growth the
+previous year. In some cases it is worth while to
+cut even further back, going into wood two or three
+years old. At this spring pruning the defective or
+diseased branches are of course removed wherever<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>
+they are found. Cases requiring such treatment always
+occur even on the best trained cordons and
+espaliers. Whenever it becomes necessary an entire
+branch, sometimes composing half the tree, is taken
+out. Usually such branches can be replaced without
+great loss of time.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0083" name="i0083"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0083.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 27&mdash;HORIZONTAL CORDON APPLE TREES</p>
+
+</div></div>
+
+
+
+<p>After this winter or spring pruning comes the
+summer pruning which has been outlined above. This
+usually begins May 15-25, and continues until July
+25-31, differing, of course, in different latitudes.</p>
+
+<p>Practically all varieties of apples can be grown as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>
+dwarfs, though some succeed on Paradise roots better
+than others. Some varieties also are better adapted
+for special forms, as for cordons, than are others.
+Such requirements are not very strict, and a careful
+gardener can grow practically anything he wants to.
+Patrick Barry, in his "Fruit Garden," recommends
+"twenty very large and beautiful sorts for dwarfs,"
+having in mind American conditions, and especially
+his own experience in Rochester, N. Y. His list is
+as follows:</p>
+
+<table summary="list">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlpad">Red Astrachan</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Porter</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlpad">Large Sweet Bough</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Menagere</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlpad">Primate</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Red Bietigheimer</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlpad">Beauty of Kent</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Bailey Sweet</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlpad">Alexander</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Canada Reinette</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlpad">Duchess of Oldenburg</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Northern Spy</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlpad">Fall Pippin</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Mother</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlpad">Williams' Favorite</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">King of Tompkins County</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlpad">Gravenstein</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Twenty Ounce</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlpad">Hawthornden</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Wagener</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdlpad">Maiden's Blush</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<p>In Europe, where greater attention has been paid
+to these matters, the opinion has settled down to a
+comparatively limited number. For example, Mr.
+George Bunyard in "The Fruit Garden" recommends
+the following varieties for cordons:</p>
+
+<table summary="list">
+
+
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Mr. Gladstone</td>
+<td class="tdr">Aug.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Mother</td>
+<td class="tdr">Oct.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Devonshire Quarrenden</td>
+<td class="tdr">Aug.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Calville Rouge Precoce</td>
+<td class="tdr">Oct.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">James Grieve </td>
+<td class="tdr">Sept.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Cox's Orange Pippin</td>
+<td class="tdr">Oct., Feb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Wealthy</td>
+<td class="tdr">Oct.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">St. Edmund's Pippin</td>
+<td class="tdr">Nov.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Margil </td>
+<td class="tdr">Oct.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Ross Nonpareil</td>
+<td class="tdr">Nov.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">King of Pippins</td>
+<td class="tdr">Oct.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Fearn's Pippin.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span></td>
+<td class="tdr">Very late</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Duchess of Oldenburg </td>
+<td class="tdr">Aug.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Lord Derby </td>
+<td class="tdr">Nov.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Pott's Seedling </td>
+<td class="tdr">Sept.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Bismarck</td>
+<td class="tdr">Dec.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Lord Grosvenor</td>
+<td class="tdr">Sept.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Lane's Prince Albert</td>
+<td class="tdr">Jan., March</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Adams' Pearmain</td>
+<td class="tdr">Dec.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Lord Suffield</td>
+<td class="tdr">Sept.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Hubbard's Pearmain</td>
+<td class="tdr">Dec.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Grenadier </td>
+<td class="tdr">Sept., Oct.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Allington Pippin</td>
+<td class="tdr">Nov., Feb.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Golden Spire</td>
+<td class="tdr">Sept., Oct.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Scarlet Nonpareil </td>
+<td class="tdr">Jan., Feb.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Seaton House </td>
+<td class="tdr">Sept., Oct.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Norman's Pippin</td>
+<td class="tdr">Jan.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Sandringham </td>
+<td class="tdr">Feb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Lord Burghley </td>
+<td class="tdr">Feb.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Alfriston </td>
+<td class="tdr">Feb., March</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Duke of Devonshire </td>
+<td class="tdr">Feb.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Calville Malingre </td>
+<td class="tdr">Feb. to Mch.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Rosemary Russet</td>
+<td class="tdr">Feb.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Calville Rouge</td>
+<td class="tdr">Feb. to Mch.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Sturmer Pippin</td>
+<td class="tdr">Very late</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Allen's Everlasting </td>
+<td class="tdr">Very late</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+
+<p>The same authority recommends the following
+varieties to be grown on Paradise stocks as bushes:</p>
+
+<table summary="list">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Beauty of Bath </td>
+<td class="tdr">July, Aug.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Golden Spire</td>
+<td class="tdr">Sept., Oct.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Red Quarrenden</td>
+<td class="tdr">July, Aug.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Cox's Orange Pippin</td>
+<td class="tdr">Nov., Feb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Lady Sudeley</td>
+<td class="tdr">Sept.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Beauty of Barnack</td>
+<td class="tdr">Nov.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Worcester Pearmain</td>
+<td class="tdr">Sept., Oct.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Allington Pippin</td>
+<td class="tdr">Dec., Feb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Yellow Angestrie</td>
+<td class="tdr">Sept.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Gascoigne's Scarlet</td>
+<td class="tdr">Dec.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Duchess' Favorite</td>
+<td class="tdr">Sept. to Oct.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Christmas Pearmain</td>
+<td class="tdr">Dec.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">King of the Pippins</td>
+<td class="tdr">Oct.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Winter Quarrenden</td>
+<td class="tdr">Dec.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Early White Transparent</td>
+<td class="tdr">J'ly.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Baumann's Reinette</td>
+<td class="tdr">Jan.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Lord Suffield </td>
+<td class="tdr">Aug., Sept.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Lord Derby</td>
+<td class="tdr">Oct., Nov.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Pott's Seedling</td>
+<td class="tdr">Aug., Sept.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Stone's Apple </td>
+<td class="tdr">Oct., Nov.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Lord Grosvenor</td>
+<td class="tdr">Aug., Sept.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Tower of Glamis</td>
+<td class="tdr">Oct., Nov.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Early Julien</td>
+<td class="tdr">Aug., Sept.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Warner's King</td>
+<td class="tdr">Oct., Nov.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Ecklinville Seedling</td>
+<td class="tdr">Sept., Oct.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Bismarck</td>
+<td class="tdr">Oct., Nov.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Grenadier</td>
+<td class="tdr">Sept., Oct.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Lane's Prince Albert</td>
+<td class="tdr">Dec., Mch.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Stirling Castle</td>
+<td class="tdr">Sept., Oct.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Bramley's Seedling</td>
+<td class="tdr">Dec., Mch.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Newton Wonder</td>
+<td class="tdr">Dec., Mch.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>Max Loebener in his book on dwarf fruits recommends<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
+the following varieties for dwarf apples:</p>
+
+<table summary="list">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Red Astrachan </td>
+<td class="tdr">July, Aug.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Belle de Boskoop</td>
+<td class="tdr">Nov., May</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Yellow Transparent</td>
+<td class="tdr">Aug., Sept.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Virginia Rose </td>
+<td class="tdr">Aug.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Charlamowsky</td>
+<td class="tdr">Aug., Sept.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Red Peach Summer Apple</td>
+<td class="tdr">Aug., Sept.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Transparent de Croncels </td>
+<td class="tdr">Sept., Oct.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Lord Suffield </td>
+<td class="tdr">Aug., Oct.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Prince Apple</td>
+<td class="tdr">Sept., Jan.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Cellini </td>
+<td class="tdr">Sept., Nov.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Danzig</td>
+<td class="tdr">Oct., Dec.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Alexander </td>
+<td class="tdr">Oct., Dec.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Dean's Codlin</td>
+<td class="tdr">Oct. to Feb.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Gravenstein<br />
+<span style="margin-left: .5em;"><i>For moist soils, bears late</i></span> </td>
+<td class="tdr">Oct. to Jan.</td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Landbury Reinette</td>
+<td class="tdr">Nov., Feb.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Yellow Richard  </td>
+<td class="tdr">Nov., Dec.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Cox's Orange<br />
+<span style="margin-left: .5em;"><i>Requires good soil</i></span></td>
+<td class="tdr">Nov. to Mch.</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Bismarck </td>
+<td class="tdr">Nov., Feb.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Winter Gold Pearmain</td>
+<td class="tdr">Nov., March</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Yellow Bellflower<br />
+<span style="margin-left: .5em;"><i>Requires good position</i></span></td>
+<td class="tdr">Nov. to April</td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Ribston Pippin<br />
+<span style="margin-left: .5em;"><i>Good warm soil</i></span></td>
+<td class="tdr">Nov., April</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Baumann's Reinette </td>
+<td class="tdr">Dec., May</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Canada Reinette<br />
+<span style="margin-left: .5em;"><i>Hardy</i></span></td>
+<td class="tdr">Nov., April</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<p>Inasmuch as the advantages of the dwarf trees
+apply especially to the growing of fine fruit, only the
+better varieties should generally be propagated in this
+way. On this basis, therefore, rather than on the
+basis of adaptation learned from experience, the following
+varieties may be suggested among the well
+known American sorts for growing in dwarf form:</p>
+
+<table summary="list">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Baldwin</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Yellow Transparent</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Esopus</td>
+ <td class="tdlpad">McIntosh</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Mother</td>
+ <td class="tdlpad">Red Astrachan</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Williams' Favorite</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Alexander</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Sutton  </td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Wolf River</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">King</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Ribston Pippin</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Northern Spy</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Wealthy</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Grimes </td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Wagener</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Winesap </td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+
+<p>Of course, one propagating dwarf apples would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>
+always select his own favorites. It should be noticed
+that in the list given above are some varieties which
+are notable for beauty of appearance rather than
+for superior quality. They are recommended on the
+former consideration. Certain varieties in the list,
+for instance Alexander, are known to succeed especially
+well as dwarfs.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="VIII" id="VIII"></a>VIII</h2>
+
+<h3>DWARF PEARS</h3>
+
+
+<p>Pears are the fruit most largely grown in dwarf
+form in America. There are a few well established
+and successful commercial orchards of pears, especially
+in western New York and Michigan. The pear is
+the fruit most assiduously cultivated in dwarf and
+trained forms in Europe. At the same time it is the
+one with which I confess I have had the least satisfaction.
+This is perhaps because I have always experimented
+in a country where pears do not naturally<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
+succeed, and because, further, my fancies have run
+more to other kinds of fruit.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0088" name="i0088"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0088.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 28&mdash;YOUNG ORCHARD OF DWARF PEARS IN WESTERN
+NEW YORK</p>
+
+</div></div>
+
+
+<p>It is probably true that the pear is improved more
+in quality than any other fruit by being grown in
+dwarf form and trained as cordons and espaliers on
+a suitable frame or wall. This is emphatically true in
+cold and inclement climates, where indeed some of
+the best varieties of pears will not succeed at all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>
+unless given this advantage. A west wall is recommended
+as giving the very finest results. It should
+be noted, however, that some varieties do better on
+walls than others. Those which grow vigorously in
+bush, pyramid, or standard forms receive comparatively
+less benefit from wall training.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0089" name="i0089"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0089.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 29&mdash;DWARF PEARS IN THE OLD AND PROFITABLE YEOMANS
+ORCHARD, NEW YORK</p>
+
+</div></div>
+
+
+<p>The pear is the best of all trees for training in
+pyramid form. Sometimes very tall slim pyramids
+are made, becoming almost pillars of foliage and fruit
+in their old age. These may be in fact upright cordons
+which are trained with strong stems and allowed
+to support themselves without a trellis. Some of the
+less upright growing varieties are difficult to form
+into pyramids, and such may be pruned in the ordinary
+bush or vase form. In growing dwarf pears
+commercially, as is sometimes done, it is probably
+best to give most varieties the bush form. The pyramid
+is rather harder to maintain.</p>
+
+<p>The pear succeeds well as a cordon tree. Perhaps
+the best form is the oblique cordon, one placed at
+an angle of about forty-five degrees with the horizon.
+The upright and horizontal cordons may also be used,
+though neither of these forms is specially well adapted
+to pears.</p>
+
+<p>All of the better types of espaliers are suited to
+pear trees. Probably the Palmette-Verrier is the
+best, although the old fashioned espaliers are often
+used. The U-form and the double U-form also succeed
+if well built.</p>
+
+<p>The pruning of the pear tree is substantially the
+same as that of the apple. Where pear blight is a
+factor in the problem, due allowance must be made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>
+for it. It sometimes happens that entire branches or
+arms have to be cut away on account of blighting.
+The system of pruning therefore should furnish a
+means of renewing such members promptly when
+necessity requires.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0091" name="i0091"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0091.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 30&mdash;ORCHARD OF DWARF DUCHESS PEARS, LOCKPORT, N. Y.</p>
+
+</div></div>
+
+
+<p>The quince root prefers a fairly heavy and even
+moist soil. A heavy clay loam is best, although a
+strong clay will answer. Light sandy soils or loose<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>
+gravelly soils will not give such good results. On the
+other hand any clay soil which holds water to a
+considerable extent will answer. As these are the
+requirements for quince roots, they become also the
+requirements for dwarf pears. Any attempt to grow
+dwarf pears on a light loose soil is almost certain
+to prove a failure.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0092" name="i0092"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0092.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 31&mdash;PYRAMID PEARS IN A GERMAN ORCHARD</p>
+
+</div></div>
+
+
+<p>It is often said that dwarf pears should be planted
+deep in the ground when they are set out. The rule
+is to put them deep enough so that the bud union
+will be buried beneath the surface of the soil. With
+such treatment the pear itself often throws out roots
+and eventually establishes a feeding system of its
+own, becoming independent of the quince stock. It
+is then no longer a dwarf tree except by the authority<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>
+of the pruning knife. It is probably true that many
+varieties of dwarf pears are longer lived when treated
+in this way. In planting, therefore, it becomes a
+question whether one desires chiefly a long-lived tree
+or a strictly dwarf one. The ease with which dwarf
+trees are replaced makes longevity a less important
+factor than in commercial orchards of standard trees.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, it is understood that if the dwarfest
+form is to be maintained, the tree must be planted high
+enough to leave the union out of the ground, thus preventing
+the pear from throwing out roots of its own.</p>
+
+<p>The varieties principally grown in this country as
+dwarfs are Angouleme, Bartlett, Anjou, and Louise
+Bonne.</p>
+
+<p>In European nurseries the list of pears propagated
+on quince roots is much larger. The following varieties
+are recommended for England by Mr. Owen Thomas,
+and are said to be particularly good for training on
+walls:</p>
+
+<table summary="list">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Buerré Giffard</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">La France</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Clapp's Favorite</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Buerré d'Anjou</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Jargonelle</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Buerré de Jonghe</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Williams' (Bartlett)</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Doyenne d'Alençon</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Buerré d'Amanlis</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Glou Morceau</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Fondante d'Automne</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Marie Benoist</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Triomphe de Vienne</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Winter Nelis</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Buerré Bosc</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Buerré Diel</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Buerré Hardy</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Nouvelle Fulvie</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Buerré Brown</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Buerré Sterckmans</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Comte de Lamy</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Easter Buerré</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Louise Bonne de Jersey</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Le Lectier</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Pitmaston Duchess</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Olivier de Serres</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Seckel</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Passe Crassane<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Conference</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Ne Plus Meuris</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Doyenne du Comice </td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Bergamotte Esperen</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Marie Louise</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Buerré Rance</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Thompson's</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Josephine de Malines</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Duchesse d'Angouleme</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="IX" id="IX"></a>IX</h2>
+
+<h3>DWARF PEACHES</h3>
+
+
+<p>The peach as a dwarf tree is almost unknown in
+America. It is not very often grown as a dwarf
+even in Europe, except when it is trained on walls or
+grown in houses. The species, however, is easily
+dwarfed and makes a good tree in various forms when
+well propagated. The methods by which dwarf
+peaches are propagated are fully described in the
+chapter devoted to that subject.</p>
+
+<p>Peach trees growing on plum stocks and formed
+in vases or bushes make excellent garden trees. Naturally
+they should be headed low, best within three
+to six inches of the ground. They then make fine,
+regular, well balanced tops which are easily kept
+opened out in the desired vase form. Such trees
+usually come into bearing one or two years earlier
+than those propagated and trained in the usual way.
+In a country like New England where peach growing
+is largely a system of gambling against cold weather,
+and where the business largely resolves itself into a
+race for getting a crop before the trees freeze back,
+the smaller stature and the earlier bearing of the
+dwarf tree are obvious advantages. It has not yet
+been shown that this may be turned to account on
+a commercial scale, but there seem to be possibilities
+in it. In case the peach grower undertakes the method
+of laying down his peach trees and covering them
+during the winter to save them from freezing, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
+smaller growth of the dwarf trees would prove a
+decided advantage. This method of handling peach
+trees has proved a practical success under certain
+conditions.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0096" name="i0096"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0096.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 32&mdash;DWARF PEACH IN NURSERY</p>
+<p class="ctext">Headed back and formed into bushes</p>
+</div></div>
+
+
+<p>The peach does not succeed as a cordon. The
+nearest that this form can be successfully approached
+is the U-form. The double U-form is probably even
+better. The fan form of training is the best of all
+methods of training for the peach. The tree makes
+wood so rapidly that considerable space has to be
+provided for the annual growth. The fan form being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>
+less definite in its makeup can be more readily adapted
+to the exigencies of rapid growth and severe cutting
+out.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0097" name="i0097"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0097.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 33&mdash;ESPALIER PEACH, HARTFORD, CONN.</p>
+
+</div></div>
+
+
+<p>On account of its more vigorous growth the peach
+demands even more drastic pruning than that already
+described for apples and pears. The method of managing
+a peach tree, however, differs in some details.
+There is not such a distinct establishment of leaders
+at the end of the shoot; and since the peach never
+forms fruit spurs like those of the apple, the pruning
+of the fruit-bearing wood is necessarily different. The
+best fruit buds are formed on the strong clean shoots<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>
+of the current season's growth. These must be allowed
+to grow far enough and vigorously enough to ripen
+good fruit buds. If they make too much growth,
+however, the side buds start secondary branches and
+the fruiting prospects are reduced. The management
+of the tree must be such as to keep this growth of
+new wood in just the proper balance.</p>
+
+<p>In order to carry out the idea thus outlined, an
+early spring pruning is given while the trees are
+dormant, and several successive prunings are administered
+during the growing season. At the spring
+pruning a considerable amount of wood is cut out
+from all portions of the tree, the amount thus removed
+being much greater than that from the pear or apple
+trees at the same season. The old decrepit and
+diseased branches are taken first for removal, and then
+one year old wood is cut back where necessary, so
+as to leave two or three buds at the base of each
+branch.</p>
+
+<p>The first summer pruning is given about May 15th
+to 20th, after the growth has well begun. A vigorous
+tree will start more shoots than there is room for,
+and these are thinned out until all have sufficient
+space. A few of the most vigorous ones are pinched
+back at this time. One week to ten days later the
+trees are gone over again, at which time the principal
+pinching back is done. The shoots which are making
+too much growth, especially on the interior of the tree
+or on the main arms, are stopped. A third pruning
+is given about June first, and consists chiefly in removing
+weak shoots or those which are crowding one
+another, and cutting back those which are growing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>
+too far.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0099" name="i0099"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0099.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 34&mdash;PEACH IN FAN ESPALIER ON WALL, ENGLAND</p>
+
+</div></div>
+
+
+<p>The peach usually requires a comparatively light
+soil and a warm exposure. The plum root upon which
+a dwarf peach is budded will usually succeed in a
+considerably heavier soil, and the method of budding
+on plum is therefore sometimes practised with the
+specific object of adapting the peach tree to heavier
+soils. Inasmuch as various kinds of plums succeed
+in all soils on which any crop can be grown, from
+light sand to heavy clay, it is not difficult to meet
+any reasonable requirements in this respect.</p>
+
+<p>All varieties of peaches and nectarines seem to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
+succeed equally well as dwarfs. Those varieties which
+are grown as dwarfs in Europe are naturally the ones
+which are favorites there. In this country the favorite
+varieties are almost altogether different and we would
+expect to choose such sorts as Late Crawford, Foster,
+Old Mixon, Belle of Georgia, Champion, Waddell,
+and other choice American varieties for our use.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0100" name="i0100"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0100.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 35&mdash;PEACH TREES TRAINED UNDER GLASS</p>
+
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The nectarine is in large favor in Europe and is
+much more extensively grown than in America. The
+merits of this fruit seem to have been strangely overlooked
+in this country. When nectarines are properly
+grown under glass, they are one of the most delicious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>
+and beautiful fruits known in this world of limitations
+and disappointments. The nectarine is a fruit which
+will in general bear more extensive cultivation in
+America and which is to be especially recommended
+for dwarf fruit gardens. This is not to say that it
+should supersede the peach, or even that it should
+take equal prominence, but simply that it should be
+well represented in every selection of fruits for an
+amateur's collection.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="X" id="X"></a>X</h2>
+
+<h3>DWARF PLUMS</h3>
+
+
+<p>Most amateur and professional fruit growers are
+less interested in plums than in other tree fruits. Perhaps
+I am prejudiced, but I feel that this is not fair
+to the plum. Plums yield some profit when rightly
+cultivated commercially, and no end of satisfaction
+when cultivated for the gardener's own entertainment.
+The large assortment of varieties which one may
+secure is in itself a claim to interest, and a source
+of much delight to the collector. The fact that
+different types of plums furnish fruit of very diverse
+characters makes the collection more valuable
+from every standpoint. So far as the writer knows
+dwarf plums have seldom been grown to any extent
+in America. They certainly have no present claim
+based on experience for recognition in commercial
+orchards. Nevertheless they have possibilities even
+for the growing of market fruit, and for cultivation in
+the garden, dwarf trees are altogether worth while.</p>
+
+<p>In the chapter on propagation, reference has been
+made to the stocks used for plums and that subject
+need not be discussed here.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0103" name="i0103"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0103.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 36&mdash;PLUM TREES TRAINED AS UPRIGHT CORDONS</p>
+
+</div></div>
+
+
+<p>When plum trees have been secured budded on
+suitable dwarfing stocks, as, for example, Americana
+or sand cherry, they may be trained in a variety of
+ways. Probably the ordinary bush form is the best.
+Most varieties of plums do not form either a satisfactory
+pyramid or a strictly vase form. Some of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>
+better growing Japanese varieties of plums approach
+the latter form fairly well. Red June, Satsuma, and
+Chabot may be mentioned as particular examples.
+With such varieties a true vase form can be maintained
+as well as with peaches. In dealing with a
+majority of varieties, however, a simple bush-like head
+without a mathematically constructed frame work is
+about the best that can be secured. In most cases the
+head should be formed low, preferably not more than
+six inches from the ground. Still considerable latitude
+has to be allowed the gardener's fancy in dealing
+with dwarf trees, and the writer can easily imagine
+a garden design which would require trees to be
+high headed. It would be practicable and excusable
+in some cases to form heads four, five, or even six
+feet from the ground. This is often done in England
+and Germany with all sorts of fruit trees, this form
+being referred to as a "standard."</p>
+
+<p>A head can be secured at almost any point on a
+plum tree of good growth, by heading back at the
+desired height. Four to six branches should be allowed
+to grow the first year and in course of time these will
+be increased to eight, twelve, or even more. That is,
+there will be this number of what we might call main
+branches because they are all of approximately equal
+importance.</p>
+
+<p>At the end of the first year after the tree has been
+headed back the main branches, which have now
+formed, are to be cut back in turn. With all strong-growing
+varieties it is best to remove from one-half
+to two-thirds of the annual growth from these main
+branches, if the tree is to be restricted to a comparatively<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>
+narrow spread. A considerable number of
+strong shoots will put forth the next year. These
+should be thinned out as soon as they start to a number
+approximately twice that of the main arms. These
+new branches should be distributed as symmetrically
+as possible. The tree top is now formed and subsequent
+pruning consists essentially of a severe heading
+in during the latter part of the dormant season,
+that is, about March, followed by two, three, or four
+summer prunings somewhat after the manner described
+for the peach. At the time of these summer prunings
+the young growing shoots should be thinned out
+enough to prevent any choking of the tree top and
+should be headed in wherever it is necessary to retain
+the symmetrical growth.</p>
+
+<p>The manner of forming the fruit buds or spurs is
+so diverse in the different kinds of plums that no
+general rule can be given for encouraging them. Close
+observation of each variety will soon enable the gardener
+to direct his pruning in such a way as to assist
+in this important process of fruit bud formation. In
+a rough general way it may be said that the Domestica
+and Americana varieties of plums form distinct
+fruit spurs along the sides of one and two year old
+branches, and that, for the encouragement of these,
+considerable light should be admitted and the growth
+of the interior shoots rather rigidly checked. The
+Japanese and Hortulana varieties on the other hand
+fruit best from very short spurs or clusters of buds
+which form along from the strong one and two year
+old branches. The main object, therefore, with these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>
+latter varieties is to maintain a succession of clean,
+sound, well matured shoots. This is done by a moderate
+thinning of the main shoots early in the year,
+resulting in the forcing of those which are left. These
+strong growing shoots are checked late in the summer
+in order that they may ripen up thoroughly, but the
+pinching which is done to this end is delayed long
+enough so that the pinched shoots will not start into
+growth again. Moreover, this pinching is done well
+out to the ends of the shoots.</p>
+
+<p>Certain varieties of plums succeed fairly well as
+vertical cordons. The varieties least adapted to this
+purpose are the Hortulana offspring and their hybrids
+and a few of the rank-growing Japanese, like Hale and
+October Purple. In the dwarf tree garden at the
+Massachusetts Agricultural College the writer has a
+row of plum trees containing a large assortment of
+varieties and species. These trees were picked out
+at random from various sources and very few of them
+were propagated on dwarfing stocks. On this account
+the trees were set two feet apart, which is more
+than is usually recommended for upright cordons.
+They have now been growing three years, and they
+furnish much interesting testimony regarding the
+feasibility of growing plums in this form. Contrary
+to expectation such varieties as Red June, Abundance,
+and Burbank have done well under this treatment.
+These varieties all fruited the next year after planting.
+Some varieties of the Domestica group are bearing
+the third year after planting, which is unusually early.
+All of them seem to be fairly well adapted to this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>
+method of treatment. Varieties like Wildgoose and
+Wayland, and such hybrids as Gonzales, Waugh and
+Red May, can hardly be controlled in the restricted
+space allowed them in a row of vertical cordons.
+They give very little promise of success. It is probable
+that all these varieties would make a better
+showing if they were propagated on some such stock
+as sand cherry.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0107" name="i0107"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0107.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 37&mdash;BURBANK PLUMS ON UPRIGHT CORDONS TRAINED TO
+TRELLIS</p>
+
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Plums are seldom&mdash;almost never&mdash;propagated as
+horizontal cordons. I have never yet undertaken it
+myself, but propose to do so at the first opportunity
+and with some expectation of moderate success with
+certain varieties. The slow growing sorts like Green
+Gage, Italian Prune, and Agen seem to offer special
+promise.</p>
+
+<p>In the form of espaliers plums are often trained
+against walls. Indeed this is the favorite way of
+producing fancy plums in England, and the same
+practise prevails to a considerable extent on the continent
+of Europe. In this country walls are not required,
+and in most cases would be of no advantage.
+Where it is desired to cover back fences or sides of
+buildings, however, plum trees in espalier form can
+be confidently recommended. The Domestica varieties
+of highest quality such as Bavay, Jefferson, Victoria,
+Pond, Bradshaw, and Coe's Golden Drop would
+have first choice. The Japanese varieties can also
+be grown on trellises or walls, but the freer forms,
+such as the fan espalier used for the peach, are better
+suited to their habits of growth.</p>
+
+<p>The following varieties of plums can be recommended<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>
+for dwarf bush forms:</p>
+
+<table summary="list">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Green Gage</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Bavay
+(Reine Claude)</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Jefferson</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">McLaughlin</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Bradshaw</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Pond</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Agen  </td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Bleeker</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Grand Duke</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Italian Prune</td>
+</tr>
+
+
+
+<tr>
+<td>Cluster Damson<br />
+<span style="margin-left: .5em;">(or other Damsons)</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+
+
+
+</table>
+
+<p>Such varieties of the Japanese class as Abundance,
+Chabot, Red June, Satsuma, Burbank may be grown
+on dwarf stocks in bush forms, but they are not altogether
+satisfactory. There are two objections
+against them: (1) It is difficult to keep them in restricted
+bounds, such a result being dependent on constant
+and severe heading in. (2) They overgrow the
+dwarf stocks very strongly and thus do not have a
+very firm hold on the ground. They are apt to blow
+over or break off after a few years, unless carefully
+staked up.</p>
+
+<p>The following varieties can be recommended for
+upright cordons, in which form they will give moderate
+success if properly managed:</p>
+
+<table summary="list">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Coe's Golden Drop</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Bradshaw</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Agen</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Bavay</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Victoria</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Lombard</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Grand Duke</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Chabot</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Abundance</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Cheney</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl" style="padding-bottom: 1em;">Burbank</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Aubert<br />
+<span style="margin-left: .5em;">(Yellow Egg or Magnum Bonum)</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>Also most of the clean-growing Americana varieties
+such as Smith, Terry, Stoddard, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Owen Thomas recommends for growing on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
+walls in England the following varieties:</p>
+
+<table summary="list">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Green Gage</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Brahy's Green Gage</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Brandy Gage</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Bryanstone Gage</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Denniston's Superb Gage</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Oullin's Golden Gage</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Comte d'Athem's Gage</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Golden Transparent Gage</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Transparent Gage</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Reine Claude de Bavay</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Transparent Late Gage</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Coe's Golden Drop</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Jefferson</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Kirke's Blue</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Reine Claude Violette</td>
+<td class="tdlpad">Washington</td>
+</tr>
+
+
+</table>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="XI" id="XI"></a>XI</h2>
+
+<h3>BUSH FRUITS</h3>
+
+
+<p>The bush fruits, so far as I know, are never cultivated
+as dwarfs. To speak more exactly I should
+say that no dwarf stock is ever used to reduce the
+size to which the plants grow. On the other hand, bush
+fruits are often systematically pruned back in order
+to restrict their size, and are sometimes trained in
+elaborate forms as dwarf fruit trees are. To this
+extent they are managed in the same way and might
+properly be treated in the same general category.
+What is more to our purpose, they are almost always
+included in the plan of any private fruit garden on
+a restricted area, such as we have had chiefly in view
+in this discussion of dwarf fruit trees. These reasons
+make it appropriate, if not indeed essential, that
+something should be said regarding these fruits here.</p>
+
+<p>All bush fruits can be grown in such forms as cordons,
+espaliers, etc. Anything of this sort which the
+gardener wishes can become a part of his garden of
+little trees. Gooseberries and currants offer the most
+entertainment and remuneration when subjected to
+special pruning and training, and indeed they should
+not be omitted from any garden scheme of this kind.
+Raspberries are less amenable to this kind of education
+and should be introduced with some care. Blackberries
+are necessarily difficult to handle and no
+very complicated schemes of pruning and training
+can be successfully applied to them. Such other fruits<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>
+as Loganberries, strawberry-raspberries, June berries,
+etc., may be introduced "at the owner's risk." Any
+of them will submit to a certain amount of correction
+with the pruning knife, and may add to the variety
+of fruits grown in the amateur's garden. Of course,
+it is distinctly understood that these special methods
+of treatment are not commercially recommended for
+any of the bush fruits in America.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0112" name="i0112"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0112.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 38&mdash;CURRANTS AS FAN ESPALIERS ON TRELLIS, HARTFORD, CONN.</p>
+
+</div></div>
+
+
+<p>Probably the most interesting and practical way
+for handling gooseberries and currants in dwarf fruit
+gardens is the form known as standards. This form
+consists of a small round fruiting top of almost any
+desired variety grafted high upon a straight clean
+trunk or stem. This stem may have any convenient
+height from two to ten feet, the most common and
+practical height being about four feet. The stock
+used is the flowering currant, <i>Ribes aureum</i>, which
+forms a sufficiently strong and upright growth for
+this purpose. Nevertheless it is almost always necessary
+to support these standards with a convenient stake
+apiece. For the present these standard gooseberries
+and currants can be obtained only of the European
+nurserymen. At least the writer knows of no one
+who propagates them in America. There are several
+importers, however, who make a business of supplying
+European stock and who are always glad to import
+these on order.</p>
+
+<p>The finer varieties are especially chosen for growing
+as standards. This applies particularly to gooseberries,
+which are more widely grown and which are
+more highly prized in Europe than in this country.
+The varieties grown in Europe are usually finer table<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>
+fruits than the American varieties. It is generally understood
+that the finest fruits for eating fresh out of
+hand are secured from the standard gooseberries.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0114" name="i0114"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0114.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 39&mdash;GOOSEBERRY FAN ESPALIER</p>
+<p class="ctext">Variety Industry, trained on wire trellis</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Gooseberries and currants are also adapted easily
+to the espalier form. The most elaborate palmettes
+and other geometrical designs can be worked out.
+Nevertheless the simplest and most practical form for
+trained gooseberries and currants is the fan shape. If
+a suitable trellis is provided, the vines may be easily
+tied out upon it in very attractive fan forms and these
+are found to be quite satisfactory, both as regards
+their looks and their product of fruit. They are also
+easily sprayed, which is a consideration worth mentioning
+when one has to fight the currant worm. In general,
+it is best in our latitude to run these espaliers
+north and south, because they receive too much sun
+when the trellis runs east and west. This rule, however,
+is not absolute.</p>
+
+<p>Probably the most convenient and practical way for
+growing these fruits in the dwarf tree garden is to
+plant standards at regular intervals in a row, say
+six feet apart, and to plant a certain number of fan
+shaped bushes between each pair of standards in the
+row. If these standards were six feet apart, two
+plants for fan training would be enough between each
+pair. The top of the trellis on which the fan forms
+are tied, would not be above four feet high, better
+only three. The heads of the standards then rise well
+above the top of the trellis. This furnishes some support
+for the stem of the standard and economizes
+space. Economy of space is one of the first principles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>
+of this style of gardening.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0116" name="i0116"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0116.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 40&mdash;TREE FORM GOOSEBERRY</p>
+
+</div></div>
+
+
+
+<p>No list need be given here of the varieties of gooseberries
+and currants to be recommended for this class
+of planting. It may be said that any of the favorite
+varieties of currants grown in this country, as for
+example, Fay, Victoria, Red Versailles, etc., may be
+chosen, and that these are indeed the varieties usually
+preferred in Europe. With respect to gooseberries it
+may be remarked that the English, French, and German<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>
+varieties are mostly very different from those
+grown in America, and that while they have some
+shortcomings in our climate, they are for the most
+part to be recommended for the purposes which we
+here have in view.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="XII" id="XII"></a>XII</h2>
+
+<h3>FRUIT TREES IN POTS</h3>
+
+
+<p>Those who are used to seeing large fruit trees in
+orchard plantations where each specimen has 1,000
+to 2,000 square feet of space, with unlimited opportunities
+downward, find a fruit tree in a pot a
+curiosity. It seems remarkable to see a tree in vigorous
+health and bearing fruit with less than one
+cubic foot of soil. Nevertheless this method of handling
+fruit trees is entirely practicable. In some places
+it is practised extensively in an amateur way, and occasionally
+reaches almost commercial proportions. For
+those who grow fruit trees for recreation there could
+hardly be a more interesting experiment.</p>
+
+<p>The pots mostly used are the nine, ten, eleven and
+twelve inch standard earthenware pots. With most
+trees it is best to begin with small sizes and gradually
+shift forward to the larger ones. A bearing tree
+may be maintained for several years in a twelve inch
+pot or even in a ten inch size. Sometimes wooden
+tubs are substituted for pots. These look better, but
+are not so good in any other way.</p>
+
+<p>Trees may be grown in pots out of doors, although
+there is no particular advantage in doing this. If such
+practise is undertaken the pots should be plunged
+their full depth in good garden soil. Perfect drainage
+should be secured by having some broken brick or
+coarse cinders underneath.</p>
+
+<p>Usually potted trees are grown under glass. They<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>
+are kept in a cool greenhouse, that is one with little
+heat. Sometimes they are without artificial heat.
+In fact this is probably the best way. The houses
+which are purposely constructed for fruit trees may
+have a single line of pipe if this is convenient, so that
+the chill may be taken off the air in severe cold
+weather. To reach anything like real success, houses
+must be devoted exclusively to fruit trees. Occasionally
+trees may be grown with other plants, as in
+cold graperies, but the results are not the best and
+often come very close to failure.</p>
+
+<p>In building houses for fruit trees exclusively, the
+even span construction is nearly always used. Houses
+eighteen or twenty feet wide, and five feet high at
+the eaves, will answer the purpose very well. The
+leading greenhouse designers are prepared to furnish
+plans for such houses and it is usually best to follow
+the advice of their experts.</p>
+
+<p>All kinds of fruit trees can be grown in pots. This
+includes apples, pears, peaches, plums, nectarines, and
+cherries. Those which give the best returns are
+plums and nectarines. Apples in pots are very interesting
+and furnish a superior quality of fruit when
+grown under glass. Apples, plums and nectarines
+take a finer finish and a higher flavor when grown
+in this way than when grown in any other.</p>
+
+<p>All fruit trees to be grown in pots should be propagated
+on the dwarfest of dwarfing stocks. This
+means practically that apples should be on Paradise,
+pears on quince, peaches and nectarines on sand cherry,
+plum on sand cherry or St. Julien plum, and cherries<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>
+on Mahaleb.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0120" name="i0120"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0120.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 41&mdash;A FRUITING PEACH IN POT</p>
+
+</div></div>
+
+
+<p>The trees should be potted in good rich soil, preferably
+the best garden loam. This should have
+enough sand and gravel in it to insure good drainage.
+A considerable amount of drainage material should
+be placed in the bottom of each pot. The trees should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>
+be repotted in fresh soil annually in October or November.</p>
+
+<p>Trees in pots require liberal feeding. Besides being
+given well enriched earth at the time of repotting, they
+should be supplied from time to time with small
+amounts of fertilizer. Good soluble chemical fertilizers
+can be applied either dry or dissolved. A good
+formula is one part nitrate of soda, two parts of
+muriate of potash, two parts of high grade phosphoric
+acid. A very little sprinkling, say a tablespoonful,
+of this can be given on each pot once a month during
+the growing season which lasts roughly from December
+to May. In place of this, or alternately with this,
+moderate waterings with liquid manure may also be
+given. These small doses of food are especially useful
+at the time when the fruit is forming on the trees.</p>
+
+<p>The trees are usually brought into the house at
+the time of potting, say November 1. If early fruit
+is desired, they are kept in a house with some heat.
+It is necessary only that the temperature should be
+kept constantly and safely above the freezing point.
+Rapid forcing with a high temperature is not desirable
+and is hardly possible. If kept simply above the
+freezing point, these trees will start into growth in
+January. They can then be kept somewhat warmer
+during February, the heat being slightly increased in
+March. Peaches and nectarines will stand fairly
+high temperatures after the fruit is well set and especially
+toward ripening time. By this method of mild
+forcing, plums, peaches, and nectarines can be brought
+into fruit as early as the latter part of May.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0122" name="i0122"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0122.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 42&mdash;A FIG TREE IN A POT</p>
+
+</div></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The main crop of potted fruits, however, need not
+be expected until June or July; that is not very much
+in advance of the outdoor crop. The object of growing
+fruit under glass is not so much to force it ahead
+of season as it is to improve the quality. Trees which
+are to be kept in a cool house without heat need no
+particular attention except to see that they are watered
+occasionally and that some plant food is given after
+growth begins. Even if the temperature goes down
+considerably below freezing during the winter months
+in this cold house where the potted fruit trees are, no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>
+damage need be expected.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, special care will be given to prevent
+damage from attacks of fungi or insects which occasionally
+become troublesome in the houses. The small
+size of these trees makes such work comparatively
+easy.</p>
+
+<p>The methods of pruning are the same as those recommended
+for pyramid and bush form trees. These
+forms are the most practical for pot culture, though
+pot trees are occasionally trained in cordon forms.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="XIII" id="XIII"></a>XIII</h2>
+
+<h3>PERSONALIA</h3>
+
+
+<p>Many persons have a strong prejudice in favor of
+the concrete. On general principles they object to
+generalities. They choose rather the specific case.
+Personal experience, they say, means more to them
+than theory, even though the theory be the sublimation
+of all experience. For the benefit of such people I
+am going to set down an account of some of my own
+attempts at growing dwarf fruit trees, and to that I
+will add brief opinions and experiences of some friends
+of mine.</p>
+
+<p>The first dwarf fruit tree that I ever saw, so far as
+I remember, was in the grounds of the Kansas State
+Agricultural College when I was a student there. This
+tree was an apple, on Paradise stock, and at two years
+after planting it bore six or eight very fine Yellow
+Transparent apples. It was one of several dwarf
+apples planted by Professor E. A. Popenoe, but the
+other trees did not much attract my attention. This
+particular specimen had a straight, clean trunk of about
+thirty inches, after the absurd style of heading dwarf
+apples practised in most American nurseries. But
+the crown was full and symmetrical, and the fruit was
+incomparable. That particular tree has always been
+a sort of ideal and inspiration to me.</p>
+
+<p>Later, when I planted an orchard in Oklahoma, I
+put in some dwarf trees, particularly pears, but I did
+not stay there long enough to see what came of them.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The next fruit garden in which I became interested
+was in Vermont. This had in it some dwarf pear
+trees, dwarf apples and dwarf plums, and my own
+personal experience had fairly begun. The dwarf apples
+proved to be an almost complete failure, for reasons
+which I can not now satisfactorily explain. A
+few years later I planted a few dwarf apple trees in
+another Vermont garden, where they did reasonably
+well. But, at any rate, the whole undertaking was unsatisfactory,
+for it did not give me a vital understanding
+of the trees. I never got onto terms of real
+personal goodfellowship with them; and until a gardener
+does that his work is some sort of a failure.</p>
+
+<p>The dwarf pears did somewhat better. They seemed
+to understand their business, and they kept about it
+without much attention from me. I never cared much
+for pears, anyway.</p>
+
+<p>But the plums were the brilliant success, at least
+with reference to my own interior personal experience.
+Every plum tree meant something to me. A stub of
+a root and two scrawny plum branches would at any
+time arouse my imagination like the circus posters'
+appeal to a boy. In this Vermont garden which I
+adopted when it was about four years old, there were
+various plum trees, mostly of domestica varieties,
+growing on Americana roots. They had come from the
+Iowa State College, where they had been educated that
+way. They had been given those Americana roots, not
+primarily to dwarf them, but to insure them against
+damage from the cold winters. The tops had not been
+cut back, and the whole treatment was just such as
+would have been applied to standards. Later I saw<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>
+the bad results of this treatment, for several of the trees
+blew over in high winds. From subsequent experience
+I feel sure that if they had been headed low at first,
+if they had been kept closely headed back and otherwise
+handled like real dwarfs, they would have lived
+to a greater age and would have made everybody happier.</p>
+
+<p>At this time also I began, on a somewhat comprehensive
+plan, the propagation of plums on all sorts
+of stocks, including Americana, Wayland seedlings,
+Miner root cuttings and sand cherry, all more or
+less efficient dwarfing stocks. By this time I was into
+it head over ears, as far as the plums were concerned.</p>
+
+<p>This having been the largest chapter in my personal
+pomological experience, I suppose it ought to
+form the largest portion of this chapter in the book;
+but my plum work and my experiments in propagation
+have been so often and so fully reported elsewhere
+that it would be a vain repetition to go over them
+again now. They are all written down in the proper
+places where they may be consulted by the enthusiastic
+or ill-advised student.</p>
+
+<p>And then I came to Massachusetts; and here the
+first project, almost, to which my hand was turned
+was the installation of a garden of dwarf fruit trees.
+From the following memorandum of the trees growing
+in this garden any reader may surmise the enjoyment
+I have found in it. There is one row of dwarf plum
+trees set six feet apart and trained, rather unsatisfactorily,
+into bush form. The trees were many of them too
+large when they came from France, and, though I cut
+them back severely, they did not form such low bushy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>
+heads as my ideal species. They are on St. Julien
+roots, which serve the purposes in hand fairly well.
+Though the trees had a hard trip across the water only
+one out of forty-six has died in three years. Unfortunately
+these trees have not yet borne fruit,&mdash;not one
+of them. Next year many of them will bear. Earlier
+fruitage can certainly be secured on sand cherry stocks
+and under other methods of training.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the bush plums, the garden contains a row
+of upright cordons. Most of these were not propagated
+on dwarf stocks at all, and were not expected
+to suffer any such drastic training as I have put upon
+them. They were taken from the college nursery and
+from the nurseries of several of my correspondents,
+just wherever I could find the varieties I wanted, and
+without reference to the stocks on which they were
+growing. A few are on Americana stocks, several are
+on peach roots (of all things), and probably a majority
+are growing on the usual Myrobalan roots. These
+trees are planted two feet apart in the row and are
+tied up to a trellis of chicken wire. There are about
+thirty varieties in the row, numbering most of the
+different botanical types more frequently cultivated in
+North America. Many of the varieties are totally and
+very obviously unsuited to this method of treatment,
+and presently I will replace them with more amenable
+varieties. But many of the varieties have fruited, especially
+the Japanese kinds, and some of them, like Burbank,
+have proved most unexpectedly docile. Altogether
+this row of unsuitably propagated and unsuitably
+selected varieties of plum trees has been one of
+the most interesting, instructive and entertaining elements<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>
+in my dwarf fruit garden.</p>
+
+<p>Next there comes a trellis bearing some espaliers,
+including plums, pears, apples, peaches and cherries;
+but these have been recently planted, and as yet they
+have done nothing worth relating.</p>
+
+<p>There is one row of twenty-three dwarf pears,
+mostly trained in pyramid form. These have not done
+well, but the reason is not far to seek. The soil is
+light and full of gravel, and quite unsuited to pear
+or quince. Pears never thrive on it. Several of the
+trees are bearing a crop this year, but some of the
+trees are also dead, and the whole row looks like the
+finish of a bargain sale on the remnant ribbon counter.</p>
+
+<p>The row of upright cordon pears is a trifle better,
+but that is only an accident, I think. The varieties
+which are growing there seem to be rather better
+adapted to withstand the unpropitious surroundings.
+These trees also are bearing.</p>
+
+<p>When we come to the two rows of horizontal cordon
+apples, though, the real fun has begun. Nearly
+all these trees are in bearing, and a few of them have
+borne every year since they were planted out. They
+are set only three feet apart in the row, which is not
+enough; and they suffered terribly the first year from
+a midsummer attack of aphides; and the pruning was
+neglected to allow them to recover from that scourge,
+so that the form was somewhat injured; but they have
+never ceased to be a joy to me and a wonderment to
+visitors. They are mostly of European varieties, but
+Bismarck is the showiest and most fruitful one in the
+collection, though far from the best to eat.</p>
+
+<p>Then there are standard gooseberries and currants,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>
+of which there is little to be said. They haven't been
+there long, but they are at home and are going to stay.
+Next year I am going to put in some gooseberries and
+currants in espalier form.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0129" name="i0129"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0129.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 43&mdash;DWARF PEAR IN PYRAMID FORM</p>
+<p class="ctext">Two years planted; author's garden</p>
+</div></div>
+
+
+<p>Very few persons know what a medlar is. For the
+benefit of the ignorant and to increase the kaleidoscopic
+effect on my fruit garden, I have some medlar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>
+trees,&mdash;Holländische Monströse,&mdash;which I bought of
+Louis Späth, Baumschulenweg, Berlin.</p>
+
+<p>A wire trellis, built much like a grape trellis, only
+higher, carries the row of upright cordon apples.
+Some of these bore fruit the first year they were
+planted, and there has been a fair sprinkling of fruit
+every year since then. This has been one of the most
+satisfactory lots in the make-up.</p>
+
+<p>There are two rows containing forty-six bush-form
+apples on paradise roots set six feet apart. Some of
+these have borne every year since planting out, many
+of them showing a good crop this year. Again Bismarck
+is the most fruitful, but the least pleasing to
+eat. Alexander has made a good record, and this
+year Calville d'Automne shows a very pretty crop. It
+is customary with visitors, especially those already interested
+in fruit-growing and those of a practical turn
+of mind, to depart with the judgment that "all those
+other schemes are curious and interesting, but the
+bush form apple trees look the most like business."
+I think so too. In fact my experience with dwarf apples
+might be summarized by saying, "bush trees for
+business, cordons for fun."</p>
+
+<p>One row of peach trees on St. Julien plum roots set
+fruit buds in abundance the first year, but they were
+killed by the freeze of the following winter. The second
+year the experience was the same, except that the
+tops froze with the fruit buds. New tops were grown
+at once, however, and the following year nearly every
+tree bore a small crop of fruit. Dwarf peach trees
+are worth while.</p>
+
+<p>This garden has also a row of cherry trees, including<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>
+Morello, Richmond and Montmorency; but these
+trees were set the second year of the garden making
+and have borne only a small crop of sample cherries.</p>
+
+<p>The last planting in this garden consists of one row
+of nectarines, twenty-two trees.</p>
+
+<p>This little garden, containing considerably less than
+a quarter of an acre of land, has now growing upon
+it 548 fruit trees of the kinds named. And I am not
+yet done planting. There are various other things that
+I want to put in,&mdash;quinces, apricots, and perhaps raspberries,
+dewberries, and other bush fruits. In fact,
+I should like to make it a "Paradise" like good old
+Gerarde's or Dodoens', in which all the fruits "good
+for food or physic" might be brought together and
+represented in a little space.</p>
+
+<p>It would be quite wrong to close this experience
+meeting without giving the observations and quoting
+the opinions of some other and better men. Patrick
+Barry, in his delightful "Fruit Garden," recorded his
+belief that dwarf fruit trees were well worth while.
+"The apple," said he, "worked on the Paradise, makes
+a beautiful little dwarf bush. We know of nothing
+more interesting in the fruit garden than a row or
+little square of these miniature fruit trees. They begin
+to bear the third year from the bud, and the same variety
+is always larger and finer on them than on standards."
+Speaking of pears, he said: "On the quince
+stock the trees bear much earlier, are more prolific,
+more manageable, and consequently preferable for
+small gardens."</p>
+
+<p>The late Mr. E. G. Lodeman, who wrote the most
+comprehensive American monograph on dwarf apples,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>
+concluded his essay rather pessimistically in these
+words: "From all the evidence which I have been
+able to collect, therefore, I cannot advise the planting
+of dwarf apple trees for commercial rewards, but it
+seems to me, nevertheless, that they are worth experimenting
+with for this purpose." Mr. Lodeman recorded
+and endorsed the common opinion "that apples
+grown on dwarf trees are handsomer and of better
+quality than those grown upon standards"; but he
+did not seem to consider that fact of much importance.</p>
+
+<p>Those who are acquainted at the Lazy Club in Cornell
+University, and especially those who know Bailiwick,
+have heard of Professor L. H. Bailey's dwarf
+apples. (Fig. 44.) These were planted six or eight
+years ago, and most of them are now in bearing. There
+are a good many different varieties, nearly all French.
+My understanding of the scheme is that it was as
+much as half intended to be a commercial venture;
+but up to the present time little else but confusion and
+fun have been gathered with the fruit from those dwarf
+apple trees. When last I asked the proprietor for
+his experience with dwarf apples he said that he was
+having a lot of experience, only he didn't know what
+it was.</p>
+
+<p>Dwarf pears have been planted frequently, especially
+in Western New York and Michigan. I asked Professor
+S. A. Beach for his observations of them, to
+which he replied: "With regard to dwarf pears I will
+say that the variety which is most generally grown in
+commercial orchards is Bartlett. Almost without exception
+this is grown as a standard. Other important
+commercial varieties are Seckel, Bosc and Winter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>
+Nelis. All these are generally grown as standards.
+The variety commonly grown as dwarf is Angouleme.
+A few fruit growers of my acquaintance are making
+some money from orchards of dwarf Angouleme. The
+other varieties which are often propagated on dwarf
+stock as Clairgeau, Anjou and so forth, are seldom
+profitable. In fact I have heard it stated that outside
+of Ellwanger and Barry's orchard there is not a profitable
+orchard of Anjou in this State. From these statements
+I wish you to derive the conclusion that in New
+York State under present conditions there is little encouragement
+for planting dwarf pears commercially."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i0133" name="i0133"></a><div class="figborder">
+<img src="images/i0133.jpg" alt="" />
+<p class="caption">FIG. 44&mdash;IN PROFESSOR BAILEY'S ORCHARD</p>
+<p class="ctext">Chenango apple on Doucin stocks, interplanted between standard trees</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Mr. E. W. Wood, for many years chairman of the
+fruit committee of the Massachusetts Horticultural
+Society, says that "under the right conditions the dwarf
+pear tree is a necessity for commercial pear growing.
+The growers in Revere and Cambridge would feel
+they could not get along without the dwarf trees.
+Putting the pear on the quince stock does not change
+the wants of the roots of the latter, and it is no use
+setting them on a light, dry soil, as the roots being
+confined to a small area of unsuitable soil, will make
+a feeble growth and finally die outright; or, if in an
+exposed situation, blow over. Most all the varieties
+may be grown as dwarfs. The Angouleme and Clairgeau,
+both good market varieties, cannot be successfully
+grown in any other way."</p>
+
+<p>Recently Mr. M. B. Waite has written me the letter
+quoted below, giving some conclusions from his
+experience with dwarf pears in Anne Arundel County,
+Maryland. He says:</p>
+
+<p>"I planted out 1,000 dwarf pear trees nine years<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>
+ago. They were largely Duchess (Angouleme), but
+there are some Manning, Howell, Anjou, Louise
+Bonne and Lawrence. I have not been entirely satisfied
+with the results. We have not had the proper
+quantity of fruit. There has been some fruit every
+year since the fourth year, and two years ago there
+was quite a good crop, but nothing to compare with
+the yield per acre of Kieffer, LeConte and Garber, for
+instance. Of course, these are higher-priced fruit and
+large yields are not required for good returns. Only
+the Duchess and Manning, however, have produced
+sufficient to pay at all, and the orchard has not as
+yet really paid financially. We have a nice crop this
+year, however, more than the total yield up to this
+season, and perhaps from now on we may win out.
+My dwarf pears are on a soil too dry and sandy for
+the best results, and I think we are at Washington
+pretty near the southern limit, at least at low altitudes.
+In the mountains of Virginia and North Carolina they
+can be grown further southward. They require a
+moist, preferably clay-loam soil even in their naturally
+favored districts, such as New England, New York
+and Michigan, but such a soil is still more desirable
+when rather too far south for their normal range. They
+require high culture, manuring and fertilizing, and
+thorough pruning and spraying in any locality, and
+these requirements are still more exacting in Maryland.
+A slight neglect in cultivation, pruning or spraying
+in one season results in a mass of blooms the next
+spring, but little or no fruit set. Of course, this extra
+attention which has to be devoted to dwarf pears
+as compared with Oriental pears, peaches, apples, etc.,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>
+to be profitable should result in larger yields, but
+does not usually do so in this latitude. On the other
+hand, we may say in favor of the dwarf pear that the
+quince root is a healthy, reliable root for the pear tree;
+that the trees attain their seasonal growth early, and
+therefore are not as susceptible to pear blight as standard
+pears. Furthermore, they are more easily sprayed,
+pruned, and otherwise handled than the high standard
+trees."</p>
+
+<p>My friend, Mr. J. W. Kerr, of the Eastern Shore of
+Maryland, who owns one of the oldest and most picturesque
+orchards of dwarf pears I ever saw, says that
+Angouleme (Duchess) is the only variety that pays
+for growing in that form.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the experience of many men in many parts
+of America sums up as we began. The conclusion of
+the whole matter seems to be about this: Dwarf fruit
+trees have not yet played any prominent role in American
+commercial horticulture; but they have been profitable
+in a few special cases, and the probability seems
+strong almost to the point of certainty that, with the
+development, refinement and specialization of our commercial
+fruit growing, a wider field of usefulness will
+be opened for dwarf trees. In the realm of amateur
+fruit growing, on the other hand,&mdash;a realm now daily
+widening,&mdash;dwarf fruit trees are of capital importance.
+The owners and renters of small grounds, the cultivators
+of little gardens&mdash;the great majority of American
+home-makers, in fact,&mdash;will find in them an unfailing
+source of pleasure, inspiration, and even of
+profit.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2>
+
+
+<table summary="list">
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdr">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Advantages of dwarf trees,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Apple, propagation of,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Apples,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Apples, recommended varieties,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Bailey, H., quoted,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Barry's "Fruit Garden,"</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Bismarck apple,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i0019">7</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Boundary fences,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Bush fruits,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Commercial value,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Cordon trees,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Currants,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Definition of dwarf tree,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#I">1</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Designs for fruit gardens,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#i0065">53</a>, <a href="#i0067">55</a>, <a href="#i0071">59</a>, <a href="#i0073">61</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Disadvantages of dwarf trees,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Double-working,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Doucin apple,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Dwarf tree, definition,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#I">1</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Early bearing,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Erwin, A. T., quoted,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Expense of dwarf trees,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Fertilizers,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Fillers in orchards,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Forms for trees,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Gooseberries,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Heading young trees,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Houses for dwarf fruits,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Kerr, J. W. quoted,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Lodeman, E. G., quoted,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Longevity of dwarf trees,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Management of dwarf trees,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Management of trees in pots,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Nectarine, propagation of,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Nursery management,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Paradise apple,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Peach, propagation of,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Peaches,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Pear, propagation of,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Pears,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Pears, recommended varieties,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Personalia,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Pinching,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Plum, propagation of,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Plums,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Plums, recommended varieties,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Pots for fruit trees,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Propagation,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Pruning apple trees,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Pruning dwarf trees,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Pruning peach trees,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Pruning plum trees,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Pyramid tree,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Quality of fruit,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Root pruning,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Sand cherry,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">San José scale,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">School gardens,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Selection of varieties,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Suburban places,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Tillage,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Training in special forms,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Trellises for trees,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">U-form trees,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Uses for dwarf trees,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Waite, M. B., quoted,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Walls and fences,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Walls for dwarf trees,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Wood, E. W., quoted,</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<div class="notes"><p>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE:</p>
+
+<p>In some cases illustrations have been moved from the original location
+in order to avoid breaks in paragraphs, and to place them more closely to
+the related paragraph.  Full page illustrations have been moved to the nearest
+paragraph break, resulting in a few missing page numbers.</p>
+
+<p>Obvious typographical errors in spelling and punctuation have been corrected
+without comment.  One example of an obvious typographical error is on page
+124 where the word "an" was changed to "on" in the phrase "... on the other
+hand...."  Other than obvious typographical errors, the author's original
+spelling, punctuation, hyphenation and use of accents has been left intact
+with the following three exceptions:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>1. On page 92 a hyphen was added to the term "one-half".</p>
+
+<p>2. In the Index (page 125) an accent mark was added in the term:  "San José
+scale".</p>
+
+<p>3. In the Index (page 125) the entry "J. W. Kerr" was changed to
+"Kerr, J. W." to correspond with other similar entries. </p>
+</blockquote></div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Dwarf Fruit Trees, by F. A. Waugh
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Dwarf Fruit Trees, by F. A. Waugh
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Dwarf Fruit Trees
+       Their propagation, pruning, and general management, adapted
+       to the United States and Canada
+
+Author: F. A. Waugh
+
+Release Date: November 15, 2011 [EBook #38024]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DWARF FRUIT TREES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by David Garcia, Cathy Maxam, Marilynda
+Fraser-Cunliffe and the Online Distributed Proofreading
+Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from
+images generously made available by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+DWARF FRUIT TREES
+
+
+
+
+  OTHER BOOKS
+  BY THE SAME AUTHOR
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  LANDSCAPE GARDENING
+  PLUMS AND PLUM CULTURE
+  FRUIT HARVESTING, STORING, MARKETING
+  SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY
+
+[Illustration: DWARF CHERRY TREE
+
+Two years planted]
+
+
+
+
+  DWARF
+  FRUIT TREES
+
+  THEIR PROPAGATION, PRUNING, AND
+  GENERAL MANAGEMENT, ADAPTED
+  TO THE UNITED STATES AND
+  CANADA
+
+  _By_
+  F. A. WAUGH
+
+  _ILLUSTRATED_
+
+  NEW YORK
+  ORANGE JUDD COMPANY
+  1906
+
+
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1906
+
+BY ORANGE JUDD COMPANY
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The commercial interests have so continuously and completely held the
+horticultural stage in America during the last two decades that it has
+been impossible for amateur horticulture to get in a word edgewise. Any
+public speaker or writer has had to talk about several acres at a time
+or he would not be listened to. He has been obliged to insist that his
+scheme would pay on a commercial scale before anyone would hear, much
+less consider, what he had to tell.
+
+But now a change is coming. Different conditions are already upon us. A
+thousand signs indicate the new era. With hundreds--yes thousands--of
+men and women now horticulture is an avocation, a pastime. They grow
+trees largely for the pleasure of it; and their gardens are built amidst
+surroundings which would make commercial pomology laugh at itself.
+
+And so I undertake to offer the first American fruit book in a quarter
+century which can boldly declare its independence of the professional
+element in fruit growing. I am confident that dwarf fruit trees have
+some commercial possibilities, but they are of far greater importance to
+the small householder, the owner of the private "estate," the village
+dweller, the suburbanite and the commuter.
+
+In other words, while I hope that all good people will be interested in
+dwarf fruit trees and that some of them will share the enthusiasm of
+which this book is begotten, I do not want anyone to think that I have
+issued any guaranty, expressed or implied, that dwarf trees will open a
+paying commercial enterprise. Because the argument that a thing pays has
+been so long the only recommendation offered for any horticultural
+scheme, many persons have formed the habit of assuming that every sort
+of praise stands on this one foundation.
+
+F. A. WAUGH.
+
+_Massachusetts Agricultural College, 1906._
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+
+                                       PAGE
+
+     PREFACE                              v
+
+     I. General Considerations            1
+
+    II. Advantages and Disadvantages      8
+
+   III. Propagation                      22
+
+    IV. Pruning                          33
+
+     V. Special Forms                    41
+
+    VI. General Management               51
+
+   VII. Dwarf Apples                     63
+
+  VIII. Dwarf Pears                      76
+
+    IX. Dwarf Peaches                    83
+
+     X. Dwarf Plums                      90
+
+    XI. Bush Fruits                      99
+
+   XII. Fruit Trees in Pots             106
+
+  XIII. Personalia                      112
+
+        Index                           125
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+     Dwarf Cherry Tree                     _Frontispiece_
+
+  FIG.                                                      PAGE
+
+   1 Dwarf Apple Trees in Western New York                     3
+
+   2 Trained Cordon Apple Trees                                5
+
+   3 Bismarck Apple                                            7
+
+   4 Pear Tree Trained as an Espalier                          9
+
+   5 Bush Apple Tree                                          11
+
+   6 Plums as Upright Cordons                                 17
+
+   7 Paradise Apple Stocks in Early Spring                    25
+
+   8 The Western Sand Cherry                                  30
+
+   9 Upright Cordon Plum                                      31
+
+  10 Bush Apple                                               34
+
+  11 Bush Apple, Three Years Old, Before Pruning              37
+
+  12 Bush Apple, Same Tree, After Pruning                     37
+
+  13 Cordon Pears Before Pruning                              39
+
+  14 Cordon Pears After Pruning                               39
+
+  15 Pears in Double U Form                                   43
+
+  16 Pears in U Form                                          45
+
+  17 Apricots in U Form                                       47
+
+  18 Pear in Espalier                                         48
+
+  19 Old Espalier Pears on Farm House Wall                    49
+
+  20 Horizontal Cordon Apple and Other Dwarf Trees            52
+
+  21 Design for a Back Yard Fruit Garden                      53
+
+  22 Dwarf Fruit Garden                                       55
+
+  23 Fruit Gardening and Landscape Gardening Combined         59
+
+  24 A Fruit Garden Containing Many Dwarf Trees               61
+
+  25 Dwarf Apples on Prof. L. H. Bailey's Farm, New York      65
+
+  26 Upright Cordon Apples                                    67
+
+  27 Horizontal Cordon Apple Trees                            71
+
+  28 Young Orchard of Dwarf Pear in Western New York          76
+
+  29 Dwarf Pear in the Old and Profitable Yeomans
+       Orchard, New York                                      77
+
+  30 Orchard of Dwarf Duchess Pear, Lockport, N. Y.           79
+
+  31 Pyramid Pears in a German Orchard                        80
+
+  32 Dwarf Peach in Nursery                                   84
+
+  33 Espalier Peach, Hartford, Conn.                          85
+
+  34 Peach in Fan Espalier on Wall--England                   87
+
+  35 Peach Trees Trained Under Glass                          88
+
+  36 Plum Trees Trained as Upright Cordons                    91
+
+  37 Burbank Plums on Upright Cordons Trained to Trellis      95
+
+  38 Currants as Fan Espaliers on Trellis                    100
+
+  39 Gooseberry Fan Espalier                                 102
+
+  40 Tree Form Gooseberry                                    104
+
+  41 A Fruiting Peach in Pot                                 108
+
+  42 A Fig Tree in a Pot                                     110
+
+  43 Dwarf Pear                                              117
+
+  44 Chenango Apples in Prof. L. H. Bailey's Orchard         121
+
+
+
+
+DWARF FRUIT TREES
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
+
+
+A dwarf fruit tree is simply one which does not reach full size. It is
+not so large as it might be expected to be. It is smaller than a normal
+tree of the same variety and age.
+
+There are indeed some trees which are normally dwarf, so to speak. They
+never reach a considerable size. They are smaller than other better
+known and related species. For example, the species _Prunus pumila
+besseyi_ is sometimes called the dwarf sand cherry, simply because it is
+always notably smaller than related species. The Paradise apple is
+spoken of as a dwarf because it never attains the stature which other
+apples attain.
+
+But in the technical sense, as the term is used by nurserymen and
+pomologists, a dwarf tree is one which is made, by some artificial
+means, to grow smaller than normal trees of the same variety.
+
+These artificial means used for making dwarf trees are chiefly three:
+(1) propagation on dwarfing stocks, (2) repressive pruning, and (3)
+training to some prescribed form.
+
+
+DWARFING STOCKS
+
+The most common and important means of securing dwarf trees is that of
+propagating them on dwarfing stocks. These are simply such roots as make
+a slower and weaker growth than the trees from which cions are taken.
+This will be understood better from a concrete example. The quince tree
+normally grows slower than the pear, and usually reaches about half the
+size at maturity. Now pear cions will unite readily with quince roots
+and will grow in good health for many years. But when a pear tree is
+thus dependent for daily food on a quince root it fares like Oliver
+Twist. It never gets enough. It is always starved. It makes considerably
+less annual growth, and never (or at least seldom) reaches the size
+which it might have reached if it had been growing on a pear root.
+
+This is, somewhat roughly stated, the whole theory of dwarfing fruit
+trees by grafting them on slow-growing stocks. The tree top is always
+under-nourished and thus restrained in its ambitious growth of branches,
+as seen in Fig. 1.
+
+While the tree is made thus smaller by being grafted on a restraining
+root, it is not affected in its other characteristics. At least
+theoretically it is not. It still bears the same kind of fruit and
+foliage. Bartlett pear trees budded on quince roots yield fruit true to
+name. The pears are still Bartletts, and can not be told from those
+grown on an ordinary tree. Sometimes the fruit from dwarf trees seems
+to be better colored or better flavored than that from standard trees;
+but such differences are very delicate and usually receive slight
+thought.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1--DWARF APPLE TREES IN WESTERN NEW YORK]
+
+Dwarf fruit trees have not been very largely grown in America, but have
+been much more widely used in Europe. This statement holds good either
+for commercial plantations or for private fruit gardens. They are coming
+into more common use in this country because, in both market orchards
+and amateur gardens, our pomology is coming to be somewhat more like
+that of Europe. Our conditions are approaching those of the Old World,
+even though they will always be very different from those of Europe in
+horticultural matters.
+
+Dwarf fruit trees are particularly valuable in small gardens; and small
+gardens are becoming constantly more popular among our urban, and
+especially our suburban, population. This matter is discussed more fully
+in another chapter. Fruit of finer quality can be grown on dwarf trees,
+as a general rule, than can usually be grown on standard trees. Every
+year there are more people in America who are willing to take any
+necessary pains to secure fruit of extra quality. This remark applies
+particularly to amateur fruit growers and to owners of private estates
+who grow fruit for their own tables, but it is no less true of a certain
+class of fruit buyers, especially in the richer cities. Although $3 a
+barrel is still a high price for ordinary good apples, sales of fancy
+apples at $3 a dozen fruits are by no means infrequent in the city
+markets every winter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2--TRAINED CORDON APPLE TREES
+
+From Loebner's "Zwergobstbaeume"]
+
+In this respect also we are approaching European conditions. In the
+markets of the continental capitals in particular fancy fruits are
+frequently sold at prices which seem almost incredible to an American.
+Single apples sometimes bring 50 cents to a dollar, and peaches an equal
+price. Just recently a story has been going the rounds of the newspapers
+that the caterer for the Czar's table sometimes pays as high as $15
+apiece for peaches for the royal table. Hereupon a solemn American
+editor remarked that if the whole royal family should live upon nothing
+but peaches it would still be cheaper than carrying on the Japanese war.
+
+Now if there is anywhere within reach a market for apples or peaches at
+$3 a dozen specimens--and there unquestionably is--then it will pay to
+grow fancy fruits with special care to meet this demand. This kind of
+fruit can be grown better upon dwarf trees than upon standards in many
+cases, if not in most. At least such is the conviction of the present
+writer. Moreover this has been the experience in the old country.
+
+With such facts in view there seems to be a possible future for dwarf
+fruit trees, even for commercial purposes. Their present utility in
+amateur gardens and on wealthy private estates can not be questioned.
+These various amateur and commercial adaptations of dwarf trees will
+have to be more carefully analyzed and discussed in a future chapter,
+and the subject may therefore be dropped for the present.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3--BISMARCK APPLE, FIRST YEAR PLANTED
+
+22 inches high; bearing 4 fruits]
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
+
+
+It is a good prejudice which expects every man who writes anything to be
+enthusiastic over his subject. Such enthusiasm doubtless leads a writer
+many times to over-state his case, and to claim more than the calm
+judgment of the multitude will ratify. And on the other hand, readers
+usually tacitly discount the statements of any man who writes about any
+matter in which he is plainly interested. The present writer knows that
+he is also under the ban, and that the reader firmly expects him to
+claim more for dwarf fruit trees than their merits will fairly warrant.
+This expectation the writer hopes to disappoint. It will be enough to
+set down here the obvious advantages and disadvantages which the
+horticulturist will meet in handling dwarf fruit trees. These statements
+are mostly of matters of common experience and they need no coloring to
+make them serve their present purpose.
+
+We may fairly set down the following good points standing more or less
+generally to the credit of dwarf fruit trees:
+
+1. _Early bearing._--This is a sufficiently obvious advantage. The
+Alexander apple will bear the second year after planting when grown as a
+dwarf, while it requires six to ten years to come into bearing as a
+standard. This habit of early bearing proves valuable in many ways. It
+encourages men to plant trees. The disinclination of old men to plant
+trees rests upon the slenderness of the chance that they will ever
+gather of the fruit. But a man may plant dwarf trees whenever his
+expectation of life is two years or more. Such trees would serve
+octogenarians, consumptives and those sentenced to be hanged for murder.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4--PEAR TREE, TRAINED AS AN ESPALIER]
+
+Early bearing--to return to the subject--makes dwarf trees valuable to
+that large and unfortunately growing class of citizens who rent the
+premises where they live. They do not expect to stay more than five or
+six years in any one place. In that length of time ordinary trees would
+not begin to yield any fruit. But with dwarf trees there is excellent
+probability of seeing something ripen. Then again early bearing is a
+great advantage when one is testing new or old varieties. It is a great
+advantage when a commercial orchard is designed and when dwarf trees are
+used for fillers as explained below.
+
+2. _Small size._--The very smallness of the dwarf trees has many
+advantages in it. The trees are easier to reach and to care for. They
+are easier to prune and to spray. This facility in spraying is what has
+chiefly recommended smaller fruit trees to commercial fruit growers in
+recent years. Particularly in those places where the San Jose scale is a
+perennial problem a very large tree becomes an impossibility, and the
+smaller the trees can be the better it suits.
+
+The small size of dwarf trees permits the planting of larger numbers on
+a given area. This is specially worth while to the amateur who has a
+small garden where only three or four standard trees could grow, but
+where he can comfortably handle forty or fifty dwarfs. Yet it is also
+worth the consideration of the commercial fruit grower who is trying to
+earn a profit on expensive land. If he can increase the number of
+bearing trees on each acre, especially during the early years of
+establishing his orchard, it almost certainly means increased income.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5--BUSH APPLE TREE, THREE YEARS PLANTED]
+
+3. _High quality._--It is not perfectly certain that every kind of fruit
+can be produced in higher quality on dwarf trees than on standards, but
+such is the general rule. This is notably true of certain pears, as
+Buerre Giffard and Doyenne du Comice, and it is generally the case with
+all apples that can be successfully grown on Paradise roots. One can
+secure size, color, flavor and finish on an Alexander or a Ribston
+Pippin, for example, which can never be secured on a standard tree. One
+who has not seen this thing done will hardly understand it; those who
+have will not need more argument. Such plums as we have fruited on dwarf
+trees have shown similar improvement in quality, being always distinctly
+superior to the same varieties grown on standard trees. The significance
+of these facts will appear at once to any one familiar with the course
+of the fruit markets in America. There are greater rewards awaiting the
+fruit grower who can produce fruit of superior quality than the one who
+succeeds merely in increasing the quantity of his output.
+
+
+SPECIAL USES FOR DWARF TREES
+
+These various items of advantage recommend dwarf fruit trees for several
+specific purposes, some of which are worth pointing out in detail.
+
+1. _For suburban places._--A large and increasing percentage of our
+population now lives the suburban life--in that zone where city and
+country meet. They have small tracts of land, which, however, they too
+often lease instead of owning. On these they do more or less
+gardening,--usually more, in proportion to the size of their holdings.
+For them dwarf fruit trees are a precious boon. It is possible to plant
+three hundred to five hundred dwarf fruit trees on a quarter of an acre,
+where less than a dozen standard trees would flourish. This gives the
+opportunity to experiment with all sorts and varieties of fruits, a
+privilege very dear to the heart of the commuter. The dwarf fruit trees
+also work more readily into a scheme of more or less ornamental
+gardening, where fruits are combined with vegetables and flowers.
+Especially if some sort of formal gardening is attempted, the cordons,
+espaliers and pyramids exactly suit the demands. Then the fact, already
+mentioned, that the dwarf trees come into bearing much sooner, is a
+consideration of the highest value to the suburban gardener. He fully
+expects to move from one home to another at least once in ten years, if
+not once in five. With the best of intentions and the most favorable of
+opportunities he can hardly expect to settle down anywhere for life. The
+suburbs themselves change too rapidly for that; and the place which
+today is away off in the country may be all covered with factories five
+years from now. It is terribly discouraging, under such circumstances,
+to plant a tree knowing that ten years must pass before any considerable
+fruitage can be expected from it. It is altogether another feeling with
+which one plants a tree which promises fruit within two or three years.
+
+So that, whatever the drawbacks to the planting of dwarfs, they are the
+salvation of the suburban garden. For such circumstances they can be
+freely recommended, without exception or reservation.
+
+2. _For orchard fillers._--As commercial orcharding becomes more
+refined, under the stress of modern competition, and as good orchard
+land increases in value, up to one hundred, two hundred, or even three
+hundred dollars an acre, new methods must be adopted with a view to
+increasing the returns. This opportunity looms especially large for the
+first few years after the establishment of the commercial orchard, more
+particularly the apple orchard. When standard trees are planted
+thirty-five to the acre, which is now the usual practice, the land is
+not more than one-fourth occupied for the first five years, and not more
+than half occupied for the first ten years. Indeed it is full twenty
+years from the time of planting before the thirty-five apple trees will
+use the whole acre. And since a good farmer can not afford to let
+expensive land lie idle he has before him a very pretty problem to
+determine how the space between the standard trees shall be utilized
+during the early years of the orchard's growth.
+
+Several different methods are in vogue for the solution of this problem;
+but probably the best one is that system which supplies fillers or
+temporary trees between the standard or permanent ones. In an orchard of
+standard apple trees these fillers may very properly be dwarf apple
+trees; or between standard pears dwarf pears may be planted. If there
+are thirty-five standard apple trees to an acre, and if a dwarf tree is
+placed half way between each two standards in every direction, including
+the diagonal direction, this will make one hundred and five dwarf trees,
+or one hundred and forty trees in all, instead of the thirty-five trees
+with which the acre of apple orchard land is more commonly furnished.
+The dwarf apple trees will be bearing good crops at the end of five
+years at most; and they can be kept on the land for five years longer
+at the least, before they will begin to crowd the permanent standards.
+During these five years, if the orchard has a paying management at all,
+they will easily pay all the expenses of the enterprise, and should
+leave a substantial balance of profit.
+
+As this system of filling, or interplanting, commercial orchards is
+becoming more and more common, the suitability of dwarf trees, for this
+purpose, becomes more generally evident.
+
+3. _For school gardens._--Thus far school gardens in America have been
+mostly temporary and experimental affairs. But we are already satisfied
+that they have come to stay, and that gardening in some form will be a
+permanent feature of the curriculum in many of our best schools. As soon
+as a school garden becomes a permanent institution, with ground of its
+own to be held in use year after year, the dependence on annual crops
+will give way to the use of various perennial plants, shrubs and trees.
+
+And among these dwarf fruit trees will naturally be one of the first
+introductions. Their small size adapts them to the school premises,
+their habit of early bearing again serves to recommend them most
+strikingly, and the special opportunity which they offer to pupils to
+observe details of pruning and other items of tree management, make them
+almost a first necessity in the permanent school garden.
+
+4. _For covering walls and fences._--There are many places about every
+farm, suburban establishment, or even about many city homes, where back
+walls and fences could be put out of sight very agreeably by almost any
+sort of foliage. Various ornamental climbers and creepers are in vogue
+for this service; but a certain number of such unattractive walls and
+fences could be treated quite as acceptably, from the esthetic point of
+view, with trained fruit trees, and the result would be more
+satisfactory in some other ways. Apples or pears trained as cordons or
+espaliers, or peaches, nectarines, or cherries in fan forms, will thrive
+on almost any brick or wooden wall, except those with a northern front.
+It is necessary only to supply a proper soil, to plant sound trees of
+proper sorts, and to give them the prescribed care. The result is not
+only a thing of beauty but one of practical utility as well.
+
+There are many places where the owner of a city or suburban lot can
+secure the fun and the substantial benefits belonging to the fruit
+grower on land that would be otherwise wasted, if he will only build a
+woven wire fence on the property line between him and his
+not-too-agreeable neighbor, using this fence as a support for a row of
+cordon plums, pears or apples. If he has time and inclination to do a
+little more work with the trees he can better plant U-form peaches,
+nectarines or apricots, or he can grow plums in U-form, or he can have
+fan-form cherry trees, or apples or pears in Verrier-palmettes. One of
+the most interesting and productive lots in the author's dwarf fruit
+garden is a row of plum trees on such a woven wire trellis. The trees in
+this row stand two feet apart, and form a perfect screen. (Fig. 6.) The
+majority of the trees which were necessarily taken for planting this row
+were not propagated on suitable stocks, and many varieties were
+introduced for experimental purposes which were obviously unadapted to
+this mode of training, but nevertheless the net result has been highly
+satisfactory.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6--PLUMS AS UPRIGHT CORDONS, SET TWO FEET APART]
+
+In a very similar manner apple, pear or plum trees may be trained so as
+to form an arched arbor way. In this kind of make-up they present a most
+agreeable novelty. An example of this kind of training is shown in the
+illustration, page 5. For this purpose cordon trees are usually best;
+though peach or apricot trees in U-form or double U-form will answer
+very well. Even apple trees or pears formed as palmettes-Verrier can be
+carried up over an arched trellis.
+
+Mr. Geo. Bunyard in "The Fruit Garden" tells of carrying apple trees up
+over the slate roof of an outbuilding, with marked success. The
+fruit-bearing portion of the trees, lying there on the slate roof
+beautifully exposed to the sun above, and assisted by the heat absorbed
+and radiated by the slate, yielded large crops of apples of very
+superior quality.
+
+
+SOME DISADVANTAGES
+
+There are, of course, some disadvantages in growing dwarf fruit trees,
+and these should be examined with as much care as the advantages. The
+more important ones are as follows:
+
+1. _Greater expense._--The trees are somewhat harder to propagate, and
+therefore cost more. There is no general demand for them in America, so
+that they are carried by only a few nurseries and are not looked upon as
+staple goods even with those dealers; and on this account the price is
+necessarily increased. Thus each tree costs more than a similar tree of
+the same age and variety propagated in the usual way. But the greatest
+increase of expense comes from the fact that many more trees are
+required to plant the same area. There is often an advantage, as already
+argued, in planting more trees to the acre, but it costs something to
+gain this advantage. An acre of ground can be planted with thirty-five
+standard apple trees set thirty-five feet apart each way, and these
+trees will cost, roughly estimating retail prices at $12 a hundred,
+$4.20. To plant an acre to dwarf apple trees, setting them six feet
+apart each way, which is about as thick as these trees should ever be
+planted, will require 1,210 trees. Estimating the retail price roughly
+at $15 a hundred this would make the first cost $181.50--a considerably
+greater initial investment in the orchard.
+
+2. _The trees are shorter lived._--This statement is true for certain
+kinds of dwarf trees, but not for others. Certain varieties of pears,
+for example, which do not unite well with the quince root, naturally
+make short lived trees. On the other hand other varieties of pears
+appear to live as long and thrive fully as well on quince roots as on
+pear roots. There is a common belief, especially in England, that apples
+worked on French paradise roots are apt to be short-lived. The
+nurserymen who hold this belief contend, however, that the so-called
+English Paradise, more properly called Doucin, supplies a stock on which
+apples will live to as great an age as on any other stock whatever.
+There is some evidence to show that vigorous varieties of plums worked
+on Americana roots or on dwarf sand cherry are shorter lived than the
+same varieties on freer growing stocks. In many cases, however, dwarf
+trees live as long as standards; and in almost all cases they live long
+enough.
+
+3. _They require more care._--This objection stands particularly against
+the dwarf trees trained in special and intricate forms. Such trees
+undoubtedly do require more careful attention, more frequent
+going-over, and more hand work in the course of the year. It is
+probably not true that apples, pears, plums or peaches in bush or
+pyramid forms require any more labor or attention than standard trees to
+secure equally good results. On the other hand it must not be forgotten,
+as has already been pointed out, that whatever care may be required is
+much more easily given the dwarf trees than the standards.
+
+4. _They are not a commercial success._--This statement, too, though
+undoubtedly having some truth in it, can not stand without
+qualification. It is certainly true that no one could grow ordinary
+varieties of apples, like Baldwin or Ben Davis for instance, on dwarf
+trees in competition with men who are growing the same varieties on
+standards. It is probably true that fancy varieties of apples can be
+grown with profit on dwarf trees, but even this can not be strongly
+urged. So far as apples are concerned the chief value of dwarf trees for
+modern commercial enterprises in America will come through their use as
+fillers between rows of standard trees. In the case of pears the
+situation is somewhat more favorable to dwarf trees. There are a number
+of orchards in this country where pears have been successfully grown for
+market, these many years, on dwarf trees. The famous and everywhere
+planted Bartlett succeeds admirably on the quince stock wherever the
+soil is suited to it. No successful commercial orchards of dwarf peaches
+or plums can be cited in this country, individual trees of these kinds
+even being extremely rare; yet there is good reason to suppose that
+under favorable conditions dwarf peaches and plums may have some
+commercial value. Such value may be more in the way of supplementing
+standard trees than in superseding them, but it is still worth
+consideration. So that, after all, when we say that dwarf fruit trees
+are not a commercial success we mean merely that they will not take the
+place of standard trees. The large market orchards must always continue
+to be made up of standard trees; but in their own way the dwarf trees
+will find a limited place even in commercial operations, and this use of
+them seems destined to be more general in the future than it has been in
+the past.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+PROPAGATION
+
+
+The propagation of dwarf fruit trees is in some senses a more critical
+and interesting problem than the propagation of ordinary nursery stock.
+The successful production of a dwarf fruit tree depends primarily on its
+propagation. The selection of stocks for dwarfing purposes is
+necessarily a complicated matter. Under the terms of the problem it is
+impossible that the stock and the cion which are wedded together should
+be very closely related. The stock must be distinctly different and
+pronouncedly dwarfer in his habit of growth.
+
+It is not always an easy matter to find a stock which is thus distinctly
+different from the tree which it is desired to grow and which will at
+the same time form with it a vigorous and long lived union. It is
+necessary further that the propagation can be carried on with ease and
+with a fair degree of success in commercial nurseries. If difficult
+methods of grafting are required, or if only a small stand of nursery
+trees can be secured, the undertaking becomes too expensive from the
+nurseryman's point of view.
+
+The methods of propagating dwarf trees are for the most part the same as
+those used in reproducing the same kinds of fruit on standard stocks. As
+a matter of fact nearly all dwarf trees are propagated by budding.
+Apples, pears, and plums can be readily grafted, but budding is
+simpler, speedier, and usually the cheaper process in the nursery. In
+the upper Mississippi Valley, where plums are somewhat extensively
+worked on Americana plum roots, grafting is rather common. The side
+graft and the whip graft are the forms most used.
+
+The theory of the production of a dwarf fruit tree by the restraining of
+its growth has already been mentioned in another chapter. The dwarf
+stock simply supplies less food than is required for the normal growth
+of the variety under propagation, and the tree is, in a sense, starved
+or stunted into its dwarf stature.
+
+As the selection of proper stocks--the adaptation of stock to cion--is
+one of the fundamental problems in dwarf fruit growing, we may now
+address ourselves to that. We will take up the different classes of
+fruit in order.
+
+
+THE APPLE
+
+Everyone who has observed the wild or native apples which grow in New
+England pastures must frequently have noticed certain dwarf and
+slow-growing specimens. It it not difficult to find such which do not
+reach a height of five feet in ten years of unobstructed growth. If the
+cions of ordinary varieties of apples like Greening and Winesap should
+be grafted upon these stocks, the result would be a dwarf Greening or
+Winesap. If these dwarf wild apples could be produced with certainty and
+at a low price, they would furnish a source of supply for dwarf apple
+stocks.
+
+The Paradise apple so-called (Fig. 7) is simply one of these dwarf
+varieties which can be reproduced freely and cheaply. This reproduction
+is secured nearly always by means of mound layerage. As the variety does
+not come true to seed, any more than such varieties as King or
+Hubbardston do, some such method of propagation is necessary. This
+Paradise apple is naturally inclined to stool out somewhat from the
+roots. This habit is encouraged by cutting the plants back to the
+ground. When the young shoots are thrown up they are banked up with a
+hoe or by plowing furrows up against the rows of plants. The young
+shoots then form roots at the base and these rooted shoots or layers are
+removed when one year old. They are then planted in nursery rows in the
+spring, where they are usually budded the following July or August.
+
+These Paradise stocks are largely grown in France. Practically all the
+supply comes from that country. The nurserymen who grow dwarf apple
+trees in America import their stocks from France during the winter,
+plant them in nursery rows early in the spring, bud the stocks the
+following July or August, and have the dwarf apple trees for sale the
+second year following.
+
+This Paradise is the dwarfest stock known for apples. Its effect on
+nearly all varieties is very marked, causing them to form very small
+trees and to bear very early. Some of the more vigorous varieties, like
+Northern Spy for instance, do not submit kindly to such treatment. For
+this, or possibly for more recondite reasons, a few varieties do not
+succeed well on Paradise roots. The writer would be glad to give a
+list of such varieties which are not adapted to the Paradise stock, but
+confesses he is unable to do so.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7--PARADISE APPLE STOCKS IN EARLY SPRING]
+
+The Doucin stock is simply another variety of dwarf apple. It is more
+vigorous and larger growing than the Paradise, and, therefore, produces
+a tree, when ordinary varieties are grafted upon it, about midway in
+size between the ordinary standard apple and the same variety growing
+upon Paradise.
+
+This Doucin is sometimes called the English or Broad-Leaved Paradise,
+but this name is misleading. It will be well to remember this in buying
+stocks or in buying trees in England. Dwarf apples are largely
+propagated in England, but the trees which are said to be on Paradise
+roots are often on Doucin. This confusion comes about from the
+Englishman's habit of calling Doucin the Broad-Leaved Paradise.
+
+The Doucin is perhaps better for the free-growing bush form trees,
+especially where excessive dwarfing is not needed. For orchard planting
+in the United States this Doucin stock would be likely to suit many
+growers better than Paradise. For trees which are to be kept within very
+narrow bounds, or those which are to be trained in particular forms, the
+Paradise stock is better. For all sorts of cordon apple trees, the
+Paradise is essential.
+
+
+THE PEAR
+
+Dwarf pears are always propagated on quince roots. Any kind of a quince
+may be used as a stock for pears, but the one commonly employed by
+nurserymen is the Angers quince, named after Angers, France, from which
+place the supply largely comes. Almost all the quince stocks used by
+nurserymen in America are imported from France. As in dealing with apple
+stocks, the importation is made during the winter, the stocks are
+planted in nursery rows in the early spring, and are usually budded in
+July or August of the same year.
+
+A few varieties of pears do not make good unions with the quince. In
+some cases this antipathy is overcome by the expedient of
+double-working. The quince root is first budded with some variety which
+unites well with it. After this pear cion has grown one year, the
+refractory variety is budded upon this pear shoot. The complete tree,
+when it leaves the nursery, consists of three pieces,--a quince root
+below, a pear top above, and a short section of only one or two inches
+in length of some other variety of pear which simply holds together the
+two essential parts of the tree.
+
+This practise of double-working is sometimes undertaken with other kinds
+of fruit for special purposes. There are no other cases, however, in
+which it becomes a generally recognized commercial practise.
+
+
+THE PEACH
+
+The peach is dwarfed by budding it upon almost any kind of a plum root,
+especially upon the smaller growing species of plums. The stock most
+used is the ordinary Myrobalan plum. This is simply because the
+Myrobalan stock is commoner and cheaper. The St. Julien plum probably
+furnishes a better dwarfing stock for peaches, but it is more expensive
+and harder to work.
+
+The Americana plum, now somewhat largely grown for stocks in the States
+of the upper Mississippi valley, furnishes a good dwarfing stock for the
+peach. According to the writer's experience the Americana stock gives
+better results with peaches than either Myrobalan or St. Julien. It
+should be observed that this stock requires budding rather early in the
+season.
+
+The dwarf sand cherry, which is further discussed below under plums,
+also makes a good stock for peaches. As this stock is very dwarf, it
+produces the smallest possible peach tree. The peach cion rapidly
+overgrows the stock and the tree can hardly be expected to be long
+lived. The growth is very vigorous and satisfactory during early years,
+however. I have not had an opportunity to determine how long peaches
+will live and thrive on this stock.
+
+Nectarines can be grown in dwarf form in exactly the same manner
+employed for peaches.
+
+
+THE PLUM
+
+In all the old books it is said that dwarf plum trees are secured by
+working on Myrobalan stocks. This statement is hardly true according to
+our present standards, and is certainly far from satisfactory. This rule
+came into vogue at the time when only large growing Domestica plums were
+propagated in this country and the stocks used were mostly either "horse
+plums" or Myrobalan. The Myrobalan stock does give a somewhat smaller
+tree than the old fashioned horse plums; but this Myrobalan stock has
+been for many years the one principally used for propagating all kinds
+of plums in America. It has come to be looked upon as a standard rather
+than a dwarf stock. When we think of dwarf trees, therefore, we expect
+to see something smaller than what will grow under ordinary
+circumstances on a Myrobalan root.
+
+The Americana plum, already mentioned, is a first-rate stock in nearly
+all respects except that it can not be bought so cheaply as the
+Myrobalan. It is now grown to a considerable extent by nurserymen in
+Minnesota, Iowa and the neighboring States. If grafted, or budded early,
+all varieties of plums take well upon it. The trees on Americana roots
+make a good growth in the nursery and are easily transplanted. The tree
+produced on this stock is only moderately dwarf. Still this dwarfing
+effect is always well marked, this result being shown by the overgrowing
+of the cion. The top thus appears to outgrow the root, and such trees
+are apt to blow over during wind storms. Suitable precautions should be
+taken to guard against damage of this sort.
+
+Prof. A. T. Erwin of Iowa writes on this subject as follows:
+
+     "Regarding the Americana as a plum stock, I would state that we are
+     using it by the thousands out here; in fact, have about quit using
+     anything else. As a stock for the European and Japanese sorts, it
+     does dwarf them, and the cion tends to outgrow the stock at the
+     point of union, causing an enlargement. The union is also not very
+     congenial, and they frequently break off on account of high winds.
+     However, in my experience and observation, this is not the case
+     when the Americana is used as a stock for Americana varieties. It
+     does not dwarf the trees seriously and the union is splendid. It is
+     by all odds the best stock we have for plums, and since we do not
+     grow anything but Americana varieties, it works first rate. It does
+     tend to sprout some, though there is little trouble in this regard
+     after the trees come into bearing."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8
+
+THE WESTERN SAND CHERRY
+
+_Prunus pumila besseyi_]
+
+The sand cherry seems to be the dwarfing stock par excellence for the
+plum. This sand cherry is a heterogeneous species, or as some botanists
+think, is three species, ranging throughout the Northern States from
+Maine to Colorado. The narrow leaf upright form growing about five feet
+tall, known as _Prunus pumila_, is found along the Atlantic coast. The
+broad leafed dwarfer form known as _Prunus pumila besseyi_ or _P.
+besseyi_, is found in the Western States. Another rarer form of more
+irregular growth known as _Prunus pumila cuneata_, or as _P. cuneata_,
+is found in the North Central States.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9--UPRIGHT CORDON PLUM
+
+With buds set into the naked trunk]
+
+All of these different forms may be used for propagating plums or
+peaches. The western form (_P. besseyi_) (Fig. 8) is in some respects
+the best, producing the dwarfest and apparently the best trees. In our
+experience, however, nearly all varieties of plums and peaches give a
+better stand of trees when budded on _P. pumila_. _Prunus cuneata_ is
+inferior to the others.
+
+The eastern form, _P. pumila_, has another advantage from the standpoint
+of the nurseryman in that it is more easily propagated from cuttings.
+For the most part the western sand cherry is propagated from seed. Both
+forms can be propagated from layers.
+
+
+NURSERY MANAGEMENT
+
+Dwarf trees are managed in the nursery very much the same as standards
+of the same varieties. There are no special points to be observed except
+in the formation of the tops. Western New York nurserymen, who now grow
+the principal supply of dwarf apple and pear trees, have the custom of
+forming their nursery stock with high heads. That is, the heads are
+formed at a height of eighteen inches to three feet from the ground. In
+this matter the pattern is taken after the usual style of standard
+trees. This is quite wrong. Of course, some planters might like to have
+dwarf trees with trunks two or three feet tall, but the best form has a
+much shorter stem. At any rate the buyer of dwarf trees ought to be at
+liberty to form the head within three or four inches of the ground if he
+so desires. This becomes very difficult if the tree is once pruned up to
+a height of two or three feet.
+
+In order that the planter may reach his own ideal perfectly in this
+matter, it is sometimes necessary to buy one year old trees, what the
+English nurserymen call maidens. This, of course, enables the tree
+planter to form the head wherever he desires.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+PRUNING DWARF FRUIT TREES
+
+
+The pruning of dwarf fruit trees is a matter of the greatest
+consequence, for on proper pruning depend both the form and the
+productivity of the trees. Some of the details of management will be
+explained in the succeeding chapters, dealing with the particular kinds
+of fruits, but a few general statements should be set down here.
+
+1. The trees are severely headed in. This applies more particularly to
+bush and pyramid forms. By the term "heading in" we refer to the
+shortening of the leaders. Such shortening is usually given at the
+spring pruning, while the trees are dormant. The leaders may be headed
+in at times, however, during the latter part of the growing season, in
+July. Such stopping of growing leaders will be practised more often on
+young trees just coming into bearing than on old trees. (Fig. 10).
+Constant heading back of some sort, however, is required in nearly all
+cases, if the tree is to be retained in its dwarf form. The mistake has
+often been made of thinking that a tree propagated on a dwarf root would
+take care of itself.
+
+2. Summer pruning is essential. In most American orchard practise one
+annual pruning (sometimes one pruning every five years!) is considered
+sufficient, and systematic summer pruning is seldom or never given. Now
+summer pruning tends much more to repress the growth of a tree than
+winter pruning does. In fact, heavy winter pruning leads rather to
+increased vegetative vigor. Aside from any special system of pruning,
+therefore, this rule is to be remembered, that summer pruning is
+desirable, on general principles, for dwarf fruit trees.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10--BUSH APPLE, THREE YEARS OLD
+
+Showing strong leaders formed during the summer]
+
+3. Side shoots usually need pinching during the growing season. Leaders
+are more frequently allowed to grow unchecked throughout the season, or
+are stopped only late in their period of development. In the pomaceous
+fruits, which form distinct fruit spurs, the checking of these side
+shoots helps toward the production of fruit buds. As long as every bud
+is allowed to push out into a strong shoot no fruit spurs can become
+established. Thus the summer pinching of the side shoots on apples and
+pears has the purpose of encouraging the formation of fruit spurs. On
+peach and plum trees equally distinct fruit spurs do not form; but if
+the side shoots are allowed to push forth unrestricted they are apt to
+choke one another. There will be too many of them, they will not get
+light enough, their growth will be weak and sappy, and they will not
+form fruit buds. Good fruit buds on a peach tree, for example, form on
+strong, clean, healthy shoots of this year's growth for next year's crop
+of fruit. It is seen, therefore, that in nearly all sorts of dwarf fruit
+trees the summer pruning is especially directed to the suppression or
+regulation of the growth of side shoots.
+
+This part of the treatment becomes of prime importance in dealing with
+cordons and espaliers.
+
+4. The control of the fruit spurs or of the side shoots here
+contemplated requires that the trees be gone over more than once during
+the growing season. In fact, four successive examinations of the tree
+are usually required. Old trees can sometimes be managed with two or
+three, but young ones, on the other hand, will sometimes require six or
+more. Of course, there are usually only a few shoots that need attention
+at each succeeding visit, and the work can be very rapidly performed.
+The first pruning, or pinching, falls about three weeks after the trees
+have started into growth. The next one comes ten days later, the next
+one ten days later again, and the fourth pruning two weeks after the
+third. From this time onward the intervals lengthen. These
+specifications, of course, are only approximate and suggestive. Some
+judgment is required to select just the proper moment for pinching back
+a shoot and even more to select the time for a general summer pruning.
+Those trees which enjoy the sympathetic presence of the gardener every
+day are sure to fare best. The bulk of this pruning can be done with the
+thumb nail and forefinger, but I find a light pair of pruning scissors
+pleasanter to work with.
+
+5. Root pruning is sometimes advisable. Since the whole program is
+arranged to check the growth of the dwarf tree, root pruning would
+naturally fit well with the other practises recommended. Root pruning
+checks the growth of a tree about as positively as any treatment that
+can be devised. When dwarf pear or apple trees seem to be making too
+much wood growth and not enough fruit, they can be taken up, as for
+transplanting, during the dormant season and set right back into place.
+This digging up and replanting is always accompanied by some cutting
+of roots. The whole root system is disturbed and has to re-establish
+itself before the top vegetates very strongly once more. Such root
+pruning ought to be done late in the fall. It is a special practice,
+suited to refractory cases, and the gardener is not recommended to
+indulge in it too freely.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11--BUSH APPLE
+
+Three years old, before pruning]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12--BUSH APPLE
+
+Same tree after pruning]
+
+6. A certain equilibrium between vegetative growth and fruit bearing
+should be established at the earliest possible moment, and should be
+maintained thereafter. Of course, some such equilibrium is sought in the
+management of a standard tree; but it is secured earlier in the life of
+the dwarf tree and should be much more accurately maintained. The tree
+must make a certain amount of growth each year, but this must be only
+enough to keep it in good health, and to furnish foliage enough to
+mature the fruit. Beyond this wood growth the tree should bear a certain
+amount of fruit every year, for annual bearing is not only an ideal but
+a rule in the management of dwarf trees. This equilibrium once
+established must be maintained not by haphazard pruning, but by some
+suitable system. If there is the proper balance between summer pruning
+and winter pruning, combined with proper control of cultivation and
+fertilization, then the balance between vegetation and fruitage can be
+kept up. It is a delicate business, like courting two girls at once, but
+it can be carried out successfully.
+
+7. The training of trees into mathematical forms is largely a mechanical
+process. For the most part the trees are shaped while they are growing.
+The young shoots are twisted and bent to the desired positions, and
+are tied into place until the stems become hardened. There are many
+clever little tricks for expediting this sort of work and for making the
+results more sure, but a rehearsal of them here would be tedious. The
+most important rule to remember is that constant attention must be given
+the shoots while they are growing. Mistakes are corrected with
+difficulty after an undesirable form has been allowed to harden.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13--CORDON PEARS
+
+Before pruning]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14--CORDON PEARS
+
+After pruning]
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+SPECIAL FORMS FOR TRAINED TREES
+
+
+We have already explained the connection between dwarf trees and the
+practise of training them in special forms. It is true that this
+practise looks childish to American eyes. It seems to be only a kind of
+play, and a rather juvenile sport at that. Nevertheless we should
+understand that in some parts of the world it is a real and profitable
+commercial undertaking. We should consider also that in other places,
+where fruit of very high quality is better appreciated, perhaps, than it
+is in America, the extra trouble is thought to be worth while for the
+superior quality which it gives the fruit. As this matter is coming to
+be of more importance in America also, and as the interest in amateur
+fruit growing is enormously increasing, we may fairly begin to talk
+about these methods.
+
+The formation of trees into bushes and pyramids, by means of systematic
+pruning according to a definite plan, as explained in the succeeding
+chapters, while apparently simpler and more reasonable to our American
+eyes, it is still a method of training the tree. The fruiting branches
+are placed at definite points and the fruit spurs are encouraged to grow
+in regular succession. It is not a very great step from this to a
+distribution of the branches into a more precise form.
+
+The different forms which are used most commonly are named and
+classified in the following outline:
+
+  _A._--_Forms of three dimensions_:
+                  _a._ Vase or bush
+                  _b._ Pyramid
+                  _c._ Winged pyramid, etc.
+  _B._--_Forms of two dimensions_:
+                  _a._ Various espaliers
+                  _b._ Palmette-Verrier
+                  _c._ Fans or Fan-espaliers
+                  _d._ U-form and double U-form
+  _C._--_Trained to a single stem_:
+                  _a._ Upright cordon
+                  _b._ Oblique cordon
+                  _c._ Horizontal cordon
+                           (with one arm)
+                           (with two arms)
+                  _d._ Serpentine cordon, etc.
+
+Among the forms of three dimensions none is of much practical importance
+besides the pyramid and bush or vase form. These are sufficiently
+explained in the chapters on pears and apples. Here we need only to
+define them. The pyramid tree is one which has a straight central stem
+with branches radiating therefrom. It is especially adapted to upright
+growing varieties of pears. The bush or vase form has several main arms
+or branches, all standing out from approximately the same point and
+growing upward at a more or less acute angle, thus forming roughly a
+vase. The secondary branches put out from these, bearing fruiting wood,
+as the gardener may order.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15--PEARS IN DOUBLE U-FORM
+
+From Loebner's "Zwergobstbaeume"]
+
+The flying pyramid or winged pyramid, described in all European books,
+is considerably different from the ordinary pyramid and is more precise
+in its design. Usually six arms are brought out at the base of the tree.
+These are grown in a direction approximately horizontal until they reach
+a convenient length,--say two to three feet. They are then suddenly bent
+upward and inward and are conducted along wires set for this purpose
+until they meet in a common point with the main stem of the tree some
+four to eight feet above where the branches put out. There is thus
+formed a precise mathematical pyramid. Along these main arms fruiting
+spurs are allowed to grow, but no branches are expected to develop.
+
+Sometimes the flying pyramid is made more elaborate by bending the arms
+into a spiral form. Other more or less complex modifications are
+practised to some extent. All of them are to be regarded merely as
+curiosities and as of no practical value.
+
+The various forms of espaliers and fan-shaped trees have their special
+and legitimate uses. It may be said here that the Palmette-Verrier is
+regarded generally as being the most successful for the largest number
+of varieties of fruits. It is a safe rule also that the simpler forms
+are generally the better. With rare exceptions a tree confined to a
+moderately small space is more satisfactory than one trained over a
+large space.
+
+Great care must be exercised in forming these trees. If the geometrical
+style of training is undertaken at all, it should be carried out with
+considerable precision. If one arm happens to be placed a little higher,
+or at a little more moderate angle, or otherwise more favorably than the
+corresponding arm, it will very soon divert to its own use the major
+portion of food supplied by the top. It will outgrow its mate and the
+form which the gardener designed will eventually be lost. It will be
+seen at once that this condition makes the same care and precision
+necessary in all forms of training.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16--PEARS IN U-FORM
+
+Sometimes called two-arm upright cordons]
+
+The U-form classifies somewhere between the cordon and the espalier. It
+consists of two upright branches joined to a single trunk below by an
+arc of a circle. The fruit is all borne on the two parallel stems
+which are treated essentially the same as upright cordons. (Fig. 17.)
+
+The double U-form is made by growing two U's from the same tree. The
+stem is first divided near the ground into two branches and each of
+these is immediately divided into two more. The tree thus provides four
+parallel and equally spaced upright and fruiting stems equal to four
+upright cordons, except that they are all supported from a single trunk.
+The U- and double U-forms are employed mostly for plums, apricots,
+peaches and nectarines.
+
+One occasionally sees much more elaborate schemes of training than any
+here mentioned. There are complex geometrical designs, even pictorial
+figures--birds, dogs, and beer-steins--and sometimes the initials of the
+gardener, or the name of his kingly and imperial majesty. In every case
+the method of producing these forms is practically the same. A frame is
+built of wood or wire in the form which it is desired to give the tree.
+Branches are developed at suitable points on the tree and these are tied
+out while they are growing to the wooden or metal form. It does not
+require any special care or ingenuity to produce the most elaborate
+designs in this method. It is essentially a job of carpentry.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17--APRICOTS IN U-FORM]
+
+We come now to the cordons. If we take the simplest form, namely the
+upright cordon, we have what we may call a tree of one dimension only.
+The upright cordon has nothing but height, eschewing both breadth and
+thickness. A cordon is simply a tree trained to a single stem and this
+stem may be placed in any position. The position or direction of the
+stem classifies the cordon. There are, therefore, besides the upright
+cordon, others which are oblique, that is, which make an angle with the
+horizontal, those which are horizontal, and those which are bent into
+various forms. The serpent form is one of the simplest of these. This
+form of cordon is simply bent back and forth against a trellis forming a
+series of S's one above another. The horizontal cordons are of two
+varieties, namely one-arm and two-arm forms. It is altogether a matter
+of convenience which one of these forms is chosen.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18--PEAR IN ESPALIER
+
+This tree is carrying over 200 fruits]
+
+In conclusion it may be pointed out that the slower growing trees, pears
+and apples, are the better suited to the more elaborate forms of
+training. The more free and rapid growing species, such as peaches,
+nectarines, cherries, and Japanese plums, are better managed in somewhat
+simpler forms, preferably the fan. Such trees do well, however, in the
+U-form or double U-form.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19--OLD ESPALIER PEARS ON FARM HOUSE WALL]
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+GENERAL MANAGEMENT
+
+
+The general management of dwarf trees is naturally very much like the
+management of ordinary standard trees. As dwarf trees are grown more
+often in gardens rather than in orchards they will receive garden
+treatment. Heavy tools and extensive methods of culture will hardly find
+application.
+
+Good soil culture may be regarded as essential. Whatever some American
+fruit growers may be saying about the propriety of growing apple
+orchards in sod, no one has yet undertaken to adapt the sod system into
+the kitchen garden. The close planting which is customary with dwarf
+trees makes culture comparatively difficult, yet not unreasonably so.
+Apple and pear trees planted six feet apart each way can be worked for
+several years with a single horse and cultivator. In fact if the trees
+are kept carefully headed in, the time need never come when the
+cultivator will have to be abandoned. When cordons or espaliers are
+planted in a garden large enough to warrant horse cultivation under
+ordinary circumstances then the rows of trained trees should be set six
+feet apart, which will be enough to permit the continued use of the
+horse and cultivator between the rows.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20--HORIZONTAL CORDON APPLE AND OTHER DWARF TREES
+
+With cover crop of hairy vetch]
+
+However, the horse cultivator is certain to be definitely crowded out of
+some dwarf fruit gardens. Many of the men who have greatest reason for
+growing dwarf fruit trees are those whose backyard gardens were never
+large enough to justify the presence of a horse or horse tools. In such
+cases the spading fork and the hand cultivator are the ready and proper
+substitutes. Our extensive methods of farming in America have bred a
+strong prejudice against all sorts of hand labor like this, but
+experience will show that under some conditions it is quite worth while.
+A very common mistake in all kinds of agriculture is to allow prejudice
+to rule experience.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21--DESIGN FOR A BACK YARD FRUIT GARDEN 50 FT.
+SQUARE
+
+North fence (top of map), peach espalier (4); Row 1, bush apple (7); Row
+2, pyramid pear (7); Row 3, currants and gooseberries (11); Row 4 and 5,
+horizontal cordon apples, with grass walk between; Row 6, raspberry
+bushes (7); Row 7, strawberries; Row 8, plums in bush form (7); Row 9,
+apples in horizontal cordons (4); East fence, apples as upright cordons
+(31); West fence, pears in espalier.]
+
+Garden culture means not only good tillage of the soil, but good
+treatment in other respects. It means good feeding and good spraying. As
+for spraying we need make only two observations. First, the treatment to
+be given is almost precisely the same as that which is given to standard
+trees of the same species; second, the work is much more easily
+performed because the trees are smaller. If one happens to have a
+considerable block of dwarf trees closely planted. There may be
+difficulty, it is true, in driving in with a spray pump. This difficulty
+is overcome by having long runs of hose on the spray pump, so that the
+cart may stand on the borders of the garden while the operator carries
+the nozzle in among the trees. In case of large plantings of dwarf trees
+alley-ways should be left every one hundred feet, or better, every
+eighty feet, between the blocks. These alleys will be useful for other
+purposes besides spraying.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22--DWARF FRUIT GARDEN 111 BY 144 FEET
+
+From Lucas' Handbuch des Obstbaues]
+
+In the management of a small garden the gardener is expected to be
+liberal in his allowance of fertilizers. While it is true that dwarf
+fruit trees should be liberally fed there is a possibility of overdoing
+it. It has already been explained that the dwarfing of the tree depends
+in a certain way on its well-regulated starvation. If the tree top could
+get all the food which its nature calls for it would not be dwarfed. The
+rule in feeding dwarf fruit trees therefore should be to give enough
+fertilizer to keep them in perfect health and in good growing condition,
+but not enough to force unnecessary growth. Fertilizer rich in nitrogen
+should be especially avoided, and, as the object in view is to secure an
+early maturity of the tree and to produce fruit always in preference to
+wood, a larger proportion of potash would naturally be substituted for
+the diminished proportion of nitrogen. Of course the amounts and
+proportions of the different elements (nitrogen, potash and phosphoric
+acid) to be applied will vary greatly with different conditions,--with
+the nature of the soil, the age of the trees, etc. As a sort of standard
+we may say that under normal conditions of good soil with dwarf apple
+and pear trees in bearing there should be given annually for each acre:
+
+  400 pounds ground bone
+  400 pounds muriate of potash
+  100 pounds Peruvian guano
+
+Peaches and plums require more nitrogen during early growth, and more
+potash when in full bearing. For a new plantation of these trees the
+following amounts should be given annually for each acre:
+
+  300 pounds ground bone
+  400 pounds muriate of potash
+  150 pounds nitrate of soda
+
+For peach and plum trees in bearing, the following formula may be
+suggested:
+
+  400 pounds ground bone
+  500 pounds muriate of potash
+  100 pounds Peruvian guano
+
+Inasmuch as many owners of dwarf fruit trees will have so much less
+than an acre for treatment it will be best to repeat these formulas,
+reducing them to a smaller unit. Making this reduction somewhat freely,
+in order to avoid long and useless decimals, we may compute the quantity
+needed annually for each one hundred square feet of land as follows:
+
+  FOR APPLES AND PEARS IN BEARING
+
+      1 pound ground bone
+      1 pound muriate of potash
+    1/4 pound Peruvian guano
+
+  FOR PEACHES AND PLUMS NEWLY PLANTED
+
+    3/4 pound ground bone
+      1 pound muriate of potash
+    3/8 pound nitrate of soda
+
+  FOR PEACHES AND PLUMS IN BEARING
+
+    1/4 pound Peruvian guano
+  1-1/4 pound muriate of potash
+      1 pound ground bone
+
+Cherries should be treated like plums; gooseberries, currants, and most
+other fruits, like apples.
+
+In the home of dwarf tree culture, that is, in Europe, trained trees are
+extensively grown upon walls. The gardeners utilize for this purpose not
+only the walls of stables and outbuildings, and of the enclosed gardens,
+but long ranges of brick are built for the special and exclusive purpose
+of accommodating fruit trees. In southern Germany, in Switzerland, in
+Belgium, in France, and especially in the neighborhood of Paris, there
+are hundreds of miles of these walls. The walls may run north and south
+or east and west. Both sides of the walls are used, even when one side
+faces the north. Currants and gooseberries are expected to thrive on
+north walls. West walls are considered especially favorable for pears
+and plums. The walls are nearly always built of brick. They should have
+a height of ten to fourteen feet. Each wall usually has a coping at the
+top with a projection of ten to eighteen inches, which sheds the rain,
+protecting both the wall and the fruit trees. Where extreme pains are
+spent on the culture of fancy table fruits there are curtains hung from
+rods along the outer edge of these copings, and the curtains are drawn
+to protect ripening fruit from too hot sunshine, or to protect the
+blossoms in the spring season from late frosts.
+
+Brick walls, with all their appurtenances, are less important in America
+than in Europe and the advantages to be expected from this particular
+method of culture are decidedly less. Walls would more probably be
+useful for peaches and nectarines in northern latitudes than for any
+other fruits.
+
+Cordons and espaliers require some sort of support, however, and where
+walls are not used trellises are necessary. These may be of wood or
+wire. There is a belief current that the wooden trellises are better
+because they reflect less heat, but wire is so much cheaper and more
+durable that it will usually be chosen.
+
+Five or six wires are needed to make a good trellis for upright cordons.
+These should be placed twelve to fourteen inches apart, with the lowest
+wire thirty inches from the ground. All wires should be tight, and to
+this end stout, well-set posts are necessary. The wires should be
+loosened in the autumn, before freezing weather begins, and should be
+tightened again in the spring.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23--FRUIT GARDENING AND LANDSCAPE GARDENING COMBINED
+
+From Lucas' Handbuch des Obstbaues
+
+The entire planting, exclusive of the borders, is made up of fruit trees
+and bushes. Dimensions, 752 x 1,362 feet.]
+
+For espaliers the woven wire fences are better. In fact, the woven wire
+fencing is excellent for all sorts of fruit trellises. Poultry netting
+makes a cheap and convenient trellis, but it is neither so strong nor so
+durable as the better grades of woven wire fencing. On the whole it is
+very poor economy to buy a cheap trellis or to put it up on poor posts.
+
+These trellises will need to be comparatively high. Nothing less than
+eight feet will be satisfactory, and for upright cordons a trellis ten
+to fifteen feet high will be much better. Of course, this entire height
+is not needed the first year, but upright cordon apples will cover a
+twelve foot trellis in five years. Peaches or Japanese plums will cover
+the same trellis in three years.
+
+In the selection of varieties for growing in a garden of dwarf fruit
+trees the horticulturist will naturally be guided by principles
+altogether different from those which control him in the selection of
+varieties for a commercial orchard. He must, of course, consider which
+varieties are best adapted to the special stocks on which they have to
+be propagated. He must also bear in mind that certain varieties are
+better adapted than others for the special forms in which he may wish to
+train his dwarf trees. Beyond all this lies the great consideration that
+in the very large majority of cases dwarf fruit trees are grown to
+secure fancy fruit, not to produce a large quantity for a general
+market. All varieties of inferior quality would therefore be eliminated
+from consideration at the beginning, no matter how productive they might
+be, nor how famous for other things.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24--A FRUIT GARDEN CONTAINING MANY DWARF TREES
+
+A is the entrance; B, well or cistern; C, space to turn a horse and
+cart.
+
+From P. Barry's "Fruit Garden"]
+
+Varieties of specially good flavor would be given special thought, even
+though they might lack in hardiness or productivity. The special
+favorites of the man who owns the garden should be chosen, no matter
+whether they are popular or not. Then for similar reasons a
+comparatively long list of varieties will be chosen instead of the very
+short list always held to by the commercial grower. From first to last
+one should remember that the growing of dwarf fruit trees is essentially
+the enterprise of an amateur, not of a man who grows fruit for money.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+DWARF APPLES
+
+
+Dwarf apples are the most interesting and valuable of dwarf fruits. We
+have become so thoroughly accustomed to the standard apple tree in this
+country, however, and it so fully meets all the apparent requirements,
+that there seems to be no call for dwarf apples. Nevertheless dwarf
+trees have some real advantages under certain circumstances. Some of
+these have already been pointed out in the general discussion in
+previous chapters, and some of them will bear reiteration here. Where so
+much interest is taken in apple culture as in America, the advantage
+which dwarf trees offer for the rapid testing of new varieties cannot be
+overlooked. Still more important is the value of the dwarf trees in
+producing extra fancy specimens. Thus in growing very fine apples for
+exhibition or for a particularly fastidious market, one would naturally
+choose the dwarf trees.
+
+Inasmuch as dwarf trees are recommended chiefly to the amateur and are
+grown generally less for cash profit than for other considerations, the
+great and obvious advantages of standard trees quickly disappear. For
+men who like to play at fruit growing, nothing can equal a selection of
+apple trees on Paradise stocks. They are the most engaging of all dwarf
+trees, in fact of all fruit trees whatsoever.
+
+The general matter of selecting stocks has been referred to under the
+head of propagation, but the statement should be repeated here that the
+French Paradise stock is preferable for very dwarf garden trees, and is
+almost necessary for cordons and espaliers, while the Doucin (sometimes
+called the English or broad-leaved Paradise) may be chosen where only a
+moderate amount of dwarfing is desired. Some of the most expert apple
+growers of North America are beginning to think that the Doucin may be
+required for the commercial orchards in the future, when spraying for
+the San Jose scale becomes an established routine and smaller trees are
+an accepted necessity.
+
+Dwarf apple trees may be cultivated in nearly all the artificial forms
+ever given to fruit trees. Undoubtedly the simplest is the bush or vase
+form. This requires less care and attention and probably gives as much
+fruit to the same area as any other. The pyramid form is somewhat
+difficult to produce. It can be secured successfully only with the
+varieties which have a tendency to grow strong, straight branches, as
+for instance Sutton, Gravenstein and Northern Spy. On the whole the
+pyramid is not to be recommended for dwarf apples.
+
+Apples succeed very well as upright cordons and in all the simpler
+modifications of this form. As these trees can be planted very close
+together--as close as fifteen inches certainly--thus occupying very
+little room, a large number of them can be planted in very limited areas
+of the city lot or backyard. They are especially adapted to stand on the
+property line where they seem to use no space whatever, and where in
+fact they do occupy space which otherwise would be lost. The upright
+cordon can be bent into the form of an arch in order to make delightful
+arbors along the walks. The illustration, Fig. 2, shows a good example
+of this sort.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25--DWARF APPLES ON PROF. L. H. BAILEY'S FARM, NEW
+YORK]
+
+Nearly all varieties of apples--indeed all as far as I know--succeed in
+this form. The trees are not very long-lived, however. That is they
+cannot be maintained in good presentable form and prolific bearing
+indefinitely, because it is difficult to reproduce the fruit spurs on
+the lower part of the stem. Nevertheless the trees are inexpensive and
+can be cheaply replaced. As they come into bearing the first or second
+year after planting, this task of replacing worn-out trees is a small
+one. Very fine specimens of fruit can be produced on these upright
+cordons. Indeed this form is superior to the bush form in this respect.
+
+The apple is the best of all trees for horizontal cordons. In this form
+it becomes the most entertaining plaything in the garden, as well as one
+of the most rewarding trees in its product of fruit. Either the single
+arm or the double arm cordon can be used with success. These horizontal
+cordons are naturally used along the borders of walks, flower beds or
+plots devoted to vegetables. They may sometimes be used along
+foundations of buildings, where it is not desired to grow upright
+cordons or espaliers against the walls. The fruit produced by horizontal
+cordons is probably superior in size, color and finish to that produced
+on any other form of tree. In climates where the summer's heat and
+sunshine are apt to be meager, this advantage of the horizontal cordon
+will be comparatively greater. Conversely it will be less in places
+where sunshine and heat are very abundant during the summer. It is
+probably true that on the plains of Arizona and Texas the horizontal
+cordon will not be a brilliant success.
+
+Dwarf apples need practically the same care and cultivation, aside from
+pruning, as standard apples. The soil should be cultivated during the
+early part of the summer and allowed to rest during the latter part of
+the year. Cover crops may be sown during June or July, according to the
+custom practised in the usual orchard management; but the advantages of
+a cover crop in a small garden are less material than in a large
+commercial orchard.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26--UPRIGHT CORDON APPLES
+
+18 inches apart; in author's garden]
+
+The formation of the tree is discussed under another head. It remains to
+be said only that careful and intelligent pruning are required to keep
+any dwarf apple tree to its work. The more complicated and the more
+restricted the form of the tree, the more careful and continuous must be
+this pruning. The general system may be outlined in comparatively few
+words, and may be explained in its simplest form as applied to the
+treatment of a horizontal cordon. Each horizontal cordon, perfectly
+formed and full grown, should have fruit spurs throughout its horizontal
+length, which may be from three to fifteen feet. The upright portion of
+the trunk, from the point where the graft is set to the angle made by
+the bending down of the stem, should be kept clean and bare. Constant
+care is required to remove the sprouts from this portion of the tree,
+especially such as come up from the stock. At the further end of the
+horizontal portion there should be one, two, or three strong shoots
+allowed to push forth each year. These may be called leaders. They
+represent the principal wood growth in each tree. They draw up the sap
+from the roots, their leaves elaborate this sap, and from them the
+digested material is sent back for the support of the tree and the
+ripening of the fruit. They are allowed to take an upright or nearly
+upright position and their growth is encouraged. On all other portions
+of the tree growth is sternly restricted, when not altogether repressed.
+
+There is a constant tendency for strong shoots to start into growth all
+along the horizontal part of the stem and especially near the bend. If
+any of these shoots are allowed to make headway, the form of the tree
+is spoiled. Even if they are cut out after a year's growth, thus
+retaining somewhat the form of the tree, the fruit spurs are thereby
+lost. It is the business of the fruit grower, therefore, to pinch back
+these shoots which start along the horizontal stem, and this pinching is
+done at a comparatively early stage of their growth. Usually the first
+pinching should be given when the stems have grown long enough so as to
+have seven or eight leaves. These shoots are then cut or pinched back to
+three leaves. If the tree is in good vigorous condition, these shoots
+will soon start into growth once more. Again they have to be pinched.
+This time the pinching comes a little earlier, taking the shoot when it
+reaches only about five leaves and the pinching is still more severe.
+The shoots may start into growth a third time or even a fourth time, but
+each time they are pinched back sooner and more severely than before. In
+most cases two or three pinchings will suffice. These constant
+repressions of growth tend to secure the formation of fruit spurs and
+fruit buds along the horizontal trunk of the tree.
+
+Some slight modifications of the plan here outlined will develop
+themselves in experience. In particular it will be found that different
+varieties require slightly different handling. Some form fruit spurs
+more readily than others. With certain varieties it is very difficult to
+repress the rampant habit of growth and to secure a proper formation of
+fruit buds. These differences, however, are of minor importance as
+compared with the general management of the tree.
+
+The system just outlined has in view the summer pruning of the
+horizontal cordon apple. The upright cordon is pruned in almost exactly
+the same manner. Various forms of espaliers are handled in much the same
+way. Strong shoots or leaders are allowed to grow at the ends of the
+main branches to keep up a proper circulation and elaboration of sap,
+while the growth of fruit spurs is encouraged along the sides of the
+stems by frequent and regular pruning.
+
+In a somewhat less precise manner the same system of pruning can be
+applied to bush and pyramid forms. Each bush, for instance, is made up
+of a certain number of fruiting branches. The fruit is borne on spurs on
+the sides of these branches, while the woody growth is made by the
+leaders appearing at the ends of these branches. These leaders are
+annually cut back and the constant formation of fruit spurs is
+encouraged by pinching whatever shoots are on the sides of the main
+stems.
+
+It will be seen that the whole business of pruning falls into two
+general categories, viz., winter pruning and summer pruning. The winter
+or spring pruning is given any time after the stress of winter is over
+and before the sap starts running in the spring. This is the time when
+the ordinary fruit trees are customarily pruned. The work at this season
+consists chiefly in cutting back leaders. These are pruned off short,
+that is the whole stem is taken off down to within two or three buds of
+where it started growth the previous year. In some cases it is worth
+while to cut even further back, going into wood two or three years old.
+At this spring pruning the defective or diseased branches are of course
+removed wherever they are found. Cases requiring such treatment always
+occur even on the best trained cordons and espaliers. Whenever it
+becomes necessary an entire branch, sometimes composing half the tree,
+is taken out. Usually such branches can be replaced without great loss
+of time.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27--HORIZONTAL CORDON APPLE TREES]
+
+After this winter or spring pruning comes the summer pruning which has
+been outlined above. This usually begins May 15-25, and continues until
+July 25-31, differing, of course, in different latitudes.
+
+Practically all varieties of apples can be grown as dwarfs, though some
+succeed on Paradise roots better than others. Some varieties also are
+better adapted for special forms, as for cordons, than are others. Such
+requirements are not very strict, and a careful gardener can grow
+practically anything he wants to. Patrick Barry, in his "Fruit Garden,"
+recommends "twenty very large and beautiful sorts for dwarfs," having in
+mind American conditions, and especially his own experience in
+Rochester, N. Y. His list is as follows:
+
+  Red Astrachan
+  Large Sweet Bough
+  Primate
+  Beauty of Kent
+  Alexander
+  Duchess of Oldenburg
+  Fall Pippin
+  Williams' Favorite
+  Gravenstein
+  Hawthornden
+  Maiden's Blush
+  Porter
+  Menagere
+  Red Bietigheimer
+  Bailey Sweet
+  Canada Reinette
+  Northern Spy
+  Mother
+  King of Tompkins County
+  Twenty Ounce
+  Wagener
+
+In Europe, where greater attention has been paid to these matters, the
+opinion has settled down to a comparatively limited number. For example,
+Mr. George Bunyard in "The Fruit Garden" recommends the following
+varieties for cordons:
+
+  Mr. Gladstone            Aug.
+  Devonshire Quarrenden    Aug.
+  James Grieve             Sept.
+  Wealthy                  Oct.
+  Margil                   Oct.
+  King of Pippins          Oct.
+  Mother                   Oct.
+  Calville Rouge Precoce   Oct.
+  Cox's Orange Pippin      Oct., Feb.
+  St. Edmund's Pippin      Nov.
+  Ross Nonpareil           Nov.
+  Duchess of Oldenburg     Aug.
+  Pott's Seedling          Sept.
+  Lord Grosvenor           Sept.
+  Adams' Pearmain          Dec.
+  Hubbard's Pearmain       Dec.
+  Allington Pippin         Nov., Feb.
+  Scarlet Nonpareil        Jan., Feb.
+  Norman's Pippin          Jan.
+  Lord Burghley            Feb.
+  Duke of Devonshire       Feb.
+  Rosemary Russet          Feb.
+  Sturmer Pippin           Very late
+  Allen's Everlasting      Very late
+  Fearn's Pippin.          Very late
+  Lord Derby               Nov.
+  Bismarck                 Dec.
+  Lane's Prince Albert     Jan., March
+  Lord Suffield            Sept.
+  Grenadier                Sept., Oct.
+  Golden Spire             Sept., Oct.
+  Seaton House             Sept., Oct.
+  Sandringham              Feb.
+  Alfriston                Feb., March
+  Calville Malingre        Feb. to Mch.
+  Calville Rouge           Feb. to Mch.
+
+The same authority recommends the following varieties to be grown on
+Paradise stocks as bushes:
+
+  Beauty of Bath           July, Aug.
+  Red Quarrenden           July, Aug.
+  Lady Sudeley             Sept.
+  Worcester Pearmain       Sept., Oct.
+  Yellow Angestrie         Sept.
+  Duchess' Favorite        Sept. to Oct.
+  King of the Pippins      Oct.
+  Early White Transparent  J'ly.
+  Lord Suffield            Aug., Sept.
+  Pott's Seedling          Aug., Sept.
+  Lord Grosvenor           Aug., Sept.
+  Early Julien             Aug., Sept.
+  Ecklinville Seedling     Sept., Oct.
+  Grenadier                Sept., Oct.
+  Stirling Castle          Sept., Oct.
+  Golden Spire             Sept., Oct.
+  Cox's Orange Pippin      Nov., Feb.
+  Beauty of Barnack        Nov.
+  Allington Pippin         Dec., Feb.
+  Gascoigne's Scarlet      Dec.
+  Christmas Pearmain       Dec.
+  Winter Quarrenden        Dec.
+  Baumann's Reinette       Jan.
+  Lord Derby               Oct., Nov.
+  Stone's Apple            Oct., Nov.
+  Tower of Glamis          Oct., Nov.
+  Warner's King            Oct., Nov.
+  Bismarck                 Oct., Nov.
+  Lane's Prince Albert     Dec., Mch.
+  Bramley's Seedling       Dec., Mch.
+  Newton Wonder            Dec., Mch.
+
+Max Loebener in his book on dwarf fruits recommends the following
+varieties for dwarf apples:
+
+  Red Astrachan            July, Aug.
+  Yellow Transparent       Aug., Sept.
+  Charlamowsky             Aug., Sept.
+  Transparent de Croncels  Sept., Oct.
+  Prince Apple             Sept., Jan.
+  Danzig                   Oct., Dec.
+  Dean's Codlin            Oct. to Feb.
+  Landbury Reinette        Nov., Feb.
+  Cox's Orange             Nov. to Mch.
+    _Requires good soil_
+  Winter Gold Pearmain     Nov., March
+  Ribston Pippin           Nov., April
+    _Good warm soil_
+  Canada Reinette.         Nov., April
+    _Hardy_
+  Belle de Boskoop         Nov., May
+  Virginia Rose            Aug.
+  Red Peach Summer Apple   Aug., Sept.
+  Lord Suffield            Aug., Oct.
+  Cellini                  Sept., Nov.
+  Alexander                Oct., Dec.
+  Gravenstein              Oct. to Jan.
+    _For moist soils, bears late_
+  Yellow Richard           Nov., Dec.
+  Bismarck                 Nov., Feb.
+  Yellow Bellflower        Nov. to April
+    _Requires good position_
+  Baumann's Reinette       Dec., May
+
+Inasmuch as the advantages of the dwarf trees apply especially to the
+growing of fine fruit, only the better varieties should generally be
+propagated in this way. On this basis, therefore, rather than on the
+basis of adaptation learned from experience, the following varieties may
+be suggested among the well known American sorts for growing in dwarf
+form:
+
+  Baldwin
+  Esopus
+  Mother
+  Williams' Favorite
+  Sutton
+  King
+  Northern Spy
+  Grimes
+  Winesap
+  Yellow Transparent
+  McIntosh
+  Red Astrachan
+  Alexander
+  Wolf River
+  Ribston Pippin
+  Wealthy
+  Wagener
+
+Of course, one propagating dwarf apples would always select his own
+favorites. It should be noticed that in the list given above are some
+varieties which are notable for beauty of appearance rather than for
+superior quality. They are recommended on the former consideration.
+Certain varieties in the list, for instance Alexander, are known to
+succeed especially well as dwarfs.
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+DWARF PEARS
+
+
+Pears are the fruit most largely grown in dwarf form in America. There
+are a few well established and successful commercial orchards of pears,
+especially in western New York and Michigan. The pear is the fruit most
+assiduously cultivated in dwarf and trained forms in Europe. At the same
+time it is the one with which I confess I have had the least
+satisfaction. This is perhaps because I have always experimented in a
+country where pears do not naturally succeed, and because, further, my
+fancies have run more to other kinds of fruit.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28--YOUNG ORCHARD OF DWARF PEARS IN WESTERN NEW
+YORK]
+
+It is probably true that the pear is improved more in quality than any
+other fruit by being grown in dwarf form and trained as cordons and
+espaliers on a suitable frame or wall. This is emphatically true in cold
+and inclement climates, where indeed some of the best varieties of
+pears will not succeed at all unless given this advantage. A west wall
+is recommended as giving the very finest results. It should be noted,
+however, that some varieties do better on walls than others. Those which
+grow vigorously in bush, pyramid, or standard forms receive
+comparatively less benefit from wall training.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29--DWARF PEARS IN THE OLD AND PROFITABLE YEOMANS
+ORCHARD, NEW YORK]
+
+The pear is the best of all trees for training in pyramid form.
+Sometimes very tall slim pyramids are made, becoming almost pillars of
+foliage and fruit in their old age. These may be in fact upright cordons
+which are trained with strong stems and allowed to support themselves
+without a trellis. Some of the less upright growing varieties are
+difficult to form into pyramids, and such may be pruned in the ordinary
+bush or vase form. In growing dwarf pears commercially, as is sometimes
+done, it is probably best to give most varieties the bush form. The
+pyramid is rather harder to maintain.
+
+The pear succeeds well as a cordon tree. Perhaps the best form is the
+oblique cordon, one placed at an angle of about forty-five degrees with
+the horizon. The upright and horizontal cordons may also be used, though
+neither of these forms is specially well adapted to pears.
+
+All of the better types of espaliers are suited to pear trees. Probably
+the Palmette-Verrier is the best, although the old fashioned espaliers
+are often used. The U-form and the double U-form also succeed if well
+built.
+
+The pruning of the pear tree is substantially the same as that of the
+apple. Where pear blight is a factor in the problem, due allowance must
+be made for it. It sometimes happens that entire branches or arms have
+to be cut away on account of blighting. The system of pruning therefore
+should furnish a means of renewing such members promptly when necessity
+requires.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30--ORCHARD OF DWARF DUCHESS PEARS, LOCKPORT, N. Y.]
+
+The quince root prefers a fairly heavy and even moist soil. A heavy clay
+loam is best, although a strong clay will answer. Light sandy soils or
+loose gravelly soils will not give such good results. On the other hand
+any clay soil which holds water to a considerable extent will answer. As
+these are the requirements for quince roots, they become also the
+requirements for dwarf pears. Any attempt to grow dwarf pears on a light
+loose soil is almost certain to prove a failure.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31--PYRAMID PEARS IN A GERMAN ORCHARD]
+
+It is often said that dwarf pears should be planted deep in the ground
+when they are set out. The rule is to put them deep enough so that the
+bud union will be buried beneath the surface of the soil. With such
+treatment the pear itself often throws out roots and eventually
+establishes a feeding system of its own, becoming independent of the
+quince stock. It is then no longer a dwarf tree except by the authority
+of the pruning knife. It is probably true that many varieties of dwarf
+pears are longer lived when treated in this way. In planting, therefore,
+it becomes a question whether one desires chiefly a long-lived tree or a
+strictly dwarf one. The ease with which dwarf trees are replaced makes
+longevity a less important factor than in commercial orchards of
+standard trees.
+
+Of course, it is understood that if the dwarfest form is to be
+maintained, the tree must be planted high enough to leave the union out
+of the ground, thus preventing the pear from throwing out roots of its
+own.
+
+The varieties principally grown in this country as dwarfs are Angouleme,
+Bartlett, Anjou, and Louise Bonne.
+
+In European nurseries the list of pears propagated on quince roots is
+much larger. The following varieties are recommended for England by Mr.
+Owen Thomas, and are said to be particularly good for training on walls:
+
+  Buerre Giffard
+  Clapp's Favorite
+  Jargonelle
+  Williams' (Bartlett)
+  Buerre d'Amanlis
+  Fondante d'Automne
+  Triomphe de Vienne
+  Buerre Bosc
+  Buerre Hardy
+  Buerre Brown
+  Comte de Lamy
+  Louise Bonne de Jersey
+  Pitmaston Duchess
+  La France
+  Buerre d'Anjou
+  Buerre de Jonghe
+  Doyenne d'Alencon
+  Glou Morceau
+  Marie Benoist
+  Winter Nelis
+  Buerre Diel
+  Nouvelle Fulvie
+  Buerre Sterckmans
+  Easter Buerre
+  Le Lectier
+  Olivier de Serres
+  Seckel
+  Conference
+  Doyenne du Comice
+  Marie Louise
+  Thompson's
+  Duchesse d'Angouleme
+  Passe Crassane
+  Ne Plus Meuris
+  Bergamotte Esperen
+  Buerre Rance
+  Josephine de Malines
+
+
+
+
+IX
+
+DWARF PEACHES
+
+
+The peach as a dwarf tree is almost unknown in America. It is not very
+often grown as a dwarf even in Europe, except when it is trained on
+walls or grown in houses. The species, however, is easily dwarfed and
+makes a good tree in various forms when well propagated. The methods by
+which dwarf peaches are propagated are fully described in the chapter
+devoted to that subject.
+
+Peach trees growing on plum stocks and formed in vases or bushes make
+excellent garden trees. Naturally they should be headed low, best within
+three to six inches of the ground. They then make fine, regular, well
+balanced tops which are easily kept opened out in the desired vase form.
+Such trees usually come into bearing one or two years earlier than those
+propagated and trained in the usual way. In a country like New England
+where peach growing is largely a system of gambling against cold
+weather, and where the business largely resolves itself into a race for
+getting a crop before the trees freeze back, the smaller stature and the
+earlier bearing of the dwarf tree are obvious advantages. It has not yet
+been shown that this may be turned to account on a commercial scale, but
+there seem to be possibilities in it. In case the peach grower
+undertakes the method of laying down his peach trees and covering them
+during the winter to save them from freezing, the smaller growth of the
+dwarf trees would prove a decided advantage. This method of handling
+peach trees has proved a practical success under certain conditions.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32--DWARF PEACH IN NURSERY
+
+Headed back and formed into bushes]
+
+The peach does not succeed as a cordon. The nearest that this form can
+be successfully approached is the U-form. The double U-form is probably
+even better. The fan form of training is the best of all methods of
+training for the peach. The tree makes wood so rapidly that considerable
+space has to be provided for the annual growth. The fan form being less
+definite in its makeup can be more readily adapted to the exigencies of
+rapid growth and severe cutting out.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33--ESPALIER PEACH, HARTFORD, CONN.]
+
+On account of its more vigorous growth the peach demands even more
+drastic pruning than that already described for apples and pears. The
+method of managing a peach tree, however, differs in some details. There
+is not such a distinct establishment of leaders at the end of the shoot;
+and since the peach never forms fruit spurs like those of the apple, the
+pruning of the fruit-bearing wood is necessarily different. The best
+fruit buds are formed on the strong clean shoots of the current season's
+growth. These must be allowed to grow far enough and vigorously enough
+to ripen good fruit buds. If they make too much growth, however, the
+side buds start secondary branches and the fruiting prospects are
+reduced. The management of the tree must be such as to keep this growth
+of new wood in just the proper balance.
+
+In order to carry out the idea thus outlined, an early spring pruning is
+given while the trees are dormant, and several successive prunings are
+administered during the growing season. At the spring pruning a
+considerable amount of wood is cut out from all portions of the tree,
+the amount thus removed being much greater than that from the pear or
+apple trees at the same season. The old decrepit and diseased branches
+are taken first for removal, and then one year old wood is cut back
+where necessary, so as to leave two or three buds at the base of each
+branch.
+
+The first summer pruning is given about May 15th to 20th, after the
+growth has well begun. A vigorous tree will start more shoots than there
+is room for, and these are thinned out until all have sufficient space.
+A few of the most vigorous ones are pinched back at this time. One week
+to ten days later the trees are gone over again, at which time the
+principal pinching back is done. The shoots which are making too much
+growth, especially on the interior of the tree or on the main arms, are
+stopped. A third pruning is given about June first, and consists chiefly
+in removing weak shoots or those which are crowding one another, and
+cutting back those which are growing too far.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34--PEACH IN FAN ESPALIER ON WALL, ENGLAND]
+
+The peach usually requires a comparatively light soil and a warm
+exposure. The plum root upon which a dwarf peach is budded will usually
+succeed in a considerably heavier soil, and the method of budding on
+plum is therefore sometimes practised with the specific object of
+adapting the peach tree to heavier soils. Inasmuch as various kinds of
+plums succeed in all soils on which any crop can be grown, from light
+sand to heavy clay, it is not difficult to meet any reasonable
+requirements in this respect.
+
+All varieties of peaches and nectarines seem to succeed equally well as
+dwarfs. Those varieties which are grown as dwarfs in Europe are
+naturally the ones which are favorites there. In this country the
+favorite varieties are almost altogether different and we would expect
+to choose such sorts as Late Crawford, Foster, Old Mixon, Belle of
+Georgia, Champion, Waddell, and other choice American varieties for our
+use.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35--PEACH TREES TRAINED UNDER GLASS]
+
+The nectarine is in large favor in Europe and is much more extensively
+grown than in America. The merits of this fruit seem to have been
+strangely overlooked in this country. When nectarines are properly
+grown under glass, they are one of the most delicious and beautiful
+fruits known in this world of limitations and disappointments. The
+nectarine is a fruit which will in general bear more extensive
+cultivation in America and which is to be especially recommended for
+dwarf fruit gardens. This is not to say that it should supersede the
+peach, or even that it should take equal prominence, but simply that it
+should be well represented in every selection of fruits for an amateur's
+collection.
+
+
+
+
+X
+
+DWARF PLUMS
+
+
+Most amateur and professional fruit growers are less interested in plums
+than in other tree fruits. Perhaps I am prejudiced, but I feel that this
+is not fair to the plum. Plums yield some profit when rightly cultivated
+commercially, and no end of satisfaction when cultivated for the
+gardener's own entertainment. The large assortment of varieties which
+one may secure is in itself a claim to interest, and a source of much
+delight to the collector. The fact that different types of plums furnish
+fruit of very diverse characters makes the collection more valuable from
+every standpoint. So far as the writer knows dwarf plums have seldom
+been grown to any extent in America. They certainly have no present
+claim based on experience for recognition in commercial orchards.
+Nevertheless they have possibilities even for the growing of market
+fruit, and for cultivation in the garden, dwarf trees are altogether
+worth while.
+
+In the chapter on propagation, reference has been made to the stocks
+used for plums and that subject need not be discussed here.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36--PLUM TREES TRAINED AS UPRIGHT CORDONS]
+
+When plum trees have been secured budded on suitable dwarfing stocks,
+as, for example, Americana or sand cherry, they may be trained in a
+variety of ways. Probably the ordinary bush form is the best. Most
+varieties of plums do not form either a satisfactory pyramid or a
+strictly vase form. Some of the better growing Japanese varieties of
+plums approach the latter form fairly well. Red June, Satsuma, and
+Chabot may be mentioned as particular examples. With such varieties a
+true vase form can be maintained as well as with peaches. In dealing
+with a majority of varieties, however, a simple bush-like head without a
+mathematically constructed frame work is about the best that can be
+secured. In most cases the head should be formed low, preferably not
+more than six inches from the ground. Still considerable latitude has to
+be allowed the gardener's fancy in dealing with dwarf trees, and the
+writer can easily imagine a garden design which would require trees to
+be high headed. It would be practicable and excusable in some cases to
+form heads four, five, or even six feet from the ground. This is often
+done in England and Germany with all sorts of fruit trees, this form
+being referred to as a "standard."
+
+A head can be secured at almost any point on a plum tree of good growth,
+by heading back at the desired height. Four to six branches should be
+allowed to grow the first year and in course of time these will be
+increased to eight, twelve, or even more. That is, there will be this
+number of what we might call main branches because they are all of
+approximately equal importance.
+
+At the end of the first year after the tree has been headed back the
+main branches, which have now formed, are to be cut back in turn. With
+all strong-growing varieties it is best to remove from one-half to
+two-thirds of the annual growth from these main branches, if the tree
+is to be restricted to a comparatively narrow spread. A considerable
+number of strong shoots will put forth the next year. These should be
+thinned out as soon as they start to a number approximately twice that
+of the main arms. These new branches should be distributed as
+symmetrically as possible. The tree top is now formed and subsequent
+pruning consists essentially of a severe heading in during the latter
+part of the dormant season, that is, about March, followed by two,
+three, or four summer prunings somewhat after the manner described for
+the peach. At the time of these summer prunings the young growing shoots
+should be thinned out enough to prevent any choking of the tree top and
+should be headed in wherever it is necessary to retain the symmetrical
+growth.
+
+The manner of forming the fruit buds or spurs is so diverse in the
+different kinds of plums that no general rule can be given for
+encouraging them. Close observation of each variety will soon enable the
+gardener to direct his pruning in such a way as to assist in this
+important process of fruit bud formation. In a rough general way it may
+be said that the Domestica and Americana varieties of plums form
+distinct fruit spurs along the sides of one and two year old branches,
+and that, for the encouragement of these, considerable light should be
+admitted and the growth of the interior shoots rather rigidly checked.
+The Japanese and Hortulana varieties on the other hand fruit best from
+very short spurs or clusters of buds which form along from the strong
+one and two year old branches. The main object, therefore, with these
+latter varieties is to maintain a succession of clean, sound, well
+matured shoots. This is done by a moderate thinning of the main shoots
+early in the year, resulting in the forcing of those which are left.
+These strong growing shoots are checked late in the summer in order that
+they may ripen up thoroughly, but the pinching which is done to this end
+is delayed long enough so that the pinched shoots will not start into
+growth again. Moreover, this pinching is done well out to the ends of
+the shoots.
+
+Certain varieties of plums succeed fairly well as vertical cordons. The
+varieties least adapted to this purpose are the Hortulana offspring and
+their hybrids and a few of the rank-growing Japanese, like Hale and
+October Purple. In the dwarf tree garden at the Massachusetts
+Agricultural College the writer has a row of plum trees containing a
+large assortment of varieties and species. These trees were picked out
+at random from various sources and very few of them were propagated on
+dwarfing stocks. On this account the trees were set two feet apart,
+which is more than is usually recommended for upright cordons. They have
+now been growing three years, and they furnish much interesting
+testimony regarding the feasibility of growing plums in this form.
+Contrary to expectation such varieties as Red June, Abundance, and
+Burbank have done well under this treatment. These varieties all fruited
+the next year after planting. Some varieties of the Domestica group are
+bearing the third year after planting, which is unusually early. All
+of them seem to be fairly well adapted to this method of treatment.
+Varieties like Wildgoose and Wayland, and such hybrids as Gonzales,
+Waugh and Red May, can hardly be controlled in the restricted space
+allowed them in a row of vertical cordons. They give very little promise
+of success. It is probable that all these varieties would make a better
+showing if they were propagated on some such stock as sand cherry.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37--BURBANK PLUMS ON UPRIGHT CORDONS TRAINED TO
+TRELLIS]
+
+Plums are seldom--almost never--propagated as horizontal cordons. I have
+never yet undertaken it myself, but propose to do so at the first
+opportunity and with some expectation of moderate success with certain
+varieties. The slow growing sorts like Green Gage, Italian Prune, and
+Agen seem to offer special promise.
+
+In the form of espaliers plums are often trained against walls. Indeed
+this is the favorite way of producing fancy plums in England, and the
+same practise prevails to a considerable extent on the continent of
+Europe. In this country walls are not required, and in most cases would
+be of no advantage. Where it is desired to cover back fences or sides of
+buildings, however, plum trees in espalier form can be confidently
+recommended. The Domestica varieties of highest quality such as Bavay,
+Jefferson, Victoria, Pond, Bradshaw, and Coe's Golden Drop would have
+first choice. The Japanese varieties can also be grown on trellises or
+walls, but the freer forms, such as the fan espalier used for the peach,
+are better suited to their habits of growth.
+
+The following varieties of plums can be recommended for dwarf bush
+forms:
+
+  Green Gage
+  Jefferson
+  Bradshaw
+  Agen
+  Grand Duke
+  Bavay (Reine Claude)
+  McLaughlin
+  Pond
+  Bleeker
+  Italian Prune
+  Cluster Damson (or other Damsons)
+
+Such varieties of the Japanese class as Abundance, Chabot, Red June,
+Satsuma, Burbank may be grown on dwarf stocks in bush forms, but they
+are not altogether satisfactory. There are two objections against them:
+(1) It is difficult to keep them in restricted bounds, such a result
+being dependent on constant and severe heading in. (2) They overgrow the
+dwarf stocks very strongly and thus do not have a very firm hold on the
+ground. They are apt to blow over or break off after a few years, unless
+carefully staked up.
+
+The following varieties can be recommended for upright cordons, in which
+form they will give moderate success if properly managed:
+
+  Coe's Golden Drop
+  Agen
+  Victoria
+  Grand Duke
+  Abundance
+  Burbank
+  Bradshaw
+  Bavay
+  Lombard
+  Chabot
+  Cheney
+  Aubert (Yellow Egg or Magnum Bonum)
+
+Also most of the clean-growing Americana varieties such as Smith, Terry,
+Stoddard, etc.
+
+Mr. Owen Thomas recommends for growing on walls in England the following
+varieties:
+
+  Green Gage
+  Brandy Gage
+  Denniston's Superb Gage
+  Comte d'Athem's Gage
+  Transparent Gage
+  Transparent Late Gage
+  Jefferson
+  Reine Claude Violette
+  Brahy's Green Gage
+  Bryanstone Gage
+  Oullin's Golden Gage
+  Golden Transparent Gage
+  Reine Claude de Bavay
+  Coe's Golden Drop
+  Kirke's Blue
+  Washington
+
+
+
+
+XI
+
+BUSH FRUITS
+
+
+The bush fruits, so far as I know, are never cultivated as dwarfs. To
+speak more exactly I should say that no dwarf stock is ever used to
+reduce the size to which the plants grow. On the other hand, bush fruits
+are often systematically pruned back in order to restrict their size,
+and are sometimes trained in elaborate forms as dwarf fruit trees are.
+To this extent they are managed in the same way and might properly be
+treated in the same general category. What is more to our purpose, they
+are almost always included in the plan of any private fruit garden on a
+restricted area, such as we have had chiefly in view in this discussion
+of dwarf fruit trees. These reasons make it appropriate, if not indeed
+essential, that something should be said regarding these fruits here.
+
+All bush fruits can be grown in such forms as cordons, espaliers, etc.
+Anything of this sort which the gardener wishes can become a part of his
+garden of little trees. Gooseberries and currants offer the most
+entertainment and remuneration when subjected to special pruning and
+training, and indeed they should not be omitted from any garden scheme
+of this kind. Raspberries are less amenable to this kind of education
+and should be introduced with some care. Blackberries are necessarily
+difficult to handle and no very complicated schemes of pruning and
+training can be successfully applied to them. Such other fruits as
+Loganberries, strawberry-raspberries, June berries, etc., may be
+introduced "at the owner's risk." Any of them will submit to a certain
+amount of correction with the pruning knife, and may add to the variety
+of fruits grown in the amateur's garden. Of course, it is distinctly
+understood that these special methods of treatment are not commercially
+recommended for any of the bush fruits in America.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38--CURRANTS AS FAN ESPALIERS ON TRELLIS, HARTFORD,
+CONN.]
+
+Probably the most interesting and practical way for handling
+gooseberries and currants in dwarf fruit gardens is the form known as
+standards. This form consists of a small round fruiting top of almost
+any desired variety grafted high upon a straight clean trunk or stem.
+This stem may have any convenient height from two to ten feet, the most
+common and practical height being about four feet. The stock used is the
+flowering currant, _Ribes aureum_, which forms a sufficiently strong and
+upright growth for this purpose. Nevertheless it is almost always
+necessary to support these standards with a convenient stake apiece. For
+the present these standard gooseberries and currants can be obtained
+only of the European nurserymen. At least the writer knows of no one who
+propagates them in America. There are several importers, however, who
+make a business of supplying European stock and who are always glad to
+import these on order.
+
+The finer varieties are especially chosen for growing as standards. This
+applies particularly to gooseberries, which are more widely grown and
+which are more highly prized in Europe than in this country. The
+varieties grown in Europe are usually finer table fruits than the
+American varieties. It is generally understood that the finest fruits
+for eating fresh out of hand are secured from the standard gooseberries.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39--GOOSEBERRY FAN ESPALIER
+
+Variety Industry, trained on wire trellis]
+
+Gooseberries and currants are also adapted easily to the espalier form.
+The most elaborate palmettes and other geometrical designs can be worked
+out. Nevertheless the simplest and most practical form for trained
+gooseberries and currants is the fan shape. If a suitable trellis is
+provided, the vines may be easily tied out upon it in very attractive
+fan forms and these are found to be quite satisfactory, both as regards
+their looks and their product of fruit. They are also easily sprayed,
+which is a consideration worth mentioning when one has to fight the
+currant worm. In general, it is best in our latitude to run these
+espaliers north and south, because they receive too much sun when the
+trellis runs east and west. This rule, however, is not absolute.
+
+Probably the most convenient and practical way for growing these fruits
+in the dwarf tree garden is to plant standards at regular intervals in a
+row, say six feet apart, and to plant a certain number of fan shaped
+bushes between each pair of standards in the row. If these standards
+were six feet apart, two plants for fan training would be enough between
+each pair. The top of the trellis on which the fan forms are tied, would
+not be above four feet high, better only three. The heads of the
+standards then rise well above the top of the trellis. This furnishes
+some support for the stem of the standard and economizes space. Economy
+of space is one of the first principles of this style of gardening.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40--TREE FORM GOOSEBERRY]
+
+No list need be given here of the varieties of gooseberries and currants
+to be recommended for this class of planting. It may be said that any of
+the favorite varieties of currants grown in this country, as for
+example, Fay, Victoria, Red Versailles, etc., may be chosen, and that
+these are indeed the varieties usually preferred in Europe. With respect
+to gooseberries it may be remarked that the English, French, and German
+varieties are mostly very different from those grown in America, and
+that while they have some shortcomings in our climate, they are for the
+most part to be recommended for the purposes which we here have in
+view.
+
+
+
+
+XII
+
+FRUIT TREES IN POTS
+
+
+Those who are used to seeing large fruit trees in orchard plantations
+where each specimen has 1,000 to 2,000 square feet of space, with
+unlimited opportunities downward, find a fruit tree in a pot a
+curiosity. It seems remarkable to see a tree in vigorous health and
+bearing fruit with less than one cubic foot of soil. Nevertheless this
+method of handling fruit trees is entirely practicable. In some places
+it is practised extensively in an amateur way, and occasionally reaches
+almost commercial proportions. For those who grow fruit trees for
+recreation there could hardly be a more interesting experiment.
+
+The pots mostly used are the nine, ten, eleven and twelve inch standard
+earthenware pots. With most trees it is best to begin with small sizes
+and gradually shift forward to the larger ones. A bearing tree may be
+maintained for several years in a twelve inch pot or even in a ten inch
+size. Sometimes wooden tubs are substituted for pots. These look better,
+but are not so good in any other way.
+
+Trees may be grown in pots out of doors, although there is no particular
+advantage in doing this. If such practise is undertaken the pots should
+be plunged their full depth in good garden soil. Perfect drainage should
+be secured by having some broken brick or coarse cinders underneath.
+
+Usually potted trees are grown under glass. They are kept in a cool
+greenhouse, that is one with little heat. Sometimes they are without
+artificial heat. In fact this is probably the best way. The houses which
+are purposely constructed for fruit trees may have a single line of pipe
+if this is convenient, so that the chill may be taken off the air in
+severe cold weather. To reach anything like real success, houses must be
+devoted exclusively to fruit trees. Occasionally trees may be grown with
+other plants, as in cold graperies, but the results are not the best and
+often come very close to failure.
+
+In building houses for fruit trees exclusively, the even span
+construction is nearly always used. Houses eighteen or twenty feet wide,
+and five feet high at the eaves, will answer the purpose very well. The
+leading greenhouse designers are prepared to furnish plans for such
+houses and it is usually best to follow the advice of their experts.
+
+All kinds of fruit trees can be grown in pots. This includes apples,
+pears, peaches, plums, nectarines, and cherries. Those which give the
+best returns are plums and nectarines. Apples in pots are very
+interesting and furnish a superior quality of fruit when grown under
+glass. Apples, plums and nectarines take a finer finish and a higher
+flavor when grown in this way than when grown in any other.
+
+All fruit trees to be grown in pots should be propagated on the dwarfest
+of dwarfing stocks. This means practically that apples should be on
+Paradise, pears on quince, peaches and nectarines on sand cherry, plum
+on sand cherry or St. Julien plum, and cherries on Mahaleb.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41--A FRUITING PEACH IN POT]
+
+The trees should be potted in good rich soil, preferably the best garden
+loam. This should have enough sand and gravel in it to insure good
+drainage. A considerable amount of drainage material should be placed
+in the bottom of each pot. The trees should be repotted in fresh soil
+annually in October or November.
+
+Trees in pots require liberal feeding. Besides being given well enriched
+earth at the time of repotting, they should be supplied from time to
+time with small amounts of fertilizer. Good soluble chemical fertilizers
+can be applied either dry or dissolved. A good formula is one part
+nitrate of soda, two parts of muriate of potash, two parts of high grade
+phosphoric acid. A very little sprinkling, say a tablespoonful, of this
+can be given on each pot once a month during the growing season which
+lasts roughly from December to May. In place of this, or alternately
+with this, moderate waterings with liquid manure may also be given.
+These small doses of food are especially useful at the time when the
+fruit is forming on the trees.
+
+The trees are usually brought into the house at the time of potting, say
+November 1. If early fruit is desired, they are kept in a house with
+some heat. It is necessary only that the temperature should be kept
+constantly and safely above the freezing point. Rapid forcing with a
+high temperature is not desirable and is hardly possible. If kept simply
+above the freezing point, these trees will start into growth in January.
+They can then be kept somewhat warmer during February, the heat being
+slightly increased in March. Peaches and nectarines will stand fairly
+high temperatures after the fruit is well set and especially toward
+ripening time. By this method of mild forcing, plums, peaches, and
+nectarines can be brought into fruit as early as the latter part of
+May.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42--A FIG TREE IN A POT]
+
+The main crop of potted fruits, however, need not be expected until June
+or July; that is not very much in advance of the outdoor crop. The
+object of growing fruit under glass is not so much to force it ahead of
+season as it is to improve the quality. Trees which are to be kept in a
+cool house without heat need no particular attention except to see that
+they are watered occasionally and that some plant food is given after
+growth begins. Even if the temperature goes down considerably below
+freezing during the winter months in this cold house where the potted
+fruit trees are, no damage need be expected.
+
+Of course, special care will be given to prevent damage from attacks of
+fungi or insects which occasionally become troublesome in the houses.
+The small size of these trees makes such work comparatively easy.
+
+The methods of pruning are the same as those recommended for pyramid and
+bush form trees. These forms are the most practical for pot culture,
+though pot trees are occasionally trained in cordon forms.
+
+
+
+
+XIII
+
+PERSONALIA
+
+
+Many persons have a strong prejudice in favor of the concrete. On
+general principles they object to generalities. They choose rather the
+specific case. Personal experience, they say, means more to them than
+theory, even though the theory be the sublimation of all experience. For
+the benefit of such people I am going to set down an account of some of
+my own attempts at growing dwarf fruit trees, and to that I will add
+brief opinions and experiences of some friends of mine.
+
+The first dwarf fruit tree that I ever saw, so far as I remember, was in
+the grounds of the Kansas State Agricultural College when I was a
+student there. This tree was an apple, on Paradise stock, and at two
+years after planting it bore six or eight very fine Yellow Transparent
+apples. It was one of several dwarf apples planted by Professor E. A.
+Popenoe, but the other trees did not much attract my attention. This
+particular specimen had a straight, clean trunk of about thirty inches,
+after the absurd style of heading dwarf apples practised in most
+American nurseries. But the crown was full and symmetrical, and the
+fruit was incomparable. That particular tree has always been a sort of
+ideal and inspiration to me.
+
+Later, when I planted an orchard in Oklahoma, I put in some dwarf trees,
+particularly pears, but I did not stay there long enough to see what
+came of them.
+
+The next fruit garden in which I became interested was in Vermont. This
+had in it some dwarf pear trees, dwarf apples and dwarf plums, and my
+own personal experience had fairly begun. The dwarf apples proved to be
+an almost complete failure, for reasons which I can not now
+satisfactorily explain. A few years later I planted a few dwarf apple
+trees in another Vermont garden, where they did reasonably well. But, at
+any rate, the whole undertaking was unsatisfactory, for it did not give
+me a vital understanding of the trees. I never got onto terms of real
+personal goodfellowship with them; and until a gardener does that his
+work is some sort of a failure.
+
+The dwarf pears did somewhat better. They seemed to understand their
+business, and they kept about it without much attention from me. I never
+cared much for pears, anyway.
+
+But the plums were the brilliant success, at least with reference to my
+own interior personal experience. Every plum tree meant something to me.
+A stub of a root and two scrawny plum branches would at any time arouse
+my imagination like the circus posters' appeal to a boy. In this Vermont
+garden which I adopted when it was about four years old, there were
+various plum trees, mostly of domestica varieties, growing on Americana
+roots. They had come from the Iowa State College, where they had been
+educated that way. They had been given those Americana roots, not
+primarily to dwarf them, but to insure them against damage from the cold
+winters. The tops had not been cut back, and the whole treatment was
+just such as would have been applied to standards. Later I saw the bad
+results of this treatment, for several of the trees blew over in high
+winds. From subsequent experience I feel sure that if they had been
+headed low at first, if they had been kept closely headed back and
+otherwise handled like real dwarfs, they would have lived to a greater
+age and would have made everybody happier.
+
+At this time also I began, on a somewhat comprehensive plan, the
+propagation of plums on all sorts of stocks, including Americana,
+Wayland seedlings, Miner root cuttings and sand cherry, all more or less
+efficient dwarfing stocks. By this time I was into it head over ears, as
+far as the plums were concerned.
+
+This having been the largest chapter in my personal pomological
+experience, I suppose it ought to form the largest portion of this
+chapter in the book; but my plum work and my experiments in propagation
+have been so often and so fully reported elsewhere that it would be a
+vain repetition to go over them again now. They are all written down in
+the proper places where they may be consulted by the enthusiastic or
+ill-advised student.
+
+And then I came to Massachusetts; and here the first project, almost, to
+which my hand was turned was the installation of a garden of dwarf fruit
+trees. From the following memorandum of the trees growing in this garden
+any reader may surmise the enjoyment I have found in it. There is one
+row of dwarf plum trees set six feet apart and trained, rather
+unsatisfactorily, into bush form. The trees were many of them too large
+when they came from France, and, though I cut them back severely, they
+did not form such low bushy heads as my ideal species. They are on St.
+Julien roots, which serve the purposes in hand fairly well. Though the
+trees had a hard trip across the water only one out of forty-six has
+died in three years. Unfortunately these trees have not yet borne
+fruit,--not one of them. Next year many of them will bear. Earlier
+fruitage can certainly be secured on sand cherry stocks and under other
+methods of training.
+
+Besides the bush plums, the garden contains a row of upright cordons.
+Most of these were not propagated on dwarf stocks at all, and were not
+expected to suffer any such drastic training as I have put upon them.
+They were taken from the college nursery and from the nurseries of
+several of my correspondents, just wherever I could find the varieties I
+wanted, and without reference to the stocks on which they were growing.
+A few are on Americana stocks, several are on peach roots (of all
+things), and probably a majority are growing on the usual Myrobalan
+roots. These trees are planted two feet apart in the row and are tied up
+to a trellis of chicken wire. There are about thirty varieties in the
+row, numbering most of the different botanical types more frequently
+cultivated in North America. Many of the varieties are totally and very
+obviously unsuited to this method of treatment, and presently I will
+replace them with more amenable varieties. But many of the varieties
+have fruited, especially the Japanese kinds, and some of them, like
+Burbank, have proved most unexpectedly docile. Altogether this row of
+unsuitably propagated and unsuitably selected varieties of plum trees
+has been one of the most interesting, instructive and entertaining
+elements in my dwarf fruit garden.
+
+Next there comes a trellis bearing some espaliers, including plums,
+pears, apples, peaches and cherries; but these have been recently
+planted, and as yet they have done nothing worth relating.
+
+There is one row of twenty-three dwarf pears, mostly trained in pyramid
+form. These have not done well, but the reason is not far to seek. The
+soil is light and full of gravel, and quite unsuited to pear or quince.
+Pears never thrive on it. Several of the trees are bearing a crop this
+year, but some of the trees are also dead, and the whole row looks like
+the finish of a bargain sale on the remnant ribbon counter.
+
+The row of upright cordon pears is a trifle better, but that is only an
+accident, I think. The varieties which are growing there seem to be
+rather better adapted to withstand the unpropitious surroundings. These
+trees also are bearing.
+
+When we come to the two rows of horizontal cordon apples, though, the
+real fun has begun. Nearly all these trees are in bearing, and a few of
+them have borne every year since they were planted out. They are set
+only three feet apart in the row, which is not enough; and they suffered
+terribly the first year from a midsummer attack of aphides; and the
+pruning was neglected to allow them to recover from that scourge, so
+that the form was somewhat injured; but they have never ceased to be a
+joy to me and a wonderment to visitors. They are mostly of European
+varieties, but Bismarck is the showiest and most fruitful one in the
+collection, though far from the best to eat.
+
+Then there are standard gooseberries and currants, of which there is
+little to be said. They haven't been there long, but they are at home
+and are going to stay. Next year I am going to put in some gooseberries
+and currants in espalier form.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43--DWARF PEAR IN PYRAMID FORM
+
+Two years planted; author's garden]
+
+Very few persons know what a medlar is. For the benefit of the ignorant
+and to increase the kaleidoscopic effect on my fruit garden, I have
+some medlar trees,--Hollaendische Monstroese,--which I bought of Louis
+Spaeth, Baumschulenweg, Berlin.
+
+A wire trellis, built much like a grape trellis, only higher, carries
+the row of upright cordon apples. Some of these bore fruit the first
+year they were planted, and there has been a fair sprinkling of fruit
+every year since then. This has been one of the most satisfactory lots
+in the make-up.
+
+There are two rows containing forty-six bush-form apples on paradise
+roots set six feet apart. Some of these have borne every year since
+planting out, many of them showing a good crop this year. Again Bismarck
+is the most fruitful, but the least pleasing to eat. Alexander has made
+a good record, and this year Calville d'Automne shows a very pretty
+crop. It is customary with visitors, especially those already interested
+in fruit-growing and those of a practical turn of mind, to depart with
+the judgment that "all those other schemes are curious and interesting,
+but the bush form apple trees look the most like business." I think so
+too. In fact my experience with dwarf apples might be summarized by
+saying, "bush trees for business, cordons for fun."
+
+One row of peach trees on St. Julien plum roots set fruit buds in
+abundance the first year, but they were killed by the freeze of the
+following winter. The second year the experience was the same, except
+that the tops froze with the fruit buds. New tops were grown at once,
+however, and the following year nearly every tree bore a small crop of
+fruit. Dwarf peach trees are worth while.
+
+This garden has also a row of cherry trees, including Morello, Richmond
+and Montmorency; but these trees were set the second year of the garden
+making and have borne only a small crop of sample cherries.
+
+The last planting in this garden consists of one row of nectarines,
+twenty-two trees.
+
+This little garden, containing considerably less than a quarter of an
+acre of land, has now growing upon it 548 fruit trees of the kinds
+named. And I am not yet done planting. There are various other things
+that I want to put in,--quinces, apricots, and perhaps raspberries,
+dewberries, and other bush fruits. In fact, I should like to make it a
+"Paradise" like good old Gerarde's or Dodoens', in which all the fruits
+"good for food or physic" might be brought together and represented in a
+little space.
+
+It would be quite wrong to close this experience meeting without giving
+the observations and quoting the opinions of some other and better men.
+Patrick Barry, in his delightful "Fruit Garden," recorded his belief
+that dwarf fruit trees were well worth while. "The apple," said he,
+"worked on the Paradise, makes a beautiful little dwarf bush. We know of
+nothing more interesting in the fruit garden than a row or little square
+of these miniature fruit trees. They begin to bear the third year from
+the bud, and the same variety is always larger and finer on them than on
+standards." Speaking of pears, he said: "On the quince stock the trees
+bear much earlier, are more prolific, more manageable, and consequently
+preferable for small gardens."
+
+The late Mr. E. G. Lodeman, who wrote the most comprehensive American
+monograph on dwarf apples, concluded his essay rather pessimistically in
+these words: "From all the evidence which I have been able to collect,
+therefore, I cannot advise the planting of dwarf apple trees for
+commercial rewards, but it seems to me, nevertheless, that they are
+worth experimenting with for this purpose." Mr. Lodeman recorded and
+endorsed the common opinion "that apples grown on dwarf trees are
+handsomer and of better quality than those grown upon standards"; but he
+did not seem to consider that fact of much importance.
+
+Those who are acquainted at the Lazy Club in Cornell University, and
+especially those who know Bailiwick, have heard of Professor L. H.
+Bailey's dwarf apples. (Fig. 44.) These were planted six or eight years
+ago, and most of them are now in bearing. There are a good many
+different varieties, nearly all French. My understanding of the scheme
+is that it was as much as half intended to be a commercial venture; but
+up to the present time little else but confusion and fun have been
+gathered with the fruit from those dwarf apple trees. When last I asked
+the proprietor for his experience with dwarf apples he said that he was
+having a lot of experience, only he didn't know what it was.
+
+Dwarf pears have been planted frequently, especially in Western New York
+and Michigan. I asked Professor S. A. Beach for his observations of
+them, to which he replied: "With regard to dwarf pears I will say that
+the variety which is most generally grown in commercial orchards is
+Bartlett. Almost without exception this is grown as a standard. Other
+important commercial varieties are Seckel, Bosc and Winter Nelis. All
+these are generally grown as standards. The variety commonly grown as
+dwarf is Angouleme. A few fruit growers of my acquaintance are making
+some money from orchards of dwarf Angouleme. The other varieties which
+are often propagated on dwarf stock as Clairgeau, Anjou and so forth,
+are seldom profitable. In fact I have heard it stated that outside of
+Ellwanger and Barry's orchard there is not a profitable orchard of Anjou
+in this State. From these statements I wish you to derive the conclusion
+that in New York State under present conditions there is little
+encouragement for planting dwarf pears commercially."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44--IN PROFESSOR BAILEY'S ORCHARD
+
+Chenango apple on Doucin stocks, interplanted between standard trees]
+
+Mr. E. W. Wood, for many years chairman of the fruit committee of the
+Massachusetts Horticultural Society, says that "under the right
+conditions the dwarf pear tree is a necessity for commercial pear
+growing. The growers in Revere and Cambridge would feel they could not
+get along without the dwarf trees. Putting the pear on the quince stock
+does not change the wants of the roots of the latter, and it is no use
+setting them on a light, dry soil, as the roots being confined to a
+small area of unsuitable soil, will make a feeble growth and finally die
+outright; or, if in an exposed situation, blow over. Most all the
+varieties may be grown as dwarfs. The Angouleme and Clairgeau, both good
+market varieties, cannot be successfully grown in any other way."
+
+Recently Mr. M. B. Waite has written me the letter quoted below, giving
+some conclusions from his experience with dwarf pears in Anne Arundel
+County, Maryland. He says:
+
+"I planted out 1,000 dwarf pear trees nine years ago. They were largely
+Duchess (Angouleme), but there are some Manning, Howell, Anjou, Louise
+Bonne and Lawrence. I have not been entirely satisfied with the results.
+We have not had the proper quantity of fruit. There has been some fruit
+every year since the fourth year, and two years ago there was quite a
+good crop, but nothing to compare with the yield per acre of Kieffer,
+LeConte and Garber, for instance. Of course, these are higher-priced
+fruit and large yields are not required for good returns. Only the
+Duchess and Manning, however, have produced sufficient to pay at all,
+and the orchard has not as yet really paid financially. We have a nice
+crop this year, however, more than the total yield up to this season,
+and perhaps from now on we may win out. My dwarf pears are on a soil too
+dry and sandy for the best results, and I think we are at Washington
+pretty near the southern limit, at least at low altitudes. In the
+mountains of Virginia and North Carolina they can be grown further
+southward. They require a moist, preferably clay-loam soil even in their
+naturally favored districts, such as New England, New York and Michigan,
+but such a soil is still more desirable when rather too far south for
+their normal range. They require high culture, manuring and fertilizing,
+and thorough pruning and spraying in any locality, and these
+requirements are still more exacting in Maryland. A slight neglect in
+cultivation, pruning or spraying in one season results in a mass of
+blooms the next spring, but little or no fruit set. Of course, this
+extra attention which has to be devoted to dwarf pears as compared with
+Oriental pears, peaches, apples, etc., to be profitable should result in
+larger yields, but does not usually do so in this latitude. On the other
+hand, we may say in favor of the dwarf pear that the quince root is a
+healthy, reliable root for the pear tree; that the trees attain their
+seasonal growth early, and therefore are not as susceptible to pear
+blight as standard pears. Furthermore, they are more easily sprayed,
+pruned, and otherwise handled than the high standard trees."
+
+My friend, Mr. J. W. Kerr, of the Eastern Shore of Maryland, who owns
+one of the oldest and most picturesque orchards of dwarf pears I ever
+saw, says that Angouleme (Duchess) is the only variety that pays for
+growing in that form.
+
+Thus the experience of many men in many parts of America sums up as we
+began. The conclusion of the whole matter seems to be about this: Dwarf
+fruit trees have not yet played any prominent role in American
+commercial horticulture; but they have been profitable in a few special
+cases, and the probability seems strong almost to the point of certainty
+that, with the development, refinement and specialization of our
+commercial fruit growing, a wider field of usefulness will be opened for
+dwarf trees. In the realm of amateur fruit growing, on the other
+hand,--a realm now daily widening,--dwarf fruit trees are of capital
+importance. The owners and renters of small grounds, the cultivators of
+little gardens--the great majority of American home-makers, in
+fact,--will find in them an unfailing source of pleasure, inspiration,
+and even of profit.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+                          PAGE
+
+  Advantages of dwarf trees, 8
+
+  Apple, propagation of, 23
+
+  Apples, 63
+
+  Apples, recommended varieties, 72
+
+
+  Bailey, H., quoted, 120
+
+  Barry's "Fruit Garden," 119
+
+  Bismarck apple, 7
+
+  Boundary fences, 16
+
+  Bush fruits, 99
+
+
+  Commercial value, 20
+
+  Cordon trees, 46
+
+  Currants, 101
+
+
+  Definition of dwarf tree, 1
+
+  Designs for fruit gardens, 53, 55, 59, 61
+
+  Disadvantages of dwarf trees, 18
+
+  Double-working, 27
+
+  Doucin apple, 26
+
+  Dwarf tree, definition, 1
+
+
+  Early bearing, 8
+
+  Erwin, A. T., quoted, 29
+
+  Expense of dwarf trees, 18
+
+
+  Fertilizers, 54
+
+  Fillers in orchards, 13
+
+  Forms for trees, 41
+
+
+  Gooseberries, 101
+
+
+  Heading young trees, 32
+
+  Houses for dwarf fruits, 107
+
+
+  J. W. Kerr, quoted, 124
+
+
+  Lodeman, E. G., quoted, 119
+
+  Longevity of dwarf trees, 19
+
+
+  Management of dwarf trees, 51
+
+  Management of trees in pots, 109
+
+
+  Nectarine, propagation of, 28
+
+  Nursery management, 31
+
+
+  Paradise apple, 24
+
+  Peach, propagation of, 27
+
+  Peaches, 83
+
+  Pear, propagation of, 26
+
+  Pears, 76
+
+  Pears, recommended varieties, 81
+
+  Personalia, 112
+
+  Pinching, 35
+
+  Plum, propagation of, 28
+
+  Plums, 90
+
+  Plums, recommended varieties, 97
+
+  Pots for fruit trees, 106
+
+  Propagation, 22
+
+  Pruning apple trees, 68
+
+  Pruning dwarf trees, 33
+
+  Pruning peach trees, 86
+
+  Pruning plum trees, 92
+
+  Pyramid tree, 42
+
+
+  Quality of fruit, 10
+
+
+  Root pruning, 36
+
+
+  Sand cherry, 30
+
+  San Jose scale, 10
+
+  School gardens, 15
+
+  Selection of varieties, 60
+
+  Suburban places, 12
+
+
+  Tillage, 54
+
+  Training in special forms, 38
+
+  Trellises for trees, 58
+
+
+  U-form trees, 44
+
+  Uses for dwarf trees, 12
+
+
+  Waite, M. B., quoted, 122
+
+  Walls and fences, 15
+
+  Walls for dwarf trees, 57
+
+  Wood, E. W., quoted, 122
+
+.............
+
+TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE:
+
+In the plain-text version of this ebook italics are indicated by
+_underscores_.
+
+Obvious typographical errors in spelling and punctuation have been
+corrected without comment. One example of an obvious typographical error
+is on page 124 where the word "an" was changed to "on" in the phrase
+"... on the other hand...." Other than obvious typographical errors, the
+author's original spelling, punctuation, hyphenation and use of accents
+has been left intact with the following three exceptions:
+
+     1. On page 92 a hyphen was added to the term "one-half".
+
+     2. In the Index (page 125) an accent mark was added in the term:
+     "San Jose scale".
+
+     3. In the Index (page 125) the entry "J. W. Kerr" was changed to
+     "Kerr, J. W." to correspond with other similar entries.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Dwarf Fruit Trees, by F. A. Waugh
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