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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:09:12 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:09:12 -0700 |
| commit | d63392c872bfdcfeffae95d6e81d6145577f8e7c (patch) | |
| tree | 9d08c23dd4d9e84e428021f63a05f7bcb3ca328f /37950-h | |
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diff --git a/37950-h/37950-h.htm b/37950-h/37950-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1af97c1 --- /dev/null +++ b/37950-h/37950-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,17891 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" /> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The South American Republics, Part II (of 2), by Thomas C. Dawson</title> + <style type="text/css"> + + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + text-indent: 1em; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + .half { margin-top: .5em; margin-bottom: .5em;} + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + } /* page numbers */ + + .bblockquot{margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%;} + .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + .nblockquot{margin-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;} + .sblockquot{text-indent: 0em; font-size: small; margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%;} + .indexquot{text-indent: 0em; font-size: 0.9em; margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%;} + .noin {text-indent: 0em;} + + .bbt {border-bottom: solid 1px; border-top: solid 1px; padding-top: 3em; padding-bottom: 3em; width: 100%;} + .bb {border-bottom: solid 2px;} + .bl {border-left: solid 2px;} + .bt {border-top: solid 2px;} + .br {border-right: solid 2px;} + .bbox {border: solid 2px; width: 400px; padding-left: 10px; padding-right: 10px; + margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-bottom: 3em; margin-top: 3em;} + + .center {text-align: center; text-indent: 0em;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + .u {text-decoration: underline;} + + .caption {font-weight: bold;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 1em;} + + .figleft {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: + 1em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .figright {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + + .poem {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;} + .poem br {display: none;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i2 {display: block; margin-left: 2em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i4 {display: block; margin-left: 4em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .notebox {border: solid 2px; padding: 1em; margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%; background: #CCCCB2;} + + hr.full { width: 100%; + margin-top: 3em; + margin-bottom: 0em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + height: 4px; + border-width: 4px 0 0 0; /* remove all borders except the top one */ + border-style: solid; + border-color: #000000; + clear: both; } + pre {font-size: 85%;} + </style> +</head> +<body> +<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, The South American Republics, Part II (of 2), +by Thomas C. Dawson</h1> +<pre> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre> +<p>Title: The South American Republics, Part II (of 2)</p> +<p>Author: Thomas C. Dawson</p> +<p>Release Date: November 7, 2011 [eBook #37950]</p> +<p>Language: English</p> +<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p> +<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS, PART II (OF 2)***</p> +<p> </p> +<h4>E-text prepared by Adrian Mastronardi, Jana Srna,<br /> + and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> + (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br /> + from page images generously made available by<br /> + Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries<br /> + (<a href="http://www.archive.org/details/toronto">http://www.archive.org/details/toronto</a>)</h4> +<p> </p> +<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10"> + <tr> + <td valign="top"> + Note: + </td> + <td> + Project Gutenberg has Part I of this work. See + <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/37920">http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/37920</a><br /> + <br /> + Images of the original pages are available through + Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries. See + <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/p2southamericanr00dawsuoft"> + http://www.archive.org/details/p2southamericanr00dawsuoft</a> + </td> + </tr> +</table> +<p> </p> +<hr class="full" /> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + + +<div class="bbox"> +<h2>Story of the Nations</h2> + +<p class="nblockquot"><b>A Series of Historical Studies intended to present in +graphic narratives the stories of the different +nations that have attained prominence in history.</b></p> + +<hr class="half" /> +<p>In the story form the current of each national +life is distinctly indicated, and its picturesque and +noteworthy periods and episodes are presented for +the reader in their philosophical relations to each +other as well as to universal history.</p> + +<hr class="half" /> +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="" width="100%"> +<tr><td align='left'><b>12º, Illustrated, cloth, each</b></td><td align='right'><b>$1.50</b></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><b>Half Leather, each</b></td><td align='right'><b>$1.75</b></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><b>No. 62 and following Nos.</b></td><td align='right'><b>net $1.35</b></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> <b>Each</b></td><td align='right'><b>(By mail) $1.50</b></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><b>Half Leather, gilt top, each</b></td><td align='right'><b>net $1.60</b></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'><b>(By mail) $1.75</b></td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<hr class="half" /> +<p class="center"><small>FOR FULL LIST SEE END OF THIS VOLUME.</small></p> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="Frontispiece" id="Frontispiece"></a> +<img src="images/frontispiece.jpg" width="600" height="775" alt="CHURCH OF SAN FRANCISCO IN LIMA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">CHURCH OF SAN FRANCISCO IN LIMA.</span> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p> </p> +<h4>THE STORY OF THE NATIONS</h4> +<hr class="half" /> + +<p> </p> +<h1>THE SOUTH AMERICAN<br /> +REPUBLICS</h1> + +<p> </p> +<h5>BY</h5> +<h2>THOMAS C. DAWSON</h2> +<h5>American Minister to Santo Domingo</h5> + +<p> </p> +<h4>IN TWO PARTS<br /> +<br /> +<i>PART II</i><br /> +<br /> +PERU, CHILE, BOLIVIA, ECUADOR, VENEZUELA,<br /> +COLOMBIA, PANAMA</h4> + +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h4><big>G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS</big><br /> +NEW YORK AND LONDON<br /> +The Knickerbocker Press<br /> +<br /> +1904</h4> + + +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1904</span><br /> + +<small>BY</small><br /> + +THOMAS C. DAWSON<br /> +<br /> +Published, September, 1904</p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">The Knickerbocker Press, New York</p> + + + + + + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-4.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>PREFACE</h2> + + +<p>This history begins when Pizarro and Almagro, +Valdivia and Benalcazar, led their desperadoes +across the Isthmus to the conquest, massacre, and +enslavement of the prosperous and civilised millions +who inhabited the Pacific coast of South America. +It ends with the United States opening a way +through that same Isthmus for the ships, the trade, +the capital of all the world; with American engineers +laying railroad iron on the imperial highway of the +Incas; with British bondholders forgiving stricken +Peru's national debt; with their debtor bravely +facing the fact of bankruptcy, and turning over to +them all its railways.</p> + +<p>The American people, alert, practical, keen, possessing +in their press and congress admirable organisations +for the collection and dissemination of exact +knowledge, already fully appreciate the advantages +that will accrue to the United States itself from the +building of the Panama canal. Hardly less thoroughly +do they understand the probable effect upon +eastern Asia and the great commercial nations of +western Europe. Few, however, have yet reflected +upon the canal's vital importance to the peoples of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</a></span>the Pacific coast of South America—to four at least +of the six countries whose stories I have tried to tell +in this volume.</p> + +<p>Cut off from all practicable communication with +the rest of the continent by those yawning ravines +which lead down the inner declivities of the Andes, +gullied by gigantic torrents, and choked by impenetrable +forests, the narrow strip of territory stretching +along the mountain tops and shore plain from Quito +to Central Chile, connects with the outside world +solely through ports on the Pacific Ocean. Throughout +colonial times the stream of greedy Spanish +office-holders flowed down the coast from the Isthmus, +and a scanty trickle of trade followed the same +channel. For three centuries Panama was the +<i>entrepôt</i> and Lima the metropolis of all Spanish South +America except Venezuela and eastern New Granada. +Magellan's famous discovery did not divert +these currents because the stormy straits that bear +his name are practically useless for sailing ships, and +even Schouten's rounding of the Horn only blazed +a path which proved too perilous for the vessels of +the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. But with +the nineteenth century improvements in navigation +and especially with the use of steam and the freighter +built of iron, all was changed. Valparaiso became +nearer to London or New York than Guayaquil, and +during the last seventy-five years the ports of Bolivia, +Peru, Ecuador, and Pacific Colombia have been +little more than remote and unimportant stations +on a trade route that stretches its interminable +length from the commercial emporiums in the North<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span> +Atlantic through Pernambuco, Rio, Buenos Aires, +and around the southern end of the continent. For +centuries Spanish tyranny denied the world access +to those countries, and hardly had they shaken off +the political system that strangled their development, +when geographical considerations and the +invention of iron steamships placed them at a disadvantage +compared with their competitors. Their +commercial, and therefore their industrial and political +progress, has been ten-fold slower than it +should have been.</p> + +<p>The moment the first vessel floats through from +the Caribbean to the Pacific the course of commerce +will reverse its direction. Buenaventura, Esmeraldas, +Guayaquil, Callao, Mollendo, Iquique, and even +Valparaiso and Talcahuano will send their ships by +the short route of Panama instead of around the +continent and through the Straits of Magellan. +Western Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and +Chile herself will be tied by rapidly strengthening +bonds of mutual interest and intercourse to each +other and to the great commercial nations; and a +transformation will begin whose extent no man can +foresee. Every patriotic American must hope that +his own countrymen will devote the money, energy, +and attention essential to secure that share of influence +and trade justly due the United States' geographical +proximity and political sympathy; that +French literature, language, and ideas, British capital, +and German commerce now so dominant in all South +America, will be supplemented by American schools, +money, and commercial enterprise; and that such<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span> +influences will spread from Panama through Colombia, +Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia down the coast +to prosperous Chile and across into the fertile plains +of Argentina and southern Brazil.</p> + +<p>The author wishes to acknowledge his especial +indebtedness to Sir Clement Markham's scholarly +<i>History of Peru</i>, one of the very few complete and +intelligent histories of a South American country +available in the English language. The reader who +commands Spanish will be interested in Torrente's +<i>Revolucion Sud Americana</i>, Mackenna's <i>Historiade +la Independencia</i>, Paz Soldan's <i>Narracion Historica</i>, +Mitre's <i>San Martin</i>, and Bulnes's <i>Expedicion +Libertadora</i>.</p> + +<p>For Chile excellent books in both Spanish and +English abound, among which are worth special +mention, Barros Arana's <i>Historia General</i>, Mitre's +<i>San Martin</i>, Bañados's <i>Balmaceda</i>, Hancock's <i>History +of Chile</i>, and Hervey's <i>Dark Days in Chile</i>.</p> + +<p>Few authorities exist for Bolivia. Valdes's +<i>Estudio Historico</i> is admirable for the period which +it attempts to cover. Sanjines's <i>Historia</i>, Mitre's +<i>San Martin</i> and <i>Belgrano</i>, Torrente's <i>Revolucion</i>, +and D'Ursel's <i>Séjours et Voyages</i>, as well as Fernandez's +recent <i>Campaña del Acre</i> have been found +valuable.</p> + +<p>Wolf's <i>Geografia del Ecuador</i> is more than a +geography, and no one interested in that country +can afford not to study this work carefully. Suarez's +<i>Historia General</i>, and Cevallos's <i>Compendio</i> give a +good account of military and political affairs but do +not bring them down to recent years.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p> + +<p>For Venezuela Tejera's <i>Manual de Historia</i> has +been of much use, as also Scruggs's <i>Colombian and +Venezuelan Republics</i>, Jenny Tallenay's <i>Souvenirs</i>, +and in the war of independence Mitre's great work +on the life of <i>San Martin</i>.</p> + +<p>Perez's wonderfully condensed book, <i>Geografia +Politica</i>, has been the main reliance for Colombia, +but Mitre's <i>San Martin</i>, Torrente's <i>Revolucion</i>, +Holton's <i>New Granada</i>, and Scruggs's <i>Republics</i>, +have supplied much information on points not +covered by Senor Perez's work.</p> + +<p>Intelligible details about comparatively recent +times are proverbially the hardest to obtain, and the +author feels that whatever of accuracy these pages +may boast is due principally to his friends among +present South American diplomats—men who understand +South American history because they have +been a part of it. Salvador de Mendonça, Joaquin +Godoy, Oliviera Lima, Claudio Pinilla, Estanislao +Zeballos, Manoel Gorostiaga, and Carlos Tobar have +kindly tried to help him thread his way through the +tangled mazes of Latin-American politics, and his +principal reluctance at giving these pages to the +public now is that he has not had the good fortune +as yet to know and converse with men of like ability +from Colombia and Venezuela.</p> + +<p style='text-align: right'>T. C. D.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Petropolis, Brazil</span>, March 29, 1904.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></p> + + + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-5.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='left' colspan='2'><small>CHAPTER</small></td><td align='right'><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><a href="#PERU"><i>PERU</i></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>I.</td><td align='left'>THE INCA EMPIRE</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>II.</td><td align='left'>THE SPANISH CONQUEST</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>III.</td><td align='left'>CIVIL WARS AMONG THE CONQUERORS</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>IV.</td><td align='left'>THE COLONIAL PERIOD</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>V.</td><td align='left'>THE WARS OF INDEPENDENCE</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>VI.</td><td align='left'>FROM INDEPENDENCE TO CHILEAN WAR</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>VII.</td><td align='left'>THE CHILEAN WAR AND LATTER-DAY PERU</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><br /> +<a href="#CHILE"><i>CHILE</i></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>I.</td><td align='left'>THE SPANISH CONQUEST</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>II.</td><td align='left'>THE COLONIAL PERIOD</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_148">148</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>III.</td><td align='left'>THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>IV.</td><td align='left'>THE FORMATIVE PERIOD</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>V.</td><td align='left'>CHILE'S GREATNESS AND THE CIVIL WAR</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><br /> +<a href="#BOLIVIA"><i>BOLIVIA</i></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>I.</td><td align='left'>THE CONQUEST AND THE MINES</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_235">235</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>II.</td><td align='left'>THE COLONIAL SYSTEM AND TUPAC'S REVOLT</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_248">248</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>III.</td><td align='left'>THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_255">255</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>IV.</td><td align='left'>BOLIVIA INDEPENDENT</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_266">266</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><span class='pagenum'>[Pg x]</span><br /> +<a href="#ECUADOR"><i>ECUADOR</i></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>I.</td><td align='left'>THE CARAS</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_285">285</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>II.</td><td align='left'>THE SPANISH CONQUEST</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_297">297</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>III.</td><td align='left'>THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_311">311</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>IV.</td><td align='left'>THE FORMATION OF ECUADOR</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_320">320</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>V.</td><td align='left'>MODERN ECUADOR</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_330">330</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><br /> +<a href="#VENEZUELA"><i>VENEZUELA</i></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>I.</td><td align='left'>CONQUEST, SETTLEMENT, AND COLONIAL DAYS</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_347">347</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>II.</td><td align='left'>THE REVOLT</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_357">357</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>III.</td><td align='left'>MODERN VENEZUELA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_384">384</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><br /> +<a href="#COLOMBIA"><i>COLOMBIA</i></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>I.</td><td align='left'>CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_403">403</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>II.</td><td align='left'>COLONIAL TIMES</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_419">419</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>III.</td><td align='left'>THE WAR AGAINST SPAIN</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_430">430</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>IV.</td><td align='left'>MODERN COLOMBIA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_446">446</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><br /> +<a href="#PANAMA"><i>PANAMA</i></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'> </td><td align='left'>THE EVENTS LEADING TO INDEPENDENCE</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_475">475</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' colspan='2'><br />INDEX</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_491">491</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-3.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<h2>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td> </td><td align='right'><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>CHURCH OF SAN FRANCISCO, LIMA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Frontispiece"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ANCIENT PERUVIAN MONUMENT</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>CHURCH OF THE JESUITS IN CUZCO ON THE SITE OF THE PALACE OF HUAYNA CAPAC</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>OBSEQUIES OF ATAHUALLPA +<br /> <i>From a painting by the Peruvian artist Monteros.</i></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>STONE BRIDGE OVER THE RIMAC RIVER, LIMA, PERU</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>RUE MERCADERES, PROCESSION DAY, LIMA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>LITTLE "INFERNILLO" BRIDGE ON THE OROYA RAILWAY. ALTITUDE 10,924 FEET</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>PROMENADE OF THE ALAMEDA, LIMA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>GENERAL VIEW OF LIMA, SHOWING THE CATHEDRAL</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>BAKER ON HORSEBACK, LIMA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>THE MOLE AND HARBOUR OF CALLAO</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>CHURCH OF SAN FRANCISCO LIMA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>MILK-WOMAN OF LIMA ON HORSEBACK</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>VILLAGE OF CHICLAY ON THE OROYA RAILWAY, 12,200 FEET ABOVE THE SEA<span class='pagenum'>[Pg xii]</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>DON RAMON CASTILLA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>STATUE OF BOLIVAR, LIMA, PERU</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>GENERAL DON ANDRES A. CACERES</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>MAP OF PERU</td><td align='right'><i>Facing</i> <a href="#Page_132">132</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>BRIDGE ON THE ROAD BETWEEN SANTIAGO AND MENDOZA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>INDIAN ENCAMPMENT</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>HOUSE OF CONGRESS, SANTIAGO</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>PLAZA DEL ARMAS, SANTIAGO</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>BERNARDO O'HIGGINS</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>RAILROAD BRIDGE BETWEEN SANTIAGO AND VALPARAISO</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>TALCAHUANO</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>NATIVE COSTUMES IN CHILE ABOUT 1840</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>VIEW OF SANTIAGO, CHILE, ABOUT 1835</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_195">195</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>VIEW OF VALPARAISO</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>JOSE MANUEL BALMACEDA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_221">221</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>THE PLAZA, VICTORIA, VALPARAISO</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_229">229</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>MONOLITHIC DOORWAY AT TRAHUANACO</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_237">237</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>BALSAS ON LAKE TITICACA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_259">259</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>LOADED LLAMAS</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_279">279</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ECUADOR INDIANS</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_302">302</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>CHURCH OF SANTO DOMINGO AT GUAYAQUIL<span class='pagenum'>[Pg xiii]</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_305">305</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>GUAYAQUIL, ECUADOR</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_325">325</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>COSTUMES OF NATIVES NEAR QUITO</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_327">327</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ECUADOR PEON'S HOUSE</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_332">332</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>PRINCIPAL STREET IN GUAYAQUIL</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_340">340</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ANCIENT INDIAN ROCK FOR GRINDING MAIZE</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_358">358</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>THE PASS OF ANGOSTURA, BOLIVAR CITY</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_373">373</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ROAD NEAR MACUTO</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_379">379</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ENTRANCE OF PUERTO CABELLO IN 1870</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_386">386</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>VENEZUELAN SOLDIER OF 1870</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_393">393</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>VENEZUELAN GUERILLAS</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_397">397</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>MAP OF ECUADOR, COLOMBIA, AND VENEZUELA</td><td align='right'><i>Facing</i> <a href="#Page_398">398</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>OLDEST FORTRESS IN AMERICA, AT CARTHAGENA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_407">407</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>TRAVELLERS DESCENDING A MOUNTAIN ROAD</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_411">411</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>NATIVE BOATS, MAGDALENA RIVER</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_415">415</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>THE NATURAL BRIDGE AT GUARANDA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_421">421</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>FALLS OF TEQUENDAMA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_423">423</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>NATIVE HOUSES IN COLOMBIA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_427">427</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ROPE BRIDGE OVER THE MAGDALENA RIVER</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_434">434</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>THE HOME OF BOLIVAR</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_440">440</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>PANAMA FROM THE BAY</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_445">445</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>SCENE IN THE ANDES, EN ROUTE TO BOGOTÁ</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_449">449</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>CATHEDRAL, PANAMA<span class='pagenum'>[Pg xiv]</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_453">453</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>CROSSING THE MOUNTAINS IN 1850</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_456">456</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>TYPES OF COLOMBIAN NATIVES</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_459">459</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>POST-OFFICE AT BOGOTÁ</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_463">463</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>RAFAEL NUÑEZ, PRESIDENT OF COLOMBIA IN 1879-1883, 1885-1891</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_467">467</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>VIEW OF PANAMA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_477">477</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>STEAMERS ON THE MAGDALENA RIVER</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_479">479</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>NATIVE VILLAGE ON THE PANAMA RAILWAY</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_483">483</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA SHOWING PROGRESS OF THE MOVEMENT FOR INDEPENDENCE</td><td align='right'><a href="#AtEnd"><i>At End</i></a></td></tr> +</table></div> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-a.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + + + + + + + +<div class="bbt"> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> +<h1><a name="PERU" id="PERU"></a>PERU</h1> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span></p> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-6.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<h2>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<h3>THE INCA EMPIRE</h3> + +<p>For many centuries before the Spanish conquest +and before the rise of the Incas a succession of +great empires existed in Peru. Ruined edifices of +unknown date prove that at some remote period +advanced civilisations and powerful nations were +developed in the coast valleys and on the Andean +plateau. In tombs which vastly antedate even +these megalithic palaces and fortresses, cotton twine, +woven cloth, and cobs of maize have been found. +The domestication and breeding to perfection of +the llama as a beast of burden, and the alpaca as a +fleece-bearer, the development of potatoes, maize, +and the quinoa grain, must have consumed untold +cycles of time. There is no doubt of the remote +antiquity of the civilisation of the Indians who inhabit +the Andean plateau south of the equator, nor +that their culture was wholly self-developed, owing +nothing to outside influences.</p> + +<p>About the year 1000 the Incas were merely one of +several tribes living on the high, beautiful, and fertile +plateau of Cuzco, which lies on the eastern edge<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> +of the gigantic uplift of the Andes. Down the precipitous +gorges into the steaming and impenetrable +forests of the Amazon plain the civilised Indians +never cared to go. The maize, quinoa, and potatoes +upon which they depended for food could not flourish +in the intense heat and heavy rainfall of those +regions. Neither themselves nor their llamas and +alpacas could thrive in the montaña or forested +plain. Their natural habitat was the rough plateau, +broken by numerous valleys, which lies between the +Eastern and the Central Cordilleras, and extends +from the Vilcañota "nudo," shutting it off from the +Titicaca basin, to the transverse range of the "Cerro +de Pasco," in the North. The ocean lies two hundred +and fifty miles south-west, beyond the Central +and Maritime Cordilleras and the bleak plateau +which lies between them.</p> + +<p>This great central section, on whose eastern edge +near its southern border we first find the Incas, is +the heart of Peru. Although the climate of a few +of its gorges is almost tropical, the valleys have the +temperature of Italy or Spain; higher up the crops +of northern Europe flourish; then are pasture lands, +and above all bleak wilds and peaks covered with +perpetual snow. At the dawn of authentic Peruvian +history this favored region was thickly inhabited by +many independent tribes; probably all speaking +dialects of the same language, and certainly very +similar in their industrial life and social customs.</p> + +<p>Tradition recounts that the Incas had migrated to +Cuzco from unknown ancestral seats—by some conjectured +to have been the shores of the prehistoric<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> +fresh-water sea of the Amazon plain—under the +leadership of Manco Capac, the first of an unbroken +line of sovereigns who claimed descent from the +Sun-god and ruled the Incas until the Spanish +conquest. The Incas developed a religion whose +elaborate and rigid ritual, which regulated every +act of their lives, finds its best parallel among the +Hebrews. Each family had its household god; +each sept worshipped an imaginary ancestor; the +whole nation adored the sun as the progenitor of +the reigning family, and the monarch's person was +revered as divine. So profound was the religious +feeling of this people that they finally rose to the +conception of a supreme deity—a creator of the +universe. His temple filled one side of the great +square at Cuzco.</p> + +<p>Even more remarkable than their religious system +was the social and industrial organisation of the +Incas. Private property in land did not exist. It +belonged to the septs and was from time to time +allotted to the heads of families. Every person was +obliged to work, all males being divided into classes +according to age and strength, and suitable labour +assigned to each. The produce, whether crops or +livestock, was divided between the government, the +priesthood, and the communes. Scarcity in one +section was made up from the plenty in others; +public officers annually revised the allotments, and +turns at the irrigation works were taken in accordance +with fixed rules. Not a spot of cultivable land +was left unused. Habitations were built on rocky +hills; deserts or the sides of barren cliffs were used<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> +for cemeteries; whole mountain sides were terraced +up thousands of feet, and land was literally created +by years of patient labour employed in bringing +earth in baskets and laying it on the bare rocks. +By no people has irrigation been more extensively +and successfully applied, and in spite of their ignorance +of iron and steam, of labour-saving appliances +and instruments of precision, the Incas constructed +a system which in real effectiveness has never been +surpassed. Many of their canals, reservoirs, and +terraces were allowed to crumble by the Spanish +conquerors, but modern Peru still lives upon the +half-ruined fragments of the mighty works of the +Incas.</p> + +<p>Secured from want by this intelligent socialism, +their lives and rights safe under laws administered +with inflexible severity, bound closely by family and +governmental ties, trained from childhood in industry +and obedience, the Incas seemed destined to +dominate and absorb the more loosely organised +tribes with whom they came in contact, provided +that they did not become inert, stationary, and unwarlike, +and cease to produce individuals possessing +initiative. The dynamic elements indispensable to +expansion were furnished by the ruling clan and by +fanaticism. The offspring of Manco Capac partook +of his divinity and each emperor left numerous sons, +whose descendants constituted a privileged class. +In the process of time there gathered around the +emperor thousands of men of his own kindred, devoted +from their birth to warfare and statecraft.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 640px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> +<img src="images/i007.jpg" width="640" height="413" alt="ANCIENT PERUVIAN MONUMENT." title="" /> +<span class="caption">ANCIENT PERUVIAN MONUMENT.</span> +</div> + +<p>Under the fourth emperor the Incas were successful +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>in a life and death struggle against a tribe with +whom they had hitherto shared the valley that surrounds +Cuzco. Under the two succeeding emperors +they extended their dominions south to the transverse +range of mountains which separates the Peruvian +from the Titicacan plateau. Yahuar Huaccac, +the seventh sovereign, conquered the tribes on the +eastern slopes, and by the beginning of the fourteenth +century the Inca domain included the southern +third of the great valley of Peru—an area of +fifteen thousand square miles, containing probably +two millions of people. Uira Cocha, the eighth +emperor, began that wonderful series of conquests +which within a century and a half extended over +half of South America. On the other side of the +Vilcañota "nudo" lay the vast basin which takes its +name from Lake Titicaca. Too high and too cold +for cereals, the plateau was inhabited by tribes of +shepherds, who made no prolonged resistance when +attacked by the armies of the Inca. Their rapid +and complete incorporation into the Inca system +followed. Colonies swarmed from the over-populated +provinces of old Peru into the newly acquired +territories. The Titicacan copper mines furnished +the material for weapons and tools, and a great commerce +in exchanging the wool, potatoes, and livestock +of the higher regions for the maize and cotton +of the lower added to the prosperity of the whole +empire. This conquest doubled the extent of the +Inca domain and opened up a vast field for colonising +expansion within their own territory. Once +achieved, the nation turned its attention to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> +conquest of the North. Beyond the gorge of the +Apurimac—the Inca boundary in that direction—lay +the rival nation of the Chancas, a vigorous and +expanding people who were at the head of a great +confederation of tribes which covered the northern +two-thirds of the central plateau of Peru, and probably +also included the Quichua-speaking tribes of +the coast.</p> + +<p>The Chancas defeated Urco, Uira Cocha's oldest +son and successor, and their army advanced toward +Cuzco, subjugating the northern allies of the Incas. +The victors came within sight of the capital, where +meanwhile the energetic Yupanqui, Urco's younger +brother, had gathered the whole force of the empire. +The battle which decided the fate of Peru was +fought on the heights above Cuzco; the Chancas +were defeated, and fell back only to be pursued and +overwhelmed by Yupanqui. He returned in triumph +and was installed as emperor in place of his incompetent +brother, assuming the title of Pachacutec, or +"Reformer of the World." The Incas pressed their +advantage relentlessly; all the tribes of the Chanca +confederacy were subjugated; and Pachacutec's +generals even extended their conquests north of +Cerro de Pasco. The Incas had now conquered a +practicable route to the Pacific, and the coast tribes +about Lima soon also fell under their control. Pachacutec +built a great military road from Cuzco +north along the fertile plateau, through the smiling +valley of Jauja, and down the short descent to the +neighbourhood of Lima. Colonies were established +at strategic points, and the new territory became so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> +rapidly welded to the Inca system that, when the +Spaniards arrived a hundred and fifty years later, +they found the whole of central and southern Peru +occupied by a homogeneous people, perfectly loyal +to the Inca dynasty.</p> + +<p>Pachacutec's successor, Tupac Yupanqui, proved +even more successful than his father. The five +hundred miles of rainless coast from Lima to the +Ecuador border was inhabited by a mysterious race, +in civilisation and origin entirely distinct from the +Quichua-speaking mountain tribes to which the Incas +belonged. Short rivers, rushing down from the +Andes, each irrigated a portion of the desert, which +only requires water to become extremely fertile. +The irrigation works of this people were on a gigantic +scale, one of their reservoirs having its lower end +guarded by a dam eighty feet thick at the base. +The valleys were cultivated to the highest degree of +perfection, and filled with a swarming and industrious +population housed in cities whose ruins still survive +to attest the skill of their builders. Enervated by +centuries of peace, the inhabitants had long confined +their warlike operations to building defensive fortresses. +Nevertheless, when Tupac advanced up the +coast he met a desperate and prolonged resistance, +until one after another the fortresses fell. The +capital of the confederacy was laid in ruins and great +numbers of the people were transported to distant +provinces. Garrisons and Inca colonies were established +and a military road was constructed along the +coast. However, the country was really held only +by force, and even in Spanish times Quichua had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> +not displaced the Mochica tongue in half the northern +coast valleys.</p> + +<p>Tupac next turned his attention to enlarging the +southern limits of his empire. From Titicaca his +armies advanced over hundreds of miles of bleak +plateaux and barren deserts and down the steep +Andean slopes into the fertile valleys of central +Chile. His conquests extended as far south as the +river Maule,—three hundred miles beyond Santiago,—but +the tribes retained their autonomy and became +rather allies than subjects. On the eastern side of +the Andes he obtained the allegiance of the peoples +living in the mountain valleys of north-western Argentine, +and he completed the incorporation of the +vast and fertile plateau which extends from the Titicacan +basin to the present Argentine border.</p> + +<p>Returning to the northern frontier, he reduced +the peoples who lived in the confused tangle of +mountains and gorges which lies between the two +Cordilleras north of Cerro de Pasco, thus extending +his boundaries nearly to the present Ecuador line. +The rest of northern Peru and all of southern Ecuador +belonged to tribes who were loosely attached +members of the confederacy headed by the Caras +of Quito. They opposed only a short resistance to +the arms and diplomacy of Tupac, and he made +their territory the base for the great war which he +proposed to undertake against the ancient kingdom +of Quito. About the year 1455 he advanced with a +great army, largely recruited from the tribes recently +wrested from the Quito monarch, and defeated the +Caras in a great battle. The whole plateau as far<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> +north as Riobamba submitted, reducing the Shiri's +domain to the neighbourhood of Quito itself and a +small region north of that city. However, all of +Tupac's efforts to force the last barrier which interposed +between him and the Cara capital failed, and +he was compelled to content himself with extending +his conquests on the coast as far as the Gulf of +Guayaquil. In 1460 he returned to Cuzco, where +three years later he was enraged to hear that the +Shiri was making a desperate and partly successful +effort to recover the lost provinces. Tupac's preparations +for a final campaign to wipe the Quito +kingdom out of existence were interrupted by his +own death.</p> + +<p>Huaina Capac succeeded to the throne and continued +his father's preparations. Bad news, however, +from the far southern provinces compelled him +first to undertake a campaign into Chile, in which he +was victorious. He then proceeded north and devoted +the rest of his life to conquering and incorporating +the Cara empire. He first constructed a +military road from the northern Peruvian coast to +the plateau in southern Ecuador; then he exterminated +or reduced to obedience the tribes on the +Gulf of Guayaquil, and the coast beyond, nearly as +far as the equator. Returning south, he defeated +the wild savages of the regions where the Amazon +leaves the mountains. Having thus secured himself +against an interruption of his line of communications, +he advanced against Quito in overwhelming +force. The Caras and their allies among the brave +tribes of northern Ecuador made a desperate resist<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>ance, +but were overthrown in battle after battle, and +Huaina Capac entered Quito in triumph. All the +tribes of the confederacy submitted except the Caranquis, +a warlike people who lived north of Quito. +These achieved some minor successes, but were +finally overwhelmed and exterminated.</p> + +<p>The Inca empire, now at its greatest extent, included +all the inhabitable portions of Ecuador, Peru, +and Bolivia, three-fourths of Chile, and a large part +of the Argentine, stretching two thousand two hundred +miles north and south, and from the Pacific to +the eastern foot of the Andes. Except for the +plateaux of Colombia practically the whole Andean +region had been united under one government. +The rest of South America was occupied by savage +peoples, divided into small bands, who picked up a +precarious existence along the streams; and the Inca +empire was safe from any serious attack on its continental +boundaries. But the later conquests of +Tupac and Huaina Capac had incorporated peoples +in civilisation and warlikeness hardly inferior to the +Incas themselves. Indeed, in the light of subsequent +events, it is clear that the later campaigns +weakened the real military power and homogeneity +of the empire. While the older parts, southern +Peru and Bolivia—the heart of the Inca domain—formed +a homogeneous and thoroughly loyal centre +whose inhabitants all spoke the same language and +where socialism and the worship of the sun according +to the Inca rites prevailed, from the latitude of +Lima north the country had been too recently subdued +to be counted upon. The northern coast still<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> +required to be kept down by permanent garrisons; +the mountain tribes of northern Peru retained a +certain measure of autonomy; and the vast territories +where the Shiri of Quito had held sway for so +many centuries were very loosely attached. Tupac, +the first conqueror, found it advisable to remain +there almost continuously during the last half of his +reign, and Huaina Capac, his heir, was born in Ecuador, +and devoted his whole life to that region. He +married the daughter and heiress of the defeated +Shiri, and was regarded rather as the legitimate +successor of the ancient dynasty than as an alien +conqueror.</p> + +<p>In 1525 Huaina Capac died at Quito, leaving a +will by which he bequeathed the northern kingdom +to Atahuallpa, a son born to him by the Shiri's +daughter. Peru, with the southern provinces, fell to +Huascar, his son by a princess of Inca blood. As +the eldest and the legitimate heir according to the +rules of succession which governed in the Inca +dynasty, the latter was to be paramount, thus retaining +a semblance of unity. Huascar and the +Inca nobles who surrounded him at the old Peruvian +capital were unwilling to acquiesce in this virtual +division of the empire. The chief of the Cañaris, a +tribe always hostile to Quito, sent a messenger to +Cuzco offering to swear allegiance to Huascar. As +soon as Atahuallpa heard of this derogation of his +authority he ordered an army to march and unseat +the recalcitrant prince, and despatched an ambassador +to his brother with a conciliatory message, at +the same time unequivocally asserting his claim to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>the lordship of all the ancient domain of the Shiris. +Huascar insisted that southern Ecuador, a region +which had been wrested from the Caras by their +grandfather, and whose tribes had only been allies +of Quito, should not be included. His bitter feeling +against his brother was increased by reports that +Atahuallpa had assumed Incarial insignia which only +a legitimate emperor was entitled to use. He returned +a harsh answer, demanding immediate and +unconditional obedience. Seeing nothing was to be +hoped for from Huascar, Atahuallpa began gathering +the forces of the Quito kingdom.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<img src="images/i015.jpg" width="800" height="443" alt="CHURCH OF THE JESUITS IN CUZCO, ON THE SITE OF THE PALACE OF HUAYNA CAPAC." title="" /> +<span class="caption">CHURCH OF THE JESUITS IN CUZCO, ON THE SITE OF THE PALACE OF HUAYNA CAPAC.</span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> +</div> + +<p>Huascar was delayed by insurrections which broke +out among the tribes of northern Peru, and at first +could only send a few troops to the assistance of the +Cañaris. The latter managed to hold Atahuallpa's +generals in check until Huascar's main army advanced. +Atahuallpa retired slowly up the plateau +to within fifty miles of his capital, pursued by the +Inca army. It seemed certain that he would quickly +be defeated, and either slain or brought to his +brother's feet to receive a rebel's sentence. But +against this invasion, inspired by the ruling oligarchy +of Cuzco, the warlike people of northern Ecuador +stood nobly by the grandson of the last of their +ancient line of monarchs. Though the southerners +were victorious in the first encounter, Atahuallpa in +person rallied his army and drew it up in an advantageous +position at Naxichi. The Incas attacked +confidently, but this time they were hopelessly +routed and the chief generals slain with thousands +of the common soldiery. The remnant fled in dis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>order +to the territory of the Cañaris. Atahuallpa +could not immediately follow up his advantage, and +by the time he had organised his forces for an offensive +campaign, Huascar had sent another great +army to the rescue under the command of his +younger brother, Huanca Auqui. When Atahuallpa +crossed the transverse barrier of Azuay and descended +into the fertile plateau north of Cuenca, a +terrific battle ensued which lasted two days. Both +sides suffered severely, but the final advantage lay +with the Northerners, and Huanca Auqui sullenly +retreated, abandoning Ecuador to Atahuallpa. A +fearful vengeance was taken on the Cañaris, while +the other tribes joined the victor.</p> + +<p>Next year Atahuallpa sent a great force under the +command of Quizquiz, the ablest Indian general of +the time, into northern Peru. Huanca Auqui was +again defeated, and abandoned the disputed territory, +while Atahuallpa's troops poured into the +northern coast provinces. Having met with no +serious resistance there, they ascended the Cordillera +to the neighbourhood of Cajamarca, where they +met the reinforced Inca army. Again they were +victorious and Huascar's forces retreated south of +the Cerro de Pasco, followed by Quizquiz, whose +army grew like a rolling snowball by enlistments +among the warlike and half-independent tribes of +northern Peru.</p> + +<p>Huascar's resources were, however, by no means +exhausted by the crushing defeats he had suffered +during the last four years. The great plateaux of +Peru and Bolivia, the most populous and richest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> +portion of the empire, remained faithful; the ruling +classes regarded Atahuallpa's revolt not only as an +impious rebellion against the legitimate emperor, +but as a menace to their own continued supremacy +in the state. Tens of thousands poured up from +the southern provinces to reinforce the army which +lay in the valleys south of the Cerro de Pasco in +daily expectation of attack. But Tupac's and +Huaina Capac's conquests had created a Frankenstein +monster. When the ruder nations of the +North were first attacked by the Inca armies they +did not know how to organise and were easily reduced +in detail. Three-quarters of a century of +Inca rule had taught them what they lacked without +destroying the spirit of individual initiative nourished +by local autonomy. The older parts of the +empire had been frozen by rigid socialism and ritual, +and the people's energies sapped by long centuries +of tutelage. The northern tribes who followed +Atahuallpa's banner were superior in military prowess +to the Incas who fought for Huascar, uniformly +beating the latter with numbers constantly inferior. +The balance of power had passed from Cuzco and +the centre to Quito and the north.</p> + +<p>Quizquiz's forces finally crossed the Cerro de +Pasco and poured down into the beautiful and populous +valley of Jauja. Again they were victorious, +and the Incas fled along the road leading toward +Cuzco. Huascar and his partisans determined to +make their last stand at the capital itself. Reinforcements +were hurried up not only from Bolivia, +but from Chile, and the Argentine, and an army<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> +which is said to have numbered seventy thousand, +the largest ever seen in South America, assembled +at Cuzco. Meanwhile Quizquiz was relentlessly +advancing along the plateau, and his main body +reached the neighbourhood of the city intact. After +some manœuvres for position in which the able and +experienced northern generals obtained a decisive +advantage, Huascar's camp was surprised at early +dawn. His soldiers could not form and a frightful +carnage ensued, in the midst of which he himself +was made prisoner. As soon as the capture became +known his followers fled in all directions. Quizquiz +advanced his camp to the heights overlooking the +capital; all idea of further resistance was abandoned; +the city submitted, and the principal partisans of +Huascar perished in a cruel massacre.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-d.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-2.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER II</h2> + +<h3>THE SPANISH CONQUEST</h3> + + +<p>During the long campaigns by which his general, +Quizquiz, had conquered Peru, Atahuallpa +had never left the North. He received the +news of the crowning victory and the capture of +Huascar, in his palace at Tumibamba on the Cuencan +plain, and started at once for Cajamarca, the first +great town on the plateau south of the Ecuador +border, accompanied by only a small army. While +waiting near Cajamarca, Atahuallpa heard the wonderful +news that two hundred strangers had landed +on the coast at Tumbez—a port on the southern +side of the Gulf of Guayaquil. They were white and +their faces were covered with hair; they had garments +and arms different from any his informants had +seen; and most extraordinary of all they were accompanied +by outlandish gigantic beasts who carried +them over the ground with a terrifying speed.</p> + +<p>The effect of this intelligence upon Atahuallpa +and his advisers can only be conjectured. It was +remembered that four years before a ship carrying a +score or more of these same foreigners had sailed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> +along the coast of Ecuador and northern Peru, +landing at various places to beg provisions and ask +questions. Two had been left behind, and were +taken to the interior, where their fate is unknown. +It is, however, probable that these unfortunate +Spaniards had given to Atahuallpa's officers much +information about the resources and intentions of +their countrymen. The Inca emperor seems to +have realised that the importance and power of the +foreigners was out of all proportion to their numbers. +The newcomers protested that their purposes +were amicable, and sent friendly messages to Atahuallpa, +who resolved to act cautiously and avoid +offending them unnecessarily. He despatched his +own brother as an ambassador with assurances of +good-will and a polite inquiry as to their wishes and +intentions. But unfortunately for himself and his +country the Inca was dealing with a man whose profound +and deceitful diplomacy was as much superior +to his as a musket is to a cross-bow. The Spanish +leader returned word that he appreciated the kind +expressions of the emperor and would at once proceed +to Cajamarca to pay his respects in person.</p> + +<p>This was Francisco Pizarro, one of the greatest +practical geniuses whom modern Europe has produced. +Born out of wedlock at Trujillo, a town in +Estremadura, the province which during centuries +was the great fighting ground of Castilian and +Moor, he passed his youth as a swine-herd in the +most abject poverty and illiteracy. Enlisting as +a private soldier, he spent his young manhood +in fighting under Gonzalo de Cordoba, in those<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> +campaigns which carried the renown of the Spanish +infantry to the farthest confines of Europe. An +admirable soldier, conscious that he possessed powers +of the highest order, hopelessly handicapped in +old Europe by his base birth and illiteracy, the discovery +of the New World opened up a field for his +talents. He eagerly embraced the opportunity, +embarking in 1509 with Alonso de Ojeda for the +Darien gold mines. Four years later he accompanied +Balboa in that memorable journey across the +Isthmus which resulted in the discovery of the +Pacific Ocean. To the city of Panama, looking out +over the mysterious sea, adventurers flocked like a +pack of wolves eager for a share in the spoils of its +unknown shores, and Pizarro was among them. +The news of Cortes's conquest of Mexico brought +to America a horde of soldiers of fortune. Recklessly +brave, experienced in the most scientific +warfare of the time, arrogantly proud of their +nationality, utterly careless of odds, ready to risk +their lives on the chance of sudden fortune, a set of +men better qualified for the work which fate threw +in their way could not be conceived.</p> + +<p>Panama had hardly been founded when rumours +of the existence of a wealthy and civilised empire +lying far to the south reached the ears of the Spaniards. +In 1522, Pascual de Andagoya, a gentleman +of distinguished family who occupied a high office at +Panama, made an expedition for a short distance +along the coast and obtained valuable confirmation +of the vague reports. Obliged to abandon the +enterprise by his own illness, he turned it over to a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> +partnership formed for the purpose by Pizarro, +Almagro, and a priest named Luque. The first +enjoyed a great reputation for good judgment and +fertility of resource, gained in expeditions along the +Caribbean coast, and by mere force of his talents +had come to be regarded as one of the ablest and +luckiest captains on the Isthmus. The active command +was to be his, while Almagro, a soldier of +more advanced age and hardly inferior reputation, +backed him up and sent supplies and reinforcements. +Luque was the moneyed man of the concern. +They bought a small vessel at Panama which +Balboa himself had built eight years before, and in +1524 Pizarro started down the coast. But his supply +of provisions was inadequate, it was impossible +to obtain more from the savage natives of the +forested shores of Colombia, and the first effort +ended in failure.</p> + +<p>Nothing discouraged, Pizarro and his partners +persevered. They had great difficulty in raising +money to fit out properly the next expedition, but +happily they succeeded in interesting the mayor of +Panama. Eighteen months later Pizarro sailed once +more with a better equipment and one hundred and +sixty men. For five hundred miles he found nothing +except the hot and swampy seashore of Colombia, +inhabited by miserable naked tribes, and his companions +had begun to believe that the empire they +were seeking was a myth, when the pilot who had +been sent on ahead came back with word that he had +penetrated south of the equator, and there had met +a sort of large sea-going raft coming from the south<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> +manned by a clothed and civilised crew and laden +with cloth, silver work, metal mirrors, vases, and +various other goods.</p> + +<p>These Indians said they came from Tumbez, a +city in a fertile valley on a dry and penetrable coast +which lay not more than two hundred miles farther +south. They were traders bringing up a stock to +sell to the shore peoples of Ecuador—tribes who +had long been compelled to acknowledge the suzerainty +of the Incas, but who still lived in virtual independence +under their own chiefs. The men on +the raft told the Spaniards that the whole interior +and the southern coast were inhabited by civilised +peoples, subjects of an emperor whose capital was a +great city in the mountains hundreds of leagues to +the south. Having received this confirmation of +their most extravagant hopes, Pizarro and his men +pushed on until they nearly reached the northern +boundary of Ecuador, not far from the limits of the +Inca empire. It was clear, however, that their small +force would never be able to cope with the armies of +such a power. Almagro went back to Panama for +reinforcements, while the indomitable Pizarro landed +his already disheartened adventurers on a swampy +island where their clothes rotted in the steaming, +tropical heat and never-ceasing rain; fevers decimated +them, mosquitoes tortured them, and eatable +provisions were impossible to obtain. When Almagro +reached Panama, the governor flew into a rage +on hearing that Pizarro was holding his men against +their will, and sent a ship to bring back all who +wished. Nine-tenths of the band deserted Pizarro,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> +but he was indomitable and thirteen heroes stood +by him in his determination to reach Peru or perish. +For weary months he waited for provisions, but the +moment they arrived he set off for the south. +Within twenty days he and his little band of adventurers +reached the Gulf of Guayaquil, four hundred +miles farther on, and immediately landed at Tumbez. +With their own eyes they saw full confirmation +of what the Indians of the raft had told them. +Irrigated fields, green with beautiful crops, lined the +river bank; eighty thousand people, all comfortably +housed, lived in the valley; commerce was flourishing; +large temples profusely ornamented with gold +and silver testified to wealth and culture; the government +was well-ordered and stable; and the people +received the visitors with open-handed hospitality.</p> + +<p>After refreshing his followers, Pizarro continued +his explorations down the coast for a couple of hundred +miles, finding a succession of fertile valleys interrupting +the monotonous desert, each filled with +villages and farms and a thriving, civilised, and +prosperous population. In the fall of 1527 he returned +to Panama, full of the idea of leading an expedition +to conquer the great empire about which he +had obtained such minute and exact information. +He wisely resolved himself to go to Spain and secure +the direct patronage and countenance of the government +at Madrid. Taking with him natives brought +from Tumbez and specimens of products, he set off, +and on his arrival was granted an audience by +Charles V. The Emperor was greatly impressed by +the story which the adventurer told. Naturally of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> +noble and commanding presence, the conscious dignity +of Pizarro's manners corresponded to the high +ambitions which filled his mind. In the doing of +great things he had dropped all evidences of his base +origin, and contact with men and the habit of command +had given him an ease of address and clearness +of thought which made his hearers forget the deficiencies +of his early education. The concession he +prayed for was granted. He himself was legitimatised +and ennobled and received the title of "adelantado," +while the gallant followers who had refused +to abandon him on the Colombian island were made +gentlemen of coat-armour. Pizarro and his partners +were formally authorised to conquer and settle Peru +in the name of the Castilian sovereign and received a +grant of money for the purchase of arms, agreeing +to remit to the royal treasury one-fifth of all the +gold that they should find.</p> + +<p>Pizarro knew just the kind of men needed to assist +in this hazardous enterprise, and he took every precaution +to select only those of whose valour and +capacity he was well assured. His mother had +bred up a family of lions in the little old Estremadura +town, and his four brothers were hardly his +inferiors in valour and audacity. Hernando, the +oldest and only legitimate son of Francisco's father, +agreed to go. So did Juan and Gonzalo, two illegitimate +brothers who were younger, and also Francisco +Alcantara, a half-brother on the mother's side. +Hernando Cortes, the noble conqueror of Mexico, +exerted himself to help Pizarro fill up his ranks with +soldiers of the most approved courage, and the lat<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>ter +finally sailed for the Isthmus with a small body +picked from the very flower of the fighting men of +the Peninsula.</p> + +<p>Pizarro believed that a few hundreds of good men, +well provided with artillery and horses, would be as +effective as thousands in striking terror to masses +of Indians armed only with spears and swords. +Arrived at Panama, it was arranged that he should +proceed to Peru at once, while Almagro would +follow later with reinforcements recruited among +the unemployed adventurers in Nicaragua. All +sorts of good fortune favoured the daring enterprise. +For once the fitful winds which usually baffle sailing +ships in the Gulf of Panama were kind, and Pizarro's +clumsy, little caravels traversed in thirteen days the +seven hundred miles of inhospitable coast which lay +between the Isthmus and the first Inca provinces. +Landing among the half-civilised tribes of Ecuador, +he had the good luck to find a store of gold and +emeralds. This he sent back, as an encouragement +to Almagro, and marching down the Ecuador coast, +he reached the Gulf of Guayaquil, on whose southern +shore began the populous and civilised portions of +the empire. He crossed to the island of Puna, overcame +its fierce inhabitants with great slaughter, and +there was joined by a large and welcome reinforcement +of men and horses under the command of +Hernando de Soto, afterwards so famous as the discoverer +of the Mississippi, who had come on his own +motion to get his share in the spoils.</p> + +<p>So far, Pizarro's operations had been among outlying +provinces owning only nominal allegiance to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> +the Incas, but he now felt strong enough to cross +over to Tumbez and establish a footing in their real +domain. From Tumbez he marched south to Paita, +where he determined to establish his base. The +quick eye of the master general appreciated the +strategical advantages of this valley. At this point +the great military road coming down from the plateau +of Ecuador debouched on the coast plain. Communication +to the south was easy by a road which +connected all the coast valleys with branches climbing +to the plateaux. An anchorage at the valley's +mouth afforded a sure means of keeping open that +communication with Panama which was so essential +to success; reinforcements could reach him in whatever +part of Peru he might venture, and a garrison +left at Paita would command the main route connecting +Quito and Cuzco, cutting the Peruvian +empire in two.</p> + +<p>On receiving Pizarro's answer to his friendly message, +Atahuallpa resolved to await the promised +visit, apparently suspecting no evil. The audacious +Spaniard had, however, conceived the design of +capturing the victorious claimant of the throne of +the Incas, well knowing that in its actual distracted +condition the country would be left without a centre +about which it could rally. Open war, no matter +how overwhelming his first victory might be, could +hardly be ultimately successful. Atahuallpa once +safe at Cuzco or Quito and surrounded by the disciplined +soldiers who had overthrown Huascar, a +defensive campaign might be undertaken in which +Pizarro would find every step toward either capital<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> +bitterly disputed. Hundreds of thousands of Peruvians +pouring up from the numberless provinces of +the empire would be thrown in a never-ceasing succession +of armies against his little band of Spaniards, +and the latter would infallibly be driven back to the +coast by starvation and fatigue if not by defeat in +the field.</p> + +<p>Apparently foolhardy, in fact Pizarro's plan offered +the only chance of success. Never dreaming that +such a step was in contemplation, Atahuallpa took +no precautions. Leaving fifty-five men at the little +post of San Miguel in the Paita valley to secure his +retreat, Pizarro marched south with one hundred +and two foot soldiers, sixty-two horses, and two +small cannon two hundred miles along the coast +plain to a point opposite Cajamarca, and ascended +along an Inca military road, meeting a friendly reception +from the wondering natives, and being supplied +with provisions by Atahuallpa's orders.</p> + +<p>On the 15th of November, 1532, Pizarro entered +Cajamarca. He found an open square in the middle +of the town surrounded by walls and solid stone +buildings, which he received permission to occupy +as quarters. From his camp outside, Atahuallpa +sent word that the following day he would enter the +town in state and receive the Spaniards. Marvellous +good fortune favoured Pizarro's treacherous designs. +The Indians had furnished a trap already made, and +now Atahuallpa deliberately walked into it. On +the morning of the 16th the Indian army broke +camp and marched to Cajamarca, followed by the +Emperor, who was borne in a litter and surrounded<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> +by his personal attendants, the great chiefs, and the +nobles belonging to his own lineage. At sunset he +entered the square, accompanied only by these +unarmed attendants, and found Pizarro and a few +Spaniards awaiting him. The rest were hidden in +the houses around the square with their horses +saddled, their breast-plates on, and musketry and +cannon ready charged.</p> + +<p>From among the group which surrounded Pizarro +stepped forward Friar Valverde and approached the +Inca monarch, who, reclining in a litter raised high +above the crowd on the shoulders of his attendants, +waited with dignity to hear what those strangers had +to say. The priest advanced with a cross in one +hand and a Bible in the other and began a harangue +which, clumsily translated by an Indian boy, the Inca +hardly understood. But in a few moments he realised +that this uncouth jargon was meant to convey +an arrogant demand that he acknowledge himself a +vassal of Charles V. and submit to baptism. With +haughty surprise he threw down the book which +Valverde tried to force into his hand—the priest +shouted, "Fall on, Castilians—I absolve you," and +into the helpless crowd burst a murderous fire from +the doors of the houses all around. Aghast and bewildered +by this display of powers which to them +seemed necromantic, the survivors nevertheless +manfully stood to the attack of the mail-clad horsemen +who rode into the huddled mass ferociously +slashing and slaughtering. The Indians strove desperately +to drag the Spaniards from the horses with +their naked hands, and interposed a living wall of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> +human flesh between the murderers and their beloved +sovereign. At length Pizarro's own hands +snatched Atahuallpa from the litter. The Indian +soldiers outside, hearing the firearms and the noise +of the struggle, tried to force their way into the +square, but the Spanish musketry and cannon +mowed them down by hundreds, and they fled before +the charges of the cavalry, dispersing in the +twilight.</p> + +<p>Pizarro took every precaution to prevent the +escape or rescue of his prisoner, and for the first few +weeks treated him kindly. The Spaniard was playing +a profound diplomatic game. He well knew that +Atahuallpa's generals would fear to endanger the +latter's life by undertaking any aggressive measures, +and that Huascar's partisans would take advantage +of this providential opportunity to reorganise their +forces. He conversed much with the captive emperor +and at length began to hint to him the advisability +of arbitration with Huascar. But the Inca +took alarm and secretly sent off orders for his +brother's execution. Seeing that the Indian was +not to be cajoled, the Spaniard adopted a sterner +attitude, pretended the greatest indignation at the +fratricide, and soon had Atahuallpa willing to offer +anything for his release. Shrewdly guessing that +for gold the Spaniards would run any risk, the Inca +negotiated for his ransom, saying: "I will fill this +room with gold as high as I can reach if only you +will liberate me." Pizarro agreed, insisting, however, +that the ransom be delivered in advance at +Cajamarca. A formal contract was drawn up and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> +executed before a notary, and the deluded emperor +ordered all preparations for war on the Spaniards to +be interrupted and that the temples be stripped of +their gold ornaments to supply the enormous amount +he had promised. Under protection of this truce +Pizarro sent out expeditions to explore the country +and to expedite the process of gathering the treasure, +and while this was going on Almagro arrived +with reinforcements which doubled the Spanish +forces. Finally the agreed sum was all in Cajamarca. +It amounted to four million five hundred +sterling in modern money. One-fifth was sent to +the royal treasury and the remainder divided, making +even the private soldiers rich for life.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, Atahuallpa was not released. Large +bodies of his troops were known to be on their way +from Cuzco, and Pizarro realised that, once at the +head of his forces, the Inca would wage an unrelenting +warfare to expel the last Spaniard from Peru. +If kept a prisoner his partisans would no longer +hesitate to fight to release him, appreciating now +the uselessness of relying on Spanish promises. He +must be got rid of, and so after a mock trial in +which he was charged with Huascar's murder and +with conspiring against the Spaniards, the Inca emperor +was strangled to death in the public square at +Cajamarca. Pizarro knew better than to allow the +Indians time to settle the disputed succession. +With masterful sagacity he resolved to strike at +Cuzco during the confusion. He suddenly evacuated +Cajamarca and rapidly marched along the +northern plateau, and over the Cerro de Pasco into<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> +the fertile valley of Jauja. From this point a short +road led down the Cordillera to the sea, making it +an admirable base for a campaign against Cuzco.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<img src="images/i033.jpg" width="800" height="591" alt="OBSEQUIES OF ATAHUALLPA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">OBSEQUIES OF ATAHUALLPA.<br /> +[From a painting by the Peruvian artist, Monteros.]</span> +</div> + + +<p>Leaving a garrison to protect his retreat to the +ocean, Pizarro advanced by forced marches along +the great central plateau toward Cuzco. Quizquiz +and the army, which had defeated and captured +Huascar two years before, tried to oppose his progress, +but all the calculations of the Indian general +were overthrown by the incredible speed of the +Spanish cavalry. The horsemen reached the neighbourhood +of Cuzco without encountering any considerable +force of the enemy. Here the advance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> +guard was surprised, lost a fourth of its number, +and was on the point of being overwhelmed, when +the opportune arrival of the main body dispersed +the Indians. Though only a small part of Quizquiz's +army had taken part, this defeat badly demoralised +his soldiers; it seemed impossible to make +any headway against these strangers clothed in steel, +mounted on great beasts, and armed with weapons +which slew their opponents before the latter could +got in a blow. Moreover, Quizquiz was in a hostile +country, where sympathies were all with the Huascar +party and where the executioners of Atahuallpa +were regarded as deliverers.</p> + +<p>Manco Capac, Huascar's brother and legitimate +successor, went in person to the Spanish camp to +propose a formal alliance and a joint war of extermination +against the Atahuallpa faction, Pizarro +received him with every mark of honour and respect +and renewed his assurances that the sole object of +his march from Cajamarca was to crush the enemies +of the rightful emperor. Quizquiz tried hard to get +his forces into shape for resistance, but his position +near Cuzco was untenable, and after a slight skirmish +he was obliged to leave the way open to the +capital. Just a year from the day he had reached +Cajamarca, Pizarro entered Cuzco by the side of the +legitimate emperor amid the acclamations of the +people. Manco's inauguration was splendidly celebrated +with all the ancient rites, but among the +procession of rejoicing Incas rode an ominous cavalcade—the +Spanish soldiers, who now numbered +nearly five hundred.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span></p> + +<p>The new emperor gathered an army, and, assisted +by some Spaniards, set off in pursuit of Quizquiz, +whom he defeated a short distance north of Cuzco. +The old northern general, still indefatigable, made +a rapid march on Jauja to surprise the Spanish garrison, +but was repulsed in this well-considered effort +to cut Pizarro's communications with the coast, +and had to make his way, the best he could, back +towards Quito. The central portion of the empire +would now have been content to settle back into +quiet allegiance to Manco. But the latter soon +found that his allies regarded the country as their +own. Under the pressure of necessity for help +against Quizquiz he had acknowledged, as a matter +of form, the titular supremacy of the Spanish king, +and he was now required to carry out his obligation +to the letter. A municipal council, framed on the +Spanish model, was installed as the governing body +of the ancient capital; the great temples were turned +into churches and monasteries; other public edifices +were seized to be used as residences or barracks for +the Spaniards; tombs, temples, and private residences +were searched for gold; and the authorities +were required to furnish troops and carriers for the +expeditions which their oppressors planned against +the remoter parts of the empire. With the resignation +characteristic of the race, the Indians submitted +to these exactions, and Manco hesitated long +before deciding to put himself at the head of a +revolt.</p> + +<p>The transcendant military and diplomatic qualities +Pizarro had displayed were equalled by the energy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> +and foresight which he now showed as an administrator. +Realising that his capital should be on the +coast in order to secure direct communication with +Panama, he made a careful examination of routes +and possible sites and selected the valley of the +Rimac, just below Jauja, where he founded Lima. +From this point the military road by which the Incas +had kept up communication from Cuzco with the +coast and the northern provinces ascended to the +plateau. Lima and Jauja were the strategical keys +to central and southern Peru; San Miguel gave easy +access to Quito, and Pizarro insured the region extending +from Cerro de Pasco to the Ecuador border +by establishing the city of Trujillo half-way up the +coast.</p> + +<p>Their original agreement provided that Pizarro +should have the northern half of the countries they +might conquer, and Almagro the southern. Accordingly, +about two years after Cuzco was occupied, +Almagro started for Bolivia and Chile, accompanied +by five hundred Spaniards and two brothers of the +Inca emperor, leading a large native army. In Bolivia, +where the Inca power had been established for +centuries, he encountered no opposition, and crossed +the bleak plateaux of the Puna, descended the +Andes, and finally reached the fertile valleys of +northern Chile. But so little gold was found that +Almagro determined to return and set up a claim +to Cuzco.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> +<img src="images/i037.jpg" width="800" height="547" alt="STONE BRIDGE OVER THE RIMAC RIVER, LIMA, PERU." title="" /> +<span class="caption">STONE BRIDGE OVER THE RIMAC RIVER, LIMA, PERU.</span> +</div> + +<p>In the meantime the Incas of central Peru had +awakened from the dream of a continuance of +the ancient dynasty under Spanish protection. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>Pizarro himself seems to have been guilty of few acts +of wanton cruelty, but he neither wished nor tried +to restrain his followers from reducing the Indians +to vassalage. The natives were fast crowded to the +wall, and the Spaniards divided the fairest parts +of the country into estates, treating the Indians as +tenants from whom tribute was due. The sovereignty +of the emperor soon became a mere fiction. +In 1536 Manco escaped from Cuzco and raised the +standard of rebellion. The moment appeared favourable. +The Spanish forces were scattered; Pizarro +was at Lima, and Almagro in the wilds of +Chile, but as a matter of fact the Incas laboured +under almost hopeless disadvantages. Their cities, +fortresses, and roads were all in the hands of the +Spaniards, and the kingdom of Quito, the most +warlike part of the empire, had meanwhile been +reduced by a Spanish expedition from San Miguel.</p> + +<p>The rebellion was confined at first to the tribes +who lived in the neighbourhood of Cuzco. These +rose <i>en masse</i> and besieged the two hundred Spaniards, +who, under the command of Hernando Pizarro +and his two younger brothers, Juan and Gonzalo, +occupied the capital. The Indians captured the +citadel overlooking the town, and poured an incessant +rain of stones and burning darts on their +enemies. The Spaniards soon ran out of provisions, +and were forced to try to recapture the citadel +or perish miserably by fire and starvation. Juan +Pizarro led a desperate assault, ably assisted by Hernando +and Gonzalo, and all three proved themselves +worthy of the name they bore. Juan fell mortally<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> +wounded in the moment of victory, but the Incas +fled in confusion, giving the surviving Spaniards an +opportunity to procure supplies of maize from the +neighbouring farms. This defeat disheartened the +Indians. Numbers and bravery seemed useless +against the horses and firearms of these strangers, +whose reckless courage was only equalled by their +cruelty. The Incas kept up the siege for several +months, but without artillery their swords and +spears could make little headway against men provided +with firearms and protected behind solid +stone walls. While the Spaniards in Cuzco were +thus fighting for their lives, the Incas near Jauja +rose and descended on Lima, but Francisco Pizarro +with his dreaded cavalry waited for them in ambush, +and the Indians were surprised and cut to pieces.</p> + +<p>In spite of this success the governor's position remained +most grave. He sent for help to Panama, +Guatemala, and Mexico, but meanwhile had no +means of relieving Cuzco. Its fall meant not only +the death of his beloved brothers, but would almost +certainly be followed by a general insurrection and +the loss of all the advantages gained in three years +of fighting and scheming. He hurried forward two +hundred and fifty men,—all he could possibly spare,—but +had little prospect of success until news came +that Almagro and his five hundred followers had +arrived at Arequipa on their way back from Chile. +From Arequipa there is a pass to the north end of +Lake Titicaca, and thence to Cuzco the way was easy. +Manco would be caught between Pizarro's army +coming up from Lima and Almagro's descending<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> +from the south. The Inca gave up hope and with +a few devoted followers retired into the wild region +of Vilcabamba, lying north of Cuzco near the +Amazonian plain. In those rugged and forested +defiles he was safe from Spanish pursuit, but his +retirement ended all hope of organised and general +resistance. The Inca empire had fallen never to +rise again. With stoical resignation the Indians +made the best of their sad situation, while the conquerors +were left free to fight among themselves +over the division of the magnificent spoils which had +so miraculously fallen into their hands.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-c.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-5.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER III</h2> + +<h3>CIVIL WARS AMONG THE CONQUERORS</h3> + + +<p>The edict of Charles V. conceded to Pizarro the +territory for two hundred and seventy leagues +south of the river on the Ecuador coast where the +conquest had begun, and to Almagro the next two +hundred leagues. In his heart Almagro was dissatisfied +with this award, and, even if he accepted +the division, there was wide room for misunderstandings +and disputes. No one knew the exact +latitude of the river whence the measurement was +to be made, nor had any one surveyed the distances +along the winding roads. Almagro contended that +Cuzco and Arequipa lay within his province, but +this Pizarro vigorously and, as it turned out, correctly +denied.</p> + +<p>Almagro's personal followers were disgusted with +the rude poverty they had found in Chile, and saw +little chance of valuable spoil unless their leader +should secure the fertile plateaux of Titicaca, Cuzco, +and Arequipa. They urged him to seize by force +what he believed to belong to him. After the flight +of Manco his army reached Cuzco before the force<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> +which Pizarro was sending up had penetrated nearer +than a hundred miles. Hernando Pizarro had two +hundred men at Cuzco, but they were exhausted +with long months of fighting against the Indian besiegers +and could offer no effective resistance to the +night attack by which Almagro surprised them. +Hernando and his brother Gonzalo were captured +and imprisoned, and Almagro advanced against the +army from Lima and defeated it. "This," exclaimed +Pizarro, when he heard the news, "is Almagro's +return to me, after losing a beloved and +gallant brother, and spending all I possess in pacifying +the country. I mourn for the danger of my +brothers, but still more that two friends in their old +age should plunge into a civil war to the injury +alike of the King's service and of Peru." From this +moment all the powers of his great mind and the +resources of his profound cunning were devoted to +securing his brothers' safety first, and afterwards revenge +upon Almagro. Willing to agree to anything +rather than leave them in the hands of enemies +whom he knew to be as coldly cruel as himself and +far more bloodthirsty, he sent ambassadors to treat +for the liberation of Hernando and Gonzalo. But +Almagro thought he held the whip hand, and +marched his victorious army across the Cordillera +opposite Cuzco and up the coast nearly to Lima, +declaring his intention of founding a capital for his +government in the valley of Chincha, and announcing +that he would be satisfied with nothing less than +the cession of all Peru from Lima south. To obtain +Hernando's release the governor was forced to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> +consent that Almagro should remain in possession +of the disputed territory pending the decision of the +King, but Hernando was no sooner safe at Lima +than Pizarro repudiated his promise. He declared +war; his army, under the leadership of Hernando +and Valdivia—afterwards famous as the conqueror +of Chile—advanced down the coast. Futilely raging +at Pizarro's treachery, the old man retreated, +making his way toward Cuzco over one of the southern +passes. His pursuers by a rapid march over a +difficult and little used pass reached the neighbourhood +of the Inca capital without resistance. Almagro +was compelled to accept battle, or to shut +himself up in Cuzco and let his enemies bring up artillery +and batter him out at their leisure. His men +outnumbered Pizarro's, and were assisted by a +large contingent of natives, though inferior in discipline +and arms. He chose the speedier alternative, +but the flank attacks of his native auxiliaries +made no impression on Hernando's carefully disposed +infantry and his Spaniards fell into confusion +when the main bodies met in the shock of battle. +With a flank cavalry charge the rout became general; +Hernando Pizarro dashed in, conspicuous with +white plume and orange-coloured doublet; the most +desperate partisans were slaughtered, bravely fighting, +and the old man fled. He was soon captured +and brought back to the very prison where he had +so long confined Hernando. After languishing for +a few months, orders were given that he be strangled. +Francisco made no sign to save the life of his +old comrade, and the sentence was inflicted.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p> + +<p>For the second time Pizarro entered Cuzco in +triumph, wearing now an ermine robe presented to +him by Hernando Cortes, and once more he devoted +himself to organising his vast dominions and extending +the Spanish power over the distant provinces. +Gonzalo Pizarro went to Quito to make that +expedition into the Amazon country in search of +the Eldorado which so miserably failed in its immediate +object, but resulted in Orellana's discovery of +the great river. Hernando Pizarro proceeded to +Bolivia to develop the mining industry—a labour +soon to be rewarded by the finding of Potosí. Valdivia +undertook the conquest of Chile, and Alvarado +that of the mountains of northern Peru. The governor +travelled himself over most of his dominions, +founding cities at strategic points in the more populous +and fertile valleys. He visited Charcas—now +Sucré—the old Indian capital of southern Bolivia; +he founded one city at Arequipa, commanding the +greatest valley of the southern coast, and another +at Guamanga in a fertile plateau half-way between +Jauja and Cuzco. The better parts of the country +were divided into great feudal estates and distributed +among his favourites and faithful followers, +while the partisans of Almagro made their way as +best they could out of Peru or hung around in helpless +poverty, gnashing their teeth as they saw their +luckier comrades rapidly enriching themselves by +Indian tribute and mining.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 537px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> +<img src="images/i045.jpg" width="537" height="800" alt="RUE MERCADERES, PROCESSION DAY, LIMA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">RUE MERCADERES, PROCESSION DAY, LIMA.</span> +</div> + +<p>Almagro's friends quickly carried the news of his +illegal execution to Spain, crying for justice against +the Pizarros. The Spanish government was not +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> +unwilling to secure a selfish advantage from the disputes +among the original conquerors, and sent out +Vaca de Castro to investigate and report.</p> + +<p>When the royal commissioner arrived at Panama +early in 1541, the latest news from Peru was tranquillising. +Pizarro was busily engaged in enlarging +and beautifying Lima, in regulating the revenue and +the administration, in distributing "encomiendas," +and in restraining the rapacity of his Spaniards. +However, Lima was full of the "men of Chile"—as +Almagro's adherents were called—all bitter enemies +of the governor. They passed him in the street +without saluting, and their attitude was so menacing +that Pizarro received repeated warnings and was +urged to banish them. Absolutely incapable of personal +fear, magnanimous when his passions had not +been aroused, he only replied, "Poor fellows; they +have had trouble enough. We will not molest +them." He even sent for Juan de la Rada, the +guide, counsellor, and guardian of the young half-breed +who was Almagro's heir, and condescended to +try to argue him into a better frame of mind, saying +at parting, "Ask me frankly what you desire." But +the iron had entered too deeply into Rada's soul; +he had already organised a conspiracy to assassinate +Pizarro.</p> + +<p>At noon on Sunday, the 26th of June, 1541, Pizarro +was sitting at dinner in his house with twenty +gentlemen, among them his half-brother, Francisco +Alcantara, and several of the most illustrious knights +who had taken part in the conquest. The great +door into the public square was lying wide open.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> +The conspirators, to the number of a score, had assembled +in a house opposite. All of a sudden they +rushed into the square fully armed and carrying +their swords naked in their hands. A young page +standing in front of the governor's house saw them +and ran back shouting: "To arms! all the men of +Chile are coming to kill the Marquis, our lord." +The guests rose in alarm from the table and all but +half a dozen fled to the windows and dropped into +the garden. Pizarro threw off his gown and +snatched up a sword, while the valiant Francisco +Chaves stepped forward through the ante-room to +dispute the passage at the staircase. The ferocious +crowd of murderers rushed up and laid him dead on +the stairs. Alcantara checked them for a few moments +with his single sword, but was soon forced +back into the dining-room and fell pierced with +many thrusts. The old lion shouted from the inside, +"What shameful thing is this! why do you wish to +kill me?" and with a cloak wrapped round one arm and +his sword grasped in the other hand, he rushed forward +to meet his assassins and strike a blow to avenge +his brother before he himself should fall. Only two +faithful young pages remained at his side. Though +over seventy years of age, his practised sword laid +two of the crowd dead before he was surrounded. +The two boys were butchered and in the mêlée +Pizarro received a mortal wound in the throat, and +falling to the floor, made the sign of the cross on +the boards and kissed it. One of the ruffians had +snatched up an earthen water jar and with this +pounded out the old man's brains as he lay prostrate,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> +disdaining to ask for mercy and murmuring "Jesus" +just as the fatal blow fell.</p> + +<p>Thus perished by the sword this great man of +blood. The measure he had meted out to Atahuallpa +and Almagro was measured to him again. +He who had shamelessly broken his oath times without +number to gain his own high ends was slain by +treacherous, cowardly assault. But his great vices +should not blind us to his greater virtues. Courageous, +indomitable, far-sighted, patriotic, large-minded, +public-spirited, possessing a God-given +instinct for seeing straight to the centre of a problem +and the energy to strike at the psychological moment, +he was equally great as an explorer, a soldier, +a general, a diplomatist, and an administrator. Even +his shocking moral delinquencies lose something of +their turpitude when we consider the greatness of +his aims and the baseness of his origin. A bastard, +a common soldier, a penniless adventurer, a man +who had to fight his way up by his own wits, courage +and parts, in the worst of schools, it was not to +be expected that he would be scrupulous. But that +his real nature was magnanimous, generous, and +truthful is proven by the many instances in which +he forgave his enemies and kept his word to his serious +loss, and that his ambition was not sordid is +shown by his self-sacrificing devotion to the public +good during the later years of his life. Formed in +nature's grandest mould, circumstances and environment +had much deformed his character, but the +original lineaments are plain.</p> + +<p>The news of the murder threw Peru into confu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>sion. +In Lima the governor's friends hid themselves +or fled; a hundred sympathisers joined the +assassins; the rudders and sails of the ships in port +were taken away so that no word could be sent to +Panama; and all the treasure in the city was plundered. +Young Almagro assumed the title of governor +of Peru, but he and Rada soon realised that +the vast majority at Lima regarded them with execration, +while threatening messages came from the +commanders in other towns. Rada and the boy +usurper started up the road for Jauja and Cuzco. +At the former place Rada died, but his protégé, +though only twenty-two years old, now showed +unexpected ability and resource. Suppressing with +bloody severity a quarrel among his captains, he +took the road to Cuzco, where his father's party was +strongest.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the royal commissioner, now +become legal governor of Peru, had sailed from +Panama. Shipwrecked off the coast of southern +Colombia, he resolved to proceed by land, and disembarking +at Buenaventura, made his way with infinite +difficulty through the tangled forests and steep +defiles of the Maritime Cordillera to the valley of +the Cauca River. Thence to Quito over the highlands +of Popayán and Pasto was easier. As soon +as the news of Pizarro's murder reached him he +hastened south, receiving many offers of help from +the friends of the dead governor. At Jauja he +found a considerable army ready to his orders, so he +proceeded promptly to Guamanga, to which point +Almagro was advancing from Cuzco. The soldiers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> +of the young half-breed knew that they were fighting +with halters round their necks, and the battle +was the bloodiest since the Spaniards had landed in +Peru. Of the twelve hundred white men who went +into the fight only five hundred escaped unwounded. +The rebels were practically annihilated. Two days +after the battle Pizarro's murderers were executed +in the great square at Guamanga. Young Almagro +managed to escape to Cuzco, but he was quickly +captured and relentlessly put to death.</p> + +<p>Upon the death of Francisco Pizarro the right to +nominate a governor reverted to the Spanish Crown. +Though some disappointment was felt that Gonzalo +Pizarro had not been appointed, Vaca de Castro +succeeded without opposition. Gonzalo's selection +would not have suited the new policy of the Spanish +government. Las Casas had written his famous +book exposing the unspeakable iniquities of the +earlier conquerors toward the West Indian natives. +It produced a tremendous effect on public opinion, +and the authorities at Madrid decided to root up +Indian slavery, and gradually abolish the existing +"encomiendas." Manifestly, such a step would excite +bitter dissatisfaction among the adventurers in +Peru, and it seemed best to name a viceroy, who +would be <i>ipso facto</i> vested with absolute power, and +not subject to the influence of the "conquistadores."</p> + +<p>This dangerous post was entrusted to Blasco +Nuñez de Vela, an old bureaucrat of the Escurial, +whose integrity, piety, and rigid obedience to orders +had pushed him into high positions. Arriving in +Peru early in 1544, he was received with outward<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> +courtesy and respect, thinly veiling real alarm and +distrust. The "New Laws" abolished personal service +by Indians; the grandees of estates must hereafter +be content with a moderate tribute from their +tenants; encomiendas might not be sold nor even +descend by inheritance; and—worst of all—public +officials and all Spaniards who had taken part in the +wars between Almagro and Pizarro were to be deprived. +The provisions were drastic and rumour exaggerated +them. In his journey down the coast the +viceroy had sternly ordered that no Indian be forced +to carry a burden against his will. To the Spaniards +this seemed an outrageous violation of the +natural order of things. The whole fabric of their +fortunes rested upon forced Indian labour. Without +it they could not work their mines, farm their estates, +or transport their goods, and these "New +Laws" enforced by a conscientious and stubborn +old bureaucrat, would virtually rob them of all that +their swords had won.</p> + +<p>Dismayed "encomienderos" wrote to Gonzalo +Pizarro, urging him to espouse their cause; his own +vast estates would infallibly be wrenched away by +the viceroy, and he was told that his head was to be +cut off as soon as Nuñez Vela could lay hands on +him. With the Pizarro instinct of running to meet +a danger, he hastened from southern Bolivia to +Cuzco, where he was proclaimed "procurator general" +of Peru; soldiers flocked to his camp; he +seized the artillery and stores at Cuzco, and soon +was at the head of four hundred desperate men, well +armed and provided. Many, however, shrank from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> +open rebellion against the representative of the +Castilian king, and the Pizarros had enemies. The +result was still doubtful, when the viceroy himself +turned the scale by his own violent measures. He +imprisoned Vaca de Castro on suspicion of favouring +the revolt; quarrelled with the judges of the royal +court; and finally in an altercation with the popular +factor of Lima, stabbed his opponent with his own +hand, and then attempted to conceal the murder. +Frightened at the burst of public indignation, he +fled to Trujillo, while the royal judges took the direction +of affairs into their own hands. They ordered +the arrest and deportation of the viceroy, and +sent a conciliatory message to Gonzalo. But he +knew better than to rely upon the unauthorised +promises of the judges. His answer was to send a +detachment to Lima, which seized three deserters +and hanged them on trees outside the town. The +judges having no troops upon whom they could rely, +were forced to recognise Pizarro as governor. A +few days later he made his triumphal entry, riding +at the head of twelve hundred men. There was no +mistaking the sincerity of the acclamations with +which the Spaniards welcomed the devoted champion +of their privileges. Nevertheless in the minds +of most there lurked an uneasy consciousness that +all this was in fact flat treason against the lawful +sovereign, and that no government could in the +long run prevail without recognition from Madrid.</p> + +<p>The sea-captains to whose custody the blundering +old viceroy had been entrusted did not know what +to do with their embarrassing prisoner, and set him<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> +ashore at Tumbez, whence he proceeded to Quito +to get help from the anti-Pizarro faction. The governor +of southern Colombia joined him and he soon +had five hundred men under his orders. Gonzalo +flew to the point of danger; the viceroy retreated to +Popayán, but being joined by more recruits, rashly +returned to the neighbourhood of Quito to offer +battle. He was defeated and killed; Pizarro went +back to Lima, while his lieutenant, Carbajal, hunted +down and put to death every loyalist who remained +under arms in southern Peru.</p> + +<p>Gonzalo's administration lasted three years' and +they were golden ones for the Spanish adventurers. +The marvellous silver mines of Potosí and the gold +washings of southern Ecuador were discovered. +Encomiendas were lavishly granted; the Indians +went back to their fields; the mining industry began +that marvellous development which soon made Peru +the treasure box of the world and Potosí a synonym +for limitless wealth. But the dazzling sunlight +of prosperity was dimmed by the shadow of +Pizarro's scaffold slowly creeping across the Atlantic +and down the coast. His chief lieutenants, knowing +they had sinned past forgiveness, urged him to +declare himself king of Peru, but he was at once too +proud and too patriotic to fling away his right to +die a loyal Spaniard.</p> + +<p>Philip, the leaden-eyed, close-mouthed despot, +was regent of Spain. Bitterly chagrined that the +stream of Peruvian gold had ceased to flow into the +royal treasury, his vindictive heart held no mercy +for the gallant soldier whose sword had helped win<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> +the riches now temporarily diverted. He selected +a man after his own heart—Pedro de la Gasca, an +ugly, deformed little priest, hypocritically humble, +though astute and untiring, whose success as an inquisitor +was a guarantee that he would be as pitilessly +cruel as even Philip could wish. Gasca landed +at Panama in the character of a modest ecclesiastic, +a humble man of peace who had been commissioned +to investigate the sad situation of Peru and re-establish +peace. He said he would recommend the repeal +of the obnoxious New Laws, and had authority +to suspend them. Gonzalo refused to put his head +into the noose and demanded substantial assurances. +But many Peruvians were more easily beguiled, and +welcomed the excuse to renew their allegiance to +lawful authority. While Gasca remained at Panama, +gathering troops from the neighbouring provinces, +Pizarro's fleet deserted, leaving the coast open +to attack. An advance guard came sailing down the +coast, sending letters ashore at every port promising +amnesty and rewards. Desertions were so numerous +that Gonzalo was forced to give up the hope of defending +Lima and retreated toward Arequipa. Gasca +ascended to Jauja, while Pizarro's old enemies in +the Titicacan region rose, gathered a thousand men, +and sent word to Gasca that they could overwhelm +without help the five hundred soldiers who remained +faithful. But a Pizarro never waited to be attacked. +By forced marches he crossed the dizzy pass where +the Mollendo and Puno Railway now runs, and fell +upon his enemies near the southern end of Lake +Titicaca. Though outnumbered two to one, the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>superior discipline of his men, his admirable dispositions, +Carbajal's skilful handling of the artillery, +and his own cool and intrepid leadership of the cavalry +charges, gave him a decisive though dearly +bought victory.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/i055.jpg" width="600" height="747" alt="LITTLE INFERNILLO BRIDGE ON THE OROYA RAILWAY. ALTITUDE +10,924 FEET." title="" /> +<span class="caption">LITTLE "INFERNILLO" BRIDGE ON THE OROYA RAILWAY.<br /> +ALTITUDE 10,924 FEET.</span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> +</div> + +<p>Meanwhile Gasca was coming up the road from +Jauja to Cuzco, his army increasing by accessions +from every direction until it numbered over two +thousand. The wisest of Gonzalo's counsellors advised +him to retire to southern Bolivia and make a +defensive campaign in that remote region, but he +preferred bold methods. For once, however, he +could not inspire his men with his own confidence. +They followed with heavy hearts his eager march +against Gasca's overwhelming army. He drew them +up for the attack and the battle was about to begin +when, to his despair, he saw several captains desert +to the enemy and his soldiers surrendering without +a blow. Knowing that all was over, he turned to +Juan Acosta, who rode at his side, saying, "What +shall we do, brother Juan?" "Sir, let us charge +them and die like Romans." "Better to die like +Christians," replied Pizarro, and he rode across the +plain and gave himself up. The exulting priest +grossly insulted the fallen warrior, and called a court-martial +to condemn him and his captains to immediate +execution. Though only forty-one years old +when he went to the scaffold, Gonzalo had for sixteen +years taken a leading part in nearly every +one of the battles and expeditions of Peru, and is +justly regarded as the best fighting man among the +"conquistadores."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span></p> + +<p>The property of Pizarro's friends was confiscated; +the prisons filled with wretched victims; many were +put to death; many more mutilated or flogged; even +the staunchest loyalists were not safe. Gasca evaded +and delayed as long as possible the distribution of +land-grants among those who had earned and been +promised such rewards, and when he had to announce +the list he sneaked to Lima by an unfrequented +route in cowardly fear of his miserable life. +He never dared to try to put the New Laws into +effect, and when a peremptory order came from +Spain that enforced Indian labour must cease, he kept +it secret until he could resign the government to +the royal judges, leaving instructions that it should +be published immediately he was at sea.</p> + +<p>Peru was left in confusion. The prohibition of +Indian slavery added to the dissatisfaction felt over +Gasca's awards. The <i>ad interim</i> governments could +make little progress in securing its enforcement. +Rebellion after rebellion broke out, and civil war +continued to desolate Peru, with a few intervals of +quiescence during which the government allowed the +proprietors to do as they pleased, until the arrival of +the Marquis of Cañete, the "good viceroy," on the +29th of June, 1556.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-b.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-8.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<h3>THE COLONIAL PERIOD</h3> + + +<p>The Spanish occupation of Peru was a conquest, +not a colonisation. The narrow plateau from +Colombia to Chile and the adjacent dry valleys on +the Pacific and in north-western Argentina had been +found fully populated by civilised races. The work +of subjugating them was practically accomplished +within eight or ten years after Pizarro landed in +Ecuador, and this marvellous result was achieved by +private adventurers who, though they held commissions +from Madrid, really acted on their own responsibility. +A very few appreciated the advisability of +well treating the Indians and thereby preserving the +effective industrial organisation, but the vast majority +concerned themselves only with immediate profit. +For eighteen years the original conquerors and the +adventurers who followed in their track fought over +the spoils. When the Marquis of Cañete was appointed +viceroy he found eight thousand Spaniards +in Peru alone, four hundred and eighty-nine of +whom had grants of lands and Indians.</p> + +<p>We can never know the sufferings of the Indians<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> +during these civil wars. The chronicles tell us +minutely the stories of the battles, marches, sieges, +surprises, assassinations, and deeds of military +prowess, but little of the destruction and abandonment +of the irrigating canals and terraces, the ruin +of the magnificent roads, the breaking up of the +ancient socialistic system, the impressment of natives +into the rebel bands, the death by exhaustion of +thousands dragging artillery over the steep mountain +paths, the starvation of whole villages robbed +of their crops. But the sturdy physique of the +Andean Indians and their perfect adaptation to the +climatic conditions saved them from extermination. +In the midst of the devil's dance of Spanish carnage, +the Inca officers reported minutely the crops stolen +or destroyed, and the deficiencies were made up as +far as possible from the villages which had escaped +for the time being.</p> + +<p>Naturally the Spanish government was anxious to +put an end to such a state of affairs. Considerations +of self-interest reinforced the eloquent indignation +of Las Casas, but the New Laws could +not be put into effect, notwithstanding the sentiment +of fidelity to the Castilian king and the growth +of considerable cities in which Spanish law and custom +were dominant. The only real cities which the +Incas had built were Cuzco in central Peru, Quito +in Ecuador, and Charcas in Bolivia, and after the +conquest they continued a village-dwelling people, +but the Spaniards, true to the instinct inherited +from Roman times, preferred to live in +cities. Within a few years they had established<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> +municipalities not only at the three Inca capitals, +but at Piura, Lima, Trujillo, Loja, La Paz, Guamanga, +Jauja, and numerous other places.</p> + +<p>The enlightened advisers of Charles V. came to +the conclusion that Peru could never become a loyal +and profitable appanage of the Crown until freedom +of action was granted to its government. Don +Andres Hurtado de Mendoza, Marquis of Cañete, +accepted the difficult post of viceroy. He was a +scion of the noblest House of Spain, distinguished +alike in arms and letters, capable and resolute, of +mature years and wide experience. His salary was +fixed at the then fabulous sum of forty thousand +ducats in order to enable him to maintain regal +state, and, accompanied by his vice-queen and an +imposing retinue, he assumed power with ceremonial +splendour. He prohibited further immigration from +Spain and ordered that no Spaniard in Peru should +leave his district without permission. Though the encomienderos +were left in possession of their estates, +they were made to understand that they must cease +the more outrageous forms of oppressing the natives. +He sent for the most notorious disturbers, and they +came joyfully expecting to receive grants, but were +summarily disarmed and banished. He employed the +more adventurous in expeditions to the interior and +in completing the conquest of Chile. All the artillery +in the country was gathered under his eye, and the +corregidors were required to dismiss most of their +soldiery. Finally, the viceroy continued Pizarro's +policy of founding cities into which were gathered the +Spaniards who remained scattered over the country.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span></p> + +<p>He did much to alleviate the lot of the natives, +though he dared not venture on giving them all the +rights guaranteed by Spanish law. No efforts were +spared to Hispaniolise the Inca nobles, and native +chiefs who could prove their right by descent were +formally allowed to exercise jurisdiction as magistrates. +Even the rightful emperor, Sayri Tupac, +who had maintained his independence in the wilds +of Vilcabamba, was induced to swear allegiance and +accept a pension and estates in the valley of Yucay. +When the Inca had attested the documents by which +he renounced his sovereignty, he lifted up the gilded +fringe of the table-cloth, saying: "All this cloth and +its fringe were mine, and now they give me a thread +of it for my sustenance and that of all my house." +Retiring to Yucay, he sank into a deep melancholy +and died within two years.</p> + +<p>In the meantime Charles V. had been succeeded +by Philip II. The Marquis of Cañete's liberal and +enlightened policy did not wring money from the unhappy +country fast enough to suit the greedy despot. +He listened to the slanders against the "good +viceroy" brought home by disappointed Spaniards, +and Cañete's reward for five years of brilliant service +was a recall. Only his death saved him from hearing +with his own ears the reproaches of his ungrateful +sovereign.</p> + +<p>Several years elapsed before Philip found a man +who possessed the courage, capacity, mercilessness, +and obstinacy to devise and apply a system which +would make Peru a mere machine to produce gold +and silver for the Spanish Crown. Such a one was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> +Don Francisco de Toledo, a member of the same +ancient house to which the Duke of Alva belonged. +To him belongs the distinction of founding the infamous +colonial system—the origin of the misery +and disorder from which Spanish South America +has suffered ever since, and a potent if not the principal +cause of the decline of Spain herself and the +loss of her magnificent colonial empire. Toledo +reached Lima 1569, leaving Spain just after the +news had been received that William the Silent and +his Hollanders had risen in revolt against the cruelties +of Alva and gained the victory of Gröningen.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<img src="images/i062.jpg" width="800" height="538" alt="PROMENADE OF THE ALAMEDA, LIMA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">PROMENADE OF THE ALAMEDA, LIMA.</span> +</div> + +<p>The new viceroy first devoted himself to the destruction +of the native dynasty. Sayri Tupac's +younger brothers, Titu Yupanqui and Tupac Amaru,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> +still roamed free in the forests of Vilcabamba. The +Spaniards had hitherto not interfered with the Indians' +celebrating their national festivals with the +ancient solemnities, and Toledo came to Cuzco to +be present at one which he had determined should +be the last. As soon as it was over he sent for Titu +to come in and take the oath of allegiance. Titu +died of an illness, but the chiefs swore fealty to the +boy Tupac Amaru, and refused to put him in the +power of the Spaniards. The exasperated viceroy +sent a force which captured the young emperor. +Brought to Cuzco, Toledo ordered him to be decapitated, +and the head was stuck upon a pike and set +up beside the scaffold. One moonlight night a +Spaniard went to the window of his bed-chamber, +which overlooked the great square, and saw the +whole vast space packed with a crowd of kneeling, +silent people, their faces all turned to the Inca's +grisly head; it was the Indians devoutly worshipping +the last relic of their beloved and unfortunate sovereign. +But there was no spirit left in them for rebellion—and +no centre for them to rally around. +Toledo's executions exterminated the leading Incas +and half-castes; the celebration of Indian rites was +forbidden, and everything which might remind the +people of the fallen <i>régime</i> destroyed or removed.</p> + +<p>Toledo's "Libro de Tasas," or code of regulations, +is the basis of the system under which the +Spanish colonies were governed for more than two +centuries. The Spaniards were practically recognised +as belonging to a privileged and governing +caste. The country was divided into about fifty<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> +districts, called "corregimentos," each under the +rule of a corregidor. This official was substantially +absolute so far as the Indians were concerned, although +an effort was made to keep up parts of the +ancient Inca organisation, and in practice the hereditary +village chiefs administered justice and exercised +considerable power.</p> + +<p>Every male Indian between the ages of eighteen +and fifty was compelled to pay a certain tribute or +poll-tax, for whose collection their chiefs were responsible. +About one-sixth of the Indians belonged +to estates already granted, and these paid their +tribute to the proprietors, the Crown deducting one-fifth. +The other five-sixths paid directly to the +representatives of the government. In consideration +of this tribute, general and indiscriminate personal +service was declared to be abolished, but the +commutation was not in full. One-seventh of the +Indians were required to work for their masters, and +the wretched victims of this "mitta" were sent by +their caciques to the nearest Spanish town, where +they could be engaged by any one who required +their services. But these were not all the burdens. +The natives of the provinces near the mines were +compelled to furnish the labour necessary to work +them, and the poor creatures to whose lot it fell to +go might never hope to return. Oppressive as was +the letter of these laws, their practical application +was made infinitely worse by evasions practised with +the connivance of the corregidors. Hundreds of +Indians were hunted down and carried away to work +on farms and in factories under the pretext that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> +"mitta" returns had not been honestly made, and +though the population decreased, the survivors were +required to furnish the same number of victims +every year.</p> + +<p>In spite of the slaughter during the civil wars, the +Peruvian Indians numbered eight millions in 1575. +Including the outlying provinces, the population of +the Inca empire must have reached twenty millions +in the heyday of its prosperity. Horrible as had +been the decrease of the first forty years of Spanish +domination, it was a trifle to that which followed the +establishment of Toledo's system. In 1573 the impressment +for the Potosí mines produced eleven +thousand labourers; one hundred years later only +sixteen hundred could be found. In the non-mining +provinces the destruction was not so stupendous, +but some encomiendas, originally containing a thousand +adults, were reduced to a hundred within a century, +and the miserable survivors were compelled to +pay the same sum as had been assessed to their +ancestors. The total population of Peru proper +had fallen to less than a million and a half within +two centuries and that of the whole empire to not +more than four millions. So great had been the +mortality among the feebler inhabitants of the warm +coast valleys that they had practically died out, and +their places were taken by negro slaves whose importation +began shortly after the conquest.</p> + +<p>The Indians were the worst but not the only sufferers. +The Creole descendants of the early Spanish +settlers, though they nominally enjoyed the same +rights as the later arrivals, in reality had small chance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> +to participate in the offices and fat concessions. +Each new viceroy brought a new swarm of needy +noblemen, who regarded the Creoles with lofty disdain. +Commerce except with Spain was forbidden, +and even that was burdened with almost intolerable +burdens. As time went on new taxes were devised +until it seemed the deliberate purpose of the Spanish +government to transfer all the gold and silver in +Peru's mountains to the royal treasury. Not only +were both imports and exports taxed, but also every +pound of provisions sold in the markets and shops. +One-fifth of the products of the mines and one-tenth +of the crops went directly to the Crown. All kinds +of businesses had to pay licences; quicksilver and +tobacco were monopolies; and offices were regularly +sold to the highest bidder.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless the Spanish occupation brought +many incontestable benefits to South America. To +say nothing of the civilised system of jurisprudence, +the letters and the religion which have made the +peoples of the continent members of the great western +European family, the introduction of new and +valuable animals, grains, and fruits raised the level +of average well-being among the surviving inhabitants. +Horses, asses, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, +chickens, pigeons, wheat, barley, oats, rice, olives, +grapes, oranges, sugar-cane, apples, peaches and +related fruits, and even the banana and the cocoa +palm were introduced by the Spaniards. In return +Europe owes to Peru maize, potatoes, chocolate, +tobacco, cassava, ipecacuanha, and quinine.</p> + +<p>Toledo had put his colonial system in full opera<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>tion +by 1580, and from that time to near the close +of the Spanish epoch the story of Peru offers little +of interest. Expansion ceased; the colonists made +no effort to spread over the Amazon plain, or to +prevent the Portuguese on the Atlantic coast from +occupying the interior of the continent almost to +the foot of the Andes. On the seacoast of Venezuela +and the plains of the lower Plate the Spanish +race still showed a scanty fraction of that vigour and +enterprise which had enabled the early conquerors +to spread over half the continent in a few short +years, but in Peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia the country +slowly decayed. Though the viceroys who followed +each other in rapid succession were selected +from among the greatest grandees of Spain, they +were held to an increasingly rigid account, and the +smallest concession to commerce or a failure to send +home the utmost farthing which could be wrung +from the people was severely and peremptorily +punished. Their jurisdiction extended over all +Spanish South America; the captains-general of +New Granada, Venezuela, and Chile, the royal +audience of Bolivia, the president of Ecuador, and +the governors of Tucuman, Paraguay, and Buenos +Aires being all nominally subject to their orders. +But in practice these widely separated divisions of +the continent were largely independent. Lima +was, however, the political, commercial, and social +centre of South America. To its port came from +Panama the goods destined for Peru, Chile, Bolivia, +and even Paraguay and Buenos Aires. Many of the +viceroys were lovers of letters, and the university<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> +produced scholars and authors not unworthy comparison +with those of the Old World. The continual +influx of Spaniards of distinguished Castilian ancestry +and gentle training made the language of even +the common people singularly pure, and the sonorous +elegance of the Spanish tongue as spoken during +the classical period has been best preserved in +the comparative isolation of Peru. The influence +of the bishops and priests, the Jesuits and the +Franciscans, was hardly inferior to that of the +officials. The clergy controlled education; every +village had its parish priest who compelled the +Indians to go to mass and made them pay heavily +for the privilege; the Inquisition was early introduced +and performed its dreadful functions without +let or hindrance.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 774px;"> +<img src="images/i068.jpg" width="774" height="600" alt="GENERAL VIEW OF LIMA, SHOWING THE CATHEDRAL." title="" /> +<span class="caption">GENERAL VIEW OF LIMA, SHOWING THE CATHEDRAL.</span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> +</div> + +<p>The regulations which attempted to confine the +oppression of the Indians within bearable limits were +persistently violated, not only by private individuals, +but by the corregidors themselves. Kidnapping was +reduced to a system, and often all the male adults of +a village were dragged off to work in the mines, +leaving only the women and children to till the +fields. The corregidors went into partnership with +merchants, and the poor Indians were compelled to +purchase articles for which they had no use, and +thrown into slavery to work out the debt if they +failed to pay. The wiser viceroys did not waste +their energies in vain efforts to mitigate the profitable +abuses. They devoted their attention rather +to the exaction of the last penny of taxes, to be +spent in maintaining the horde of office-holders, or to +be remitted to Spain. So rigidly was taxation enforced +and so successful were the Spaniards in finding +rich mines of silver, gold, and mercury, that +early in the seventeenth century the revenue had +reached the sum—enormous in those days of low +prices—of nearly five hundred thousand pounds, of +which about half was regularly sent to Madrid. +Foreign nations could not effectively interfere with +Spain's commercial and fiscal monopoly. The +Isthmus was in her hands, and the voyage through +Magellan's Straits or around Cape Horn was too +stormy and uncertain for the slow, clumsy ships +of that age, and only a few English and Dutch<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> +expeditions, half-trading, half-piratical, ravaged the +coast towns in the seventeenth century.</p> + +<p>The most memorable event of Peru's history during +the seventeenth century was the revelation of the +sovereign virtues of quinine. The Lima physicians +were unable to cure the Countess of Chinchon, the +viceroy's wife, of a stubborn attack of malarial fever, +but the rector of the Jesuit college had received +some fragments of an unknown bark from a Jesuit +missionary to whom they had been given by an Indian +in the mountain wilds of southern Ecuador. +Doses of this quickly restored the vice-queen, and +when Linnæus named the world's plants in scientific +order, he called the genus to which the tree belongs +chinchona, from the viceroy, through whom its +virtues had come to notice.</p> + +<p>The succession of the Bourbons to the Spanish +Crown, at the beginning of the eighteenth century, +brought about a considerable change of colonial +policy. To England was conceded the privilege of +exporting negroes to South America, and French +vessels were permitted to come round the Horn and +trade at Peruvian ports. The latter concession was +soon revoked and the commerce of the Pacific coast +again became a monopoly for the ring of merchants +at Cadiz. The Atlantic, however, by this time +swarmed with ships of all the European maritime +Powers, and it was impossible to prevent smuggling +at the Caribbean and Argentine ports. The Madrid +government reluctantly came to the conclusion that +it was impossible to administer effectually from Lima +the provinces which were commercially tributary to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> +the Caribbean Sea. In 1740 Bogotá, on the populous +plateau of eastern New Granada, was made the +capital of a new viceroyalty, under whose jurisdiction +were placed the captaincy-general of Venezuela +and the presidency of Quito. Buenos Aires was a +resort for contraband traders under non-Spanish +flags, and smuggling through that port so increased +that goods coming from Spain by the Panama route +were undersold in the markets of Argentina, Paraguay, +Chile, Bolivia, and even Peru itself. In 1776 +the southern Atlantic region was detached from +Lima, and to the new viceroyalty of Buenos Aires +were attached not only the Plate provinces—Buenos +Aires and Paraguay—but also that part of Chile +which lay east of the Andes, as well as Tucuman +and the audiencia of Charcas as far north as Lake +Titicaca. By these changes Peru was reduced to +its present dimensions, except that Chile remained +attached as a semi-independent captaincy-general.</p> + +<p>Three times since its foundation had Lima been +nearly destroyed by earthquakes, but none of them +was to be compared with the convulsion which in +1746 reduced the whole city to a shapeless mass of +ruins. More than a thousand people perished; a +great wave engulfed Callao, drowning half the population +and carrying great ships far inland.</p> + +<p>The expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767 was effected +without difficulty. In the neighbourhood of Lima +alone they owned five thousand negro slaves and +property to the value of two million dollars, and +every penny of their immense accumulations was +confiscated by the government.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span></p> + +<p>The great Indian rebellion which had so long been +expected broke out in 1780 under the leadership of +Tupac Amaru, the lineal descendant of the last of +the reigning Inca emperors. In Peru proper it did +not spread beyond the southern frontier provinces +and the story of its suppression belongs to Bolivia. +The authorities were so alarmed that the reforms, +to procure which Tupac had risked and lost his life, +were shortly after voluntarily adopted. The vitality +and fighting qualities of the half-breeds now +stood revealed, and the Creoles, jealous of imported +officials and dissatisfied at their exclusion from places +of honour and profit, realised that a weapon lay +ready to their hand when they should determine +upon revolution.</p> + +<p>General Theodore de Croix, a Fleming, was entrusted +with the reorganisation and reform made +necessary by the Indian rebellion. The corregidors, +petty tyrants over whom no effective control could +be maintained, were abolished; the country was +divided into a few great provinces, each ruled by +an intendente to whom were responsible the subdelgados +who had charge of local affairs, and measures +were taken for the enforcement of the laws +intended to protect the Indians.</p> + +<p>By the year 1790 these valuable reforms had been +put into effect, but they came too late. Ideas of +liberty had begun to infiltrate into the educated +classes, and among the Creoles the abstract right of +Peru to autonomous government became the subject +of secret though widespread discussion. A succession +of able and liberal viceroys, however, averted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> +the danger for the time, and the outbreak of the +revolution in the rest of South America found Peru +ruled by Abascal, whose energy, foresight, and +determination not only prevented an insurrection +at Lima, but nearly saved all South America to +Spain.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-g.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-3.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER V</h2> + +<h3>THE WARS OF INDEPENDENCE</h3> + + +<p>The storm soon to burst over South America +was gathering when Viceroy Abascal assumed +the reins of power in 1806. He made no pretensions +to statesmanship, but it did not escape his shrewd +soldier's eye and common sense that French revolutionary +ideas would soon make trouble. Her very +existence threatened in the titan conflict then devastating +Europe, Spain could not be relied upon +to spare any of her soldiers to guard her colonies. +He must take care of himself. Wasting no time in +seeking to propitiate the revolutionary elements, he +quietly set to work to organise and arm an efficient +army while vigilantly watching the course of events.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> +<img src="images/i075.jpg" width="600" height="730" alt="BAKER ON HORSEBACK, LIMA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">BAKER ON HORSEBACK, LIMA.</span> +</div> + +<p>Although less infected than any other province, +being the one where the Spanish bureaucracy was +most numerous and powerful, even in Peru Creole +society was honeycombed with revolutionary sentiment. +The plots to secure autonomy came to +Abascal's notice, and with the first overt act he +pounced upon the plotters. Two republican visionaries, +named Ubaldo and Aguilar, were the first +martyrs for liberty. A few learned and respected +professors in Lima dared to speculate on the future +of America as affected by recent events in Europe, +but the viceroy summoned them to his presence +and his stern warnings silenced them. Two young +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>lawyers held evening parties where politics were discussed +by the rising youth of the capital. One of +the ringleaders was condemned to ten years' imprisonment +and the other sent to Spain, while +several more were shipped off to southern Chile. +Although the liberals continued to meet and conspire, +and the priests were particularly active, for +the present nothing definite came of all this.</p> + +<p>Even the news of the deposition of the Spanish +authorities at Quito, La Paz, and Charcas, in 1809, +met with no response from the liberals at Lima. +Abascal banished Riva Aguëro, their leader; his +expeditions quickly suppressed the insurrections in +Bolivia and Ecuador; and he redoubled his exertions +to strengthen his army, recruiting among the +Indians and half-breeds, and casting cannon. That +his apprehensions were justified was proved by the +events of the following year. In rapid succession +Buenos Aires, northern New Granada, Caracas, and +Santiago installed revolutionary juntas in place of +the Spanish governors. The flames of revolution +spread rapidly from these centres. Soon the Spanish +officials were overthrown throughout Argentina, +Chile, New Granada, and Venezuela; Bolivia and +Ecuador were divided; and only Peru remained +steady. But Abascal, resolute and unshaken, sent +his armies against the triumphant revolutionists. +The story of these campaigns is elsewhere told in +connection with the countries where they were conducted. +Though the patriots won some important +victories, the loyal arms steadily advanced.</p> + +<p>The redemption of Ecuador, Chile, and Bolivia<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> +had been mainly achieved with the resources which +Abascal had picked up in South America. Until +1813 the people of the Peninsula were fighting desperately +for national independence against the armies +of the great Napoleon. No money or men could +be spared for South America, and Abascal even managed +to remit two million dollars to Spain in a single +year—that of 1811. The armies with which his generals +won their early victories were recruited almost +entirely from the native population of Peru, Bolivia, +and Ecuador. In this struggle between Spaniard +and Creole, the sturdy Indian of the plateau, who +was dragged reluctant from his home, took no great +interest, but any sympathy he felt was anti-Spanish. +Nevertheless, so ingrained was the habit of obedience +that when drilled and commanded by Spanish +officers the half-breeds and Indians made excellent +soldiers. During these six years, only one insurrection +touched the territory of Peru proper. In 1814 +the Indians of the Cuzco region rose under the +leadership of one of their own caciques. The whole +population of this, the most southern province of +Peru, seems to have sympathised with the insurrection, +and the same feeling extended over the Bolivian +border. When Pumacagua, the Indian leader, +advanced into Bolivia the people about La Paz +joined him. But his army was an undisciplined, +unarmed mob, only eight hundred of the twenty +thousand who followed him possessing muskets. +The Spanish general, Ramirez, hastened up from +southern Bolivia; the Indians retreated over the +Cordillera to Arequipa, where they were followed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> +by the Spaniards. When Ramirez approached they +again retired to the Bolivian plateau and the game +of hide-and-seek ended with the horrible slaughter +of Umachiri near Lake Titicaca.</p> + +<p>In 1816 Abascal thought that his work was virtually +completed and that he had earned the right to +retire. Resistance was confined to Buenos Aires, +to the thinly populated provinces of Tucuman and +Cuyo, and to the banks of the Orinoco. The Argentine +revolutionists were fighting among themselves, +and that they must succumb before an advance in +force from the Bolivian plateau appeared certain. +The last act of his administration was to send out +a fleet that compelled four Argentine ships which +Admiral William Brown had brought around the +Horn to withdraw to the Atlantic. He was succeeded +by General Pezuela, a strategist of no mean +abilities, who had borne a brilliant part in the Bolivian +campaigns. The new viceroy straightway set +about final preparations for a decisive advance across +the pampas to Buenos Aires, but like a thunderbolt +from a clear sky came the news that San Martin had +made a sudden descent on Chile and won the battle +of Chacabuco, annihilating the Spanish forces in that +country. Pezuela saw himself obliged to begin a +war to reduce Chile to obedience—an undertaking +sure to be long and arduous, and in which he must +encounter a general whose technical mastery of the +profession had enabled him to create an army equal +in discipline and effectiveness to any the viceroy +might hope to throw against him. Pezuela abandoned +the idea of an immediate Argentine campaign,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> +and contented himself with maintaining a defensive +attitude on the Bolivian frontier. He managed to +repulse the armies which the Buenos Aireans sent +against Bolivia, but it was in vain that he poured +into Chile all the troops he could possibly spare. +They were overthrown and annihilated in the decisive +battle of Maipo. The viceroy sent for help +to Spain and New Granada, but Venezuela had +risen in insurrection under Bolivar and Paez; and it +was impossible to spare any considerable number of +troops from the Caribbean.</p> + +<p>So long, however, as Spanish ships commanded +the Pacific, Peru itself was safe from attack and the +viceroy could securely await the arrival of reinforcements, +and then attack Chile where he chose. +Happily for the cause of South American independence, +the war-ship of the beginning of the nineteenth +century was not the expensive, complicated, slow-built +machine it has since become. San Martin subordinated +everything to the creation of a fleet. He +forced the Argentine and Chilean governments to +furnish him money, and his agents hastened to Europe +and North America to buy ships and engage British +and American captains. The Spaniards had four +frigates and thirteen smaller ships, mounting in all +three hundred and thirty guns, while San Martin +was able to improvise only three frigates and as +many brigs, mounting about one hundred and +eighty cannon. This disparity of force was more +than made up by the superior skill and experience +of the foreign seamen. His admiral was Lord Cochrane, +a Scotchman of noble family, but radical<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> +principles and adventurous disposition. A daring +and reckless fighter, inventive and fertile in resource, +he excelled in leading cutting-out expeditions and +surprises. His marvellous activity and the capture +by Blanco Encalada of their largest frigate dismayed +the Spanish captains. When Cochrane sailed up the +coast he found the Spaniards huddled under the guns +of Callao castle. Returning to Valparaiso, he reported +to San Martin that he could guarantee the +unmolested transport of an army to any point on +the Peruvian coast, and again sailed away for Callao. +Though his attempt to destroy the Spaniards with +fire-ships and rockets was unsuccessful, he captured +and sacked several towns and terrorised the +Spanish authorities all along the coast. San Martin +after many disappointments and interruptions succeeded +in preparing an army of invasion. For ten +years war had desolated every other part of Spanish +South America, while Peru had remained untouched. +At length the conflict was to be transferred to the +very centre of Spanish power.</p> + +<p>On September 7, 1820, Lord Cochrane's fleet +dropped anchor in a bay near Pisco, one hundred +and fifty miles south of Lima. San Martin's army, +numbering four thousand five hundred Argentines +and Chileans, disembarked without opposition and +occupied the fertile, vine-covered valleys. To undertake +a campaign for the conquest of Peru with such +a force seemed absurd. The viceroy's troops were +five times as numerous; at Lima alone he had nearly +nine thousand men; as many more were quartered at +Cuzco, Jauja, and Arequipa, besides the six thou<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>sand +veterans who guarded the Bolivian frontier +against an invasion from Buenos Aires. The contest +was, however, really not so unequal as it appeared. +The Spanish armies were made up of +native Peruvians and Bolivians, with some Venezuelans; +sympathisers with the patriot cause +swarmed in their ranks; many were waiting an opportunity +to desert; the viceroy had little control +over his generals, and the arrival of the Argentine +army stimulated the activity of the patriot societies +in the Peruvian cities.</p> + +<p>From Pisco San Martin detached a force of twelve +hundred men under the command of General Arenales, +which ascended the Cordillera, roused the +population of the plateaux immediately back of +Lima, and defeated a detachment under General +O'Reilly near Cerro de Pasco. The Indians rose, +but when the Spaniards came up in force Arenales +retired to the coast, leaving his allies to be mercilessly +slaughtered. Meanwhile San Martin with the +main body had taken ship at Pisco and, sailing north, +landed at Huacho, seventy miles beyond the capital. +His three thousand men could not hope to succeed +in a direct attack on the city, defended by thrice +that number of disciplined troops. On the other +hand, the Spanish army was shut off from the sea; +its base was now far back in the interior; its line of +communication might be cut at any moment by +other expeditions like that of Arenales. Lima and +the coast towns were decidedly disaffected. San +Martin's plan was to wait patiently until a rising +should compel the Spaniards to retire to the interior,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> +and then to organise the country and gather an army +for the final campaign on the plateau. He kept, +therefore, at a safe distance from the Spaniards; +sent out detachments which scoured the country up +to the walls of Lima; and entered into communication +with the conspirators in the city. Crowds of +young enthusiasts hastened out to join him; Cochrane +daringly cut out the frigate <i>Esmeralda</i> under +the very guns of Callao castle; an expedition sent +to Tacna, on the extreme southern coast, was enthusiastically +received; and numerous desertions +from the Spanish army culminated in a battalion of +Venezuelans coming over in a body. The viceroy +was sorely puzzled. He hesitated to send his army +to attack San Martin, fearing an insurrection or surprise +during his absence, and knowing that defeat +meant irretrievable ruin. Really only two courses +of action lay open to the Spaniards—they must +either fight San Martin, and the sooner the better, +for he was becoming stronger every day—or they +must abandon Lima and concentrate on their base +in the mountains. The viceroy could not make up +his mind to abandon the ancient capital, and he was +reluctant to expose his family to the hardships of a +guerilla warfare in the mountains.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> +<img src="images/i083.jpg" width="800" height="549" alt="THE MOLE AND HARBOUR OF CALLAO." title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE MOLE AND HARBOUR OF CALLAO.</span> +</div> + +<p>San Martin drew closer and closer, the attitude of +the Lima liberals became more and more threatening, +and still Pezuela made no move. News came +of the revolution in Spain and of the overthrow of +absolutism, and all the principal commanders united +in demanding his resignation. He had no alternative, +and retired to Spain, while the generals selected +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> +one of their number, La Serna, to succeed him. +The new viceroy entered into negotiations looking +toward an amicable accommodation of the whole +question at issue between Spain and her colonies. +The Argentine was nothing loath, well knowing +that every month strengthened the patriot feeling +among the coast Peruvians and brought him nearer +his goal. San Martin proposed that South America +become a constitutional monarchy and accept a +Bourbon prince as its king in return for a recognition +of its independence—a concession which even +the revolutionary Spanish government could not +confirm. The suggestion reflects little credit upon +the political acumen of the great Argentine general. +San Martin, in fact, seems never to have appreciated +the motives and instincts which had pushed the +Creoles into rebellion. The revolutionary movement +in South America was in its essence separatist +and republican; no monarch, whether the scion of a +European House, or a Bolivar trying to play the +rôle of a Napoleon, could ever have kept the +Spanish colonies together.</p> + +<p>The first six months of 1821 were consumed in +these fruitless negotiations, and by this time the position +of the Spaniards at Lima had become untenable. +It was necessary for them to retire to the plateau, +where the sturdy natives furnished a supply of excellent +recruits and the mines, fields, and pastures +would maintain an army. On July 6, 1821, La +Serna evacuated the capital and retired to Jauja, +leaving a well-provisioned garrison at Callao against +the hoped-for arrival of a fleet from Spain. Even<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> +then a dozen well-fought frigates might have undone +all San Martin's work and changed the fate of South +America. Three days later the Argentine general +entered the city, and on the 28th of July, 1821, Peru +was proclaimed an independent republic, with San +Martin as temporary dictator under the title of Protector. +During the rest of the year he was occupied +with trying to secure the adhesion of the whole +coast, and made no effort to undertake the redemption +of the interior. When the Frenchman +Canterac, the most enterprising of the Spanish commanders, +made a descent on Lima, San Martin +merely maintained the defence, being well assured +that the enemy must soon retire on account of want +of provisions. But he found himself hampered in +consolidating coast Peru by the fact that he was a +foreigner. The Peruvians were jealous and suspicious, +and he feared that troops recruited among +them might turn their arms against him, while his +Argentine officers regarded the country as their own +property, and monopolised the positions of honour +and profit to which the Peruvians thought themselves +more justly entitled.</p> + +<p>Matters remained virtually at a standstill until the +summer of 1822. San Martin had been unable to +make his position stable enough to justify his devoting +himself to military operations, nor had he +succeeded in gathering and equipping an army with +which he was willing to undertake a decisive campaign. +Canterac even took the offensive, although +he made no effort to re-occupy permanently the +coast plain. Outside help was necessary, and San<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> +Martin, despairing of obtaining it from Chile or the +Argentine, turned his eyes to the north. Bolivar's +battles of Boyacá and Carabobo had redeemed northern +Granada and Venezuela in 1819 and 1821, and he +was now advancing toward Quito to complete the +expulsion of the Spaniards from that viceroyalty. +With a force of Colombians Sucré went to Guayaquil +by sea and climbed to the Ecuador plateau. Defeated +and driven back on his first attempt, he was +reinforced by a division sent by San Martin, and +renewed the effort with better success. Although +Bolivar had in the meantime been checked in his +southward march on Quito by the loyalists of southern +Colombia, Sucré alone destroyed the Spanish +army which had held Ecuador for so many years. +The battle of Pichincha, fought in May, 1822, left +Bolivar and Sucré free to employ their numerous +and well-disciplined troops in completing the liberation +of Peru and Bolivia.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> +<img src="images/i087.jpg" width="600" height="784" alt="CHURCH OF SAN FRANCISCO IN LIMA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">CHURCH OF SAN FRANCISCO IN LIMA.</span> +</div> + +<p>Bolivar joined his victorious lieutenant at Quito, +incorporated Ecuador with his new republic of Colombia, +and proceeded overland to Guayaquil, where +San Martin lost no time in going to meet him for a +conference. The Argentine expected to find as unselfish +a patriot as himself, but the "liberator" was +not single-minded. He had formed plans for his own +glory and aggrandisement to the accomplishment +of which San Martin might be an obstacle. When +the latter broached the subject of a joint campaign +against the Spaniards in Peru and Bolivia, Bolivar +gave him no satisfaction, and evaded the Argentine's +noble offer to serve in a subordinate capacity. The +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> +silent soldier made no protest and uttered no reproaches. +Confiding not even in his closest friends, +he calmly considered his plight on his way back to +Lima. His situation in Peru, bad already, would +be made ten times worse by Bolivar's intrigues. +Seeing that he could be of no further service to the +cause of South American independence, he formally +resigned his authority to a national congress, deliberately +sacrificing his own future for the cause he +loved, but leaving behind him a name untarnished +by any suspicion of self-seeking or personal ambition.</p> + +<p>Bolivar waited in vain for the expected invitation +to come with his veterans. The leaders in Peru did +not propose to jeopard their own supremacy. They +thought they were strong enough to whip the Spaniards +by themselves, and made great efforts to drill +and equip an efficient army. By the end of the year +four thousand men under the command of Alvarado +were sent to the southern coast to make an attempt +to reach Lake Titicaca and thereby get between the +Spanish armies. It failed before the astonishing energy +of the Spanish general, Valdez, who by forced +marches reached the pass which the Peruvians were +trying to climb, and taking up a strong position, +beat them back with great slaughter. Alvarado retreated, +but was caught by Valdez and completely +routed; hardly a third of the army escaped to the +seashore. The news of this defeat brought about a +change of government at Lima. A revolution, +headed by the principal officers, made Riva Aguëro, +the leader of the Peruvian liberals, president, while +General Santa Cruz, a Bolivian, received chief com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>mand +of the forces, in place of Arenales. Word +was sent to Bolivar that his offer of help would be +accepted; and another Peruvian army was recruited. +Before the six thousand men promised by Bolivar +had arrived, the Peruvians had regained confidence. +With the aid of a London loan, the patriots got seven +thousand soldiers ready for service, and in May, +1823, five thousand men under the command of +Santa Cruz sailed from Callao for southern Peru. +This time they advanced so promptly that the Spanish +generals could not get to the passes in time to +dispute the way. Santa Cruz entered La Paz and +defeated the first army which came against him. But +the two main Spanish bodies hastened up from Cuzco +and Charcas, outmanœuvred Santa Cruz, united their +forces, and routed his army in a panic, not a fourth +ever reaching the seaboard.</p> + +<p>Shortly after Santa Cruz's departure on this ill-fated +expedition, Sucré arrived at Lima with the first +instalment of the promised Colombian auxiliaries. +The Spanish general, Canterac, had concentrated a +large army at Jauja and descended on the capital; +Lima was denuded of Peruvian troops; the government +helpless against the Spaniards or Sucré. The +Colombian was made commander-in-chief, and +retiring to the fortifications of Callao before Canterac's +overwhelming numbers, procured Riva Aguëro's +deposition and the nomination of one of his +own tools as nominal president, while he sent off an +urgent message to Bolivar to come in person. Canterac, +after holding Lima for a few weeks, went back +to the mountains, and Bolivar himself landed at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> +Callao on the 1st of September, almost at the very +moment when Santa Cruz's army was getting involved +in that snarl out of which it never extricated +itself. The news of its destruction left Bolivar undisputed +master of the situation, and in February +the submissive rump of the Peruvian parliament +conferred upon him an absolute dictatorship. He +now devoted all the wonderful energy with which +nature had endowed him to preparation for a campaign +which he meant to be final; and united ten +thousand men under his command, two-thirds of +whom were Colombian veterans and the rest Peruvians, +Argentines, and Chileans who fought for the +sheer love of fighting. His officers were the pick of +South America, men who had proven their bravery +and skill on all the hundred battle-fields from Venezuela +to Chile. With such a force he did not hesitate +to attack the Spaniards, although the latter +were nearly twice as numerous.</p> + +<p>Suddenly, however, his plans were seriously disturbed +by a revolt of the garrison in Callao castle—Argentines +and Chileans who had not received their +pay. The mutineers hoisted the Spanish flag and +sent word to Canterac that he might come in and +take possession. This event produced a great sensation +at Lima. Many citizens who distrusted Bolivar +or were fearful of the final result vacillated in their +allegiance. Even men who had been prominent +liberals went over to the royalists. Bolivar abandoned +the capital and removed his base of operations +to Trujillo, three hundred miles north. But +discouragement gave place to confident enthusiasm<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> +when news came that the Spanish generals were +fighting among themselves. Olañeta, the renegade +Argentine, who commanded in Bolivia, had quarrelled +with La Serna, whom he regarded as a pestilent +liberal and an enemy of the absolute pretensions +of the Spanish king. The viceroy sent Valdez +against him, and some hard fighting had taken +place, when this fratricidal war was interrupted by +the news of Bolivar's preparations.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/i091.jpg" width="600" height="602" alt="MILK-WOMAN OF LIMA ON HORSEBACK." title="" /> +<span class="caption">MILK-WOMAN OF LIMA ON HORSEBACK.</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span></p> + +<p>Though just recovering from a dangerous illness, +Bolivar lost no time in taking advantage of Olañeta's +revolt. His army numbered nine thousand men; it +was well supplied with cavalry, and the troops received +their liberal pay punctually. The patriots +advanced rapidly and unopposed over the Maritime +Cordillera, covered by a cloud of Peruvian guerillas, +under whose protection Sucré marked out the daily +route and brought in provisions. The city of Pasco, +just south of that transverse range which forms the +northern limit of the great Peruvian plateau, was +reached and Bolivar's army hastened south along +the western shore of the lake of Reyes to the marshy +plain of Junin at its southern end, where he met +Canterac hurrying up from Jauja with a slightly +inferior force.</p> + +<p>When Bolivar caught sight of the royalist army he +held his infantry back in a defensible position, and +sent his cavalry toward the enemy. Canterac +rashly charged in person at the head of all his cavalry, +but instead of the easy victory he expected, +his squadrons were thrown into some disorder when +they encountered the patriot lancers. The latter, +however, were compelled to retreat, and fled into a +defile, followed by the royalists. The royalists did +not notice that a Peruvian squadron had been drawn +aside, and scarcely were they in the defile than they +were charged from the rear. The fugitive patriots +in front rallied, and the disordered and huddled +royalists, caught between two fires, could make no +effective resistance. They were quickly cut to +pieces and driven from the field. The whole affair<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> +had not lasted three-quarters of an hour; the numbers +engaged did not much exceed two thousand; +the royalist loss was only two hundred and fifty, +yet this battle of Junin produced almost decisive +results. As the fugitive cavalry rode up to the +protection of the muskets of the infantry, the latter +retreated. Though Canterac was not pursued, he +did not stop in his precipitate flight until he had +nearly reached Cuzco, five hundred miles away, +losing two thousand men by desertion on the +road.</p> + +<p>Leaving Sucré in command of the army, which +now threatened Cuzco itself, Bolivar returned to +Lima to look after his political interests, collect +money, and urge the sending of reinforcements from +Colombia. La Serna called in all his outlying divisions, +while Sucré confidently scattered his forces. +He underestimated the strength of the royalists, +for to his consternation La Serna suddenly broke +out of Cuzco at the head of ten thousand men, and +before Sucré could concentrate, his opponent was +threatening his rear and manœuvring to cut him +off from his base. Happily, the royalists were compelled +to march in a semicircle, and Sucré, by +desperate exertions, united his forces and cut along +the radius, coming in sight of La Serna just as the +latter had succeeded in getting between him and the +road to Jauja. Sucré's position was desperate. +The valleys to the north were rising in favour of the +royalists; a patriot column advancing from that +direction to reinforce him was driven back; his provisions +and ammunition were beginning to fail.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> +Sucré's army was La Serna's real objective. Even +if he could shake off the pursuit, another march to +Lima would be as barren of results as Canterac's last +descent, and to leave the Colombian army at Guamanga +would expose Cuzco and Bolivia to invasion. +During three days the opposing armies marched and +counter-marched among the ravines on the west +bank of the Pampas River, and finally Sucré took +the desperate resolution of crossing the deep gorge +in which the river runs in order to reach the high +grounds on the other side. He managed to get his +main body over safely, but the Spaniards fell upon +his rearguard, killing four hundred men and capturing +one of his two cannon. The two armies were +now opposite each other on the high, narrow, and +broken plateau which lies between the Eastern and +Central Cordilleras, separated only by the gorge of +the Pampas. They marched in plain sight of each +other, the royalists along the slopes of the Central +Cordillera, while the patriots skirted the foothills +of the Eastern. Sucré hoped to outrun the enemy +and reach the main road to Jauja, but La Serna +again outflanked him; he offered battle, but the +viceroy had determined to engage under conditions +where not a patriot could escape, and by skilful +manœuvres the royal army succeeded in getting into +the protection of the eastern range at a point north +of Sucré. Irretrievably cut off from the Jauja road, +convinced by his previous failures that he could not +better his position by any further manœuvres, the +Colombian general resolved again to offer battle, although +this time upon a field chosen by La Serna.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> +He ceased marching and allowed the enemy to dispose +their forces at will.</p> + +<p>On the 8th of September, 1824, La Serna's army, +numbering eight thousand five hundred men—of +whom only five hundred were Spaniards—encamped +on the high grounds overlooking the little plain of +Ayacucho, which sloped gently eastward to the little +village of Quinua. To the left the level ground was +bounded by a deep and precipitate ravine, and on +the right by a valley which, though less difficult, +was impracticable for fighting. Sucré's army lay at +the eastern extremity of the plain, at the edge of +the slope which rises from Quinua. Behind was no +cover to re-form in if defeated. His forces were a +little less than six thousand, and he had only one +cannon against the enemy's eleven, but three-fourths +of his men were the pick of the Colombian veterans +and the rest Peruvians of the highest spirit. Tired +of interminable marching through the mountains, +isolated in a hostile region, starvation staring them +in the face, confident of their superiority, man for +man, to the royalists, and led by fiery young generals,—Sucré +was only thirty-one and his chief lieutenant +twenty-five,—they welcomed the opportunity to +fight it out once for all, face to face and man to man.</p> + +<p>The morning sun of the 9th rose radiant behind +the mountains where the Spaniards lay encamped. +Sucré deployed his army in the open plain, riding +down the line exclaiming, "Soldiers, on your deeds +this day depends the fate of South America," while +the Spanish columns descended in perfect order from +the heights. La Serna realised that his men would<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> +not fight with the same spirit as the patriots and +that defeat might be followed by wholesale desertion, +but he counted on his artillery and the reserve +he had left on the high ground as a sure refuge in +case of a reverse.</p> + +<p>The story of the battle is soon told. The patriots +advanced to meet the Spanish attack; musketry +volleys on both sides did terrific execution, and the +two armies met bayonet in hand. On the left the +Spanish columns were unable to make any impression +on the Colombian infantry, and while the conflict +was still undecided the royalist cavalry rashly +charged, hoping to strike a deciding blow. But they +were met by a counter-charge of the patriot squadrons +and rolled back in defeat. The whole left of the +royalist army dispersed, and such was the confusion +that the impetuously pursuing Colombians reached +the Spanish camp and spiked the artillery, defeating +on their way the enemy's centre. In the meantime +the Spanish right under Valdez had outflanked the +Peruvians who held that part of the line and driven +them back, but before he could reach the patriot +centre the battle had been decided. Attacked by +the victorious cavalry, Valdez's men were cut to +pieces, and by one o'clock in the after noon the +Spanish army, except the reserve under Canterac, +had ceased to exist as an organised body. Of the +royalists fourteen hundred were dead and seven +hundred wounded, while the patriots had lost six +hundred wounded and three hundred dead. The +viceroy was wounded and a prisoner, his men deserting +and dispersing by hundreds. Canterac sued<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> +for terms, and that afternoon fourteen generals, five +hundred and sixty-eight officers, and three thousand +two hundred privates became prisoners of war. +Never was a victory more complete and decisive +than Ayacucho. The war for independence was +over. Only under Olañeta in far southern Bolivia +and at Callao castle did a Spaniard remain under +arms. Sucré marched to Cuzco, where he rested +and refitted and then went on to Puno and La Paz. +Olañeta's troops deserted as the Colombian approached, +and the last of the Spanish generals fell at +the hands of his own men as he was bravely trying +to suppress a mutiny. Callao castle held out for +thirteen months, and with its surrender was hauled +down the last Spanish ensign which floated on the +South American mainland.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-d.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-3.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<h2>CHAPTER VI</h2> + +<h3>FROM INDEPENDENCE TO THE CHILEAN WAR</h3> + + +<p>If ever country began an independent existence +without any basis for a strong, ordered, and +stable government, that country was the Peru of +1826. The interior inhabited by Indians long held +in abject subjection by the Spanish generals, the +long strip of coast divided by local and factional +jealousies, the nation had already miserably failed +to unite in face of defeats suffered from the Spaniards, +or of the military preponderance first of the +Argentines and then of the Colombians.</p> + +<p>In 1825 all thought of open resistance to Bolivar +was manifest folly. Peru was his to do with as he +pleased. He went through the farce of summoning +a congress and offering to resign his dictatorship, +but with thousands of Colombian troops encamped +at Lima, it was natural that he should be begged +to retain the direction of affairs on his own terms. +The "liberator" devoted all his energies to laying +the foundations for a great military confederation +with himself as its life head. Venezuela, New +Granada, and Ecuador were already united under<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> +the name of the United States of Colombia, of +which he was president. He hoped to make his +tenure permanent by imposing an aristocratic and +centralising constitution providing for a life president. +The submissive Peruvian congress agreed to +adopt his system, and the dictator set out on a +triumphal tour to put it in application in upper +Peru. Travelling along the coast to Arequipa, he +crossed the Cordillera to La Paz, and thence proceeded +over the Titicacan plateau to Charcas and +Potosí. There he created a new nation which, in +his honour, was named Bolivia; wrote its Constitution +with his own hand; and, having installed Sucré +as life president, returned to Lima at the beginning +of 1826.</p> + +<p>Apparently Bolivar's system was dominant from +the Caribbean to the Argentine pampas, and he regarded +himself as certain soon to be virtual emperor +of all South America. But the instinct of local +pride was growing; the signs of Peru's wish to be +rid of him could not be ignored, and the new congress +he had summoned was abruptly dismissed. In +September the news of disturbances in Venezuela, +which foreshadowed the breaking up of Colombia, +made it necessary for Bolivar to hasten north. He +left General Lara at Lima, but that officer failed to +keep the unruly mercenaries upon whom his power +depended in good humour. A mutiny broke out; +Lara was arrested and deported, and the mutineers +entered into negotiations with the Peruvian leaders. +The money demanded was soon raised and the Colombian +soldiers shortly embarked, leaving the field +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>free for the local chiefs to fight among themselves +for supreme power. General Santa Cruz, though by +birth a Bolivian, had great influence anions the few +Peruvian troops, and tried to forestall his competitors +by seizing the direction of affairs and summoning +a congress, but General La Mar, himself born +at Cuenca in Ecuador, was stronger. The latter +secured the selection of his friends, and when congress +met he had a two-thirds majority and became +president. So long as Sucré remained in control of +Bolivia there could, however, be no certainty that +Colombian rule might not be re-established, but he +was already in trouble on account of the mutinous +disposition of his troops. When the Peruvians sent +against him a hastily gathered force he was compelled +to withdraw, the Bolivarian Constitution was +abolished, and Santa Cruz made himself supreme in +Bolivia.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 734px;"> +<img src="images/i100.jpg" width="734" height="600" alt="VILLAGE OF CHICLAY ON THE OROYA RAILWAY, 12,200 FEET ABOVE +THE SEA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">VILLAGE OF CHICLAY ON THE OROYA RAILWAY, 12,200 FEET ABOVE +THE SEA.</span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> +</div> + +<p>Encouraged by this success, La Mar determined to +wrest Guayaquil and Cuenca from Colombia. Bolivar, +already furious over the defection of Peru and +Bolivia, made a formal declaration of war, although +he was too much occupied with his own troubles +in New Granada and Venezuela to go in person to +the frontier. General Flores, whom he had put in +charge of Ecuador, made preparations to resist La +Mar, Sucré came to direct the operations, a Peruvian +naval expedition captured Guayaquil, and La +Mar's main army of four thousand men occupied +the province of Loja and penetrated within forty +miles of Cuenca, only to be defeated. The Peruvian +president signed a treaty giving up his conquests, +but he was no sooner safe in his own country than +he repudiated it and refused to surrender Guayaquil. +His defeat had, however, cost him his prestige at +home, and one of his generals, Gamarra, revolted +and declared himself dictator.</p> + +<p>Gamarra had been chief of staff at Ayacucho; he +was a good soldier, but, like most of his companions, +had no conception of constitutional government, +and thought the men whose bravery had redeemed +Peru from the Spaniards' <i>ipso facto</i> entitled to govern. +Force was the only method he knew to secure +obedience, and under his administration taxes were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> +arbitrarily increased, citizens exiled without trial, +and the country virtually governed by martial law. +Until the last year of his administration Gamarra +held the country fairly quiet, but as the end of his +legal term in 1833 approached, the question of the +succession plunged Peru into an indescribable anarchy. +Gamarra's enemies got control of the assembly +called to frame a permanent Constitution +and illegally named a president, while Gamarra proclaimed +one of his own partisans. Every military +chief who could command the support of a few +soldiers acted on his own responsibility. Dictators +and <i>soi-disant</i> presidents were put up and pulled +down one after another in a bewildering succession. +Orbegoso, La Fuente, Vista Florida, Nieto, San +Roman, Vidal, Gamarra, and Salaverry were each +proclaimed supreme within the next year. Combinations +of the different chiefs formed, dissolved, +and re-formed with perplexing rapidity. Two bands +would fight a bloody battle one day and the next +would fall into each other's arms and swear eternal +friendship.</p> + +<p>Salaverry, a chief only thirty years old and remarkable +for his dash and energy, succeeded in +establishing himself pretty firmly at Lima, while +Gamarra held Cuzco. Orbegoso, who had received +a majority of votes in congress, entered into negotiations +with Santa Cruz, the strong dictator of Bolivia, +agreeing to everything to get help against +Salaverry and Gamarra. The wily Bolivian had +planned to divide Peru and unite the fragments +with Bolivia into a confederation. At the head of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> +five thousand men he advanced on Cuzco and wiped +out Gamarra. The fiery Salaverry did not wait to +be trapped at Lima, but left the capital with his +whole force and hastened south. Not daring to attack +Santa Cruz's vastly superior army, he slipped +around to Arequipa, laying that unhappy town +under contribution and impressing its citizens into +his army. The Bolivians followed; he evacuated +Arequipa, and evaded them for a time, but they +finally caught him as he was making a daring attempt +to cut their line of communication. His army +was dispersed and destroyed and he and his principal +officers were taken prisoners and mercilessly +shot.</p> + +<p>It seemed as if Peru might now, under the strong +rule of Santa Cruz, enjoy the peace and order with +which he had blessed Bolivia. The country was +partitioned, Orbegoso becoming sub-president of +North Peru, which included Lima, and General +Herrera of South Peru. Santa Cruz was proclaimed +protector of the Peru-Bolivian confederation and the +new government formally inaugurated in the fall of +1836. He was an able and laborious administrator, +zealous for economy and purity in public affairs, a +friend of orderly government, a ruler who knew +how to organise an efficient army while maintaining +it in due subordination. But from the beginning it +was evident that he held supremacy by a very +uncertain tenure. The Peruvian military classes, so +long and so absolutely dominant, were unanimously +against him and his methods. The mercantile, professional, +and moneyed classes were bound by a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> +hundred ties to the officers, and the agricultural +peasantry, composed of Indians and negroes, took +no part in public affairs. Sooner or later he must +have come again into conflict with men of the +Gamarra-Salaverry type, but the immediate peril +was from Chile, whose power and energy—great +even then, but so far unknown and underestimated—were +thrown into the balance against him. The +civil war of 1831 had resulted in the defeat of the +Chilean liberals, and Freire, their leader, had fled +to Peru and there received aid and comfort. The +Chilean remonstrances remained unnoticed, and +Santa Cruz's commercial policy was adverse. The +defeated Peruvian generals swarmed into Chile and +promised to aid an invasion.</p> + +<p>The Chilean aristocracy could not resist this +temptation to make their country the dominant +power on the Pacific coast, and without any warning +their ships sailed up from Valparaiso and captured +the Peruvian fleet at Callao. This left the +way clear to land troops on the Bolivian or Peruvian +coasts. The first expedition went against the province +of Arequipa. It landed without resistance +and climbed to the city, while Santa Cruz's army +maintained a defensive attitude. Lack of provisions +soon compelled the Chilean general to promise that +the war should not be renewed if he were allowed to +depart. His government refused to ratify this agreement, +and sent another expedition to the neighbourhood +of Lima, which was accompanied by Gamarra +and a large number of Peruvian exiles. Orbegoso +declared his independence of Santa Cruz and gave<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> +battle to the Chileans on his own responsibility, but +was defeated and fled to Guayaquil.</p> + +<p>A year elapsed before Santa Cruz could march an +adequate army to the neighbourhood of Lima. As +he approached, Gamarra and the Chileans evacuated +the capital, retiring up the coast, whither the Bolivians +followed. Repulsed in an attack on the rearguard +of the fleeing allies, and feeling that he could +not rely upon the Peruvians in his army, he took the +defensive and posted his forces near the town of +Yungay, occupying a hill called the Sugar Loaf. +The allies stormed this hill by a brilliant assault in +which they suffered greatly, but their unexpected +success completely demoralised Santa Cruz's army. +His men scattered in all directions, and though +he escaped with his life, his prestige was destroyed. +Gamarra became president of Peru, Bolivia revolted, +and Santa Cruz made his way to a European exile.</p> + +<p>During two years Gamarra kept his turbulent +rivals in check, but he then rashly undertook a +campaign against Bolivia, giving as a pretext the +refusal of its government to expel the old adherents +of Santa Cruz. The Peruvian army advanced into +Bolivian territory, only to be overthrown in the +bloody battle of Yngavi. Gamarra was killed and +his best officers taken prisoners. The Bolivians +made a counter-invasion, but a treaty of peace was +soon signed. The removal of the common danger +was the starting signal for a race to power among +the Peruvian generals. Each of them had raised +troops on his own account and now proposed to use +them for his own benefit. They ignored the claims<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> +of Gamarra's constitutional successor. La Fuente, +Vivanco, and Vidal formed an alliance and proclaimed +the latter dictator; Torico seized Lima and +declared himself supreme chief; Vidal hastened +down from Guamanga and defeated him; then +Vivanco rebelled against Vidal and in his turn +descended on the capital.</p> + +<p>Twenty years of independence had brought Peru +no nearer a stable government. Anarchy and civil +war had been her lot, and the situation seemed to +grow more desperate year by year. The country's +only hope was a man in whom military talent would +be combined with such strength of will and pertinacity +of purpose that he would crush out lesser +despots and restore and maintain order by the strong +hand.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 544px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> +<img src="images/i107.jpg" width="544" height="480" alt="DON RAMON CASTILLA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">DON RAMON CASTILLA.</span> +</div> + +<p>The Porfirio Diaz of Peru was at hand, a little, +quiet, rough, and unpretentious soldier, who for +twenty years had been modestly doing his duty, +observing events and slowly maturing in character. +All Peruvians knew him as one of the heroes of +Ayacucho, but none appreciated his latent possibilities, +and he had been passed by while his more +showy companions of that historic day had pushed +themselves to the front. Ramon Castilla had been +a colonel on Gamarra's staff at Ayacucho, and was +rewarded by being appointed prefect of his native +province—Tarapaca, the most southern part of +Peru. About 1830 he began to take part in the +civil wars, but he never started a revolution on his +own account, and always seems to have chosen the +side that best promised stability and respect for the +Constitution. To Orbegoso. Castilla was long faithful +but abandoned him when he made alliance with +the Bolivians. He went into exile when Santa Cruz +was victorious, and returned with Gamarra and the +Chileans. At the battle of Yungay he commanded +the Peruvian contingent of the allied cavalry, and +when Gamarra became president gave him his adhesion; +but was taken prisoner at the fatal battle of +Yngavi, where his chief was killed. Returning from +captivity he found Peru torn to pieces by the armed +rivalry of contending generals, and Menendez, the +legal president, a fugitive. Unhesitatingly he threw +himself into the conflict against those whose claims<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> +rested on their own pronunciamentos. Landing at +Arica with only five men, his cool audacity saved +his life in the first attack; his little band increased; +Vivanco's partisans were confounded by the rapidity +of his movements; their opponents hastened to join +him. Castilla obtained control of Arequipa and +Cuzco, and finally, in July, 1844, completely overthrew +Vivanco's army, putting an end to the civil +war. The first use he made of his victory was to +declare a general amnesty; the second to restore +Menendez to the position of acting president. The +latter called a convention, and ten months later +Castilla was elected president of Peru without +opposition.</p> + +<p>The country realised at once that it was in the +hands of a master—a man strong enough to be +generous, but with whom it was not safe to trifle. +Almost instantaneously commerce felt the impulse +which assured peace always gives. The turbulent +military leaders found their occupation slipping +away, while the orderly elements of the community +grew in power. At heart the vast majority of the +people were law-abiding, and the class which promoted +revolutions was numerically an insignificant +element of the population. But it was not alone +Castilla's personal force of character, his shrewdness +as a politician, his prestige as a general, his popularity +so nobly won by generosity and moderation, +which made his position secure. At the moment +he assumed supreme power bountiful Providence +placed in his hands riches untold. Holding the +strings of a purse into which poured the millions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> +from the guano and nitrate deposits, he could reward +his friends, keep his troops contented by regular +pay, relieve agriculture of taxation, place the +disordered finances on a sound footing, and promote +general prosperity by works of public utility. Europe +suddenly realised the value of the bird manure +found on the desert islands of the Peruvian coast, +and soon hundreds of ships were coming annually +to load the precious fertiliser.</p> + +<p>Instead of squandering this fairy gift on the enrichment +of his creatures, or on the creation of a +vast, useless, and wasteful swarm of office-holders,—the +hardest of all temptations for a South American +politician to resist,—Castilla paid interest on the +foreign debt which Peru had incurred during the war +of independence, and refunded it, with the accrued +interest, that already amounted to more than the +principal. The internal debt was also consolidated, +care being taken to admit no fictitious claims; telegraphs +and railways were constructed; steam vessels +added to the navy; and all legitimate branches of +the administration adequately provided for. But +the moment Castilla's strong hand was removed, +extravagance and corruption grew to alarming proportions. +Under General Echenique, his successor, +public offices and pensions were multiplied; concessions +were granted not to promote honestly new +industries, but to favourites to be sold for what +they would bring; and finally a measure was rushed +through congress to extend the time fixed by +Castilla for presenting claims to be funded in the +internal debt. It was openly charged that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> +ministerial ring had arranged to put themselves on +the roll of national creditors. Public opinion was +scandalised, and the discontent and jealousy soon +showed itself in open revolt. The first insurrection +was suppressed, but in the beginning of 1854 Castilla +decided to put himself at the head of the movement +against Echenique. Though the government regulars +were better armed and provided than the militia +which rallied around Castilla, the latter advanced +from one position to another and finally overthrew +the president in the decisive battle of La Palma. +Echenique fled the country and Castilla assumed +the reins of power once more, not to lay them down +until 1862, when he voluntarily retired to private +life. His second administration was as orderly as +his first except for a local insurrection at Arequipa. +He was not, however, so successful in restraining +the predatory disposition of the Peruvian politicians +and was unable to restore the administration to its +old economical basis. The eighteen years of almost +uninterrupted peace which elapsed between the beginning +of Castilla's first administration and his +retirement changed the face of Peru. A generation +had grown up to whom the early years of independence +were only a tradition. War, age, banishment, +discouragement had thinned the ranks of the Ayacucho +veterans, and the days were gone when one of +them had merely to issue a pronunciamento to be +forthwith hailed as president, dictator, supreme +chief, protector, regenerator, by a turbulent soldiery +and a fickle, ambitious Creole aristocracy. Peru's +subsequent troubles have been financial, not military.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p> + +<p>In 1860 the Constitution which still governs the +country was adopted. Framed under Castilla's influence +it retains the centralised system of provincial +government through prefects appointed from Lima, +and gives the executive preponderant powers, although +it is liberal and humane in its guaranties to +the citizen. Slavery and Indian tribute, which +continued to exist until 1855, are forbidden; forced +recruiting, the scourge of old revolutionary days, is +a crime; all Peruvians who can read and write, who +own property or pay taxes, are entitled to vote.</p> + +<p>Castilla was succeeded by his old friend and companion +in arms, General San Roman, a straightforward +soldier who resembled his chief in his +unquestioning obedience to lawful authority, but +whose unfortunate death six months after his inauguration +prevented him from demonstrating whether +he possessed the same statesmanlike qualities. +Vice-President Pezet peacefully took his place. +Castilla had encouraged foreign immigration into +the coast valleys, so admirably adapted to cotton +and sugar, but where labour was scarce. +Chinese coolies had come in large numbers, and the +flattering offers had also attracted some Europeans. +Among the latter were seventy Basque families, +who shortly claimed that they were badly treated. +Making a protest against a breach of contract committed +by the proprietor of the estate on which +they were working, they were attacked and some of +them killed. The criminals escaped punishment, +and the Spanish government made an international +question of the affair, finally demanding an apology<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> +and three millions of dollars as indemnity. This +being refused Spain broke off diplomatic relations +and sent a powerful fleet, which seized the Chincha +guano islands. Too weak alone to bid defiance to +the Spanish ships, Pezet temporised, meanwhile +asking Chile for help, and hoping for the early +arrival of war-ships ordered in Europe. But the +Spaniards pressed him so hard that he thought himself +forced to yield to their demands. He concluded +an agreement derogatory to the national honour, +and a terrific outburst of public indignation followed. +Prado, prefect of Arequipa, made preparations to +march on Lima and depose the pusillanimous president; +the Chileans, who had meantime determined +to join in resistance to Spanish aggression, supported +the insurrection; the terrible old Castilla +went himself to the presidential mansion and gave +Pezet a sound rating. The latter gave in and +offered his resignation. Prado became supreme +chief, issued a declaration of war against Spain, and +signed a treaty of alliance with Chile. During the +absence of the Spanish fleet the batteries at Callao +were heavily reinforced, and an immense force of +volunteers flocked to man the guns. When the +Spanish ships appeared and, gallantly running into +range, opened fire on the 2d of May, 1866, they +were met by a determined resistance. Though the +Peruvians suffered most severely—two thousand +being killed and wounded—their opponents were +unable to effect a landing or obtain the slightest +concession, and their ships were so badly damaged +that they abandoned further hostilities.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span></p> + +<p>Prado now found that the unconstitutional character +of his position had only temporarily been +ignored when he attempted to hold the power +against General Canseco, second vice-president, who +was Pezet's lawful successor. Castilla, now over +seventy years old, landed in his native province, determined +to unseat him. But the enfeebled frame +of the aged warrior was unable to withstand fatigues +and he died of exposure on the march. Canseco, +however, roused Arequipa. Prado failed to take +the place by assault, and gave up further opposition. +Meanwhile Colonel Balta had headed a formidable +insurrection in the north, and though Canseco +was allowed to fill out his legal term, Balta's friends +controlled the electoral college, and he was inaugurated +president in August, 1868.</p> + +<p>With his accession Peru entered definitely upon +a new era. The race for fortune absorbed the energies +of the ruling class; cane and cotton planting, +nitrate mining, railroad building under foreign direction, +opened up vistas of profit without labour; +social and civil intrigue replaced fighting and pronunciamentos. +Castilla's liberal refunding of the +old debt, the scrupulous regularity with which international +obligations had been met, and the immense +and increasing revenue from nitrate and +guano, gave Peru credit in the money markets of +Europe. Balta and his advisers were full of schemes +for the material progress of the country and their +own enrichment. A great railway system was +projected and more than two thousand miles constructed +at a cost of near forty million pounds.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> +Enormous sums were spent on port works; expensive +moles and piers built in the wave-lashed roadsteads +which are Peru's only harbours; for the first +time serious efforts were made to explore and develop +the forested plain east of the Andes; the city +of Iquitos was built at the head of deep-water +navigation on the Amazon; office-holders multiplied; +and new parks and public buildings embellished +the cities. English capitalists eagerly took +the bonds which the Peruvian government recklessly +issued, and the foreign debt increased from five +millions sterling to forty-nine millions before the end +of Balta's term—a sum upon which two-thirds of +the gross revenue would hardly suffice to pay interest. +Such a debt was truly stupendous for a country +most of whose population of scant two millions and +a half was poor, non-commercial, non-industrial, and +without other resources than a rude agriculture. +Leaving out the proceeds of the guano monopoly +and the nitrate royalties, the total revenues could +not pay the interest.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> +<img src="images/i115.jpg" width="800" height="527" alt="STATUE OF BOLIVAR" title="" /> +<span class="caption">STATUE OF BOLIVAR—LIMA, PERU</span> +</div> + +<p>Don Manuel Pardo, Peru's first civilian president, +had already been constitutionally selected as Balta's +successor, and the latter was within a few days of +the end of his term, when a terrible catastrophe +happened. Among the poor relations whom the +luckless president had preferred to positions in the +army were four brothers named Gutierrez—the sons +of a muleteer near Arequipa. Suddenly one brother +appeared at the head of his battalion and took possession +of the great square in the centre of the capital, +while another forced his way into the president's +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> +study, revolver in hand, arrested the chief of state, +and locked him up. Warned in time the president-elect +escaped on board a man-of-war, and the eldest +Gutierrez was proclaimed supreme chief. The people +of Lima soon recovered from their stupefaction +and a scene of terrific street-fighting followed. One +of the conspirators was shot by the mob as he went +to the railway station on his way to Callao. His +brothers retaliated by murdering the captive president, +but they soon fell before the rifles of the +populace. Their bodies were hung up in the cathedral +by the infuriated people, while the president-elect +returned and assumed his functions.</p> + +<p>Pardo's four years were one continual struggle +against impending bankruptcy. Though he brought +some order into public accounts, it was only by all +sorts of expedients that he managed to keep up interest +payments. He easily suppressed an insurrection +led by Pierola in 1874; his intellectual and +moral force united about him the educated and +property-holding classes in a party which survives +to this day; and he left the reputation of having +been the best president who ever ruled Peru. However, +no efforts could avail more than merely to put +off the evil day of reckoning. The rapid exhaustion +of the guano deposits precipitated the disaster. +Payment of interest was suspended in 1876 and the +same year Pardo turned over the government to +General Prado with the currency at fifty-per-cent. +discount and Peruvian bonds selling in London at +twelve.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-9.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER VII</h2> + +<h3>THE CHILEAN WAR AND LATTER-DAY PERU</h3> + + +<p>The nitrate region extends along the narrow +desert coast of the Pacific for three hundred +and fifty miles. Peru owned the northern one hundred +and fifty, and prior to 1866 Bolivia claimed the +remainder. After the discovery of the precious +mineral the industrious and energetic Chileans +crowded up the coast, while the Bolivians were shut +in behind their high Andes. Chile insisted that her +true boundary lay as far north as the 23d degree, +and took vigorous measures to safeguard the interests +of the Chilean nitrate companies. In 1866 +Bolivia reluctantly made a treaty by which the +24th degree was agreed upon as the formal boundary, +although the Chilean miners were allowed to +continue their operations in the productive regions +north of that line and their taxes were not to be increased +without their government's consent. This +treaty gave rise to constant disputes, and as the +nitrate, silver, and copper business of the neutral +zone became more profitable, the Bolivian government +pressed harder for a larger revenue. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> +Peruvian government had planned to secure a control +of the output by the state purchase and operation +of nitrate properties, and such a trust would +prove ineffective unless the Bolivian government had +a free hand with the Chilean companies. In 1872 +Peru and Bolivia made a secret treaty of alliance. +Its provisions soon became public, and Chile not +unreasonably believed it to be aimed especially +at her miners' operating on Bolivian soil. She +promptly began purchasing iron-clads. It was a +favourite saying of old Marshal Castilla that when +Chile bought a battle-ship Peru should buy two, but +the Lima government was too poor to follow the +good advice, and the fatal year of 1879 found her +naval force inferior to that of her rival.</p> + +<p>At this juncture the Bolivian congress voted not +to ratify a treaty negotiated with Chile four years +before, and passed a law imposing heavy taxes on +the nitrate business. The Chilean companies protested +and resisted; their government backed them +up, and sent a fleet to protect their interests. Enraged +at the seizure of her ports, Bolivia declared +war in March, 1879. Peru could not be expected +to remain quiet. Not only was she bound by the +solemn agreement of the treaty of alliance, but she +had an imperative selfish interest in preventing the +disputed nitrate territory from falling into Chile's +hands. She began to gather an army on the southern +frontier, but she was illy prepared for war and +Chile knew it. Her offers of arbitration were +promptly rejected; the Chilean government had +determined to strike both allies at the same time,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> +and presented an ultimatum, demanding that Peru +abrogate the secret treaty, cease warlike preparations, +and remain neutral in the war with Bolivia. +Failing immediate and categorical compliance war +was declared in April.</p> + +<p>What had proven true in the time of Pizarro, San +Martin, and Santa Cruz, was still true—the successful +invasion or defence of Peru depended on the +control of the Pacific. Whichever power should +obtain a naval preponderance would surely get the +nitrate territory—a rainless, cropless region where +an army must be sustained by supplies brought by +sea—and then could attack the other at its capital. +Chile had two new iron-clads, the <i>Cochrane</i> and the +<i>Blanco</i>, besides two good cruisers and several gunboats. +The two Peruvian iron-clads, the <i>Huascar</i> +and the <i>Independencia</i>, were older, though their +speed was superior. The Chileans opened the war +on the ocean by blockading the Peruvian ports in +the extreme south, but Miguel Grau, the able seaman +and intrepid fighter who commanded the Peruvian +fleet, at once attacked the Chilean cruisers +which were lying off Iquique. The <i>Huascar</i> rammed +and sank the <i>Esmeralda</i>, but while his other iron-clad +was pursuing the <i>Covadonga</i>, she ran upon the +rocks and was lost. This was in reality a deathblow +to Peru, but the gallant Grau devotedly determined +to see what his single ship, rapidly manœuvred, +could do to make unsafe the embarkation of a Chilean +army. For four months he terrorised the coast +from Antofagasta to Valparaiso. Chile could not +take a step until she had disposed of Grau and his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> +dreaded <i>Huascar</i>. The blockade of Iquique was +abandoned as useless; the iron-clads ordered back +to Valparaiso to be cleaned and repaired so that +they might match the <i>Huascar</i> in speed; new officers +were put in command; and on October the first the +Chilean fleet set sail from Valparaiso on a systematic +chase for the Peruvian iron-clad. On reaching Antofagasta +it was divided into two squadrons, the +<i>Cochrane</i> leading one and the <i>Blanco</i> the other, and +they immediately began patrolling the coast.</p> + +<p>The <i>Huascar</i>, accompanied by a consort, the +<i>Union</i>, was cruising in the neighbourhood, and at +daylight on the 8th of October the first Chilean +division sighted her. Grau fled, and was gradually +drawing away from his pursuers when, to his horror, +three columns of smoke appeared on the horizon +directly forward. He was caught between the two +Chilean squadrons. The <i>Union</i> had speed enough +to slip by the enemy, but the <i>Huascar</i> was too slow. +Grau's only chance was to close with the <i>Cochrane</i> +before the <i>Blanco</i> could come up astern, and he +went straight for the former. At half past nine the +<i>Huascar</i> fired the first shot, the distance being about +three thousand yards. It fell short and only the +fourth shot took effect. The <i>Cochrane</i> then replied, +and though the practice on both sides was wild, the +two ships soon came so close that the machine guns +were brought into effective play. A shot disabled +the <i>Huascar's</i> turret, and in desperation Grau tried +repeatedly to ram, but was foiled by the quick turns +which the <i>Cochrane's</i> twin screws enabled her to +make. Just half an hour after the action began a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> +shell struck his conning-tower, blowing the heroic +Peruvian into atoms. A few minutes later the +<i>Blanco</i> came up and added her missiles to the storm +of shots which the <i>Cochrane</i> and the smaller consorts +were pouring upon the doomed <i>Huascar</i>. Nevertheless +no one thought of striking. Hardly had +Grau been blown to pieces than the executive officer +had his head taken clean off by a shell from the +<i>Blanco</i>, and the officer next in seniority was severely +wounded. A few moments later the lieutenant who +succeeded to the command was killed, and his successor, +in turn, was wounded before the end of the +action. When the ship finally struck, an hour and +a half after the first shot was fired, one of the juniors +was in command, and sixty-four of the complement +of one hundred and ninety-three officers and men +lay killed or wounded on the deck.</p> + +<p>The Chileans were now in absolute control of the +sea, and could land an army when and where they +pleased. The Bolivian sea-coast, inhabited almost +exclusively by Chilean miners, and inaccessible overland +from Bolivia proper, had fallen into Chile's +hands at the opening of the war, but Grau's success +in immobilising the Chilean navy had been taken +advantage of by the Peruvians to ship nine thousand +troops to their own nitrate province, where they +could conveniently attack the Chileans who occupied +the Bolivian territory to their south, or defend +their own most valuable piece of property. But +although this army was in Peruvian territory the +naval victory of the Chileans isolated it almost completely. +A hundred miles of rough, rainless desert,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> +intercepted by deep ravines transverse to the coast, +separated it from Tacna, where fertile valleys begin +and communication with the rest of Peru becomes +possible.</p> + +<p>By the end of October the Chilean army embarked +at Antofagasta ten thousand strong and well provided +with cavalry and the most modern artillery. +Of Iquique and Pisagua, the two principal ports of +the Peruvian nitrate country, the latter, which lies +forty miles north of the former, was chosen as the +less likely to be defended in force. Only a thousand +men were found, who, in spite of a gallant resistance +from their two small batteries and their rifle +pits, were unable to prevent the landing of the +Chileans protected by a tremendous fire from the +fleet. Driven from the town the Peruvians could +not even hold the top of the precipitous bluff until +the arrival of reinforcements from Iquique. The +Chileans relentlessly pushed their advantage and +soon were in possession of the railroad for fifty miles +into the interior and had six thousand men entrenched +on a hill called San Francisco. Abundantly +supplied with provisions and water they +could afford to wait, while the allies, cut off from +communications, must either attack at once or +abandon the province. The Peruvian general chose +the former alternative, but his troops arrived in +front of San Francisco exhausted and thirsty after +a twenty-miles' march across the dry desert. Only +a small part of the army took part in the assault, +and it was easily repulsed. Disheartened the allies +fell back to the foot of the giant range which in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>exorably +barred their way to the east, and after a +few days of suffering from hunger and thirst, took +their way north among the barren foothills. The +enemy sent a detachment to harass their march, but +they turned on their pursuers and defeated them, +and reached Tacna province hungry, ragged, half-armed, +and generally demoralised.</p> + +<p>Not only was the great nitrate province, the treasury +of Peru, irretrievably lost, but every point on +the coast, including Lima itself, laid open to attack. +President Prado left the army at Tacna, went to +Lima, and thence sailed for Europe, announcing +that he was going to buy iron-clads. Hardly was +he on board ship when a revolution broke out in the +capital, and the restless Pierola, who had headed +the latest attempts at insurrection, declared himself +supreme chief. The Bolivians also deposed their +unsuccessful president. Peru's revolutionary government, +rushed into power on a wave of wounded +national pride, embodied the more than Spanish +haughtiness of the Creole aristocracy, and refused +all concessions. The allies still had a large army at +Tacna, not too demoralised to make a creditable +resistance, although it was cut off from easy communication +with the rest of Peru and Bolivia, and +stood badly in need of arms, clothing, and ammunition. +The Chilean ships blockaded Arica, the +Tacna port, but the fast <i>Union</i> again showed her +heels to the enemy's whole fleet, ran the blockade, +and landed stores which put the allied army on a +fighting footing.</p> + +<p>Late in February, 1880, the Chileans disembarked<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> +a fine army of fourteen thousand men at a seaport +sixty miles north of the allies' main position, and +lost no time in occupying the interior as far as Moquegua +at the foot of the Andes. Their first object +was to cut the allied armies off from any communication +with their respective countries. A small +Peruvian force made an attempt to hold Torata, a +point strategically important because it commanded +the entrance into the Andes from Bolivia and Peru, +but was unsuccessful. The allied armies were now +bottled up in a little valley where provisions would +surely shortly fail. The Chileans advanced south +across the desert upon Tacna, and the allies took a +strong defensive position on a ridge, flanked by +steep ravines, with a sloping glacis in front. Vastly +superior in artillery, though only slightly outnumbering +the allies, the Chileans thought themselves +justified in assaulting the position. They opened +the battle by a cannonade in which their magnificent +Krupp guns did terrific execution, and under cover +of the fire the infantry advanced in four columns of +twenty-four hundred men each. Approaching the +trenches they were met by a storm of rifle bullets +through which they charged bayonet in hand.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the allies on the crest of the sand-hills +suffered terribly from the plunging artillery fire. +The Bolivians, holding the weakest part of the line, +bore the brunt of the attack. Once the Chileans +wavered, but a supporting cavalry charge quickly +drove back the advancing enemy, and after two +hours of desperate fighting the sturdy Bolivian Indians +gave way, their position was carried, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> +allied army fled all along the line. Though the +Chileans had lost over two thousand, the losses of +the allies were greater. No way of retreat lay open; +they scattered in confusion; and their army virtually +ceased to exist. A couple of thousand Peruvians +held out in Arica for a month, deliberately +devoting themselves to certain death, but the place +was carried by an assault in which quarter was +neither given nor asked.</p> + +<p>Peru now lay helpless at the mercy of the Chilean +armies and fleet. The ports were blockaded and +bombarded, while expeditions ravaged the fertile +coast valleys. Nevertheless the Peruvians would +not yield. The United States offered her mediation, +and plenipotentiaries met to see if terms of peace +could be arranged. Chile demanded the formal +cession of the nitrate territory and an indemnity. +The Peruvians refused such hard terms, hoping +against hope for foreign intervention. This passive +obstinacy enraged the Chilean government, and +after a delay of several months it was determined to +capture the capital and dictate terms at Lima. Late +in December, 1880, a splendidly equipped army of +twenty-six thousand men landed a short distance +south of Lima and marched on the city. Only a +few fragments of the Peruvian regular army had +survived the defeats in the south, but the population +rallied <i>en masse</i> to resist the invaders. At +Chorrillos, a few miles south of Lima, the militia +waited behind a hastily constructed line of defence. +The assault of the Chilean regulars was irresistible; +four thousand Peruvians perished, and as many<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> +more were taken prisoners. The survivors fell back +on a second line of defence, only six miles from +Lima, and were there defeated in a second battle in +which two thousand were killed and wounded. The +Chilean losses in the two fights reached five thousand. +On the following day the mayor of Lima +formally surrendered the city, and on the 17th of +January the Chilean army took possession. The +helpless citizens were required to make up a contribution +of a million dollars a month; the customs +duties were confiscated, and the Chileans violated +all the rules of civilised warfare by wantonly destroying +the great and valuable public library—the +best in South America.</p> + +<p>Pierola escaped to Guamanga, but succeeded in +rallying no forces. He gave it up and went to +Europe. It became necessary to organise a government +which could treat for peace. The citizens of +Lima, with the consent of Chile, made Garcia Calderon +provisional president, but when the discussion +of terms began the Chileans repeated their demand +for the unconditional cession of the nitrate territory, +and Calderon did not dare assent. The enemy sent +him prisoner to Santiago, while Iglesias in the +northern departments, Caceres in the centre, and +Carrillo in the south each kept up an independent +resistance with a few militia. The Chileans made +no serious attempt to conquer the interior, contenting +themselves with pocketing the Peruvian customs +revenues. This situation lasted two years and a +half, until Iglesias came to the conclusion that peace +could only be obtained by complete submission.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> +Caceres was, however, resolved upon further resistance +and quarrelling with Iglesias, advanced into +the latter's territory. He was intercepted by a +Chilean expedition and his forces destroyed. This +left Iglesias a clear field; he declared himself president +and entered into negotiations with the Chileans, +arranging a treaty of peace which was signed +on the 20th of October, 1883. Five days later the +Peruvian flag was once more hoisted in the capital. +Sporadic risings against Iglesias were easily suppressed +by Chilean bayonets; four thousand men +remained to see that the treaty was ratified, and a +convention finally ratified it in March. Its provisions +differed little from the demands made by +Chile three years before. The money indemnity +was waived and half the guano proceeds were left to +Peru's creditors. On the other hand, the provinces +of Tacna and Arica were to be held by Chile for ten +years, and at the end of that time a popular vote +would decide who should retain them, the losing +country receiving ten million dollars from the other. +Better far for the interests of permanent peace had +the fate of the provinces been definitely determined. +Chile and Peru have never been able to agree upon +the terms under which the plebiscite should be conducted; +the former still retains the provinces and the +latter still agitates for their recovery.</p> + +<p>No sooner had the Chilean army left than Caceres +began a civil war to oust Iglesias. For eighteen +months the fighting continued with varying fortunes, +but in December, 1885, Caceres surprised Lima +when undefended; Iglesias resigned; a general<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> +amnesty was proclaimed, and peace was restored to +the distracted country. A junta assumed power and +in the election which followed Caceres was chosen +president, and in the middle of 1886 he entered +upon the dreary task of re-organising Peru. The +treasury was empty, the population had been decimated +by a horribly destructive war during four +years, the flourishing coast valleys with their cotton +and sugar plantations had been laid under contribution, +the mines had ceased to be worked, the guano +and nitrate revenue was gone, the country was +weighed down with a debt which could never be +paid, and foreign creditors pressed for a settlement +utterly beyond the abilities of the impoverished +country. Rigid economies were enforced in all departments +of the administration, but the most that +could be hoped was to meet ordinary expenditure.</p> + +<p>Peru had nothing to offer towards the immense +foreign debt except her railways, and the British +creditors finally agreed to the Grace contract, by +which she was released from all responsibility for a +sum amounting to over fifty millions sterling, in +return for the cession of the state railways, the payment +of eighty thousand pounds annually, and certain +rights to the guano deposits, mines, and public +lands. British pressure induced Chile to give up a +large proportion of the guano proceeds, and in 1890 +the contract was ratified and the "Peruvian Corporation" +took over the vast properties conceded. +Though disputes have arisen from time to time, the +corporation has made some progress in extending +lines to open up the mineral wealth on the plateau,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> +and a successful beginning has been made toward +the exploitation of the rubber forests of the Amazon +plain. It cannot be doubted that the industrial development +of Peru must be greatly aided by the +existence of this gigantic private enterprise which +will apply the energy and economy characteristic of +individual enterprise to undertakings governmental +in magnitude.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 569px;"> +<img src="images/i129.jpg" width="569" height="480" alt="GENERAL DON ANDRES A. CACERES" title="" /> +<span class="caption">GENERAL DON ANDRES A. CACERES</span> +</div> + +<p>Caceres made no change in the centralised system +of government by prefects,—and the adminis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>trative +fabric survived, substantially untouched, the +horrors of the Chilean war and the fighting between +rival chiefs. Liberal tendencies were shown in efforts +to place the Indians on an equal political +footing with the Peruvians of Spanish descent, +although naturally the Creole aristocracy still dominates +by reason of its intelligence. Considerable +dissatisfaction was felt with Caceres' management +of finances, but in 1890 he was succeeded by +his friend, Colonel Bermudez, who continued his +policy. Unfortunately for the peace of the country +the latter died in 1893. His legal successor +was Solar, first vice-president, but an intrigue +in the cabinet prevented the latter's peaceable +recognition. Caceres' influence was dominant in +the administration, and a semblance of an election +recalled him to power. General Pierola, who had +led two unsuccessful insurrections—those of 1874 +and 1878—and who had got power in 1880, only to +lose it after the fall of Lima, saw his opportunity. +Solar joined forces with him and revolt broke out +against Caceres. The latter had completely lost +the popularity won as the most determined champion +of the national rights against Chilean aggression; +his administration was bad; the public employees +were unpaid; the meagre resources of the country +were wasted on his favourites. Though his troops +were at first successful against Pierola's and Solar's +hasty levies, the revolution recovered from each defeat +until finally the insurrectionists entered Lima +itself. The enemies of Caceres within the town +arose and for two days its streets were the scene of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> +bloody barricade fighting. Rarely does a civilised +city pass through such a frightful experience as +Lima on the 18th of July, 1895. There had been +no time to extinguish the street lamps, and all night +long the bands of revolutionists advanced, fighting +by the lights which brightly illumined the carnage +except where extinguished by rifle balls. Though +his forces were gradually driven back, Caceres stubbornly +refused to resign, and at last only yielded to +the urgent representations of the foreign ministers, +leaving power in the hands of a junta.</p> + +<p>With his withdrawal peace was restored, except +for the resistance which his partisans kept up for a +short time in Arequipa, and this peace has never +since been disturbed. The junta served until an +election could be held, in which Pierola was chosen +president by an overwhelming and really popular +majority. In 1899 he was succeeded by Romana, +an engineer who had been a member of the outgoing +ministry, and he, in his turn, had as successor, +Señor Candamo, who took his seat in 1903. Historically +the new president represents the old aristocratic +party founded by Pardo—a party which had +been pushed to one side in the financial confusion +which preceded and the civil disorders which succeeded +the terrible Chilean war by the more radical +and democratic elements known as Pierolistas and +constitutionalists. The return to a participation in +affairs of elements which include so large a proportion +of the intelligence, self-respect, and wealth of +the nation is one of the most hopeful signs of the +times. The Peruvian aristocracy has learned its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> +lesson in the hard school of adversity, and vies with +the commercial classes in sober, serious attention to +industrial and governmental matters. Each division +of the people seems to wish to bear its share in the +financial, political, and moral regeneration of their +country.</p> + +<p>Peruvian politics are conducted <i>en famille</i>. Economic +and social questions are discussed and settled +amicably among the ruling coteries and do not as in +Europe and North America form the basis for the +organisation of political parties. Though the country +is steadfastly Catholic, clericalism is not, as in +Ecuador, Colombia, and Bolivia, regarded as a menace +by those who hold liberal views, and the provinces +have never made any insistent demand for +a larger share of autonomy, as in Argentina and +Colombia. As a rule the elections are free and +translate the popular will. Peru has long since +passed the stage of pronunciamentos and military +government; since Castilla's time the successful +revolutions have been few, and have always been +undertaken for the maintenance of the regular constitutional +order—not its overthrow—or have been +inspired by national feeling when the fatherland was +in danger.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-a.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/s-132.jpg" width="600" height="727" alt="PERU" title="" /> +<span class="caption">PERU</span> +<p class="center"><a href="images/map-132.jpg">Click here for a larger image</a></p> +</div> + + +<div class="bbt"> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span></p> +<h1><a name="CHILE" id="CHILE"></a>CHILE</h1> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span></p> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-6.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<h3>THE SPANISH CONQUEST</h3> + + +<p>About a century before Pizarro landed, Tupac +Yupanqui, the greatest of the Inca conquerors, +crossed the rough mountains, bleak plateaux, and +waterless deserts which lie between the habitable part +of Bolivia and the irrigable valleys of northern Chile, +and rapidly overran the coast for six hundred miles. +As one goes south the plain broadens, the short +rivers flowing from the mountains grow larger, the +rainfall and the area available for cultivation increase, +and from Santiago a wide valley, the heart +of Chile, stretches between the Andes and the coast +range, sustaining a dense population. As far south +as the river Maule, the limit of Tupac's conquests, +irrigation is necessary for crops. In all these valleys +dwelt various tribes whose system of agriculture +and civilisation was similar to that of the Incas. +Only the southern peoples inhabiting the rainy and +forested regions beyond the Maule refused to submit. +Huaina Capac, Tupac's son, was once obliged to +undertake a campaign to consolidate the Inca power, +but Chile north of the Maule became thoroughly +attached to the Cuzco dynasty.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span></p> + +<p>Little resistance was encountered when Almagro +invaded this country just after Pizarro's entry into the +Peruvian capital. He advanced as far as the Maule, +finding everywhere a population probably as dense +as that of the present day. Agriculture was highly +developed; the people were clothed in substantial +stuffs of their own manufacture; they mined copper, +tin, and lead, and possessed excellent arms and tools. +The tribes all spoke the same language, but each +enjoyed a degree of autonomy under its own chiefs. +Their habits were democratic; they loved freedom +and independence; the Inca socialistic system did +not prevail; and each farmer owned his own field +and could transmit it to his children. The race was +large and vigorous, the selected survivors from +among immigrants who had been greatly improved +by countless generations of struggle in the more +rigorous climate. As one approached the cold and +rainy mountains of southern Chile their characteristics +became more pronounced and south of the Maule +warlike, half-savage tribes proudly maintained their +independence. Almagro's sole pre-occupation was +gold, but he vainly searched the valleys as far as the +southern boundary of the Inca empire. Here he +encountered serious resistance from the independent +tribes, and though victorious in his fights, concluded +that it was not worth while remaining in such a cold +and goldless country. He abandoned Chile and returned +to Peru, there to meet his death at Pizarro's +hands.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 640px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> +<img src="images/i137.jpg" width="640" height="409" alt="BRIDGE ON THE ROAD BETWEEN SANTIAGO AND MENDOZA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">BRIDGE ON THE ROAD BETWEEN SANTIAGO AND MENDOZA.</span> +</div> + +<p>Pizarro soon took measures to extend the Spanish +conquests to all parts of the Inca empire, and for +Chile he selected his quartermaster, Pedro de Valdivia, +an active and experienced soldier. Late in +1540—the summer season in those latitudes—Valdivia, +with two hundred Spaniards and a large number +of Indian auxiliaries, crossed the Andes and +arrived at Copiapo, the northernmost inhabited valley. +Like Almagro he met no opposition as he +pushed his way south for four hundred and fifty +miles. Arriving at the great valley of Chile, in that +favoured region he founded the city of Santiago, +which has ever since remained the capital and most +important place in the country. The people of the +neighbourhood attacked the settlement and burned +half the houses, but they were soon decisively defeated. +Nevertheless, the invaders position was +critical; many of them wished to return; a mutiny<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> +was on the point of breaking out; but at this juncture +the fortunate discovery of valuable gold mines +near Santiago hushed all talk of abandoning the +country.</p> + +<p>Firmly established at Santiago, Valdivia next +turned his attention to the northern provinces, and +founded a city at Coquimbo, about two hundred +and fifty miles north of the capital, which became +the centre of Spanish power in that region. In 1545 +he advanced into the country south of Santiago, +where the Promaucians welcomed him as an ally +against their hereditary foes, the Araucanians, a +fierce and powerful confederacy dwelling beyond +the river Biobio, which flows into the Pacific in latitude +37°. By the following year Spanish influence +was dominant north of that river. Valdivia, with +many of his men, temporarily returned to Peru to +aid in the suppression of Gonzalo's revolt, but as +soon as civil war was over he came back to Chile +with his title of governor confirmed by viceregal +authority. He had found Lima swarming with +hungry adventurers who eagerly followed him, +hoping for grants of lands and Indian slaves, or to +make their fortunes in mining. With their help the +conquest and settlement of all Chile as far south as +the Maule was effectually completed. The land was +apportioned among the cavaliers, each becoming a +sort of feudal baron, and in effect creating a landed +aristocracy which has continued to rule the country +to the present day.</p> + +<p>The process of incorporation did not stop at the +Maule, but included the Promaucians and most of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> +the other tribes between that river and the Biobio. +Beyond the latter stretched the Araucanian territory +for two hundred miles, and Valdivia now undertook +the conquest of the southern forests where the Inca +arms had never been able to penetrate. His first +step was to found Concepcion near the mouth of +the Biobio. The neighbouring territory belonged +to allies of the confederacy, and the Araucanians +felt great alarm at such an aggression. The grand +council was summoned, composed of the head-chiefs +of the four nations, and the chiefs—called ulmens—of +the provinces and tribes into which these nations +were divided and subdivided. In accordance with +immemorial custom, the deliberations lasted three +days, and the humblest warrior was permitted to +give his opinion before war was voted. Once the +determination reached and a general, or "toqui," +elected, each soldier put on his leather cuirass, +picked up his heavy war club, and, four thousand +strong, the tribesmen sallied forth to attack the +Spaniards. Musketry volley and cavalry charge +compelled the Araucanians to retreat, after a hotly +contested combat which lasted several hours. These +Indians, strong and sturdy dwellers in an invigorating +climate, were more formidable foes than the +Spaniards had yet encountered in South America. +Though amazed at the deadly effect of the strange +weapons which the invaders used, they were not +demoralised. Like the Saracens they believed that +death in battle was a passport to paradise, war was +their principal business, and the youth were trained +up to the trade of arms. At close quarters they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> +were almost irresistible; their clubs and spears, +wielded with reckless bravery, matched the swords +of the Spaniards, and as soon as they learned how +to take advantage of cover in approaching an enemy +provided with firearms, the result of a battle between +them and the Castilians became doubtful.</p> + +<p>During the year 1551 Valdivia occupied himself in +fortifying Concepcion and making preparations for +an invasion of Araucania. Heavy reinforcements +came and he advanced encountering at first no +serious opposition. He founded the city of Imperial, +one hundred and fifty miles south of Concepcion, +and thence pushed a hundred miles farther +on, where he established a seaport, calling it by his +own name. Returning north in 1553, on his way +he built several forts in the Araucanian territory, +and at Santiago found a fresh body of troops, and, +what was even more important, a supply of horses. +Two hundred men were despatched across the Andes +to begin the conquest of what is now known as the +province of Mendoza in the Argentine Republic. +Fancying that he had practically completed the +subjection of Chile, Valdivia sent a messenger to +Spain to sue for the title of Marquis and a perpetual +governorship, and fitted out an exploring expedition +to the Straits of Magellan in the vain hope of opening +up direct sea communication with the mother +country.</p> + +<p>The Araucanians had, however, not relaxed their +determination to rid themselves of the white invaders. +News came that the confederacy had put an +army of ten thousand men in the field, and that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> +outlying forts had been stormed. Valdivia at once +advanced from Concepcion at the head of his forces, +numbering two hundred Spaniards and five thousand +Indian auxiliaries. A hundred miles south of the +city he came in sight of the Araucanian army. For +some time the Indian commander manœuvred cautiously, +endeavouring to draw the Spaniards into a +position where he could charge without suffering +too much from the dreaded artillery. Finally battle +was joined, and despite the destructive fire the Indians +managed to come to close quarters. As soon +as these fierce warriors reached the enemy's line all +was up with the invaders. The Spanish army was +literally annihilated. Valdivia himself fled, but was +pursued and quickly captured. Brought before the +Indian general he begged for his life, agreeing to +quit Chile with all the Spaniards, but his protestations +were cut short by the war club of an old chief +standing near.</p> + +<p>The Spanish settlers south of Concepcion fled for +refuge to the ports of Imperial and Valdivia, abandoning +the other towns and forts. A young chief +named Lautaro, who had been captured and baptised +years before by Valdivia, but who had escaped +to his own people, led a considerable army to the +Biobio, destroyed an expedition sent against him, +and drove the enemy out of Concepcion. If the Indians +had understood the art of besieging fortified +places, Imperial and Valdivia and probably Santiago +itself would now have fallen, and the Spaniards would +have been expelled from the southern and better half +of Chile. Lautaro led north two thousand Araucan<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>ians, +ravaged the lands of the Promaucians beyond +the Maule, and penetrated to the neighbourhood of +the capital. Repeated expeditions sent against him +were defeated; the dismayed Spaniards urgently +called for help from Peru and recalled the adventurers +from Argentina. Happily the civilised tribes +of northern and central Chile remained faithful, and +the bulk of the Araucanian forces was occupied besieging +Valdivia and Imperial,—a fruitless undertaking +so long as provisions could be thrown in by sea. +Worst of all for the Indians smallpox broke out +among them. At last the Spaniards surprised Lautaro's +encampment near Santiago; the Araucanian +leader fell dead, pierced by a dart; and his companions +fought like wild beasts until every man was +slain. This victory secured the safety of Santiago, +and the Araucanians retired behind the Biobio.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Mendoza, the great pacificator and organiser, +had come out to Lima and assumed the +viceroyalty. Turbulent adventurers swarmed into +Peru whom he thought could be better employed +elsewhere. Southern Chile seemed just the place +for these reckless, needy cavaliers, who were so anxious +to carve out fiefs for themselves. Early in +1557, Garcia de Mendoza, son of the viceroy, was +appointed captain-general and enjoined to reduce +the Araucanians to obedience. He came accompanied +by ten ships and a considerable force of +Spaniards. Still larger forces were on their way +overland from Peru. Cautiously landing troops and +artillery at the deserted city of Concepcion, he had +finished his defences before the confederacy could<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> +mobilise its army. Though the Araucanians attacked +with desperate fury, their charges were beaten back +by the artillery fire. Re-forming on the other side +of the Biobio, the Indians waited until Mendoza, who +had meanwhile received a large reinforcement of cavalry, +advanced. In the battle which followed they +were defeated, but they had learned a lesson of prudence +and they fought in front of forests into whose +depths the Spanish cavalry could not pursue. Retreating +slowly, they again gave battle, and, though +again defeated, inflicted great losses on the Spanish +infantry. Mendoza hanged his prisoners, and once +more advanced, this time to the place where Valdivia +had met his death. Here he founded a fortified +town, naming it Cañete, after the hereditary +title of his family. Leaving it heavily garrisoned, +he went on to Imperial for provisions. In his absence +the Indians unsuccessfully tried to carry +Cañete by assault, and seeing the hopelessness of +aggressive movements, they withdrew to the wooded +districts and mountains, abandoning the open country +and the sea-coast to the Spaniards. Mendoza +pushed on beyond the southern limits of the Araucanian +territory and discovered and explored the +populous archipelago of Chiloë. On his way back +he founded, on the mainland a hundred miles south +of Valdivia, the city of Osorno.</p> + +<p>The Araucanians were now shut in between the +Andes and a semicircle of towns and forts; it +seemed as if their final subjection would only be a +question of time. Mendoza returned to Santiago, +leaving a lieutenant to undertake a campaign of raids<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> +and surprises. A few of the Araucanians remained +in the field, and it was not until their veteran chief, +Caupolican, was betrayed and pitilessly shot to +death with arrows, that the whole confederacy again +flew to arms under the command of his son. Marching +on Concepcion, the Indians cut to pieces first +one Spanish force of five hundred men and then +another; and blockaded the city from the land side. +The Spaniards, holding the sea, had no difficulty in +pouring in reinforcements from Peru and Valparaiso, +and the Indian army finally retreated. At Quiapo, +between Concepcion and Cañete, it was defeated and +nearly annihilated, its most celebrated chiefs and +heroes perishing in the slaughter. Once more the +Araucanians retired to their forests and mountains +while the Spaniards rebuilt and improved the line of +fortifications and took possession of the valuable +gold mines of Villarica. But they could make no +further impression on these indomitable Indians. +For forty years the war continued, sometimes active, +sometimes desultory, and with constantly varying +fortunes. Year after year the Spaniards poured +in reinforcements, and their expeditions more than +once ravaged the remotest parts of the Araucanian +territory. But as soon as the armies retired the unflagging +Indians would return to the attack, cutting +off isolated bands of settlers and surprising forts and +towns.</p> + +<p>About 1593, the able chieftain Paillamachu was +toqui of the confederacy. The incessant wars +against the Araucanians had made the province such +a continual drain on the Peruvian treasury, that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> +Mendoza, who had been promoted to the viceregal +throne, determined to end this impossible situation +in one way or another. A general was sent to Chile +with full powers either to treat or fight, but the +haughty and intractable Indians rejected with scorn +his overtures for peace. He then fortified the line +of the Biobio and erected new fortresses to serve as +bases for a campaign of extermination to be undertaken +as soon as reinforcements arrived. These +came slowly and the Indians themselves took the +offensive, considerable bands invading the Spanish +settlements, storming some forts and blockading +others. The Spanish general exerted himself to +concentrate his scattered forces, but while making a +hasty journey, accompanied only by a small escort, +from Imperial toward Concepcion, he was surprised +and killed by a band of Indians. Forty-eight hours +later not only the whole of Araucania, but also the +provinces south of Valdivia, rose in arms. All the +Spanish towns south of the Biobio—Osorno, Valdivia, +Villarica, Imperial, Cañete, Angol, Coya, and +Arauco—were simultaneously besieged. Paillamachu +crossed the river and burned first Concepcion and +then Chillan, a town a hundred miles north of the +Araucanian boundary, ravaging the country to the +river Maule. Alarmed for the safety of Santiago, +the Lima viceroy sent a new governor with a well-equipped +army, but it was as much as he could do +to force the Indians back into their own territory. +The Indian general suddenly assaulted the city of +Valdivia, carried it by storm, slaughtered or captured +the inhabitants, and seized two millions of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> +booty with many arms and cannon. Villarica and +Imperial managed to hold out for three years but +finally they, with Osorno, were reduced by starvation. +When Paillamachu died in 1603 the Spaniards +had no foothold on the mainland south of the Biobio +except the Valdivia citadel.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<img src="images/i146.jpg" width="800" height="548" alt="INDIAN ENCAMPMENT." title="" /> +<span class="caption">INDIAN ENCAMPMENT.</span> +</div> + +<p>Two or three years later the government made a +last effort to reduce the Araucanians. An army of +three thousand Spaniards besides a large contingent +of natives advanced across the Biobio. To such an +overwhelming force the Araucanians dared not offer +open battle, but they hung on its flanks, skirmishing +and harassing, and the host was compelled to return +without having accomplished anything decisive. +From the protection of the forts on the Biobio, the +Spanish general sent expeditions to lay waste the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> +Indian country, but these smaller bodies were +roughly handled and the first period of Araucanian +wars closed with the nearly complete destruction +of the Spanish forces operating in southern Chile. +The authorities at Lima and Madrid gave it up as a +bad job. Thenceforward the Biobio remained the +southern boundary of the Spanish possessions. An +army of two thousand men and a line of forts +guarded the frontier, and though hostilities were +frequent, for centuries no real progress was made +toward depriving the Araucanians of their independence. +In the progress of time the slow infiltration +of Spanish blood and Spanish customs +modified their characteristics, but it was not until +1882 that they became real subjects of the Chilean +government.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-b.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-1.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER II</h2> + +<h3>THE COLONIAL PERIOD</h3> + + +<p>The Araucanian wars made Chile a school of +arms for all South America. The appointment +to its captaincy-general was eagerly sought by +ambitious soldiers, and the place, especially after +the seventeenth century, was a stepping-stone to +the magnificent and lucrative position of viceroy at +Lima. Preoccupied with the southern wars, passing +most of their time on the frontiers, the governors +paid little attention to central and northern Chile. +The Indians peacefully cultivated the great estates +of their feudal masters; and although the mining +industry was considerable it never threatened the +extinction of the neighbouring population. The +few towns were mere villages, built of one-story, +thatch-covered houses, commerce was insignificant, +portable wealth small, money almost unknown. +However, the landed proprietors of Chile mostly +lived upon their estates, and came into more intimate +contact with their Indian tenants than in the +richer and more tropical provinces, a circumstance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> +which has had a profound effect upon the character +and racial composition of the modern Chilean.</p> + +<p>Although unsuccessful in Araucania, the governors +prospered in their efforts to extend the Spanish +dominion east of the Andes and before the end of +the sixteenth century the fertile valleys of the province +of Cuyo—Mendoza, San Juan, and San Luiz—as +far as the central desert which separates them +from the grass-covered pampas of Buenos Aires, +were incorporated with Chile. At the same time +the green and populous island of Chiloë—the Ireland +of the Pacific—was added to the captaincy-general.</p> + +<p>The first comers were adventurous soldiers looking +for sudden riches, but Chile furnished these +gentlemen small returns for hard knocks. The +reasons which led the Spanish government to discourage +emigration to Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador, +did not apply to Chile, and when, early in the seventeenth +century, the Madrid authorities abandoned +the useless and expensive effort to conquer Araucania, +they permitted a considerable number of real +colonists. A heavy immigration followed—composed +mostly of Basques and Aragonese—hardy and +industrious settlers who made thrifty farmers and +merchants. These people were no mere army of +occupation—a privileged class living parasitically +upon the Indians; they set about developing the +real resources of the country, and their blood, mixing +into the fine and strong aboriginal strain, vastly +improved it. The lower classes in Chile are industrious, +enduring, and brave, and though at times<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> +they show a touch of that primitive ferocity characteristic +of young peoples, their innate energy and +great physical strength have been of incalculable +value to the nation.</p> + +<p>Little worth detailing is recorded in the annals of +Chile during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. +For many years the Araucanians refused to +make any treaty with the Spaniards. The chronicles +are filled with accounts of the incursions made +by the Indians into Spanish territory—often successful, +more often repulsed, with sieges, ambushes—tales +of reckless valour and unspeakable cruelty. +Sometimes the Europeans carried the war over the +Biobio, and during the ten years prior to 1640 they +were so successful in carrying fire, slaughter, and +pillage to the homes of the Araucanians, that the +latter finally consented to an armistice and a formal +treaty of peace. The Spanish governor went to the +plain of Quillin, escorted by more than ten thousand +persons, and the Araucanian general appeared in +state at the head of all the toquis, ulmens, and chief +warriors of the confederacy. Into the open space +between the high contracting parties was led a +llama for sacrifice, whose sprinkled blood remained +a pledge that the historic Biobio would henceforth +be respected by both nations as the boundary, and +that the Araucanians would never permit colonists +of third nations upon their shores, or aid the English +and Dutch buccaneers. The Indians faithfully +adhered to this pact of friendship and refused to furnish +the Dutch with provisions when the latter took +possession of Valdivia in 1643. But in 1655 the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> +cupidity of Spanish officers caused trouble, and war +devastated both sides of the border for the next ten +years. In 1665 a new treaty, identical in terms, was +negotiated, which continued in force until 1722. +However, Spanish priests pushed their evangelising +among the Indians, and officers, called "Capitanos +de los amigos," appointed to guard the interests of +the missionaries, assumed authority highly offensive +to the Araucanians. The great council was summoned, +a general selected, and the missionaries expelled. +When the Spanish governor marched to the +frontier with five thousand men the Indians offered +battle which the Spaniards dared not accept. The +former continued firm in their demands, and peace +was only re-established by abolishing the obnoxious +officials.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile nothing of moment had disturbed the +slow and even current of colonial progress in northern +and central Chile. The country was poor, its +exports small and its imports smaller. Great fortunes +were not accumulated as in other South +American countries, though the national life rested +on a broader, surer basis. The wheat and cattle, +the fruits and poultry introduced by the Spaniards +raised the standard of alimentation and the vitality +of the people, while the continual admixture of +Spanish blood augmented individual initiative and +intelligence. The towns at first grew very slowly. +Santiago itself had only eight thousand inhabitants +at the end of the seventeenth century, while the +other so-called cities, Coquimbo, Castro, Valparaiso, +Chillan, Concepcion, and Valdivia, were in fact little<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> +more than villages. The rural districts were populous, +for the soil was fertile, the climate healthful, +and the means of a simple subsistence abounded. +Imported vices and diseases, and the oppressions +suffered at the hands of the first Spanish proprietors, +had somewhat thinned out the native population, +but these losses were largely made up by a rapid increase +of the element which boasted white descent, +and in the latter part of the eighteenth century +Spanish Chile was more densely populated than the +Atlantic seaboard of North America.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> +<img src="images/i153.jpg" width="800" height="489" alt="HOUSE OF CONGRESS, SANTIAGO." title="" /> +<span class="caption">HOUSE OF CONGRESS, SANTIAGO.</span> +</div> + +<p>Spanish legislation gave a monopoly of South +American commerce to a favoured ring of merchants +at Cadiz, forbidding any communication with Chile +except by the circuitous Isthmian route. Freights +were enormous, profits and taxes exorbitant, and in +spite of the repressive measures of the Spanish authorities, +smuggling was carried on by way of the +route over the Andes to Buenos Aires and Colonia. +The war of the Spanish Succession, following the +death of the last of the descendants of Charles V., +disorganised Spanish administration, and during the +confusion of the first few years of the eighteenth +century illicit trading increased apace. The triumph +of Louis XIV., and the seating of a French prince +on the throne of Madrid, resulted in a temporary +permission to French ships to trade with South +America. For a time French manufactures were +brought directly to Chile by way of Cape Horn. +The customs receipts—hitherto merely nominal—rapidly +increased, and although the license was soon +revoked at the demand of the Cadiz monopolists, a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>permanent impetus had been given to commerce. +Improving conditions gave a fresh start to immigration, +and the comparatively rational policy of the +Bourbon dynasty removed many of the more crying +abuses of colonial administration. A little before +the middle of the eighteenth century Governor +Manso, with the approval of Madrid, founded a +dozen cities scattered through all the provinces as +far south as the Biobio, and settlements spread to +the frontier of Araucania. Manso's successor, +Rosas, was even more diligent in establishing new +towns and received the title of "Conde de Poblaciones." +He founded the University of San Felipe +at Santiago, and stimulated commerce by opening +a mint. In his administration occurred the great +earthquake of 1751, which engulfed and destroyed +Concepcion by a tremendous wave from the sea, and +inflicted great damage upon Santiago and many +other towns. These convulsions are very frequent +in Chile and in early times people supposed that it +was not safe to build houses of more than one story. +It has since been ascertained that two-story edifices +are as secure as lower ones and Chilean cities contain +many handsome buildings.</p> + +<p>Rosas' successor was Don Manuel Amat. Under +his administration the erection of new cities +continued, and he is remembered as the captain-general +who helped suppress the robbers and bandits +who had infested the country. Vigilance committees +were organised, volunteer patrols guarded the +city streets and country roads, and a coast militia +fought the pirates who infested the seashore. Chile<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> +in the middle of the eighteenth century presents the +characteristics of a frontier country—rapid founding +of towns, disorders and lawlessness effectively suppressed +by lynch law, and a childish display of newly +acquired wealth.</p> + +<p>The encroachments upon the Araucanians finally +grew irksome to those indomitable and intractable +savages. What the Spanish armies and priests had +failed in, the settlers who poured into the fertile +plains and valleys of southern Chile seemed about +to achieve. The next captain-general even tried to +incorporate the independent tribes into the Spanish +system, but when he attempted to gather them into +towns the spirit which had animated their forefathers +proved too strong. A war broke out which lasted +several years and ended only when the Spanish +government renewed the treaties guaranteeing them +practical independence, and allowing them to keep +an ambassador at Santiago. Just about this time +the trans-Andean province of Cuyo was separated +from Chile and transferred to the newly created +Buenos Aires viceroyalty. Taken purely for reasons +of administrative convenience, this measure resulted +in shutting off Chile from expansion over the vast +plains of the Plate Valley, confining her between the +Andes and the sea, and ultimately securing to the +Argentine a territorial and numerical preponderance +among Spanish-American republics.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-4.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER III</h2> + +<h3>THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE</h3> + + +<p>The last years of Spanish rule were the most +prosperous Chile had known. A brisk coasting +trade sprang into being; a small merchant marine +grew up; the removal of the prohibition against +free commerce with the rest of Spanish South +America raised prices. The opening of Buenos +Aires reacted upon her western neighbour, and +Chile ceased to depend on the Isthmus route. A +spirit of enterprise was awakened by a freer intercourse +with the outside world and by the immigration +of hardy adventurers who came through Buenos +Aires, the great South American rendezvous of that +day.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> +<img src="images/i157.jpg" width="800" height="524" alt="PLAZA DEL ARMAS, SANTIAGO." title="" /> +<span class="caption">PLAZA DEL ARMAS, SANTIAGO.</span> +</div> + +<p>Among these immigrants was the famous Ambrose +O'Higgins, a poor Irish lad, who landed at +Buenos Aires, made his way to Chile, started as a +peddler, became an army contractor, made a fortune, +got a commission in the army, distinguished +himself in an expedition against the Araucanians, +ingratiated himself with everybody by his wit, courage, +and good-natured shrewdness, and finally was +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> +selected as captain-general. He ruled the country +wisely and well until promoted to be viceroy at +Lima. His successors were mostly able and honest +men, and under their government the natural +causes making for the prosperity of Chile had free +scope. Wealth increased, and with it love of display, +honours, and letters. Santiago became a real +capital, the favourite residence of the landed aristocracy +and a social centre where fashions were prescribed. +The English war into which France pushed +Spain in 1796 much damaged Chilean commerce, but +not sufficiently to stop the impulse already received. +The old ignorant content with Spanish rule gave +place to a growing demand for the removal of all +restrictions, and the appetite for commercial freedom +grew with what it fed on.</p> + +<p>Chile was still comparatively poor and backward. +The rude population were engaged in a harsh struggle +with fierce savages and in laying the foundations +of material prosperity. Most of these people were +the descendants of Indians accustomed for centuries +to implicit obedience to a rustic, unlettered aristocracy. +The genius of the race was rather practical +than ideal, and the long, careless government by +men invariably chosen for their military abilities +rather than their qualities as civil administrators had +not tended to make Chile a fertile soil for the development +of revolutionary ideas. Chilean society +was less favourably constituted for sudden changes +than that of Buenos Aires—the boom town of the +time, with its active commerce, its restless recently +arrived population,—or that of the northern viceroy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>alties, +controlled by professional and office-holding +classes and parish priests.</p> + +<p>Two or three hundred families held most of the +lands of Chile, and the power of this aristocracy was +especially predominant in the provinces around +Santiago. In the southern provinces long wars had +thinned the native population and dispossessed the +original grantees. Estates were more widely distributed +and opinion more radical, but in the rest of +the country the newer immigrants had been forced +to accept the system, and the comparatively few +families who owned the land and thereby controlled +the means of subsistence of the whole people, enjoyed +unquestioned ascendancy. But conservative +as this aristocracy was, among its members there +rankled a profound jealousy of the Spanish officials +who wrung excessive taxes from their reluctant +fingers; who enforced the Spanish regulations forbidding +the culture of grapes, olives, and tobacco; +who until recently had closed the ports, cutting off +the profitable sale of crops, and compelling the payment +of extravagant prices for manufactured goods; +and most irritating of all, who still monopolised the +lucrative offices.</p> + +<p>The news of Ferdinand's imprisonment and the +invasion of Spain by Napoleon's armies reached +Chile in the late summer of 1809, creating great excitement +among the Spanish office-holders and the +Creole aristocracy. Sentiment was universal against +submission to the French usurpation and discussion +at once began of how the government should be carried +on during the King's captivity. Carrasco, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> +captain-general, hesitated and vacillated between the +conflicting suggestions.</p> + +<p>In preparation for an emergency, whose exact +nature no one could foresee, the city authorities +gathered arms, drilled troops, and levied extra +taxes. The property-owning and governing classes +divided into two currents of opinion. The government +officials, with their friends and hangers-on, saw +that their interests would best be served by the +recognition of the revolutionary juntas which had +assumed the <i>ad interim</i> direction of affairs in Spain. +The leading Creole families proposed the establishment +of an independent junta, pending Ferdinand's +return, or the definite defeat of the national cause +in Spain. Although the latter party warmly protested +their faithfulness to the mother-country, at +bottom they designed to secure for Chile and Chileans +virtual independence while Spain's troubles +lasted, and the Spanish officials did not hesitate to +characterise their opponents as rebels. Feeling rapidly +grew intense, and in May, 1810, the captain-general +ordered the arrest of several prominent +Creoles. This arbitrary measure aroused such a +fierce clamour that Carrasco lost his nerve, and consented +to the release of the prisoners. This indication +of weakness encouraged the agitators, and when +news came across the Andes that the people of +Buenos Aires had deposed their viceroy, Santiago +broke into revolution.</p> + +<p>The captain-general had summoned an open cabildo +to enjoin obedience to certain orders received +from Spain, but this assembly tumultuously de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>manded +his resignation. Helpless against the popular +outcry and the hostile attitude of the city +government, he turned over his authority to Toro, a +wealthy nobleman, whose venerable age and pacific +disposition seemed likely to preserve the peace. +Nevertheless, the Creoles persisted in their demand +for an independent Chilean junta. Another meeting +of all the qualified electors was called; the arrival +of a representative of the new junta at Buenos Aires, +who strongly urged Chile to follow Argentina's example, +had its influence; and on the 18th of September, +the date observed as the anniversary of +Chilean independence, Toro resigned his authority +to the cabildo. The office of captain-general was +abolished and power passed to a junta of seven. +Chile's ports were opened to all nations, quadrupling +the customs receipts in a single year, and the +country began a virtually separate existence, although +the acts of the junta ran in the name of the +Spanish King.</p> + +<p>However, the junta's power rested upon a basis +too narrow for stability. Representing only the +Santiago aristocracy, there was no certainty that its +orders would be respected in the provinces, or that +independent juntas would not be set up in other +cities. To remedy this difficulty a national congress +was summoned, but the junta allotted to Santiago +almost as many members as to all the other municipalities +together. The elections took place in April, +1811, and while they were going on the Spanish +officer in command of a detachment at Santiago revolted. +A member of the junta, José Carrera by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> +name, an active and ambitious young man, who belonged +to one of the most influential Creole families, +distinguished himself by attacking and defeating the +Spaniard with an improvised force of armed patriots. +When congress met it voted many reforms; abolishing +slavery, reorganising the judiciary, freeing +commerce of vexatious restrictions, decreeing the +payment of the clergy out of the public treasury instead +of by tithes, and conferring on the elective +bodies of the municipalities the right to elect their +own city officers. However, divisions soon arose +among the members. The representatives of the +outside provinces bitterly complained of the unfairness +of the apportionment; the radicals wished to +reorganise everything, while the conservatives insisted +on preserving many of the old institutions. +The Santiago representatives, chosen from the +landed aristocracy, were mostly conservative, while +the members from the South were largely radical. +Under the leadership of Doctor Rosas, the latter +withdrew. The Santiago conservatives, left in undisputed +control of congress, displaced the old junta, +but Carrera and his two brothers had made themselves +all powerful in the army by cleverly seizing +its Spanish officers. He determined to ally himself +with the radicals and assume supreme power. +Marching to the hall of congress at the head of his +troops, he compelled the selection of a new junta +with himself as chief, and expelled the members +upon whom he could not rely. Rosas had meanwhile +established a radical junta at Concepcion, and +Carrera offered to associate him in the government.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> +Rosas declined, and the Santiago leader, now frankly +a military dictator, advanced with an army to reduce +the South to obedience. But the news that the +Spanish party had gained the ascendancy in Valdivia +and Chiloë intimidated him, and he made peace +with Rosas, retiring to Santiago. His emissaries +nevertheless continued to intrigue in Concepcion +and finally stirred up a riot which resulted in +Rosas' expulsion.</p> + +<p>For nearly two years Carrera and his brothers remained +in power, governing by military force, confiscating +the property of their enemies, allowing +their friends to loot the public funds, and committing +many enormities. Conspiracy after conspiracy +was formed against them, only to be detected and +suppressed, while the patriots divided into hostile +factions each selfishly ambitious for control. Meanwhile +Abascal, the able and resolute viceroy at +Lima, had succeeded in keeping Peru submissive, in +crushing out the revolution in Ecuador and Bolivia, +and in repelling the northward march of the Argentine +patriots. He now prepared to send an army to +re-establish royal authority in Chile. Early in 1813 +a large force landed at Talcahuano and, advancing +to Concepcion, was joined by the garrison of that +place. Reinforcements came up from Valdivia and +Chiloë, and the Spanish general took the road for +Santiago at the head of four thousand men. In +the face of this imminent danger the bickerings of +the patriots were hushed. Carrera advanced to the +South in command of twelve thousand men, poorly +armed and disciplined. On the Spanish side the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> +officers were, however, suspicious, and had little +confidence in their raw levies. A sudden and successful +attack on an outpost near the river Maule +was followed by a panic among the royalists, and +they retreated in disorder, but with no great loss, to +the fortifications of Chillan, only fifty miles from +Concepcion. Detachments of patriots pushed on to +Concepcion and captured that place and Talcahuano. +The Spanish army was completely isolated in Chillan, +but had found there an abundant supply of +provisions, and successfully resisted Carrera's efforts +to take the place. His hastily gathered levies, without +means of sheltering themselves from the rain +and cold, melted away by desertion. Finally he retired +toward Concepcion followed by the Spaniards +and the remnants of his army were only saved from +total rout by the gallantry and steadiness of Bernardo +O'Higgins. This military chief, a natural son +of the old Irish captain-general, and heir to his +Chilean estates, had made common cause with the +patriots at the beginning of the revolution, and attached +himself to the fortunes of Rosas, the leader +of the Concepcion radicals. When the latter was +banished by Carrera, O'Higgins retired from the +army. The Spanish invasion had roused him; he +offered his sword to Carrera, and his dashing military +talents sent him quickly to the front.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 454px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> +<img src="images/i165.jpg" width="454" height="640" alt="BERNARDO O'HIGGINS." title="" /> +<span class="caption">BERNARDO O'HIGGINS.</span> +</div> + +<p>Carrera's failure at Chillan cost him his prestige, +his rivals at Santiago took advantage of his absence +to expel him from the junta, his violent measures at +Concepcion exasperated its people to revolt, and his +own troops became mutinous. The new Santiago +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> +junta formally nominated O'Higgins to the chief +command and Carrera was compelled to withdraw. +The new general inspired some vigour into the patriot +operations, but the arrival of reinforcements +from Lima gave the royalists an overwhelming preponderance +in cavalry and artillery. The junta had +recalled a large part of his forces to defend Santiago, +when an unexpected movement by one of the +Spanish divisions resulted in the capture of the important +city of Talca, half-way between the capital +and Concepcion. Though O'Higgins and the troops +left in the South managed to repulse an attack of +the main Spanish army, an army sent from Santiago +failed to retake Talca and its destruction left the +capital unprotected. O'Higgins by forced marches +succeeded in beating the Spaniards to the Maule, +saving the city for the moment. Meanwhile, a revolution +had overthrown the junta responsible for the +fatal Talca expedition and the new dictator entered +into negotiations with the Spanish commander. +The latter, confronted by O'Higgins' army, and +anticipating a desperate resistance, thought it best +not to press his advantage too far. He agreed to +an armistice, and Chile offered to acknowledge +allegiance to Spain, send members to the Cortes +shortly to assemble, and accept any Constitution +which might be promulgated by that body, if the +viceroy would recognise <i>ad interim</i> the present Santiago +government and withdraw the Spanish army +within two months.</p> + +<p>One result of the armistice was the liberation of +the Carreras from the Spanish prison in which they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> +had been confined since their deposition the year +before. They hastened to Santiago and started an +intrigue for the overthrow of Lastra and O'Higgins. +Such was their popularity with the troops in Santiago +and the extent of their family influence that +they got possession of the city and were preparing +to dispute the supreme control of Chile with O'Higgins +by force of arms when news arrived that the +viceroy refused to sanction the compromise, and +that an army of peninsular veterans was on its way. +Though Carrera and O'Higgins pretended a reconciliation, +each distrusted the other, and took the +field virtually independent. Under such conditions +Chilean success was impossible. O'Higgins' division +was annihilated at Rancagua, Carrera abandoned +the capital, and fled with a few hundred +followers over the Andes, where he was joined by +O'Higgins and the more determined patriots. This +influx of the pick of the fighting men of Chile was a +valuable reinforcement for the army which San +Martin was already organising behind the shelter of +the eastern foothills. Between the rival Chilean +leaders, Carrera and O'Higgins, he chose the latter, +gave him his confidence, and made him his chief +lieutenant, while Carrera, finding no place in San +Martin's entourage, went on to Buenos Aires, never +again to return to his native country.</p> + +<p>Both aristocracy and people in Chile were tired of +the military misrule which they had suffered during +the dominance of the patriot chiefs. A deputation +of the most prominent citizens went to welcome +General Osorio as he advanced to Santiago after the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> +battle of Rancagua. Within a month the Spanish +power was securely re-established throughout the +country. The leading revolutionists who remained +in Chile were executed or banished, more than a +hundred being exiled to the desolate island of Juan +Fernandez. During two years and a half—from +1814 to 1817—Osorio and his successor, Marco del +Ponte, ruled Chile with a rod of iron. So far as +possible everything was restored as it had been before +1810. The Spanish judges were reinstated, +elective municipal councils abolished, the newspapers +suppressed, and all the liberal reforms +revoked.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile San Martin, behind the screen of the +Andes, and only a hundred and fifty miles from +Santiago, was forging a thunderbolt destined to +shatter into fragments the edifice which Abascal had +been so skilfully constructing through seven laborious +years. The story of how the silent Argentine +gathered and equipped the "Army of the Andes" +has already been told. In the chapter devoted to +Argentina the reader will find a meagre description +of his marvellous march over the cloud-high passes, +the descent into the plain of Aconcagua made so +suddenly that the Spanish forces could not hurry up +to bar his way, the prompt advance over the low +transverse range which forms the northern boundary +of the plain where Santiago stands, and the overwhelming +victory in the gorge of Chacabuco against +the pick of the Spanish veterans, who confidently +stood to the attack, never dreaming until San Martin +was right upon them that his main body had had +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span>time to reach the spot. The Spanish authorities at +Madrid and Lima had made the irretrievable mistake +of underestimating the efficiency of his army. +They thought the troops in Chile amply able to take +care of any four thousand men the patriots could get +together, but San Martin's army was differently provided +and organised than the undisciplined masses +which had been routed at Huaqui, Villapugio, and +Rancagua. The Spanish generals were not so much +surprised at his crossing the Andes as at finding the +troops which reached the Chilean plains to be well +furnished with artillery, cavalry, and ammunition, +perfectly ready for an aggressive campaign, and a +match man for man for any force that could be +brought against them.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<img src="images/i169.jpg" width="800" height="522" alt="RAILROAD BRIDGE BETWEEN SANTIAGO AND VALPARAISO." title="" /> +<span class="caption">RAILROAD BRIDGE BETWEEN SANTIAGO AND VALPARAISO.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span>The royalists lost twelve hundred of their best +men at Chacabuco; only a thousand escaped from +the field to fly in disorder toward Santiago. On the +way they met the Spanish cavalry riding to join +them, but Captain-General Marco, instead of rallying +the three thousand men who remained under his +orders, hurried out of town toward Valparaiso, anxious +for his personal safety. San Martin had expected +to be obliged to fight another battle and kept +his army together, instead of pursuing and annihilating +the dismayed Spaniards. More than half the +latter managed to escape to Valparaiso, where they +embarked for Peru. Santiago received the conqueror +with no great enthusiasm. The moneyed +classes feared another prolonged civil war with its +attendant confiscations, forced contributions, and +general disorder; the common people cared little<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> +whether a Spaniard or an Argentine occupied the +governmental palace. However, no one dreamed +of resistance; the partisans of the proscribed patriots +and the votaries of independence and liberalism +were delighted; San Martin with his host of +hardy gauchos and Chilean exiles assumed full control +of the capital. He summoned an assembly of +notables who promptly and unanimously elected +him "Governor of Chile with plenary powers." +But this was not what the far-sighted and patriotic +soldier wanted. He realised that Chile could never +give that unquestioning support so vital to the success +of his cherished campaign against Peru so long +as any stranger, even himself, governed by force. +San Martin peremptorily declined the honour, but +intimated that he would be glad to see his staunch +friend, O'Higgins, selected dictator, and accordingly +the enemy of the Carreras was placed at the head of +the new Chilean government.</p> + +<p>With eyes fixed on a Peruvian campaign it was +only natural that San Martin should leave immediate +details in Chile to others. Though all central +Chile submitted with good grace, the South remained +a stronghold of the Spanish sympathisers. Among +its warlike people the royalist armies had been recruited, +and there lay the two strongest fortresses—Talcahuano +and Valdivia—both of them still in possession +of the Spaniards. After two months' delay, +Las Heras, with a thousand men, was despatched, +but his force was inadequate and his advance slow. +Before he arrived near Concepcion, an able Spanish +general, Ordoñez, who had fought side by side with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> +San Martin in Spain, had organised a division equal +in numbers, with which he retired to Concepcion +and there was joined by the sixteen hundred troops +who had escaped after the rout at Chacabuco, and +who had been ordered back to Chile the moment +they made their appearance at Callao. The Spanish +general now thought himself strong enough to annihilate +Las Heras, but the sortie which he led was +beaten back in the battle of Gavilan. However, +this victory was in no way decisive, and the patriots +were not able to make any impression on the fortifications +at Talcahuano or to advance south of the +Biobio. Southern Chile remained hostile and Talcahuano +and Valdivia were open doors through +which the Spaniards could send reinforcements and +supplies as long as they held command of the sea.</p> + +<p>San Martin remained in Santiago only a short +time after Chacabuco. Prepossessed with the idea +that Chile could never be safe or Peru won until he +had organised a fleet to wrest control of the Pacific +from the Spaniards, he hastened across the Andes +to arrange with his friends in the Argentine government +for the necessary money. The Chilean campaign +had saved Buenos Aires from impending +invasion; the Argentine patriots would certainly be +crushed if Chile should fall back into Spanish hands; +they could never feel secure so long as Peru and +Bolivia remained royalist. The promises which he asked +were readily given, on his agreeing that Chile +should contribute three hundred thousand dollars +toward the purchase of a squadron on the Pacific, +and forty thousand for the support of the Argentine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> +army on the Bolivian frontier, besides taking the +responsibility of the pay and maintenance of the +Army of the Andes. Argentina was to aid in purchasing +the fleet and hold back the Spaniards on the +Bolivian border.</p> + +<p>San Martin returned to Chile, where he was +shortly followed by an official representative of +the Argentine government and the alliance created +by Chacabuco received formal sanction. He found +Chilean affairs in a very unsatisfactory condition. +O'Higgins was hated by the powerful partisans of +the Carreras, and distrusted by Chileans generally +as too much under Argentine influence. His +power really rested upon Argentine bayonets; his +appointment of Quintana, an Argentine and San +Martin's aide-de-camp, as acting dictator at Santiago +was bitterly resented. San Martin's presence +did something to allay the feeling, but as a matter +of fact he had little sympathy for the Chilean people, +being a man who despised the arts by which +popularity is gained, and who made few friends. +Meanwhile the three Carreras were actively plotting +from their exile at Buenos Aires for the overthrow +of O'Higgins and San Martin. Their friends and +agents swarmed in Chile and preparations were +made for a rising as soon as they should set foot in +the country. The two younger brothers attempted +to cross the Andes in disguise, but were detected +and arrested at Mendoza. Quintana ordered the +imprisonment of many persons suspected of being +Carrera partisans, but his severe measures raised +national feeling to such a height that it was thought<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> +safest to carry out San Martin's suggestion and appoint +a Chilean as acting dictator in his stead.</p> + +<p>In the Argentine the position of the patriot government +was even worse. With civil war actively +raging in the one country and only held in check by +foreign bayonets in the other, and with both governments +struggling against financial difficulties, it is no +wonder that the war-ships which were expected to +sweep the Spanish frigates from the Pacific did not +arrive. The delay cost the patriots dear. In January, +1818, four Spanish ships, mounting two hundred +and thirty cannon sailed into Talcahuano, and +landed three thousand four hundred well-equipped +soldiers, most of them peninsular veterans. San +Martin, a master of the art of recruiting, had raised +a second army composed principally of Chileans and +nearly equal in numbers to the original Army of the +Andes, so that his total force amounted to nine +thousand men, while the Spanish troops did not exceed +five thousand. The Argentine general was in +the dark as to where the enemy would land, and +had already issued orders for O'Higgins, who was +in command near Concepcion, to retreat, resolved +on concentrating his forces near Valparaiso. Even +after the Spanish army had disembarked at Talcahuano, +San Martin was in doubt whether Osorio +would not re-embark and strike at some unexpected +harbour near Santiago. But the latter came up +steadily by the land route, encountering no opposition +though somewhat hampered by broken bridges +and the bareness of the country of horses and supplies, +for the retreating O'Higgins had left his track +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span>a desert. The farther the Spaniards penetrated toward +Santiago the more difficult became the feeding +of their army and the more certainly disastrous a +retreat in case of reverse.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<img src="images/i175.jpg" width="800" height="495" alt="TALCAHUANO." title="" /> +<span class="caption">TALCAHUANO.</span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> +</div> + +<p>O'Higgins stopped at Talca to await orders, and +there, on the 20th of January, 1818, he defiantly +made proclamation of Chile's absolute independence +of Spain. Three weeks later the approach of Osorio's +army forced him to abandon the place and he +retired to form a junction with San Martin. The +latter completed his concentration and advanced +with an army of over seven thousand men, superior +in all arms and especially in cavalry and artillery. +About a hundred miles south of Santiago he met +the Spaniards and won some cavalry skirmishes. +The enemy retired toward Talca, unwilling with inferior +forces to bring on a general action where defeat +meant annihilation, and even contemplating a +retreat to Talcahuano. But behind them lay the +deep river Maule, and San Martin made a dash to +reach it first. The two armies marched rapidly on +parallel lines with the patriot cavalry harassing the +Spanish rear. On the afternoon of the 19th of +March the Spaniards wheeled into line in excellent +position just outside the city of Talca, with their +west flank protected by a stretch of broken ground +called the Cancha-Rayada. San Martin was following +close, but the partial attack which be immediately +made was interrupted by darkness before any decisive +results were obtained. Hastily going into camp too +near the enemy's lines and all unprepared for battle, +the patriots were surprised at about nine o'clock in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> +the evening by the assault of the whole Spanish +army. The alarm was given by the cavalry pickets, +but only a few had time to get into line of battle +before the enemy was upon them. San Martin over +on the extreme right heard a few volleys and then +the noise of confused flight, scattering shots, and +the thundering hoof-beats of the pursuing cavalry. +O'Higgins had been wounded while trying to get +his men into order, and from that moment the +patriots in his neighbourhood thought of nothing +but escape through the darkness. The centre and +left, including the cavalry, dispersed in the wildest +confusion, abandoning the artillery. The right wing, +composed of three thousand five hundred infantry, +was not attacked and waited in stupefaction for two +or three hours not clearly understanding what had +happened. Its officers held a council, put Las Heras +in command, and by daybreak the division was sixteen +miles from the field of battle. In the meantime +San Martin and O'Higgins had found each +other, and soon were busily engaged in collecting +the scattered cavalry. The patriot loss in killed +and wounded had been small, but a third of their +number had deserted and many of the remainder +searched in vain for their regiments. However, the +royalist army had been nearly as badly dispersed in +making this night attack as the patriots in receiving +it. No effective pursuit could be made, and San +Martin retreated on Santiago practically unmolested. +The first news of the disaster was carried to the +capital by fugitive officers. They reported that San +Martin was killed and O'Higgins mortally wounded, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> +and everything lost. Shouts of "Viva el rey" resounded +through the streets; leading citizens opened +communication with Osorio, and the republicans +prepared for flight to Mendoza or Valparaiso. But +the next day word came that San Martin himself +was safe; and the day following a despatch saying +he had four thousand men under his orders. With +O'Higgins's arrival in the city the revolutionary disorders +were suppressed, and soon San Martin rode +into the city. Though half dead through loss of +sleep, as he drew rein at his house he made the one +speech of his life, laconically assuring the people +that he expected to win the next battle, and that +right soon.</p> + +<p>Not forgetting precautions which ensured a safe +retreat to the northern provinces or the Argentine, +he devoted himself to re-organising the army, and +within ten days after its dispersal had five thousand +men together, well provided and resolute to give a +good account of themselves. He took a position +on a low line of chalk hills seven miles south-west of +Santiago, and waited for the enemy, whose numbers +were now slightly superior to his own. Meanwhile +the Spanish officers were greatly disappointed at +the negative results of Cancha-Rayada; mutual reproaches +flew back and forth in their council of war; +many advocated maintaining the defensive and even +retreating to the south to be nearer their base. +Their indecision gave San Martin the needed opportunity +to gather his dispersed forces and to inspire +them with his own confidence. Finally, however, +Osorio advanced cautiously on Santiago, hoping +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> +that the Argentine would not risk another battle for +the defence of the capital, and manœuvring to the +west so as to get between the city and the sea. In +front of San Martin's position lay another line of +chalk hills, separated from the first by a narrow +stretch of low ground. At their western end ran +the road from Santiago to Valparaiso. Like the +Union position at Gettysburg this line of hills was +admirably adapted for a defensive battle, and Osorio +resolved to occupy it, especially as he thought his +left wing extended far enough west to command the +Valparaiso road, thereby securing him a communication +with a new and more convenient base on the +coast and giving him a line of retreat in case of a +reverse. But San Martin's quick eye saw that this +opinion was mistaken; and that his opponent might +easily be cut off.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 606px;"> +<img src="images/i179.jpg" width="606" height="480" alt="NATIVE COSTUMES IN CHILE ABOUT 1840." title="" /> +<span class="caption">NATIVE COSTUMES IN CHILE ABOUT 1840.</span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> +</div> + +<p>San Martin's tactical dispositions were admirably +made on the momentous morning of April 5, 1818. +He divided his army into two divisions and a reserve, +stationing the latter on the extreme east of +his line. Under cover of a heavy artillery fire the +west division rushed down the slope, across the bottom, +and up the hills commanding the Valparaiso +road. The counter-charge of the Spanish horsemen +was repulsed by the superior patriot cavalry, and +the Spanish west wing was isolated from the rest of +the army. Meanwhile the patriots' east division, +composed of the bulk of their infantry, had charged +straight across the narrow part of the bottom and +reached the high ground opposite without seeing an +enemy, but there was met by a terrific charge from +the royalist infantry, and rolled in confusion back +down the hill. Regardless of the artillery fire, the +Spaniards were pursuing triumphantly over the low +ground, when suddenly their eastern flank received +the charge of the patriot reserve, which had advanced +obliquely from its original position on the +extreme east. This movement decided the battle. +The Spanish infantry could not re-form to meet it, +and were rolled up in helpless confusion. The flying +patriot infantry rallied and returned to the +attack; their cavalry, already victorious at the other +end of the line, turned and charged the west flank +of the Spaniards, who, simultaneously taken at both<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> +ends and in front, were cut down by hundreds. A +few managed to keep their formation and fell back +to the farm of Espejo, behind whose extensive +buildings and garden walls they entrenched themselves, +determined to sell their lives as dearly as +possible. Joined by their left wing, which, unable +to reach the centre where the hard fighting had +taken place, had suffered little loss, they withstood +the attack of the victorious patriot army. But the +artillery was brought up, the walls knocked to +pieces, and the position carried in the midst of the +most frightful carnage. The infuriated patriots gave +no quarter until General Las Heras rode among +them and begged them to desist from the inhuman +slaughter.</p> + +<p>Maipo was the hardest fought battle in all the +wars of South American independence. Of five +thousand royalists, twelve hundred were killed, +eight hundred wounded, and two thousand two +hundred made prisoners. Only eight hundred +escaped, flying south toward safety at Talcahuano, +of whom less than a hundred held together until +they reached the Spanish fortifications. Of the +patriots more than a fifth were killed and wounded—the +greatest sufferers being the freed negroes +whom San Martin had recruited in the Argentine. +Half of these brave fellows were left on the field.</p> + +<p>Juan and Luiz Carrera, imprisoned at Mendoza, +had been an embarrassment and menace to San +Martin and O'Higgins. The latter hated them too +much to be willing to make terms, and yet he feared +that their execution would cause an insurrection by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> +their family and party friends in Chile. A criminal +prosecution had been trumped up against them and +proceedings delayed on various pretexts. The news +of the disaster at Cancha-Rayada was their death +sentence. Dr. Monteagudo, O'Higgins's representative, +acting as judge, sentenced them to death at +three o'clock one afternoon and sent them to the +shooting bench at five. Every Chilean who did not +belong to the O'Higgins faction was profoundly +shocked at this murder. Though the victims were +agitators and revolutionists they belonged to one of +the most respected families in Chile; with their +older brother they had been the leaders in the first +war against Spain; their devotion to the cause of +independence was unquestioned, and they embodied +the national sentiment which opposed the Argentine +army's remaining on Chilean soil.</p> + +<p>Pursuit of the Spaniards flying from the field of +Maipo was hardly over when open opposition to +O'Higgins and his policy broke out. A cavalry +corps—the "Husares de la Muerte"—composed of +Carrera partisans had volunteered after the rout +at Cancha-Rayada and rendered valuable service at +Maipo. O'Higgins ordered it to disband. An open +cabildo met which voted the dictator's deposition, +but his soldiers arrested the Carrera leader, shot him +in cold blood, and the citizens had no alternative +but to disperse and submit. O'Higgins undertook +to crush the opposition by ferociously persecuting +his republican enemies and rapaciously confiscating +the property of the royalists. This so occupied him +that he was unable to pay much attention to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> +Spaniards in the south. Osorio gathered a small +force at Talcahuano, easily beat off some desultory +expeditions which the patriots sent against him, and +from May until September held the whole country +south of the Maule. But after the slaughter at +Maipo the viceroy had all he could do defending +Peru and Bolivia. Late in the year Osorio +withdrew with most of his troops, leaving only +meagre garrisons in the fortresses of southern +Chile.</p> + +<p>San Martin had remained only a few days in Santiago, +hurrying back to Buenos Aires to try to +induce the Argentine government to carry out its +promises of the year before and aid in the purchase +of a fleet. Just before his departure an East Indiaman, +carrying forty-four guns, had arrived at Valparaiso +and the Chilean treasury was emptied to +pay for her. When he reached Buenos Aires his +friend Puerreyedon, the Argentine dictator, agreed +to raise a loan of five hundred thousand dollars and +send around two ships of the Argentine navy. San +Martin immediately took the road for Chile, but +at Mendoza a letter came forbidding him to draw +on the Argentine treasury. He resigned, but the +Argentine authorities, dismayed at the consequences +of his withdrawal, finally gave him two hundred +thousand dollars.</p> + +<p>The winter storms make the Andean passes impracticable, +and it was October before the general +reached Santiago, where to his delight he found that +O'Higgins had already got together a considerable +squadron. The East Indiaman, bought just before<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> +Maipo, and manned by British and North American +officers, had succeeded in capturing a Spanish brig. +Two American privateers were shortly afterwards +bought by the Chilean government, and their arrival +was followed by that of an English vessel purchased +by San Martin's agent in London. Others were on +their way from the United States and two Argentine +ships were reported to be coming around Cape +Horn. A few days prior to San Martin's return to +Santiago, Chile's two frigates with two smaller consorts +had sailed south from Valparaiso in the hope +of intercepting a fleet of transports, carrying two +thousand troops and a great quantity of arms, which +the Spanish government had sent around the Horn +from Cadiz convoyed by a fifty-gun frigate. Stormy +weather had, however, scattered the royalist fleet +and more than half the transports gave up the +attempt to weather the formidable promontory, +though the frigate and the others succeeded. The +transports evaded the Chileans and reached Callao +in safety, but the frigate was caught lying at anchor +in Talcahuano, and proved an important addition to +the patriot navy.</p> + +<p>The object for which San Martin had been planning +and working during two years was achieved. +His naval force, manned by professional sailors +picked from among the best sea-fighting people of +the world, was too formidable for the enemy to dare +to attack. Chile was safe from invasion and Peru +lay open to a descent. San Martin's first care was +to wrest southern Chile from the Spaniards. To +leave them in control of a fertile and populous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> +territory where they could recruit troops, collect +provisions, and menace Santiago was not safe. +Toward the end of 1818 he sent his lieutenant, Balcarce, +an Argentine, against them at the head of +thirty-five hundred men. Such a force was irresistible; +Chillan, Concepcion, and Talcahuano were +abandoned and the Spanish commander shut himself +up in the fortress of Valdivia.</p> + +<p>But when San Martin came to face the question +of organising and equipping an army adequate for +the invasion of Peru he found the Chileans cold and +indifferent. The success of their fleet had insured +them against assault, and they appeared to be chiefly +interested in getting rid of the Argentine army of +occupation. The soldiers had not received their +pay, and though O'Higgins issued a proclamation +announcing an expedition to Peru, San Martin +waited around for months without receiving the +promised aid. Finally he presented his resignation +as general-in-chief of the proposed Peruvian expedition, +and withdrew the Army of the Andes from +Santiago, leading a part over the Andes to Mendoza +and leaving the rest on the Chilean side near the entrance +to the pass. This measure quickly brought +the governments of both Chile and Argentina to +terms. His presence east of the Andes intimidated +the rebels against the authorities at Buenos Aires, +leaving the latter's hands free to aid him, while the +O'Higgins party in Chile realised that it could not +maintain itself without his support. He required +five hundred thousand dollars for the equipment +of an army six thousand strong. Chile agreed to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> +furnish three hundred thousand and Argentina the remainder, +and he returned to Santiago in the middle +of 1819 to complete his arrangements. While actively +engaged in preparations word came that civil +war had again broken out in the Argentine. San +Martin was compelled to make his choice between +deferring to an indefinite future his cherished expedition +against Peru, or abandoning his native +country to probable disintegration. He remained in +Chile and though the Argentine government, under +whose commission he was acting, had ceased to +exist, he did not shrink from the responsibility of +disposing of the Army of the Andes. His men +cheerfully agreed to follow him, but months went +by with little accomplished, and it was not until late +in 1820 that he was able to sail for Peru, and then +with only four thousand men instead of the six he +had counted on. With his departure his influence +on the affairs of Chile ceased.</p> + +<p>Lord Thomas Cochrane, a very able but very +erratic British naval officer, who had gone into politics +and got into trouble in his native country, +arrived in November, 1818, to take command of the +patriot navy. Under his dashing and restless leadership +no time was lost in pushing naval operations. +The year 1819 was spent in expeditions to the Peruvian +and Ecuadorian coast; Callao was repeatedly +bombarded, and the Spanish fleet took refuge under +the guns of the fortresses, leaving the sea free to the +patriots. Failing in a desperate attempt to cut out +the Spanish ships from under the very guns of the +Callao batteries, Cochrane sent all his vessels except<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> +his flag-ship to Valparaiso, and sailed with her for +Valdivia, the last port held by the Spaniards on the +Chilean mainland. The place was a very Gibraltar +of natural strength, and had been well fortified. +Nine forts and batteries disposed on both sides of +the narrow estuary were garrisoned by over a thousand +men; nevertheless Cochrane prepared to capture +them by assault with his single ship. Stopping +at Talcahuano he took on board two hundred and +fifty Chilean soldiers, and was fortunate in finding +two smaller ships. His flag-ship stranded; he transferred +the marines to the other ships and went on; +reaching the Valdivia bar, he landed without giving +the Spaniards a moment's time to bring up reinforcements, +and at the head of his soldiers and marines +he attacked the outermost fort. Though +defended by three hundred and sixty men its resistance +was short. While Cochrane's main body advanced +up a narrow path drawing the garrison's fire, +a detachment found a neglected entrance in the rear +through which they poured a volley on the defenders. +Panic-stricken, the Spaniards fled to the next +fort, but the patriots followed so close that no stand +could be made. One after another all the forts on +the south side of the estuary were rushed. Next +day Cochrane's two smaller ships sailed into the +harbour under the fire of the northern forts, and +soon after the half-disabled flag-ship made her appearance. +Seeing the long-boats filling with men +and the cannons of the ships ready to open fire, +the Spaniards fled to the city and surrendered +the following day. This capture deprived the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> +royalists of their last base of operations in Chile, +and only the Chiloë Islands and a few scattered +guerilla bands among the Indians of Araucania +remained faithful.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-e.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-2.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<h3>THE FORMATIVE PERIOD</h3> + + +<p>The long struggle against Spain accustoming +Chileans to military service and uprooting the +system under which the country had been ruled for +centuries, necessarily placed the control of government +in the hands of the generals. Like all other +Spanish-American countries Chile had to pass +through a period of irresponsible pretorian rule and +the sterilising horrors of wars in which one ambitious +chief tried to displace another. But anarchy +lasted only a short time; the civil element was +powerful even at the beginning; and Chileans never +acquired the revolution habit. Her government has +been stable longest and her political history the least +checkered of any Spanish-American country. To +this result, so happy for the internal prosperity and +external power of the nation, several causes have +co-operated. First of all has been the existence of +a powerful landed aristocracy whose interests lay +rather in cultivating their estates in the security of +peace and order than in trying to make fortunes +by taxes wrung from a poverty-stricken, reluctant<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> +proletariat. The people are by climate and inheritance +industrious, naturally inclined toward industrial +progress, agricultural rather than pastoral, prolific +and colonising, and though pugnacious, they are not, +like the inert Indians of the Andean and Central +American countries, to be bullied into following the +first revolutionary chief who comes along. Further +the country is geographically compact—a narrow +strip of plain with easy communication between its +provinces, and, unlike the Argentine and Colombia, +not divided into widely distant districts, each with +its isolated capital, its local chiefs, its ambition for +hegemony and autonomy.</p> + +<p>In the throes of the first war for independence +Carrera was hardly able to maintain himself, and a +civil revolution had as much to do with his overthrow +as his military misfortunes. O'Higgins, even while +supported by San Martin's army of Argentine veterans, +held control by a very precarious grip. During +1819 and 1820 there were no serious troubles because +attention was absorbed by the war against Peru and +over Cochrane's naval victories, but no sooner had +San Martin left, than symptoms of discontent again +appeared on the surface. Complaints against the +arbitrary and corrupt practices of O'Higgins's ministers +were loud and unrestrainable; the aristocracy +opposed his measures, and the very senate he had +appointed to assist in the government openly obstructed +him. Theoretically a radical, he called a +national congress to establish the new nation on a +democratic basis. However, even his own nominees +moved slowly, while Coquimbo, the northern, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> +Concepcion, the southern capital, were hotbeds of +opposition. In the latter part of 1822 General +Freire, the hero of the campaign which had redeemed +southern Chile, took the initiative at Concepcion. +The southern provinces declared against O'Higgins; +Freire prepared to advance on Santiago. Coquimbo +followed—an old Carrera partisan assuming the +governorship. The northern revolutionists invaded +the centre, while news came that Freire was rapidly +coming up from the south. In January, 1823, +O'Higgins handed his resignation to a committee of +Santiago citizens, who appointed a temporary junta +and summoned a congress. A few days later General +Freire landed at Valparaiso with sixteen hundred +soldiers, and on his advancing to the neighbourhood +of the capital, congress very prudently offered him +the dictatorship. The aristocracy and the people +soon found that they had gained nothing in this exchange +of masters. After a short spasm of reform, +the public finances fell into horrible disorder, while +the ruling clique enriched itself at the expense of the +treasury.</p> + +<p>Freire permitted congress to promulgate a Constitution +which in effect recognised the aristocracy as +the dominant political element, but at heart he was +a radical and an absolutist, and the document soon +proved to be only so much waste paper. He +showed his anti-clerical tendencies by refusing to +come to any agreement with the Pope's representative, +who arrived in 1824 charged with the reorganisation +of the Chilean hierarchy. He summarily banished +the Bishop of Santiago because of his royalist<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> +leanings, and issued decrees confiscating Church +property. In 1825 he dissolved congress and for +some months ruled frankly as a dictator. When he +issued writs for a new national assembly he solemnly +promised not to interfere in the elections, but so +little confidence was felt that, outside of Santiago, +no one participated and from there only a few members +were returned. Freire soon quarreled with this +rump parliament, and its dissolution was followed +by political confusion in which parties became daily +more sharply defined and acrimonious. There were +"federalists," who advocated provincial assemblies; +"pipiolas," who followed the strong liberal chief, +General Pinto; "o'higginistas," who favoured the +return of the former dictator; and finally the conservatives, +nicknamed "pelucones" from the perukes—pelucas +in Spanish—which old-fashioned +Chilean gentlemen wore. Only the military power +and prestige of Freire, coupled with his real abilities +and resolution, prevented attempts at forcibly displacing +him.</p> + +<p>Early in 1826 the Spaniards who until then had +held out on the island of Chiloë, surrendered, and this +signal service to the country somewhat strengthened +the dictator. In July of that year a congress met, +composed of men favourable to Freire, and a majority +of the members were federalists, who divided +Chile into eight autonomous provinces. But it +soon became evident that such a system must +encounter strong opposition. The provincial assemblies +would pass laws at variance with the measures +of the central government, and in the next<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> +moment adopt resolutions instructing their delegates +in the national congress to oppose the permanent +establishment of a federated republic, declaring emphatically +in favour of national unity. Nevertheless, +the liberals persisted in their efforts to impose +on the reluctant country a brand new form of government. +Doctrinaires and soldiers were still in the +saddle, and only close observation of the signs of +the times revealed the fact that discussion was becoming +broader and the military elements in danger +of losing their preponderance. By the beginning of +1827 Freire had sunk to be little more than the +doubtful leader of a fraction of a party. His administration +was in horrible financial straits, the expenditures +were twice the income, and in May he +resigned in favour of the vice-president, General +Pinto. The latter was an eminent lawyer as well +as a brave soldier, who held very radical views. +Continuing the policy of his predecessor he summoned +a congress which swept away the old Constitution +and framed one that was frankly federalistic, +and during 1828 and 1829 he and his party struggled +to put it into application. But the sullen resistance +of the aristocrats and the rivalries among the jealous +liberal leaders were too much for him. Party passion +became so acute and politicians so irritated and +aggressive that it became impossible to carry on any +regular government. In November Pinto resigned +and Vicuña, president of the senate, tried his hand +at holding the liberals together and suppressing the +now confident and aggressive conservatives.</p> + +<p>Not only political but also social anarchy obtained<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> +throughout the country. Disorders were prevalent, +robberies occurred daily, life was unsafe, foreigners +were fleeing to Valparaiso. General Prieto, commanding +the army on the Araucanian frontier, revolted +and began a march on the capital. Vicuña +hurried to the northern provinces to try to hold +them quiet, while General Lastra went against +Prieto. Under the leadership of Portales, the +ablest statesman Chile has ever produced, the conservatives +at Santiago organised a junta and bade +open defiance to the liberals. When Lastra and +Prieto met there was no fighting. The two generals +held a conference and arranged a compromise by +which Freire was to be recalled. But affairs at Santiago +were in more resolute hands than theirs. Portales +absolutely refused to agree, and back of him +stood the conservative party, well organised and +knowing clearly what it wanted. The conservatives +had the land, the wealth, the prestige of social position, +the ardent support of the clergy; their influence +ramified everywhere; they had been welded +together during the long dominance of the liberals; +and, best of all, they followed a strong leader. +The army could not be united in unquestioning +support of any one general. Prieto decided to cast +his lot with the conservatives, and occupied Santiago. +The congress which was hastily elected naturally +proved frankly and aggressively conservative. +The liberals flew to arms, calling on Freire to lead +them, and two thousand Chileans perished in battle +before the final and decisive conservative victory at +Lircay (April 17, 1830). Freire fled to Peru, Prieto +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span>was elected provisional president, and Portales became +vice-president.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<img src="images/i195.jpg" width="800" height="559" alt="VIEW OF SANTIAGO, CHILE, ABOUT 1835." title="" /> +<span class="caption">VIEW OF SANTIAGO, CHILE, ABOUT 1835.</span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> +</div> + +<p>Though he owed his elevation to his military successes +the new president did not attempt to rule as +a dictator, and co-operated cordially with the vice-president +in organising a parliamentary civil government +on an enduring basis. Prieto played not illy +the rôle of a Washington to Portales' Hamilton. +Militarism, radicalism, and federalism had been tried +and found wanting and the great conservative statesman +took care that the new order should be tainted +with none of them. Two years were spent in careful +experiment and deliberation, and the Constitution +framed in 1833 has remained, with a few amendments, +the fundamental law of Chile to this day. +The most aristocratic and centralised of American +Constitutions, it has given Chile the strongest and +stablest government in Spanish America. The +foundation of political power is the property-holding +class. No man may vote unless he possesses +land, invested capital, or an equivalent income from +his trade or profession, and congress may fix the +amount of the qualification as high as it pleases. +Political power originated in the oligarchy, and its +exercise was delegated to a president whose functions +are even more extensive than those of the +chief magistrate of the United States. <i>Ipso facto</i> +commander-in-chief of the armed forces, free to +select his cabinet and the chief functionaries of state +without the confirmation of a senate, not subject to +impeachment, possessing an effective control over +the judiciary, given a practically absolute veto, with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> +the intendentes of the provinces and the governors +of the departments receiving from him their commissions +and acting as his agents, it would seem that the +president of Chile is little less than an absolute and +irresponsible ruler. But from the beginning the executive +was in practice dependent upon the oligarchy +as represented in congress. The instances in which a +president has tried to rule in defiance of the wishes of +the aristocracy have been rare, and never successful.</p> + +<p>When Prieto's first term expired in 1836, many of +the conservatives pressed Portales to accept the +presidency, but he was satisfied with his place as +chief minister. Under his vigorous and intelligent +direction the courts and clergy had been reformed, +the police organised, a national guard created, the +budgets balanced, the executive and congress +worked harmoniously together, peace and order had +replaced confusion. Chile's feet had been placed +on the path of social and industrial progress.</p> + +<p>The exiled Freire meanwhile was receiving aid +from Santa Cruz who had recently created the Peru-Bolivian +Confederation with himself as its chief, and +whose ambitious designs included the installation +of a government in Chile which would be his complaisant +and obliged friend. With arms obtained in +Peru, General Freire made a descent upon the island +of Chiloë, but the rebellion was quickly suppressed, +war declared against Santa Cruz, and the Peruvian +fleet surprised and seized. While the army of invasion +was waiting for the order to embark a few +companies engaged in a mutiny which brought +about a horrible tragedy. Portales had come to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> +camp to watch the preparations. The mutineers +seized him as hostage, and fleeing to the interior +carried him along locked in a closed carriage. In +the middle of the winter night they encountered a +detachment of government troops, and with the +first volley the guards stopped the carriage. A man +got out, walked unflinchingly to the side of the +road, a half dozen shots rang out in the still air, and +he fell. When the first light of dawn illumined the +field, the victorious national guards found a body +lying pierced by four bullets—it was Portales. But +his work had been too thoroughly done for even his +own death to affect it. He had found his country +feeble and divided, torn by feud and faction; he left +her prosperous, united, possessing surplus vitality +for a successful foreign war. Prieto and the conservatives +were not shaken; the expedition to Peru +proceeded, and though the first failed, the second won +the battle of Yungay, overthrew Santa Cruz, and +made Chile the dominant power on the Pacific coast.</p> + +<p>At the end of his two terms of five years each, +Prieto was succeeded by General Bulnes, the hero +of the war. Foreign commerce was increasing by +leaps and bounds; the growth of the customs +revenues put government finances on a sound footing; +the expenses of the war against Santa Cruz had +been provided for out of current income. William +Wheelwright had established the first steamship line +on the Pacific. The political policy of Bulnes was +as repressive toward the liberals as his predecessor's. +However, education and literary activity were encouraged; +a new university was inaugurated at San<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span>tiago +in 1843. The opera and the drama flourished, +and society took on a more intellectual and cosmopolitan +tone. Even religious doctrine and the +relations of Church and State were discussed with +considerable freedom and warmth, and everywhere +were signs of an awakening—a flowering out of the +industrial, commercial, and intellectual life of the +nation. German colonists were induced to settle in +the forested valleys and mountains of the South, +and that part of Chile became and has remained +more Teutonic than Latin. The discovery of gold +in California opened a market for Chilean wheat and +gave a fresh impetus to commerce and agriculture, +while the mines of Copiapo began to yield their +inexhaustible wealth.</p> + +<p>Bulnes was re-elected without opposition in 1846, +but a new Chile had grown up in the fifteen years of +peaceful order. Though the old liberals had disappeared, +a new party had arisen all the more formidable +because its principles were moderate and it +sought not dictatorships, military government, or +federalism, but only administrative reforms, such as +restraining the clergy and widening the suffrage. By +1849 the liberals had a majority in congress and an +agitated session ensued. The conservative president +was pushed into an attitude of uncompromising resistance +to the liberal demands. Manuel Montt, the +intellectual leader of the conservatives, a strong and +ambitious man, who was known to have the courage +and firmness to maintain himself against odds, was +selected as Bulnes' successor. His elevation in the +spring of 1851 was followed by an armed outbreak,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> +which the government troops suppressed, but in +September the revolution flamed forth with redoubled +fury.</p> + +<p>From Concepcion, the liberal headquarters, +marched an army which gained several victories and +even threatened the capital. But the conservatives +rallied and in December the issue was decided by +the bloody battle of Loncomilla. In Chile, a narrow +plain shut in between the Andes and the sea, +losers cannot hide; a single encounter in force is +enough; civil wars cannot be prolonged in remote +provinces or by the flight of the defeated to inaccessible +deserts. Though the destruction of life and +property had been frightful—four thousand Chileans +perishing and commerce and industry being +paralysed for the moment—peace was immediately +re-established and the nation rapidly recovered. A +general amnesty buried the doings of the insurgents +in oblivion, and former liberals were welcomed as +members of the party which Montt and Varas, his +able minister, organised. Though their faces were +set against political innovations they adopted many +important administrative reforms. The admirable +civil code prepared by Bello was given to the country, +replacing the complicated and confusing mass +of old Spanish laws by clear and systematic legislation. +The tariff was lowered and differential duties +as between foreign countries were abolished. Commercial +courts were installed, decimal coinage +adopted, church tithes converted into a moderate +fixed tax, treaties of commerce and amity negotiated +with the great commercial nations, missions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> +established among the Araucanians, and public +libraries and schools were multiplied.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, Montt and Varas relentlessly +pursued a policy of centralisation, subjecting even +the affairs of the municipalities to the control of the +Santiago bureaucracy. Re-elected as a matter of +course in 1856, Montt's second term was even more +intransigent than his first. Many leading liberals +were driven from the country, and minor insurrections +broke out more than once, only to be sternly +suppressed. The landed aristocracy had, however, +ceased to be unanimous against concessions; its +more progressive members belonged now to the +liberal party; and the "montt-varistas" in congress +were compelled to ally themselves now with the +clericals, now with the liberals, in order to secure a +working majority. In 1858 Montt came to an open +rupture with congress because it insisted on passing a +law permitting the return of his banished political +enemies. Meanwhile he had alienated the clergy by +compelling the ecclesiastical authorities to submit to +the decisions of the civil tribunals, and some conservatives +united with the liberals against him in the +elections in the fall of 1858. His measures became +arbitrary and oppressive. Newspapers were suppressed, +meetings dispersed, and agitators imprisoned. +At the end of the year a great meeting +was called at the capital to promote a reform of the +Constitution. The government forbade it as a menace +to public order, and the dissatisfaction was so +wide-spread that Montt proclaimed martial law.</p> + +<p>The liberals in the southern and northern pro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span>vinces +simultaneously rose in rebellion and for four +months civil war raged furiously. Gallo, a young, +rich, and powerful leader, was at the head of the +insurrection in the North and at first he defeated +the government forces and occupied Coquimbo. +But his hopes were crushed by the news that the +southern liberals advancing from Concepcion had +been repulsed at Chillan, enabling Montt to concentrate +the whole army against him. Four thousand +regulars routed the two thousand men who +followed Gallo, and the remnants fled across the +Argentine border. Defeated and banished, the liberals +in reality had won. The seriousness of the +rebellion had convinced the aristocracy that concessions +must be made or a renewal of the conflict +would be inevitable. Montt did not seek a re-election, +and it was necessary to unite on some +man of high personal prestige, and of distinguished +family, who had remained neutral in the recent +struggle. Such a one was found in Perez, who accordingly +received the unanimous vote of the electoral +college and was inaugurated in 1861. That +the new president's policy would be one of reconciliation +and compromise was soon made evident by +his procuring the passage of a law granting amnesty +for political offences. A coalition of moderate liberals +and conservatives threw Montt and Varas with +their party of "nationalists" into opposition along +with the radicals or "reds" under the leadership of +Gallo. The curious spectacle was presented of two +sets of men, united in an alliance against the administration, +who only two years before had been fight<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span>ing +in the field, and who now professed the most +radically divergent political opinions. Fierce parliamentary +struggles ensued, but they were confined +to the floor of congress and to changes in the +ministry.</p> + +<p>The country had now recovered from the commercial +panic of the fifties and from the devastations +of the brief civil war, and proceeded again on the +even tenor of its prosperous commercial way. The +railroad from Valparaiso to Santiago was completed +in 1863; lines were extended up and down the great +central valleys; the telegraph system was enlarged; +Chilean capitalists began to push up the desert +northern coast to engage in the guano business; the +German immigration to southern Chile continued +and European colonisation was fostered. Indeed, +no South American country has incorporated such a +large proportion of North European blood; and +British, German, and French names are common +not only in commerce and industry, but also in the +political, naval, and military services—witness Mackenna, +O'Higgins, Beauchef, Godoy, Montt, Walker, +Edwards, MacIver, Tupper, Prat, Larrain, MacClure, +Koenig, Mathieu, Stuven, Ross, Marchant, +Cumming, Day, Stephan, and a hundred others.</p> + +<p>In 1865 a war with Spain interrupted domestic +progress, political as well as commercial. Engaged +in a dispute with Peru, the Spanish government had +sent an overwhelming fleet to enforce its demands, +and seized the Chincha Islands. The Spanish admiral +was reported to have justified this high-handed +act upon the ground that Peru was still subject to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> +Spain. If this was true of the one country it was +of the other, and the Chileans believed their territorial +integrity and even their independence menaced. +Government and people manifested an active +sympathy with Peru; Peruvian vessels were allowed +to coal; newspapers were filled with abuse of Spain; +and a riot occurred in front of the Spanish legation. +In September, 1865, the Spanish fleet sailed into +Valparaiso Bay and its admiral presented an ultimatum. +Four days were given for a satisfactory +explanation, an apology, and a salute to the Spanish +flag. Failing this he would blockade the coast and +procure indemnification by force. The Chilean government +rejected the humiliating proposition; the +blockade was established, and the administration, +backed by the enthusiastic approval of the whole +country, refused to make any concessions, though +Chile's fleet consisted of one small vessel and her +ports were at the enemy's mercy. The single Chilean +steamer succeeded in capturing a Spanish gunboat, +which so humiliated the admiral that he +committed suicide, and when, in March, 1866, Chile +refused even to disclaim an intention of insulting +Spain, or to exchange salutes, the Spaniards proceeded +to bombard Valparaiso. The town was +totally without defences and open to cannon fire; +ten millions of property were destroyed in the three +hours and a half that the cannonading lasted, nine-tenths +of it being on the water-front and belonging +to foreign merchants. The Spanish fleet then withdrew, +although the original question remained +exactly as at the outset.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<img src="images/i205.jpg" width="800" height="490" alt="VIEW OF VALPARAISO." title="" /> +<span class="caption">VIEW OF VALPARAISO.</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span></p> + +<p>An indirect result of the common danger of the +Pacific nations was an agreement in 1866 between +Chile and Bolivia as to their boundary on the coast. +The line was fixed at the 24th degree, but Chileans +were allowed to continue to exploit guano and nitrate +as far north as the 23d—an arrangement which gave +their country substantial claims in a region which +shortly proved a marvellous producer of ready +money. The German colonisation in the South +continued on an increasing scale during the late +sixties; free land was given to immigrants and their +passage paid. The Araucanians, resenting the influx +of whites so near their own territory, began to +make trouble, and a war went on through 1868, +1869, and 1870, which finally resulted in their suing +for peace. A line of forts kept them in order and they +ceased to be a disturbing factor in Chilean affairs.</p> + +<p>Perez had been re-elected in 1866, and his second +term marks the beginning of a new era in Chilean +politics. The dynamic elements had finally become +stronger than the static, and the pressure for amendments +to the Constitution could no longer be resisted. +But in the forty years since Portales had +fixed the form of the government in its aristocratic +mould, political traditions had hardened into habits. +No really radical changes had any serious chance of +success. A measure forbidding the president to be +re-elected was passed, and a desperate fight made to +extend the suffrage to all who could read and write. +Though favoured by President Perez the last failed +to carry, and the most the liberals could obtain was +a law reducing the property qualification.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span></p> + +<p>The election in 1871 was warmly contested. The +advanced liberals pressed hard on the conservatives, +who resisted further changes desperately. The latter +united with the moderate liberals upon Errazuriz +as presidential candidate to succeed Perez, and receiving +the support of the outgoing administration +he was elected. At first the elements who had +elected him controlled a majority in congress, but +the aggressiveness of the liberals and rival ambitions +in the government coalition soon overthrew the reactionary +ministry. Errazuriz changed as congress +did and soon found himself pushing liberal reforms. +The great issue was the amenability of the clergy to +the civil tribunals. Though fifteen years previously +President Montt had compelled the reinstatement of +two church dignitaries deprived of their places by +the archbishop, the clergy had nevertheless persisted +in their claims. The liberals now insisted on the +adoption of a criminal code which would leave no +doubt, and amid bitter opposition it was passed. +The clericals were further outraged by concessions as +to Protestant worship and the obligatory teaching of +the Catholic religion in the state colleges. Though +the bill establishing civil marriage failed, the anti-clerical +movement went so far that the old-line conservatives +withdrew in disgust from the alliance +which had existed between them and the moderate +liberals since the revolt against Montt. Thenceforth +the conservative party ceased to be an important +factor, and the predominant liberals divided into +factions who intrigued among themselves to organise +working congressional majorities, which supported<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> +ministries and controlled patronage. Political reform +went on with increasing momentum. To curb +the control of elections which the ministry in power +exercised through the local officers who made up the +voting lists, minority representation was provided +for, but only after the moderates had forced the radicals +to a compromise, which exempted presidential +and senatorial elections.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile material prosperity was steadily increasing +and population growing at the rate of one +and a half per cent. a year. Coal mines had been +discovered in southern Chile, railroad building continued, +and the finding of the rich Caracoles silver +mines in 1870, lying near the northern limit of the +jointly occupied territory, not only opened up vistas +of wealth, but brought to the front the troublesome +question of the Bolivian boundary. Peru became +alarmed at Chile's rapid progress in the nitrate and +guano business, Bolivia feared aggressions on the +part of her powerful neighbour, and in 1872 these +two powers entered into a defensive alliance intended +to protect their joint interests on the Pacific +coast. The reaction inevitably consequent on rapid +commercial expansion came in the middle of Errazuriz' +term, and was aggravated by a fall in the +prices of Chilean exports caused by the world panic +of 1873. The already burdened government finances +quickly felt the strain; outgo exceeded income, and +it was necessary to reduce expenses. Happily the +debt, though large, was not excessive. Chile had +gone in for no such reckless carnival of borrowing +as Peru and the Argentine, and her bonds<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> +had been opportunely refunded at a low rate of +interest.</p> + +<p>As the time for the election approached the radical +liberals put forward Mackenna on a programme +which included not only religious freedom in its +widest sense, the extension of the common schools, +and the abolition of the tobacco monopoly, but also +railways and internal improvements enough to bankrupt +the treasury. The moderate liberals were +opposed to Mackenna and his programme, so the +party split. The convention of moderates was at +first unable to agree on a candidate, but on a second +attempt Anibal Pinto was nominated. Favoured +by the outgoing administration, his election was a +foregone conclusion.</p> + +<p>By this time the dispute with the Argentine over +the possession of the southern extremity of the continent +had become acute, and public feeling in both +countries had risen to a height perilous to the maintenance +of peace. The only boundary treaty between +Chile and Argentina—that of 1856—provided +that the limits should be as they had been during +colonial times, but these were not certain because +throughout the Spanish occupation the territory +now disputed had been uninhabited, and neither the +viceroy of Buenos Aires nor the captains-general of +Chile had concerned themselves about it. Since independence +Chile had always claimed to the Andes +on the east and to Cape Horn on the south, including +the region about the Straits of Magellan over to +the Atlantic side. As early as 1843 she had established +a post at the eastern end of the straits, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> +Argentina at first did not seriously dispute her possession. +In 1870 guano was discovered in the +region, and when Chile promptly proceeded to treat +it as her own the Argentine government protested. +For ten years the two countries bickered, but with +the Peruvian war impending Chile thought it wiser +to make some concessions, and the dispute was +finally settled by a treaty in 1881 by which the territory +was divided, Chile getting the more valuable +part with the control of both ends of the straits, +although this great interoceanic waterway was declared +neutral and no fortifications may be erected +there.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-b.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-5.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER V</h2> + +<h3>CHILE'S GREATNESS AND THE CIVIL WAR</h3> + + +<p>Since 1873 the low prices of Chile's chief exports, +wheat and copper, had turned the balance +of trade against her. The government could +not make both ends meet, and in 1878 the banks +were compelled to suspend specie payments. They +resorted to the issue of more notes, backed by the +government's guaranty. Just at this juncture the +Bolivian government levied a heavy royalty on +the nitrate extracted by the Chilean companies +operating in Bolivian territory. This threatened +ruin to the most promising enterprise in which Chilean +citizens were engaged, and was believed to be a +manifest violation of the terms of the treaty of 1866. +The government determined not to stop short of war +itself if necessary to defend Chilean interests, though +war on Bolivia also meant war on her ally, Peru.</p> + +<p>A meagre description of the stirring events of this +contest will be found in that part of this volume devoted +to Peru. Chile's overwhelming victory not +only profoundly affected her international position, +but also her internal condition. The preparations<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> +of the spring of 1879 plunged the government into +expenditures which ordinary revenues were totally +insufficient to meet. A new issue of paper money +was resorted to, but the interest on the foreign debt +was kept up. The first nine months of 1879 were +an anxious time for Chileans. Pitted against two +nations whose combined population was nearly +double her own, her treasury empty, while that of +Peru was supplied by the marvellous nitrate deposits +of Tarapacá, the result appeared doubtful and the +consequences of failure almost too horrible to face. +When the Peruvians lost their iron-clad, <i>Independencia</i>, +hope rose, but the ease with which the <i>Huascar</i> +eluded the Chilean ships made the people again lose +confidence in their navy, and the coast towns were +terror-stricken. But the destruction of the dreaded +iron-clad in the naval battle of the 9th of October +changed in the twinkling of an eye fear into confidence, +apprehension of national ruin into the joyful +assurance that a Chilean army would soon be in +possession of the Golconda of the Pacific. Within +a month the Chilean forces were landed in the nitrate +country, the Peruvians and Bolivians had been +chased across the desert, and the Chilean collectors +were receiving a million and a half a month from the +royalties of the nitrate mines. A net sum nearly +equal to the total revenue which Chile previously +had been collecting from all sources was added to +her income, and she was no longer driven to painful +expedients in order to raise money to meet her military +expenses. Although the issues of paper money +were continued and prices consequently rose, busi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span>ness +flourished and a period of abundance replaced +the hard times which had reached a crisis in 1878. +The government was able to abolish the odious tobacco +monopoly, and the war rather lightened than +increased the burdens of commerce. The centralised +government of Chile proved an admirable instrument +for times of war. The president and his +ministry, backed by a compact congress, wielded the +whole force and resources of the country like a +weapon fitted to the hand, striking heavy and relentless +blows until Peru lay prostrate.</p> + +<p>After the complete destruction of the allied army +by the Tacna campaign in March, 1880, the government, +confident that a treaty of peace would soon be +signed, delayed further aggressive operations for +several months. But the Peruvians were obstinate +and later in the year it was resolved to carry the +war to the centre of the enemy's country. Lima +fell on the 17th of January, 1881, and the glorious +news was received while the liberals were contending +over whom they should select as a candidate to succeed +Pinto. There was much striving among the +rival chiefs and one convention had already adjourned +without coming to any agreement. Pinto +ventured to interfere in a more decided way than +any previous president had done and his influence +was sufficiently powerful to induce the liberal party +to unite on his personal choice, Santa Maria. The +opposition tried to rally around the candidacy of +General Baquedano, the greatest general of the war, +but the prestige of the administration was too +powerful.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span></p> + +<p>Although his nomination had been bitterly opposed +by many prominent liberals, once in office +Santa Maria found means to unite in his support a +great majority of congress. The members who +took their seats in 1882 were divided into three +factions: the liberals proper, as the moderates were +called, the radicals, and the nationals—few in number +but counting in their ranks some of the ablest +and wealthiest aristocrats in Chile. The conservatives, +no longer an important factor, had abandoned +their opposition to the civil reforms which the liberals +pressed forward, concentrating their efforts on +a hopeless but desperate resistance to religious innovations. +Santa Maria was in full accord with his +party, and his message of 1883 proclaimed that the +time had come for the realisation of the oldest and +dearest aspirations of Chilean liberals—civil marriage +and registry, entire liberty of conscience, and the +secularisation of the cemeteries. In the fierce discussion +which followed, the eloquent prime minister, +Balmaceda, took the lead. Although educated for +the priesthood he had developed into an intransigent +radical, a passionate advocate of the completest +separation of Church and State.</p> + +<p>The civil-marriage law was pushed through in +spite of the sullen resistance of the conservatives +and clericals. The women of Chile, the old-fashioned +elements of society, and the clergy would not +accept the result. The priests refused to perform a +religious ceremony for any one who had been married +by the civil law, and excommunicated the president +and his cabinet. Devout Chileans of all classes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> +would not yield on this point of conscience, and +cursed the liberal politicians as betrayers of their +God. All other political questions were held in +abeyance. Urged by their wives and the priests, +the conservatives abandoned the attitude of abstention +from politics which they had so long maintained, +and went to the polls to do what they could +to secure a majority for the repeal of the law. But +ladies' entreaties and priests' absolutions availed +little against the government's control of the election +machinery, and the law remained on the statute +books. Opposition centred against the presidential +candidacy of Balmaceda—the radical, the Anti-Christ, +the uncompromising. In vain Santa Maria +tried to unite the four liberal groups—the government +liberals, the radicals, the nationals, and the +new division called dissidents. They refused to +meet in a general convention. However, a majority, +composed of the government liberals, the +nationals, and a portion of the radicals, decided to +support Balmaceda and he was triumphantly elected +in 1886.</p> + +<p>The dissidents, conservatives, and opposition radicals +formed a formidable minority, determined to +obstruct his administration. In the closing days of +1885 scenes were enacted on the floor of the Chilean +congress which resembled recent sessions of the +Austrian parliament. The revenue and appropriation +bills were about to expire, and fresh ones for a +new fiscal period had to be adopted. Under the +regulations every member had a right to speak twice +on each section, and the minority filibustered until<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span> +the constitutional period for adjournment had expired. +Santa Maria would have to finish out his +administration and Balmaceda begin his without +supply bills. Under a strict construction of the +Constitution all government would cease, but Balmaceda +was not the man to shrink from enforcing +the right of self-preservation inherent in all governments. +The executive calmly proceeded to collect +taxes and pay expenses according to the provisions +of the expired law until a new congress met shortly +after Balmaceda's inauguration, and this solution +was peacefully accepted by the country.</p> + +<p>Chile had never known a time of such material +prosperity as the first three years of Balmaceda's +administration proved to be. The revenues, well-nigh +doubled by the nitrate and copper of the provinces +wrested from Peru, were further increased by +the flourishing condition of commerce and industry. +The administration initiated and carried forward +many important public works. Large sums were +voted for railways, colonisation, and schools. Public +salaries were raised, the Araucanian country +colonised, and the Indians finally incorporated as +real citizens of Chile. The clericals made the best +of their defeat, and the liberal majority in congress, +inspired by Balmaceda's energy, pushed forward +rapidly on the road of reform and change. A new +election law was passed and a beginning made +toward making the Constitution more democratic.</p> + +<p>Balmaceda's first idea was to unite all the liberal +factions, conciliate the conservatives, and devote +himself to a policy of material development. Al<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span>though +owing his election to three political parties +out of the six, he was unwilling and perhaps unable +to govern solely by their assistance. Instead of +regarding himself as the chief of a combination of +parties, entrusted by it with the direction of affairs +and under obligations to act in harmony with it, he +did not hesitate to accept the help offered by his +former political opponents when that help was +needed to carry into effect his personal ideas of what +was best for the public interest. On the other hand, +the party which had elected him was really no party +at all—it was only a temporary coalition of three +discordant factions. It is not necessary to follow +the many changes in his cabinet, the continual substitution +of one group for another, the details of the +efforts which he made during three years to govern +as he pleased, and at the same time to govern in +harmony with congress. His difficulties lay not so +much in reconciling conflicts of opinion on matters +of policy as with the personal rivalries and ambitions +of the factions. Suffice it to say that toward the +end of 1889 he found himself without a majority in +congress and with no prospect of obtaining one. +Heretofore the rival groups had been only too +anxious to trade their votes in exchange for a share +of patronage. Now, satisfied that the president +was determined upon depriving them of their secular +influence in public affairs, all the factions of +the ruling aristocracy fought him bitterly. They +feared that the president was plotting the formation +of a personal party, cemented by hopes of office, +responsible to him alone, and that the system of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> +parliamentary government which had grown up by +tacit consent and long-continued custom, would +be replaced by a real presidential government in +which the executive would be the source of power +and not merely its channel.</p> + +<p>Indeed, circumstances and his own characteristics +were rapidly forcing Balmaceda into this position. +Conscious of his own integrity and the disinterestedness +and patriotism of his motives, his irritation +against the stubborn self-seeking of the cliques ended +in convincing him that the old interpretation of the +Constitution must be abandoned, and the president +in person in reality vested with all the powers given +by the letter of the fundamental law. He devoted +the remainder of his life to an effort to free the +presidency from the practical control which congress +had exercised since the days of Portales. In January, +1890, he threw down the gauntlet by appointing +a cabinet composed exclusively of personal supporters. +The new ministers announced that, considering +their power to be derived from the president, they +would hold office so long as they continued to be +satisfactory to him, regardless whether or not they +were supported by a parliamentary majority. In +May, Balmaceda went a step farther by selecting +another cabinet at whose head he placed San Fuentes, +his own intimate friend and a man regarded +with particular hatred by the president's opponents +because it was understood that he had been selected +as the president's successor, pledged to the continuance +of the same policy. Congress replied by passing +a vote of censure. Balmaceda insisted that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span> +cabinet should remain in power. Congress refused +to pass any appropriation bills and summoned the +ministers to the bar of the House. But the president +was confident that he could carry the elections, and, +sure of ultimate victory, felt he could afford to make +present concessions. In August a compromise was +agreed upon by which Balmaceda dismissed the San +Fuentes cabinet and selected one composed of neutral +men, while congress consented to pass the appropriation +bills. The truce did not last long. The +new ministers soon found that they were mere +figureheads and that the Balmacedist executive committee +was the real power in the administration. +They resigned and Claudio Vicuña formed a ministry +which was a re-edition of the May cabinet. The +announcement of its appointment was in effect a +notification that the armistice was at an end. Congress +accepted the gage of combat and immediately +began to organise for civil war.</p> + +<p>The wealth, social distinction, and professional +classes of the country were mostly on the side of +the congressionalists, and all who were conservative +and fearful of disturbance in the established order +rallied around them. The democratic elements, the +reformers, the radicals, the dissatisfied, supported +Balmaceda, but the great mass of the common people, +used for centuries to political subordination to +the upper classes, remained inert. His opponents +met with no encouragement in their efforts to +suborn the army and General Baquedano refused the +leadership of the insurrection which they offered +him. However, the officers of the navy, recruited<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> +from among the aristocratic classes, enthusiastically +assured their undivided support, and Jorge Montt, +who held a high position in the navy, was chosen as +chief of the revolution.</p> + +<p>The congressionalists resolved to make the issue +upon the point whether the president had a right to +maintain any military force, land or naval, after the +31st of December, the day upon which the existing +appropriation law expired. Balmaceda did not +hesitate an instant, but issued a proclamation that +he would follow the precedent established in 1886—collect +taxes and maintain the public service by executive +authority until the assembling of the next +session of congress. He expressly disclaimed any +designs of establishing a permanent dictatorship, +while expressing his firm determination not to permit +the refusal of congress to interrupt the functioning +of government. The issue was sharply drawn; +neither side would recede; either congress would +cease to exercise its immemorial control of the +executive or would depose him.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 480px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> +<img src="images/i221.jpg" width="480" height="628" alt="JOSE MANUEL BALMACEDA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">JOSE MANUEL BALMACEDA.</span> +</div> + +<p>Five days after Balmaceda's proclamation the +congressionalist chiefs embarked on board the war-ships +lying in Valparaiso Bay, and the civil war was +on. The army remained faithful to Balmaceda and +he was in undisputed possession of the whole country, +although his opponents had powerful sympathisers +everywhere. The latter's plan of campaign +was simple. Once again power on the sea was to +decide the fate of the Pacific coast. The navy sailed +away to the nitrate provinces, a region separated +from the rest of Chile by the impassable Atacama +desert and to which, therefore, Balmaceda could not +send re-inforcements. The small garrison under +Colonel Robles made a desperate resistance, but was +soon overpowered, and there the revolution established +its base of operations. The population of +sturdy miners, used to discipline under their bosses, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span>furnished an admirable supply of recruits, and a +revenue of two millions a month fell at once into the +hands of the congressionalists. Possessing the +sinews of war, it was only a question of a few +months to equip an army with the most modern +weapons and have it thoroughly drilled and organised +by experts. The blockade of the southern +ports intercepted Balmaceda's supplies and the congressionalist +partisans escaped by hundreds to make +their way up the coast and join the revolutionary +army. By August they were ready with a force of +more than ten thousand men.</p> + +<p>In the meantime Balmaceda had been making +desperate efforts to get a navy, but iron-clads cannot +be improvised, and the congressionalist agents in +New York and Europe had money enough to outbid +him and to command influences which effectually +hindered prompt action. In Chile itself he adopted +stern repressive measures against the plots of his +enemies and vigorously recruited his army, putting +into the field nearly thirty thousand soldiers. But +the blockade prevented his procuring modern arms +and they had to go into battle with old-style rifles +whose range was only half that of those carried by +their opponents. He was also at a disadvantage in +that the enemy could strike where he pleased on a +coast nine hundred miles long. Balmaceda was +obliged therefore to keep his forces divided. Nine +thousand were at Coquimbo, three hundred and fifty +miles north of Santiago; as many at Concepcion, +four hundred miles south of the capital; and five +thousand at Valparaiso, a hundred miles north-west.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> +At Santiago he kept the remainder as a reserve to +be sent to the assistance of whichever of the three +divisions might be attacked.</p> + +<p>On the 20th of August the fleet of seventeen +vessels carrying the whole revolutionary army suddenly +appeared a few miles north of Valparaiso. +Balmaceda had short warning and was not able to +oppose the landing, which was skilfully conducted +by Colonel Canto, the able strategist who commanded +the congressionalist forces, with the valuable assistance +of Colonel Koerner, a Prussion tactician of the +first rank whose services had been hired. There +was no time to get troops from Coquimbo and Concepcion. +The congressionalist generals moved so +rapidly that the best the president could do was to +send the Santiago division, which, united with that +at Valparaiso, made a force nearly equal in numbers +to the enemy. The revolutionists landed with their +rations in their haversacks and within a few hours +were marching straight south along the seashore on +Valparaiso. The Balmacedists tried to defend the +passage of the Aconcagua River, which enters the +ocean twenty miles north of the city, but they had +hardly got into position on the heights which overlook +its southern bank when the enemy was upon +them. The latter's artillery was twice as strong +and his infantry more numerous besides being armed +with longer range rifles. In spite of the advantage +of position and the fatigue of their opponents the +Balmacedists were flung back in complete defeat by +the volleys of the Mannlichers and the furious cannonading +from both batteries and ships. The battle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> +lasted the whole day and at its close two thousand +of the government troops lay on the field, three +thousand had been dispersed or deserted to the +enemy, and scarcely three thousand held together +for the retreat to the neighbourhood of Valparaiso, +where three regiments of the Santiago division who +had taken no part in the fight were waiting. Canto +followed, but failing in a tentative attack on the +strong northern defences of Valparaiso, he determined +to make a circuit to the east, cut the railroad +between Santiago and Valparaiso, and either take +the latter place in the rear or march on the capital +as seemed best. The movement, so masterfully conceived, +was skilfully carried out without a moment's +loss of time. The essential thing was to act so +promptly that Balmaceda could not concentrate his +forces. On the 25th the whole congressionalist +army had reached Quillota, on the railroad twenty-five +miles back of Valparaiso. But Balmaceda had +also been active, and during those three days the +Concepcion division had arrived at Santiago, and reinforcements +had been got through to Valparaiso +which raised the army to nearly ten thousand men. +Four thousand troops defended Santiago and more +were momentarily expected from Coquimbo.</p> + +<p>Canto resolved to give him no time for any further +concentration, but to fall upon the Valparaiso army +before the railroad could be repaired and, by destroying +Balmaceda's largest force, end the war. A +forced march across country brought him to the old +carriage road which comes into Valparaiso from the +south. By the 27th his army had covered the in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span>credible +distance of forty miles and was within six +miles of the government forces, who occupied a +strong position between the congressionalists and +Valparaiso. Tired though the congressionalists +were, they were forced to attack without delay. +The only provisions which they could count on were +the rations that they had brought in their haversacks; +and Balmaceda might at any moment receive +reinforcements from Santiago. So they advanced +resolutely to the assault. The Balmacedists +fought with little enthusiasm or hope; the desertion +of part of their cavalry and the inactivity of +the rest discouraged the infantry and artillery, but +at first they met the charges with the steadiness +characteristic of the race. The battle was decided +by a flank movement executed by Koerner, who +turned the Balmacedist left, while the cavalry charged +recklessly up the hill. Thrown into confusion, the +government troops were simply swept out of existence +by furious volleys and determined charges. +Some had stood steady long enough to kill and +wound a sixth of the enemy who charged up the +hill, but more than a quarter of their own numbers +perished in the battle and the pursuit.</p> + +<p>The fight was over at half-past ten in the morning, +but the news of the utter ruin of all his hopes did +not reach Balmaceda until half-past seven. It was +his wife's saint's day and friends were coming to +dine at his house. Characteristically he did not recall +the invitations, and not until the dinner party +was over did he arrange to turn over the government +of the city to General Baquedano. Then he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> +quietly walked to the Argentine legation and received +asylum. Vicuña, the recently elected president, +who would have succeeded Balmaceda on the +18th of September, was in Valparaiso and fled to a +foreign warship followed by the principal Balmacedist +chiefs. No further resistance was made and the +congressionalist junta, with Jorge Montt at its head, +assumed the supreme direction of affairs. Balmaceda's +fall was followed by some riots, but the arrival +of the responsible chiefs of the victorious party +ensured the re-establishment of order. Like the +Anglo-Saxon, the Chilean fights desperately on the +field of battle, and when his blood is up he is relentless, +but when beaten he phlegmatically accepts the +consequences, and when victorious he is not cruel. +The Chileans resemble their prototypes of the +northern hemisphere in lacking the vivid imagination +which makes the inhabitants of warmer climates +vengeful. Slow, silent, serious, practical-minded, +hard to themselves as well as to others, they turned +at once to the work of reconstruction.</p> + +<p>No one suspected that the defeated president was +at the house of the Argentine minister. It was +supposed that he had escaped in disguise, but on +the 18th of September, the day upon which his legal +term as president expired, the country was astounded +to hear that he had shot himself that very +morning. The unhappy man feared that he might +get his generous host into danger, and his theatrical +temperament could not bear the humiliation of a +public trial or the risk of being torn to pieces by a +mob in case he were discovered. He offered himself<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> +as an expiatory sacrifice, knowing that his death +would save his friends from further persecution and +hoping that it might do for the cause of democratic +government in Chile that which his life had so signally +failed to accomplish.</p> + +<p>An election had been called and Jorge Montt +chosen president of Chile with all due regard to +legal forms. The aristocratic and parliamentary +form of government, under which Chile had so long +lived in peace, order, and prosperity, growing at +home in intellectual and moral graces and in material +welfare, while abroad the nation had waxed +great in the consideration of the world, was restored +as it had been before Balmaceda attacked it. Not +only the arbitrament of battle, but the verdict of +the people, so far as the latter can be gathered from +the convinced enthusiasm shown by the congressionalists +and inferred from the passiveness of the +masses, had decided that there should be no radical +change; that the president should be advised by the +congress and rule in harmony with its majority; that +the ballot should be guarded by both an educational +and a property qualification; that political evolution +should proceed by slow amendment and not by radical +innovation—by experiment, not by theory.</p> + +<p>The last twelve years of Chile's internal political +history offers little of special interest to the foreign +student. Jorge Montt, though raised to power by +force of arms, proved a modest and non-aggressive +president. For two years the anti-Balmacedist +groups managed to keep a majority together, but +incompatible ambitions rather than differences of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> +principle soon divided them. Balmaceda's old partisans +quickly rallied and elected nearly a quarter of +the members of the congress of 1894, holding the +balance of power amid the warring factions. Curiously +enough, it was with the conservatives that the +Balmacedists formed a combination, and though +they held no cabinet position in Montt's time, they +were a principal factor in the coalition which elected +Errazuriz to the presidency in 1896. The jealousies +among the rival factions of the liberals were too bitter +to permit the bulk of that party to make any +effective combination against the conservative-Balmacedist-liberal +alliance, and the latter remained in +power during most of Errazuriz's administration. +At its end, the liberals having failed to agree, German +Riesco was nominated and elected by much the +same influences over Pedro Montt, son of the old +president.</p> + +<p>The present Chilean parties do not embody any +definite and conflicting political principles. Each +one derives its origin from some great conflict which +took place under a former administration. Once +welded together in battling for a common cause, +friendship, gratitude, the hope of mutual aid in their +ambitions have kept the members united. The +latter-day Balmacedists are not enemies of parliamentary +dominance; the nationals are now classed +as liberals, though they started as ultra-conservatives +under Montt; the conservatives do not especially +oppose reforms, though they defend the Catholic +universities against radical attacks. The property +qualification for suffrage is liberally construed; any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> +one who has an income of a thousand pesos is legally +entitled to vote, and if the elector can read and write +he is not rigidly cross-examined as to the exact +amount of the wages he receives. However, this +wide extension of the suffrage has not brought about +any material change in the personnel of congress. +Discussion of the advisability of changing the present +system is purely academic, and if dissatisfaction +exists it ferments far beneath the surface. Like the +English aristocracy that of Chile is truly representative, +wielding its power with a keen sense of its responsibility +to the nation, and rarely refusing to +adopt a reform which is clearly demanded by the +country.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<img src="images/i229.jpg" width="800" height="596" alt="THE PLAZA VICTORIA VALPARAISO." title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE PLAZA VICTORIA VALPARAISO.</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span></p> + +<p>Chile recovered with some difficulty from the industrial +disorganisation and tremendous expenditures +caused by the civil war. Balmaceda's vast +issues of paper money disturbed government finances +and made the returns of private enterprise uncertain. +The world-wide fall of prices in the years following +1893 hurt Chilean exports, and an era of economy +made necessary by closely balanced budgets succeeded +the flush times. Meanwhile, the marvellous +material growth of the Argentine Republic began to +make Chileans doubt if their country could retain +that military and naval hegemony which she had +possessed since her great victories over Peru and +Bolivia. Shut in between the Andes and the sea, +on the north an uninhabitable desert and on the +south the bleak Antarctic waste, Chile naturally +envied the limitless and fertile plains over which her +neighbour might spread her population, and the Argentine +navy was fast approaching her own in size +and efficiency.</p> + +<p>By the year 1895 Argentina's revenue exceeded +Chile's nearly twenty per cent., while the former's +foreign commerce was seventy per cent. and her +population fifty per cent. greater. Their rivalry, +none the less real because tacit, explains the seemingly +unreasonable bitterness of the dispute over +the differing interpretations of the treaty of limits. +That treaty fixed the boundary at the crest of the +Andes, but when the joint commissioners appointed +to make the surveys reached southern latitudes +where the range becomes ill-defined and runs off into +the sea they found it difficult to determine just<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> +where the crest was. The Argentines insisted on a +line drawn between the highest peaks because that +would give them more territory, while the Chileans +contended for the watershed between the two oceans. +Another dispute also arose about the line which +ought to divide the Argentine from the province +which Chile had taken from Bolivia. Though in +both cases the disputed territory was comparatively +valueless, national feeling rose to an extraordinary +pitch and more than once war has been imminent. +The northern dispute was at length settled in 1898 +by the arbitration of the American minister to +Buenos Aires, but, though a similar method of +settlement had been agreed upon as to the other and +more important question, its final submission was +delayed from year to year, and meanwhile each +nation suspected the other of aggressions. Argentina +ordered new iron-clads, which she could ill +afford; Chile ordered still better ones, and Argentina +kept pace. In 1898 and again in 1901 the two countries +were on the brink of a war which certainly +would have ruined either one or the other. Happily, +better counsels prevailed and arbitration by +the English government was hurried forward, resulting +in 1902 in a settlement with which both +parties are in reality satisfied, and the fine iron-clads +building in Europe are now for sale.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-i.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span></p> + + +<div class="bbt"> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span></p> +<h1><a name="BOLIVIA" id="BOLIVIA"></a>BOLIVIA</h1> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-7.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<h3>THE CONQUEST AND THE MINES</h3> + + +<p>Between latitudes fourteen and a half and +twenty-three and a half, the mighty Andean +chain is massed into a plateau five hundred miles +wide, over twelve thousand feet high, and interspersed +with a complex system of mountains and +ridges, parallel, transverse, and interlaced. Geographers +estimate that this central portion of the +Andean system contains nearly five hundred thousand +cubic miles of matter above sea level, and that +it would, cover the entire area of South America to +an average depth of four hundred feet. The great +ranges which stretch north to the Caribbean and +south to Cape Horn are mere arms of this massive +elevation of the earth, the highest and largest in the +new world. Within a few miles of the coast rises a +lofty and continuous range of mountains which can +be scaled only over a few passes, none of which fall +far below fourteen thousand feet. From the top a +vast plateau stretches to the lofty chain which forms +the inland rim of the Andean massif. This plateau +is Bolivia. The northern portion forms the Titicaca<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span> +basin, the whole of which was formerly covered by +an immense fresh-water sea, fed by the snows of the +surrounding mountains, and draining south-east into +the Plate Valley. Now, however, the rainfall has so +decreased that the great lake is shrunk to a mere +tithe of its original dimensions, and none of its +waters escape out of the dry plateau. In its southern +part the plateau is bifurcated by a high central +range, which divides southern Bolivia into two portions, +the western of which, called the Puna, is too +high, cold, and dry for cultivation. To the east +the plains are lower and moister, sloping very gradually +toward the east until they plunge off abruptly +into the great central valley of South America.</p> + +<p>The northern part of the Titicaca basin was the +cradle of civilisation in South America. On the +shores of the lake are ruins of great buildings erected +by a race who occupied this plateau unknown centuries +before the rise of the Inca power. One doorway +exists in an almost perfect state of preservation, +carved out of a single block of stone seven feet high +and twice as long, covered with figures elaborately +sculptured in high relief, while dozens of heroic +statues, and walls containing hewn stones twelve +yards long, remain to attest the skill of the old +workmen.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> +<img src="images/i237.jpg" width="800" height="470" alt="MONOLITHIC DOORWAY AT TRAHUANACO." title="" /> +<span class="caption">MONOLITHIC DOORWAY AT TRAHUANACO.</span> +</div> + +<p>Bolivian history emerges from the realm of conjecture +with the invasion of the Incas, a warlike and +civilised tribe who inhabited the slightly lower +plateaux and valleys north-east of the Titicaca basin. +The ancient Titicacan civilisation had long since +fallen from its high estate and the Inca armies easily +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span>overcame the resistance of the scattered shepherd +tribes. The conquered aborigines were incorporated +with the Incas and Quichua became the principal +although not the only language. Great colonies of +the dominant race spread south and east over the +massif into the fertile regions of Yungas, Cochabamba, +and Charcas. Bolivia became one of the +principal seats of the Inca power. There they built +their most magnificent palaces; in the northern +mountains they found the copper for their tools and +weapons, and the gold which they used to ornament +their temples. Over the higher plains roamed flocks +of llamas and vicuñas. The slightly lower parts of +the plateau produced potatoes and quinoa, and the +warmer valleys maize, cocoa, and cotton. The +broad lake, the rivers, and the roads over the comparatively +level country favoured intercommunication +and social and industrial consolidation.</p> + +<p>In the terrible civil war which broke out about +1525 between Atahuallpa and Huascar, Bolivia suffered +less than the Peruvian and Ecuadorean provinces, +but thousands of her sons were drafted into +the armies which Huascar successively launched +against Quizquiz and the horde of northern tribes +which relentlessly marched from Quito to Cuzco, +and after five years of slaughter captured the southern +capital and the legitimate emperor. But before +Quizquiz had had time to pursue his conquering way +into Bolivia, news came that Pizarro had imprisoned +and murdered Atahuallpa, and that the Spaniards +were on their way to Cuzco to give battle to Quizquiz +and restore the legitimate succession. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span> +northern Indians were defeated and at the close of +1533 Pizarro entered Cuzco in triumph riding at the +side of Huascar's heir. The people of southern +Peru, Bolivia, Tucuman, and Chile regarded the +Spaniards as deliverers and allies. Within a few +months after the occupation of Cuzco the strangers +rode out of the city along the splendid stone-flagged +Inca roads, crossed the transverse range into the +Titicaca basin, and followed south-east to the extremity +of the plateau, encountering little resistance +and regarded as ambassadors from the Inca emperor. +They found the country teeming with a +docile and prosperous population, and the mountains +on its borders were reported to abound in +silver, gold, and copper. Almagro, Pizarro's partner +and associate, to whose share had fallen the +southern half of the empire, resolved not only to +take possession of Bolivia, but also to conquer the +great province which the Indians told him lay far to +the south in fertile valleys on the western side of +the Andes and hard by the Pacific Ocean.</p> + +<p>In 1535 Almagro marched from Cuzco with five +hundred Spaniards and ten thousand Indians, the +latter under the command of a brother of the Emperor. +After crossing the Titicaca basin, he surmounted +the difficulties of the bleak and icy Puna, +the snowy passes, and the Atacama desert, and descended +finally into Chile. But he found the people +poor and warlike, and encountered little gold. Returning +in 1538 to make war on Pizarro, he was +defeated and died strangled in prison by his relentless +rival. Hernando and Gonzalo Pizarro, Fran<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span>cisco's +brothers, became dominant on the Titicacan +plateau, and began establishing great feudal lordships, +dividing the country among their followers +and exacting tribute and forced labour from the +Indians. In 1540 the great Marquis himself visited +Charcas, the southern capital and only large Indian +city in Bolivia.</p> + +<p>Late that same year his quartermaster, Pedro de +Valdivia, led another expedition along the route +over the Bolivian plateau into northern Chile. +Meanwhile the Spaniards were diligently searching +Bolivia for the Indian gold mines. Though the +Incas were known to have extracted immense quantities +of the metal from the placers around Lake +Titicaca, the surface deposits had been pretty well +exhausted, and the Spaniards were disappointed. +Silver, however, existed in abundance and the +strangers began to work the mines shortly after they +reached the plateau. About 1545 the great deposits +of Potosí were discovered on a bleak mountainside +four hundred miles south-east of Titicaca and near +Charcas, in the regions where Gonzalo Pizarro possessed +immense estates. At that time Gonzalo was +virtually independent monarch of the whole Inca +empire, having headed a successful revolt against a +viceroy sent out to reorganise the country and put +a stop to Indian slavery. But he did not long enjoy +his riches, for in 1548 he risked his all in a hopeless +battle with a new Spanish governor and ended his +stormy life on the scaffold.</p> + +<p>The discovery of Potosí revolutionised Upper +Peru—as Bolivia was then called. It is probable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span> +that the high and inaccessible plateau would have +largely escaped Spanish settlement if it had not +been for the marvellous riches now offered to Spanish +cupidity. Pizarro's original followers came as +conquerors and not as settlers. They overran a +great and civilised empire whose revenues they proposed +to absorb and whose inhabitants they subjected +to tribute, but after they had obtained all the +gold accumulated in the hands of the Indians there +would have been little to have induced them to remain +in Bolivia. But as soon as the unprecedented +extent of the silver deposit at Potosí was recognised, +Bolivia became the greatest source of that +metal in the known world and the most important +province of the transatlantic dominions of the +Castilian king. That one mountain has produced +two billion ounces of silver. Even by the early rude +processes which the Spaniards found in use among +the Indians seventy million ounces were taken out +in the first thirty years, and the discovery of quicksilver +in Peru, with the invention of the copper-pan +amalgamation process in 1575, quadrupled the output. +A great mining camp sprang up on the Potosí +mountainside; royal officials, contractors, and merchants +flocked to this Eldorado; the mountain roads +to Lima swarmed with mule trains, carrying down +silver and painfully toiling back again laden with +supplies; the routes of the Bolivian plateau became +the greatest arteries of travel in Spanish America.</p> + +<p>The year of Gonzalo's execution the city of La +Paz was founded in a valley lying in the open plains +just south of Lake Titicaca, and soon became a great<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> +emporium of Spanish trade. On the fertile plateau +to the east of Potosí the city of Charcas flourished +and was made the political and ecclesiastical capital +of Upper Peru, Potosí being too high for Europeans. +Soon other great mines were found, among which +those of Oruro, on the south-eastern edge of the +Titicaca basin, proved especially rich. Nearly ten +thousand abandoned silver mines testify to the activity +of the Spaniards in hunting the precious metal, +and the total production of silver in Bolivia during +the colonial period exceeded three billion ounces. +To work these mines the Spaniards ruthlessly impressed +the helpless Indians. Each village was +required to furnish a certain number of labourers +annually. Lots were drawn as if for a proscription, +and the unhappy creatures who drew the bad numbers +went off to meet a certain death in the dark wet +pits and galleries, bidding good-bye to their wives +and children like men stepping on the scaffold. The +destruction of life was frightful, the official returns +made by the officials charged with the impressment +demonstrating that in the neighbourhood of Potosí +the Indian population fell within a hundred years to +a tenth of its original numbers.</p> + +<p>The influx of Spanish adventurers and officials +also stimulated the extension of the system of agricultural +encomiendas—that is, the grants of large +tracts of land with the privilege of enslaving the +Indian occupants. Sheep were introduced from +Spain within twenty years of the conquest, and immense +herds belonging to the Spanish proprietors +and tended by Indian slaves soon covered the vast<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span> +pasture grounds which are found even on the higher +and colder portions of the plateau. Horses had +come with the first conquerors and the breeding of +mules flourished, especially in Cochabamba, the +great agricultural centre which was founded in 1573, +as well as in Charcas and the far southern districts +of Tucuman. Cattle spread quickly over these +same regions, and their beef, maize, mules, and +horses found a good market in the mining districts.</p> + +<p>By the year 1580 the Spanish colonial system +affecting the natives had been perfected, codified, +and put into general operation. The whole country +was divided into about thirty districts, each governed +by a corregidor who in theory was controlled +by a complicated and carefully drawn system of +regulations, but who in practice was a petty tyrant +against whom the white Creoles had little chance of +redress, and who held the Indians absolutely at his +mercy. The regulations framed by the distant viceroy +at Lima for the protection of the natives were +evaded by the corregidors, intent solely on extorting +money from the poor creatures committed to their +charge. Encomiendas had nominally been abolished, +but landed proprietors still exercised the right +to exact tribute from the Indians on their estates +and great numbers were forced to serve as life servants +under various pretexts. Those Indians who +retained a semblance of freedom obeyed their own +caciques, who were often the descendants of the +royal Inca family. The principal duty for which +the Spaniards held these chiefs responsible was the +collection of the head-tax in their respective villages.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span></p> + +<p>The letter of the law required a seventh of the +adult male population to work for the benefit of the +Government, and in practice this resulted in an unlimited +farming out of Indians as slaves to the rural +proprietors. As much as possible the Indians retired +to their villages to escape the notice of the +officials, hoping to find under their own caciques a +measure of security and a chance to live in modest +poverty. Misrule, slavery, labour in the mines, +neglect of that intensive and government-directed +agriculture which had alone rendered it possible +to sustain the dense population of Inca times, decimated +the Indians.</p> + +<p>Few parts of the plateau escaped coming under +Spanish rule, but the white conquerors, like their +Inca predecessors, stopped short when they reached +the dense forests and steep valleys, eroded by wildly +rushing rivers, which cover the eastern slope of the +great mountain region. Down these terrific gorges +no progress was made, and only occasionally did +some devoted priests manage to establish a mission +among the intractable Indians who inhabit the +open prairies interspersed among the beautiful forest-covered +plains drained by the tributaries of +the Madeira. The roads the Incas had built to the +Pacific continued even in Spanish times to be the +only practicable way of communication between +Bolivia and the outer world. Transportation over +the steep and tedious route from Potosí to La Paz, +thence around Titicaca, and along the high valleys +of southern Peru to the beginning of the tremendous +descent to Lima, was too expensive to permit any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span> +export except of the precious metals. To the south +there was a somewhat easier route to the valleys of +north-eastern Argentina, into which the Spaniards +had spread within a few decades after the discovery +of Potosí, and whence food and pack animals were +drawn for the mining regions. Spanish law forbade +the use of the Atlantic ports at the mouth of the +Plate, and for more than two centuries Bolivia continued +under both administrative and commercial +subordination to Lima.</p> + +<p>Jesuit missionaries arrived in Bolivia within +twenty-five years after Loyola had founded the +order. They established an important mission on +the banks of Lake Titicaca in 1577, and five years +later introduced the printing-press in order to distribute +among their proselytes grammars and catechisms +in the native tongues. In the seventeenth +century they succeeded in penetrating down the +eastern slope of the Andes and across the great +central plain to the outlying hills of the Brazilian +mountain system where they established several +missions among the Chiquitos Indians. They even +reached the grassy prairies which lie three hundred +miles north of the inner angle of the great plateau, +converted the Mojos, and taught them to herd cattle. +But in the forests and along the base of the Andes +the fierce tribes held their own as they had against +the Incas and as they have continued to do +against the Spanish-Americans to this day.</p> + +<p>In 1619 another great silver find was made, this +time near Lake Titicaca. A few years later civil +war broke out among the Potosí miners caused by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> +the rancorous greed of the speculators who worked +the mines under contract. Official authority could +do little to suppress the bloody encounters, and the +factions were only reconciled after three years of +fighting. The discovery, in 1657, of another very +rich silver mine near the lake brought on desperate +fights among the miners who flocked to the place. +The chief contractor enraged the other Spaniards +by his exactions, and the situation became so serious +that in 1665 the viceroy went in person and summarily +tried and executed forty-two persons, among +them the contractor's own brother.</p> + +<p>For one hundred and fifty years the Spaniards had +failed to find gold deposits equal to those from which +the Incas had drawn the fabulous treasures that paid +Atahuallpa's ransom, but about the end of the +seventeenth century rich placers were discovered in +the mountains east of Lake Titicaca. The town of +Sorata soon rivalled Potosí in opulence. Shortly +thereafter other great gold deposits were found on +the eastern slope of the inner Andes by adventurous +Brazilians who had made their way across the continent +to the eastern headwaters of the Madeira and +ascended the Beni River as far as the escarpment +of the great plateau. The news of the discovery +brought a crowd of Spanish miners from Chile, and +as the placers were rich and Indian labour abounded, +fortunes were rapidly accumulated. The gold was +sold in annual fairs which continue to be held to this +day, but as is always the case in gold washings the +first results were the best. The region is too difficult +of access for quartz mining, and the production<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> +rapidly fell off. Activity in that part of Bolivia +ceased in the eighteenth century and only a few +Indians continued to wash a little gold in the remoter +streams. In 1781 Sorata was destroyed and +the gold country virtually abandoned.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-b.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-8.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER II</h2> + +<h3>THE COLONIAL SYSTEM AND TUPAC'S REVOLT</h3> + + +<p>During the two hundred years which followed +the Spanish conquest, life on the Bolivian +plateau was vegetative and changeless except for +the occasional excitement caused by the discovery +of a rich new silver mine. The Indians lived in +their villages, herding their masters' sheep or cultivating +maize and potatoes, paid tribute to the encomenderos +or the Crown collector, and submitted +with dull patience to all the exactions. They reverenced +their caciques, listened submissively to the +parish priests, and meekly suffered the tyranny of +the corregidors. The language of the conquerors +was unintelligible to most of the people. When +summoned to work in the mines they went to slow +misery and certain death with the stoicism of their +race. The South American Indian changes his attributes +but slowly, and we find a moral resemblance +in tribes differing widely in material culture. The +Inca emperor exacted and received the same blind, +unquestioning obedience which the Paraguayans +gave to Lopez four centuries later, and the rude<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> +Guaranies on the banks of the Paraná, who had +hardly entered the stone age, were no more readily +submissive to the Spaniards than the Quichuas of +Bolivia, whose engineering, agriculture, and architecture +had reached a high degree of development.</p> + +<p>Except the floating population of miners, the +Spaniards and their descendants lived in the cities—La +Paz, Cochabamba, Oruro, Charcas, Tarija, +Santa Cruz. Each city had its plaza, its townhouse, +its officials, and its law-courts. Administrative +centres for the surrounding districts, their +inhabitants were mainly functionaries and hangers-on, +who varied the sleepy monotony of their existence +by factional quarrels and political intrigues. +In these cities the slow process of amalgamating the +white and red races began, and the dynamic restlessness +of the Caucasian infiltrated by degrees into the +static calm of the Indian. The lower classes of the +towns became half-breed, while in the country districts +pure Indians predominated. Late in the +colonial period the Spaniards were still occupying +the position of alien taskmasters, and the process of +fusing the different races into a homogeneous mass +had made little progress after two centuries and a +half of contact. In a word, the social and political +organisation of Upper Peru was largely a continuation +of the Inca system, but that system had been +deformed and deprived of its efficiency and was +subject to constant arbitrary interference from the +Spanish corregidors, while the cities were separately +governed by military governors and their own +cabildos.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span></p> + +<p>Until the middle of the eighteenth century the +authority of the Lima viceroy nominally extended +over the whole of Spanish South America. However, +boards of high judicial and civil functionaries +called audiencias, responsible directly to the Crown, +exercised very important and independent judicial +and administrative functions, each over a great +division of Spanish America. Hardly had the conquest +been completed when an audiencia was established +at Charcas and that city became the political +and ecclesiastical capital not only of all Upper Peru +but of the vast regions to the south. The viceroy +was too far away to interfere, and in effect a great +semi-independent province was created, whose +boundaries extended indefinitely south and east +from the transverse range which separated the Titicaca +basin from the region immediately governed +by the viceroy and known as Lower Peru. To the +jurisdiction of this province the governors of Tucuman, +Paraguay, and Buenos Aires were subject, as +well as the missions among the Chiquitos and Mojos +on the headwaters of the Paraguay and Madeira.</p> + +<p>The Bourbon kings, who succeeded the House of +Austria early in the eighteenth century, were forced +to abandon the effort to centralise the administration +and commerce of the whole continent at Lima. +The Atlantic and Caribbean coasts could not be +effectively governed from the Pacific and the rising +currents of trade and immigration must be allowed +more liberty to follow their natural channels. The +viceroyalty of Bogotá was created in 1740 including +the northern and north-western portions of the con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span>tinent, +and in 1776 the south-eastern parts were +erected into the viceroyalty of Buenos Aires. The +whole audiencia of Charcas was separated from Lima, +and to its territory was added that portion of Chile +which lay east of the Andes. Though the Bolivian +plateau was the most populous and important +division of the new viceroyalty, Buenos Aires, far +away on the Atlantic and in a region then considered +of little value, was chosen as the capital.</p> + +<p>In spite of prohibitive regulations goods had long +been smuggled into Buenos Aires and thence carried +over the Argentine plains up the comparatively easy +passes leading to southern Bolivia, and the selection +of the Plate city was a recognition by the Spanish +government of the futility of longer trying to divert +the trade of the Atlantic slope from its natural channels. +But the greater length of the Atlantic route +largely overcame the advantage of easier gradients, +and social and commercial habits centuries old could +not be revolutionised by statute. Most of Bolivia's +small intercourse with the outside world continued +to be conducted along the old Inca routes to the +Pacific, and political union brought about no organic +and commercial incorporation with the provinces +near the mouth of the Plate.</p> + +<p>Before the new viceroyalty was in good running +order, a great Indian insurrection broke out which +involved a large proportion of the Indians of the +plateau. Tupac Amaru, the legitimate heir of the +Inca emperors, and a wealthy and influential cacique +in one of the valleys between Cuzco and the Bolivian +border, had received a good Spanish education and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span> +possessed many friends among the whites. But his +heart went out to his own people, and he had the +courage to protest against the intolerable oppressions +of the corregidors. Failing to obtain redress +after repeated prayers to the Spanish authorities at +least to enforce their own laws honestly, he resolved +to appeal to arms, and in 1780 he captured and killed +a particularly demoniacal corregidor, his own immediate +superior, and summoned the Indians of southern +Peru to fight for their rights under his banner. +Tupac had secured some firearms and out of the +vast multitudes which assembled at his call he +equipped three thousand men. The Spaniards +advanced from Cuzco with a force of twelve +hundred men, but Tupac defeated them and hastened +across the range to arouse the population +around Titicaca. At every village he addressed the +people from the church steps, saying that he was +come to abolish abuses and punish the corregidors, +and the Indians responded with acclamations for +the Inca and redeemer. Meanwhile the Spanish +officials were assembling a large force in Cuzco +which, strange as it may seem, was mostly composed +of Indians. The race possessed little instinctive +capacity for organisation, was deficient in +initiative, moral courage, and independence, and +had not the resolution to refuse to follow the Spanish +officers. There were only a few like Tupac who +possessed the mental energy and originality to plan +and to fight on their own account. Receiving news +of the Spanish preparations, the Inca hurried back +to his home province and attempted to negotiate.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> +He recounted to the Spanish authorities his own +earnest endeavours to obtain a measure of justice +for his people, the habitual violation of Spanish law +by Spanish officials, and the intolerable oppression +of the system of impressment. He proposed a +negotiation by which reforms might be attained +without further bloodshed. Tupac's fame as an +enlightened and unselfish patriot rests securely on +the contents of the noble and able despatch which, +on this occasion, he sent to the Spanish authorities. +But the latter refused all compromise and ordered +an advance on Tupac's position. He was surrounded, +his army destroyed, and he himself sentenced +to be torn in pieces by horses after witnessing +with his own eyes the fearful tortures and death of +his innocent and harmless wife and children.</p> + +<p>The perpetration of such atrocities goaded even +the dull and stoical Indians into a fury. They rose +everywhere on the plateau and the Spaniards in +northern Bolivia fled for refuge to La Paz and Puno. +The Spanish army which had overcome Tupac advanced +into the Titicaca basin, but was compelled +to retreat before overwhelming numbers. Puno was +evacuated and in 1781 the Spaniards had lost all +foothold in northern Bolivia. But the habit of +obedience was too strong; their first fury over, the +Indians listened to promises of fair treatment and +offers of compromise. Tupac's cousin, who had +been made chief of the insurrection after the former's +murder, was persuaded to submit on the promise +of pardon, only to be arrested, tried, and executed +as soon as his followers had laid down their arms.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> +The family of the Inca was extirpated, ninety of its +members, including women and children, being sent +on foot, loaded with chains, over the hundreds of +miles of mountain road to Lima and thence conveyed +to Spain, where they rotted away in prison.</p> + +<p>Many of the reforms to secure which Tupac had +lost his own life and devoted his kin to destruction, +were voluntarily put into effect by the Spanish government +a few years later. The office of corregidor +was abolished, and the district governors were made +directly responsible to the governor of the province, +who was in turn responsible to the viceroy and +audiencia. Courts were established to protect the +rights of the Indians and the higher authorities +made a sincere effort to secure the enforcement of +the laws. However, the reforms did not materially +change the condition of the country, and the Indians +apparently settled back into the same apathetic +obedience to the whites. The anti-Spanish +feeling took no active form for the present, but the +events had proved that the Indian population had +become a field well prepared for the springing up +of a crop of bloody insurrections.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-a.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-3.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER III</h2> + +<h3>THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE</h3> + + +<p>The South American war of independence began +and ended on the plateau of Upper Peru. On +Bolivia's soil the first blood of the great revolt was +spilt and there the last Spanish soldiers laid down +their arms. Lying on the great route from Lima to +Buenos Aires, her territory inevitably became the +battle-ground for the hardest and most continuous +fighting on the continent, and her population, having +been the most oppressed by Spanish misrule, +showed itself the most tenacious in efforts to drive +out the Spanish authorities.</p> + +<p>From 1809 to 1825, with scarcely an intermission, +battle succeeded battle, campaign campaign, and +insurrection insurrection, as the Spaniards and patriots, +alternately victorious, marched and counter-marched +along the great mountain road that winds +through the plateau from Humahuaca on the Argentine +frontier to the barrier north of Lake Titicaca. +Not a village but what was captured and pillaged, +not merely once but many times, and the tale of +garottings and hangings, of massacres, burnings, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span> +depredations, of heads and hands spiked up by +hundreds along the highways, wearies in the telling. +The Indians and half-breeds who formed the bulk +of the Bolivian population joined by tens of thousands +the bands that were continually being recruited +by the patriot caudillos, or were impressed into the +Spanish armies. Like Missouri in the American +Civil War, Bolivia furnished more than her contingent +to both sides, and her geographical position +was similar to that of Virginia. The fighting on +her soil was the longest continued and the severest, +although the decisive battles were fought outside +her territory. Suipacha, Huaqui, Ayohuma, Viluma +correspond to Seven Pines, Chancellorsville, +and Fredericksburg; while Chacabuco, Boyacá, and +Ayacucho, like Donelson, Vicksburg, and Chattanooga, +were the fights that brought the real results.</p> + +<p>The patriots from the Argentine wished to carry +the war to the seat of Spanish power and made continual +efforts to get to Lima by way of Bolivia, but +though they often reached the plateau they could +never long maintain themselves. The farthest that +they ever penetrated was to the south end of Lake +Titicaca, where they were still distant from their goal +by more than a thousand miles of difficult mountain +road. The Spanish generals were more successful, +but any army in possession of the plateau was immediately +impelled to dissipate its forces in keeping +open lines of communication with the seaboard and +in tedious marches.</p> + +<p>The news of the French usurpation in 1808 and +the consequent civil disturbances in Spain demoral<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span>ised +the Spanish authorities in the Bolivian cities, +and the Creoles immediately conceived the hope +that they might possess themselves of the offices +and the revenues. Early in 1809 a few influential +native Bolivians and disaffected Spaniards took forcible +possession of the government buildings in Charcas +and La Paz and deposed the Spanish officials. The +insurgents managed to arm a few troops, but were +able to make no effective resistance to the forces +which the viceroys at Buenos Aires and Lima +promptly sent to quell the movement. The rebellion +was quenched in blood. Goyeneche, the Lima +general, ordered wholesale executions among those +who had taken part, and the news of his dreadful +cruelties roused a bitter desire for revenge in the +hearts of the Creoles of all South America.</p> + +<p>The deposition by Buenos Aires of her viceroy +on the 25th of May, 1810, was shortly followed by +the advance of an Argentine army into Bolivia, and +the forces which the Spanish authorities at Potosí +and Charcas had been able to collect were defeated +at Suipacha, near the southern border of the plateau. +All the cities of Bolivia fell into the hands of the +patriots, while the villages rose in revolt against +their Spanish tyrants. The Buenos Aireans wished +to subject the Bolivian provinces to a centralised +government and rule them from the capital on the +Plate, but every town in Upper Peru had its ambitious +Creole leaders who wished to control their own +country. These disagreements had much to do +with the crushing defeat which the Argentine army +shortly suffered at Huaqui on the southern shore of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> +Lake Titicaca. The projected triumphal advance +through Cuzco and Lower Peru to Lima was turned +into a precipitate retreat through La Paz, Oruro, +and Potosí into the Argentine. Alone the Bolivian +patriots were not strong enough to prevent the re-establishment +of the Spanish authority in the cities +along the main route. But in the villages and the +outlying cities like Cochabamba and Santa Cruz the +insurgent bands kept up a desperate resistance.</p> + +<p>The main body of the victorious Spanish army +pursued the fleeing Argentines into their own territory, +only to be defeated by General Belgrano in +the battle of Tucuman—a victory which probably +saved Buenos Aires from capture and the South +American revolution from extinction. In 1813 the +Argentines again invaded Bolivia, but they had not +proceeded far beyond Potosí when they were met +and routed in the battles of Villapugio and Ayohuma. +The Bolivian patriots were once more left +to their own resources, and their country subjected +to the most awful devastations. Though unable to +concert a general plan of action or to assemble one +large army, nevertheless they had courage to die in +battle or on the scaffold. The most famous leaders +in the south were Camargo and Padilla, whose daring +forays helped prevent the Spaniards from advancing +into the Argentine, while Arenales at Santa Cruz +and other patriot leaders farther north continually +threatened the line of communication to Titicaca, +Cuzco, and Lima.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span> +<img src="images/i259.jpg" width="800" height="483" alt="BALSAS ON LAKE TITICACA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">BALSAS ON LAKE TITICACA.</span> +</div> + +<p>Late in the year 1814 the region north of Lake +Titicaca to and beyond Cuzco burst into insurrection +under the lead of an Indian cacique and an indefatigable +agitator of a priest named Munecas. The +Indians rose <i>en masse</i> and the Spanish army in +southern Bolivia was cut off from Lima. Twenty +thousand insurgents assembled near the north end +of Lake Titicaca, but they possessed neither arms, +officers, nor organisation. Not one in twenty had +a musket, and though their invasion down the +Maritime Cordillera to Arequipa was at first successful, +a comparatively small force of Spanish regulars +chased them back over the passes to the region of +the lake and there dispersed them at the battle of +Humachiri. Meanwhile the guerilla bands in southern +Bolivia and the Argentines in Salta had been +more successful. The Spaniards were compelled to +retire from the Argentine border back beyond +Potosí. The Argentines again invaded the plateau<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span> +and advanced in force on the road to La Paz and +Lima. Once again the Spanish forces which concentrated +to meet them were victorious and the +allied patriots were completely overthrown in the +battle of Viluma, November, 1815, which marks +the end of the first period of the war of independence. +Thenceforward for seven years the Spanish +generals were dominant on the plateau, and the +Bolivian patriots made only a desultory and scattered +resistance.</p> + +<p>With admirable foresight the victorious Spanish +general, Pezuela, went to work to subdue thoroughly +the whole of Upper Peru. The viceroy, Abascal, +backed him up in establishing in this natural fortress +a strong military state, whence money and soldiers +could be drawn for offensive operations against the +insurrection in any part of the continent. The +mines supplied the funds of which the viceregal +government stood in such desperate need, and the +hardy, sturdy Indians of Bolivia afforded a stock of +excellent recruits whose fidelity might be enforced +by white officers and severe discipline. Pezuela +remorselessly pursued the patriot chiefs; Camargo +was finally run to earth, captured, and garrotted; +Padilla fell in the midst of his little band and was +brutally beheaded as he lay wounded on the ground. +Garrisons occupied all the towns and important +positions, the irregular excesses of the Spanish soldiery +were sternly forbidden, a measure of order and +security replaced the confusion of the previous +years, and the whole resources of the people were +carefully husbanded and devoted to the upbuilding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span> +of an army. Before the end of 1816 Pezuela had a +well-equipped and efficient force of eight thousand +men ready for an advance into the Argentine.</p> + +<p>The year 1816 was the blackest for the patriot +cause since the beginning of the revolution. Chile +had been reduced to obedience; the Argentine was +convulsed by civil war; Uruguay had fallen into the +hands of the Portuguese king; the Spaniards were +triumphant in Venezuela, and New Granada, Ecuador, +Peru, and Bolivia were making no resistance. +Pezuela had been promoted to be viceroy at Lima +and La Serna in the beginning of 1817 led the Spanish +army into the Argentine and advanced far beyond +the frontier. But he made his campaign +according to the rules of regular European warfare, +and though the gauchos of Salta did not venture to +give him battle they kept up a harassing series of +night attacks, ambushes, and daring forays into his +very lines. Mounted on their fleet and hardy plains +horses, living on wild cattle, and needing no baggage +or provision train, their mobility was phenomenal, +and they rendered the advance of the Spanish army +through the long stretches of desert and pampa +almost impossible.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile San Martin's great victory at Chacabuco +in Chile completely changed the situation +throughout the continent. It was necessary for +the viceroy to drain the other provinces of troops +to attempt Chile's recovery. Even if La Serna did +succeed in pushing toward Buenos Aires, San Martin +could recross the Andes and strike him in flank with +a victorious army. So the Spanish general withdrew<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span> +from the northern Argentine and took up the old +position near the Bolivian border. The Argentines +never attacked him in force, although they kept up +a war with incursions over the frontier, and the +indomitable Bolivian patriots rose in one local revolt +after another during the next four years. The +country was never pacified, although the relentless +vigilance of the Spanish commanders prevented the +insurrection from becoming general.</p> + +<p>In 1820 San Martin sailed from Valparaiso and +landed his army of Argentines and Chileans on the +Peruvian coast near Lima. His masterly dispositions +soon compelled the Spaniards to evacuate the +capital and thenceforth their power was confined to +the Andean region which extends south-east from +the Cerro de Pasco to the southern boundary of +Bolivia. The patriots had the advantage of being +able to land troops at any point on the coast, and +the Spanish generals, to meet these invasions, were +compelled to move their armies over the tortuous +mountain paths. Late in 1822 an expedition attempted +to reach the Bolivian plateau by the pass +which leads directly up to La Paz. Valdez, the +Spanish general, managed to get to the threatened +point before the patriots had pushed their way up +the mountain. They attacked at a disadvantage, +and their army was destroyed.</p> + +<p>A year later a similar effort was made by an army +of five thousand Peruvians under the command of +Santa Cruz, a Bolivian half-breed of noble Inca +lineage who had been engaged in the Spanish service +until 1821, and then, deserting, had risen to supreme<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span> +power in the patriot army after the retirement of +San Martin. Northern Bolivia had been denuded +of troops by the Spanish generals in the course of +their operations near Lima. No army disputed the +pass, and Santa Cruz penetrated to La Paz without +opposition. Valdez hastened from Peru, and the +Spanish army in southern Bolivia moved toward +the threatened region. Santa Cruz's position lay +directly between them; his forces were superior to +either of the Spanish armies and apparently it would +not be difficult for him to whip them in detail. But +he made the mistake of dividing his own forces, and +Valdez came up with such unexpected speed that +he failed to unite his two divisions before the Spaniards +reached La Paz. He retreated to the south +in order to join his other division, closely followed +by the enemy, and scarcely had he effected the junction +when Valdez skilfully outflanked him and +united his forces to the army of southern Bolivia. +By this manœuvre the patriot army found itself +hopelessly outnumbered and fled north in disorder. +By the time it reached the coast it had been practically +annihilated. One body of Spaniards resumed +at its leisure a position threatening Lima, +while the Bolivian division occupied itself with +crushing the insurgents who had risen at Cochabamba +and other points during Santa Cruz's stay +upon the plateau.</p> + +<p>This disastrous campaign seemed to destroy all +hope of Bolivian freedom for years to come. But +Olañeta, the renegade Argentine who commanded +the Spanish army in Bolivia, quarrelled with La<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> +Serna and the northern generals. They sent a force +to fight him, and while the Spaniards were thus +warring among themselves word was received that +Bolivar had arrived on the Peruvian coast, accompanied +by his great lieutenant, Sucré, and a large +army of Colombian veterans. To meet this pressing +danger the viceroy abandoned his efforts to reduce +Olañeta to submission, recalled the troops he had +sent into Bolivia, and sent north as large a force as +he could muster. Bolivar climbed the coast range +unopposed and met the Spanish army not far south +of Cerro de Pasco. On the 24th of August, 1824, +he won the cavalry action of Junin, and the Spaniards +were compelled to retire to Cuzco. Bolivar +went to Lima to consolidate his political position, +leaving the command with Sucré. Four months +later the viceroy suddenly broke out of Cuzco, outmanœuvred +Sucré, and marched toward Lima closely +followed by the Colombian forces. The two armies +finally met at Ayacucho, December 9, 1824, and +though the royalist army fought on a field of its +own choosing and had the advantage in numbers +and artillery, it was annihilated.</p> + +<p>The only Spanish troops which remained in the +field were Olañeta's in southern Bolivia. He struggled +desperately to hold his men together and make +another stand, but the news of Ayacucho was the +signal for an uprising of the patriots all around him. +The royalist officers and troops had no heart for a +hopeless fight, and as Sucré approached the detached +garrisons deserted. In March Olañeta received +word that one of his lieutenants, Medina Celi, who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span> +was in command at Tumusla near Potosí, had +declared for the patriots. The Spanish general +promptly marched with the few troops who remained +faithful, and, on April 1, 1825, fought the +last action of the war of independence. Olañeta +was defeated and himself slain, probably by a ball +fired by one of his own men.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-g.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-9.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<h3>BOLIVIA INDEPENDENT</h3> + + +<p>After his great victory at Ayacucho, Sucré +advanced rapidly to Cuzco and thence into +the Titicaca basin. By February he had reached +Oruro in what is now central Bolivia, and Upper +Peru rose as one man to welcome the deliverer. +The next step was to decide upon the future government. +For thirty years before the beginning of +the revolution this country had been part of the +viceroyalty of Buenos Aires, and when the city on +the Plate had expelled its Spanish rulers the patriots +there had expected that Upper Peru would continue +to be connected with the new nation. Although in +the early years of the war these provinces sent delegates +to congresses which assembled in the Argentine +cities, the Creoles of the plateau never showed +any anxiety to incorporate their country with the +Argentine, and the successes of the Spanish generals +virtually renewed Bolivia's ancient connection with +Lima. Now that the Spaniards were expelled, the +Bolivian Creoles were no more willing to unite with +Lower Peru than with Buenos Aires, and Bolivar<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span> +encouraged this sentiment. The ambitious and +lucky soldier had formed the Napoleonic conception +of making himself supreme dictator of a confederation +of small states, each of which was to be ruled +by a subordinate dictator named from among his +creatures. To organise Upper Peru into a separate +country with Sucré at its head would be a long step +in this direction. Bolivar himself was president of +the confederation of Venezuela, New Granada, and +Ecuador, as well as dictator of Lower Peru, and +at the head of a victorious army of Colombians. +Argentina's influence was nullified by civil war. +Chile's strength was as yet unsuspected. For the +moment Bolivar was supreme in South America. +At his dictation Peru and Buenos Aires promulgated +decrees leaving to the provinces of Upper Peru the +right "to decide freely and spontaneously as to +what form of government would be most conducive +to their prosperity and good government."</p> + +<p>When Bolivar himself reached the country he was +received in a delirium of joy and gratitude, and the +enthusiastic Bolivians acclaimed him father of their +country. In a literal sense he deserved the title, for +his intervention had conferred independence on +Bolivia, and his decrees now fixed her boundaries. +In general he followed the ancient limits of the +audiencia of Charcas. Peru retained the seacoast +directly to the west as well as all the Titicacan basin +north and west of the lake, compelling Bolivian +commerce to pass through foreign territory in order +to reach the ocean. Far to the south Bolivia was +conceded a little ribbon of coast, but the route<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span> +thither lay over the bleak and barren Puna and was +too long to be of any practical service.</p> + +<p>On the 11th of August, 1825, official proclamation +was made that the new republic had begun its +existence, taking the name "Bolivia," in honour of +the liberator. Congress said in the act of independence +that: "Upper Peru is the altar upon which +the first blood was shed for liberty, and the land +where the last tyrant perished. The barbarous +burning of more than a hundred villages, the destruction +of towns, the scaffolds raised everywhere +for the partisans of liberty, the blood of thousands +of victims that would make even Caribs shudder; +the taxes and exactions, as arbitrary as inhuman; +the insecurity of property, life, and of honour itself; +an atrocious and merciless inquisitorial system; all +have not been able to extinguish the sacred fire of +liberty and the just hatred of Spanish power."</p> + +<p>Early in the following year Bolivar presented a +Constitution all ready for the approval of congress. +Written in his own hand, it stands a curious proof +of his political ideas. After laying down the somewhat +vague principle that liberty is a mere island +which the waves of tyranny and anarchy alternately +threaten to engulf, and establishing a legislative system, +too complicated to be workable, he shows the +cloven hoof by providing for a president elected for +life and possessing the right to nominate a successor. +Sucré was made the president as a matter +of course, but hardly had he begun his regular government +when troubles broke out. His own character, +the internal conditions of Bolivia, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span> +international jealousies felt against him as the friend +and representative of Bolivar, combined to make his +position untenable. A general of the first order, a +statesman of enlightened ideas, and a single-minded +and unselfish patriot, Sucré would not deign to impose +himself by force of arms on a reluctant people, +nor make undignified compromises with the turbulent +caudillos. He had accepted the presidency +only after it had been repeatedly pressed upon him +by the Bolivian congress, and though he was probably +influenced by his loyal wish to aid Bolivar in +the latter's scheme of uniting all Spanish-America +under a strong, semi-monarchical government, he +was unselfishly anxious to restore peace and order. +The heterogeneous population of about a million +who lived upon the plateau was, however, demoralised +by the terrible experiences through which it +had passed in the previous fifteen years. Three-fourths +were Indian, a stoical, docile race which +would not make much trouble, but which was divided +into two nations speaking different languages +and possessing little capacity for organisation. The +few whites and the more numerous people of mixed +blood were the dominating elements, and these had +been trained to lawlessness and ferocity by the long +war.</p> + +<p>Sucré vainly tried to replace anarchy by some +semblance of orderly government. The revenues of +the country had fallen from the two millions annually +of colonial times to almost nothing. His attempt +to substitute a rational system of direct taxation +for the countless Spanish imposts failed. Money to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span> +pay the Colombian troops could not be raised and +the mercenaries became mutinous. At the same +time symptoms of rebellion appeared among the +Bolivian caudillos. Troubles in Colombia and Venezuela +had forced Bolivar to retire from Peru and the +troops he left behind almost immediately mutinied, +and Santa Cruz pushed himself to the head of affairs +at Lima. The Bolivarian Constitution of Peru was +overthrown, and Santa Cruz and Gamarra advanced +upon Bolivia to expel Sucré. The latter's Colombian +troops mutinied and bands of insurrectionists rose in +various parts of the country to aid the Peruvian invaders, +while Argentina and Chile plainly showed +their desire for Sucré's overthrow. On the 28th of +July, 1828, a little more than three years after his +triumphant entry into Bolivia, Sucré made a treaty +with the leader of the Peruvian army agreeing to +withdraw from Bolivia with all the natives of Colombia. +General Santa Cruz was named president, +and the Peruvians occupied many of the Bolivian +provinces for several months, only to withdraw +when it became evident that their continued presence +would surely provoke a universal uprising. +Santa Cruz soon triumphed over all opposition and +established himself as master of the country.</p> + +<p>The new president was a man whose general intelligence +and ability and knowledge of diplomacy, +law, and economics gave the country a successful +and rational government. Though he abandoned +Sucré's premature attempt to reform the taxing +system, he energetically applied and improved the +old imposts and soon brought some order out of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span> +financial chaos. His army was the best organised, +disciplined, and equipped in South America. He +also tried to attract European immigration and to +improve agricultural, commercial, and social conditions +and methods. The difficulties of communication +and the conservative and industrially +unenergetic character of the population, however, +prevented any rapid development. Peru was distracted +by civil commotions, and Santa Cruz pressed +hard on the northern country. He probably could +have forced the cession of adjacent seacoast to the +inestimable and lasting benefit of Bolivia, but his +ambition led him farther. Appealed to for help by +one of the rival Peruvian factions, he gave it upon +the condition that that country should be divided, +the two parts uniting with Bolivia in a confederation +of which he was to be the supreme head. In 1835 +he invaded Peru and made himself master of the +country.</p> + +<p>The creation of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation +was an especial menace to Chile and the Argentine. +The latter country, still a prey to the most lamentable +civil disorders, was in no position to undertake +any effective intervention, but Chile's already strong +and well-established government determined to restore +the balance of power. Pretexts for war were +soon found, and the more solid texture of Chile's +social and political organisation, the energy of her +people bred in cold regions, and her command of +the sea, quickly made themselves felt. The first +expedition sent to Arequipa in 1837 was compelled +to retire by an army which Santa Cruz despatched<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span> +down the Cordillera from La Paz. The factions in +Peru, however, rose and in the following year Chile +renewed the war. On the 20th of January, 1839, +with the aid of the Peruvian auxiliaries, the Chileans +overwhelmingly defeated an army of Bolivians and +Peruvians under Santa Cruz at the battle of Yungay.</p> + +<p>The fragility of the foundations upon which Santa +Cruz had rested his system was now apparent. The +"Peru-Bolivian Confederation" disappeared from +the map. Peru re-established her independent +existence with her old boundaries. Santa Cruz's +enemies in Bolivia rose in rebellion and he fell without +a struggle. As a matter of fact the ten years of +his more or less orderly government had not changed +the character of the Bolivian Creoles and mixed-bloods. +His government had been military, reactionary, +and a mere makeshift; the Indians still +occupied their inferior position, the lower classes +regarded the ruling coteries as self-seeking aristocrats, +a dull discontent fermented among the whole +population, and the ambitious chieftains found little +difficulty in seducing the soldiery. Bolivia, definitely +cut off from the Pacific, helpless to defend +her interests in the plains surrounding the plateau, +unable to attract the fertilising and civilising currents +of commerce and immigration, entered upon +an epoch of civil war, pronunciamentos, and dictatorships +which lasted nearly half a century. A recital +of the literally countless armed risings, and of the +various individuals who exercised, or claimed to +exercise, supreme power, would throw little light +on the progress of the country. Foreign commerce<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span> +and domestic industry were so small that the government +was always poor and unable to meet its +expenses. Peru's possession of the seaports held +Bolivian commerce at her mercy, and the military +and naval power of Chile was a continual menace. +Either of Bolivia's larger neighbours could easily +bring on a revolution by opportune aid to ambitious +factions, and the turbulence of the Creole military +classes was not restrained by any powerful and intelligent +commercial and industrial population.</p> + +<p>In the midst of the fighting which followed the +overthrow of Santa Cruz, a liberal Constitution was +proclaimed which attempted to take from the executive +his preponderance in the government. Negro +slavery was abolished and the movement was altogether +in the direction of democracy and against the +property-holding classes. In 1840 General Ballivian +overcame all his rivals and gained supreme power. +In the following year the dictator of Peru, taking +advantage of the continual disputes over questions +of transit through Peruvian territory, and thinking +that in Bolivia's enfeebled condition she would not +be able to resist incorporation, led a large army over +the border and occupied the province of La Paz. +But the Bolivians rallied around Ballivian and defeated +the Peruvians in the battle of Yngavi near +the end of 1841, a victory which definitely assured +the independence of Bolivia.</p> + +<p>Ballivian had risen to power by brute military +force and crushed out the feeble attempt at popular +government made after the fall of Santa Cruz. +Despotic, irritable, and ambitious, he had not the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span> +wide knowledge or administrative capacity of Santa +Cruz, and he gave the country a much worse government. +The pride of the turbulent half-breeds was +roused by the victory over the Peruvians, and conspiracies +and insurrections occurred more frequently. +Ballivian ordered the liberal Constitution of 1839 to +be repealed and the preponderance of the executive +in the governmental system was restored by the +Constitution of 1843. He ruled until 1848, but the +partisans of Santa Cruz grew bolder and bolder. In +spite of the president's efforts to surround himself +with officials of talent and intelligence, the power +of the government decreased. The irrational and +artificial boundaries given to Bolivia by Bolivar continued +to involve her in disputes with Peru, and in +1847 the imposition of practically prohibitive duties +nearly brought on war. Ballivian assembled an +army, but Castilla, the Peruvian president, found +means to foment an insurrection, and the Bolivian +president was soon engaged in a desperate conflict +with the very men whom he had expected to lead +against the foreign enemy. Successful at first in +his operations, one mutiny was suppressed only to +be followed by others more formidable, and he +finally gave it up in disgust and retired to exile.</p> + +<p>A year of confused struggling followed and at last +General Belzu succeeded in establishing himself as +dictator. Of low origin and uneducated, passionate +and violent, the new ruler owed his elevation to his +popularity with the common soldiery and the lowest +classes of the population. His so-called policy of +conciliation amounted in fact to permitting the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span> +guerilla bands to do as they pleased. Rapine, robbery, +and riot became almost the normal condition +of the country, while the better elements never +ceased their conspiracies. Doctor Linares, a man +of probity and learning, though stubborn and uncompromising, +persisted untiring in his efforts to +rid the country of the dictator. For seven years, +however, Belzu maintained himself, while Bolivia +fell lower and lower into the pit of anarchy, disgraced +abroad by the actions of an ignorant tyrant +who broke treaties, refused to listen to the protests +of foreign ministers, and finally bundled them all +out of the country, secure that on his mountain-tops +no army could reach him to avenge the insult. +The British foreign office literally wiped Bolivia +from the map, declaring that she could no longer be +recognised as a civilised nation. At last the dictator +tired of his place and voluntarily resigned it, leaving +as his successor a bastard son-in-law, named Cordova. +The latter suppressed nine revolutionary +movements in three years before he was at last +overthrown by the indefatigable Linares.</p> + +<p>The new dictator started in with the good wishes +of the respectable elements, and earnestly tried to +raise his country from the abyss into which she had +fallen. But the nation had been so thoroughly +demoralised that there was no foundation to build +upon. The public offices were filled by political +favourites, but when he threw them out and tried +to put honest and competent men in their places he +lost the good-will of the office-holding class. He +tried to reform the army and dismissed the useless<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span> +swarm of officers without commands, but this gained +him the enmity of the military. The very ministers +whom he had selected to aid him in putting reforms +into effect plotted against him, and it was a conspiracy +led by Fernandez, the member of his cabinet +in whom he placed his greatest confidence, that +brought about his fall after he had ruled three +stormy and anxious years.</p> + +<p>A period of frightful confusion, known as the +presidency of General Acha, ensued. The chiefs +fought among themselves with such ferocity that in +Chile and Peru the partition of Bolivia was seriously +discussed. Finally, at the end of 1864, a remarkable +man came to the front out of the tangle. This was +the celebrated dictator, Melgarejo, who frankly +abandoned all pretence of governing by any sanction +except that of brute force and terror. He kept +up a great army of spies, and the conspiracies which +they reported were ruthlessly crushed by the well-paid +ruffians who composed his army and blindly +obeyed his capricious commands. One day the +dictator, drunk, as was his habit, called the guard +and ordered them to jump out of the windows in +order to show a visiting foreigner the superior discipline +of the Bolivian soldier. Several had broken +their arms or legs, but he did not even look to see, +and continued his demonstration by ordering his +aide-de-camp to "lie dead" like a poodle dog. +Taxes were arbitrarily levied; peaceable citizens +were exiled and shot; around him circulated a +crowd of parasitic functionaries. But in spite of his +extravagances and cruelties Melgarejo gave some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span> +solidity and consistence to the governmental structure. +The production of silver had been declining +until about 1850, but at the beginning of Melgarejo's +administration had again reached ten millions annually, +and thereafter rapidly increased with the +encouragement given by him to the investment of +foreign capital. Money was freely spent on public +works, and the Mollendo railroad, extending to the +head of Lake Titicaca, dates from this time. It is +the principal route for Bolivia's foreign commerce, +though it does not touch Bolivian territory. The +isolated desert region on the coast began to be exploited +and the guano, nitrate, copper, and silver +found there vastly increased the country's revenues, +although a considerable foreign debt was incurred.</p> + +<p>Melgarejo's enemies succeeded in overthrowing +him in 1871, and their leader, General Morales, succeeded +to the supreme power. There followed +some relaxation of the system of personal tyranny, +but in the main the form of the administration +changed little, either under Morales or his immediate +successors. The first named was able to negotiate +a European loan to be employed in the building +of railways, and in fact one was constructed—running +from Antofagasta on the nitrate coast over the +Cordillera and across the Puna table-land to the +centre of the country at Oruro. Heavy gradients, +the unproductive character of the region along the +line, and its length, have prevented its furnishing +the cheap and practical outlet to the sea which had +been hoped for. Insurrections continued to break +out from time to time, and in 1876 General Daza<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> +usurped supreme power. His rule lasted until the +Chilean war of 1879, but the first decisive defeat +was the signal for his fall.</p> + +<p>Narciso Campero became president, and the +Bolivian nation, hopeless of recovering its coast +provinces by force of arms, began the task of re-adjusting +itself to the new conditions. The Constitution +was re-written in its present form, and a +succession of presidents have since ruled the country +in a peace and security which forms a happy contrast +with the anarchy that preceded Melgarejo's +advent. The production of silver rapidly increased, +reaching fifteen million dollars in 1885, when Pacheco +was president, and growing to twenty millions in +1888 with Arce in the executive chair. Potosí still +yields three million ounces per annum, and the +great Huanchaca mines far surpass Potosí, making +Bolivia the third silver-producing country in the +world. But her great resources can never be profitably +utilised until a practical outlet to the sea has +been found. On the Pacific she has been absolutely +shut in since the Chilean war—Peru controlling the +northern fourth of the coast which separates her +from that ocean and Chile the remainder. Bolivia +is without a seaport, though she retains a hope of +receiving compensation for the loss of her nitrate +territory in the cession of one such outlet, when +Chile and Peru are able to come to an agreement +about the province of Arica. But the explorations +of Heath on the upper tributaries of the Madeira +resulted in discoveries which may ultimately enable +Bolivia to utilise the magnificent fertile plain lying<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span> +just at the foot of the table-land, but so far well-nigh +as inaccessible as the South Pole. Broad and +navigable rivers meander through this vast region, +needing only the construction of a railway around +the Madeira rapids to communicate with the Amazon +and the Atlantic.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<img src="images/i279.jpg" width="800" height="566" alt="LOADED LLAMAS." title="" /> +<span class="caption">LOADED LLAMAS.</span> +</div> + +<p>Since the days of the Jesuit missionaries the +Mojos Indians in the prairies on the Mamoré north +of Santa Cruz have retained a measure of civilisation, +breeding cattle and keeping up a connection with +the Creoles at Santa Cruz. Lately the latter have +pressed on into the rubber regions of the lower +Mamoré and even crossed into the valley of the Beni +and founded the town of Riveralta where the Orton +joins the Beni. From La Paz daring men painfully<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> +made their way down the roadless gorges of the +great Cordillera and reached navigable water where +the Beni emerges from the mountains. Thence to +Riveralta the way was comparatively easy and little +steamboats now ply those waters. This region is +permanently inhabitable by civilised man, but to the +north-east the country drops off into swampy plains +drained by the Acre, a tributary of the sluggish +Purus. Up the latter river the Brazilian rubber +hunters had come from Manaos and found the banks +of the Acre unprecedentedly rich in the finest gum. +Thousands poured into the territory and by the +early nineties it was furnishing a large percentage of +the world's supply. Though the Bolivian boundary +had long been believed to cross the Acre near the +9th degree, the Brazilian rubber gatherers did not +hesitate to enter an entirely unoccupied territory +and even penetrated as far south as the 12th degree +in a region undisputably Bolivian. The authorities +at La Paz attempted to assert their political control, +but since it was well-nigh impossible to get troops +into the country except by way of the Atlantic, the +rubber gatherers defied them. The Brazilian government +intervened to protect the interests of its +citizens; President Pando headed an expedition in +1902 which was met at the borders of the Acre valley, +and after some fighting with the insurgent +Brazilians, which seemed likely to bring on a war +between the two powers, a treaty was agreed upon +by which Brazil takes the territory, paying a money +indemnity, agreeing to build the railroad around the +Madeira Falls, and ceding a port on the Paraguay.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span></p> + +<p>Internally the condition of Bolivia has in the main +been quiet since the Chilean war, and the contest +between clericalism and radicalism has lost much of +its bitterness. General Camacho led an unsuccessful +insurrection in 1890 and afterwards fled to Valparaiso. +Three years later he planned another +insurrection and the government had great difficulty +in obtaining arms and money for operations against +him. Chileans finally furnished rifles and a loan, +and shortly afterwards a treaty was negotiated by +which Bolivia abandoned its alliance with Peru and +came under Chilean influence. Peru resented this +and the following year her restrictions on Bolivian +commerce nearly brought the two countries to +blows. The crisis, however, passed, and Bolivia +has returned to the policy of avoiding entangling +alliances, while pressing Brazil, Chile, or Peru to +give her outlets to the ocean. In 1896, Alonso, +leader of the conservatives, and that energetic general +and explorer, José Manuel Pando, chief of the +liberals, contested the presidential election. In this +contest the geographical jealousies which exist between +northern and southern Bolivia played a considerable +rôle. Alonso was successful and served +as president during three years, but early in 1899 +Pando began warlike operations and in April overthrew +Alonso in a decisive battle. Under his vigorous +administration the country has been quiet. The +plain of the Madeira has been opened up to settlement, +and the international position of the government +is now vastly improved.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span></p> + + +<div class="bbt"> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span></p> +<h1><a name="ECUADOR" id="ECUADOR"></a>ECUADOR</h1> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span></p> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-6.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<h2>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<h3>THE CARAS</h3> + + +<p>The irrigated valleys of Chile lie open to the +ocean or are easily accessible over the low +coast range. The sea-board of Peru is likewise defenceless, +and though the Andean passes are high +they are dry and practicable and offer a way of +approach to the table-land behind. The want of +rain from Valparaiso to Paita is explained by the +Antarctic current whose waters cool the breezes so +that the warmer land condenses no moisture. But +at the northern boundary of Peru the coast bends +abruptly to the east; the cold current follows its +original north-east direction and lets the warm tropical +waters wash the land. From the Gulf of Guayaquil +to Panama the coast and mountainsides are +covered with luxuriant vegetation and the ascent of +the passes becomes well-nigh impracticable. Therefore +the Andean plateau in Ecuador is accessible +from the Pacific only on the south and the Colombian +plateaux are virtually cut off from communication +with the western ocean.</p> + +<p>Tradition relates that about the seventh century<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span> +of the Christian era a nation of Indians, bearing the +name of Caras, invaded the sea-board of central +Ecuador. They were warlike, aggressive, conquerors +by instinct, and their civilisation was superior to +that of the barbarous tribes upon whom they descended. +They came by way of the sea, most +probably from the south, bringing a complicated +religion to which they were fanatically devoted, and +a military and tribal organisation which gave them +an overwhelming advantage. In all probability the +Caras were akin to those highly civilised nations who +lived in the valleys of the northern Peruvian coast. +Be this as it may, there is no doubt that the Caras +were not long content with dominance along the +coast, and succeeded in forcing their way up the +slopes of the Cordillera through a zone uninhabitable +on account of the perpetual rain, and only penetrable +along defiles where the soaked clay of the steep +mountainsides affords no footing and the tangle of +vegetation leaves no path.</p> + +<p>At six thousand feet above sea-level the roads became +better, the vegetation ceased to be tropical, +and when they emerged through the passes to the +comparatively level plains about Quito, some eight +thousand feet above the sea, they found themselves +in a country where the cereals and fruits of the +temperate zone flourish and no forests interrupt +communication. Two lines of great mountains +stretched north and south and between them lay a +plateau less than forty miles in width, and though +much of it was bleak and arid, at least half lay below +the elevation where the successful cultivation of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span> +cereals and the potato becomes possible. At regular +intervals transverse ranges of mountains, called +"nudos," or knots, cut the plateau into separate +divisions, each measurably protected from attack by +its neighbours. Andean Ecuador has been aptly +compared to a great ladder four hundred miles long, +with the "nudos" forming its gigantic rungs. +Beginning at the northern boundary of modern +Ecuador, Quito lies in the second of the eight sub-plateaux, +which is one of the largest and most +fertile. Into it descended the Caras and began to +conquer and absorb the aborigines. These inter-Andean +valleys were inhabited by numerous tribes +speaking distinct languages, who had developed considerable +skill in agriculture. The compact and +efficient military organisation of the Caras gave +them a great advantage over more loosely organised +peoples, but for three hundred years they were +occupied in extending their power over the valley of +Quito and thence over Latacunga and Ibarra, which +adjoin it north and south.</p> + +<p>From the year 1300 the Cara traditions gather +more clearness and precision. By a law handed +down from immemorial times each Shiri was succeeded +by his son, or if he had no son by the son +of a sister, daughters and other female descendants +being absolutely excluded. The eleventh Shiri, +whose reign corresponded with the last years of the +thirteenth century, had no male heir, and he asked +the general council of the nation for permission to +name as successor the husband he might choose for +his daughter. Each one of the different chiefs,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span> +hoping to be selected, voted for the proposition, +but the Shiri diplomatically went outside of his own +dominions and proposed to the monarch who ruled +in Riobamba that his eldest son, Duchisela, marry +the Princess Toa. The proposition was accepted +and the Quito kingdom doubled its territory and +power.</p> + +<p>Duchisela reigned seventy years, and upon his +death was succeeded by his son Autachi, the thirteenth +Shiri. This monarch raised the Cara power +to its highest pitch, extending his dominions south +over the plateaux of Alausi, Cañar, Cuenca, Jubones, +Zaruma, and Loja, and thence far beyond +the present Ecuadorian boundary over the Peruvian +provinces of Huanacabamba, Piura, and Paita. +This vast increase of territory was due more to +treaties of confederation and alliance than to conquest. +None of the new provinces were ever thoroughly +incorporated into the Cara confederacy, and +their allegiance to the Shiri in far-away Quito sat +lightly upon them. By the end of the fourteenth +century the Cara influence was dominant along the +Andean plateau from the first degree of north latitude +to the sixth south, and extended to the arid +coast plain of northern Peru. The humid and forested +coast region north of Guayaquil remained in +the hands of barbarous tribes, nor were the Caras +ever able to extend their power down the wooded +eastern slopes of the Andes into the Amazon plain.</p> + +<p>Cara expansion was suddenly checked by the +Incas. In the latter part of the fourteenth century +these fierce and indomitable Islamites of the western<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span> +continent under the lead of Tupac Yupanqui conquered +the coast nations from Lima to Paita, and +the ruder tribes who lived in the mountains from +Cerro de Pasco north to the Ecuadorian border. +Tupac did not respect the southern confederates of +the Caras, and the Shiri appears to have made little +resistance when his allies were rapidly reduced. The +Inca system was the far better adapted for conquest. +The emperor could equip and lead to invasion armies +numbering tens of thousands, well disciplined, +blindly obeying their generals, marching over carefully +prepared roads, and supplied by an admirable +commissariat. The Caras had contented themselves +with treaties of alliance; they were only the chief +tribe in a confederacy, and warlike as were the members +they could not combine to offer any effective +resistance to the first onslaught of the great military +empire.</p> + +<p>A fairly homogeneous civilisation had grown up in +the Ecuadorian Cordillera during the four hundred +years of Cara influence. Bringing with them from +their unknown original home a capacity for military +and political organisation far superior to that of +most American aborigines, the Caras were like a ferment +introduced into the heterogeneous and inert +tribes of the plateau, which gradually transformed +the latter into a vigorous people so well fitted to +their surroundings that they survived the Inca conquest, +even turning the tables and becoming the +dominant element in the empire, and then outlived +the decimating tyranny of the Spaniards, so that +ninety-five per cent. of the present population is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> +composed of their descendants. That this civilisation +was in the main self-developed can hardly be +doubted. There is no evidence of any intimate +contact with the Incas; with the peoples of Yucatan +and Mexico the Caras had no connection, and the +conjectures as to communication with the peoples +of eastern Asia have no historical or archæological +basis. Their civilising and consolidating mission +was aided by exceptionally favourable surroundings. +The climate was healthy, agreeable, and conducive +to bodily and intellectual vigour; the soil reasonably +fertile and well adapted to the production of eminently +nourishing food crops, while requiring hard +labour in its cultivation. The potato, the quinoa +grain, and maize played no insignificant rôle in the +history of the Caras; they might never have risen +above the level of Caribs if they had lived in a region +where savoury and poorly nourishing esculents grow +wild. Not less important was the physical configuration +of Ecuador. Dry and open valleys, some of +them large enough to sustain two hundred thousand +people, and easily penetrable in every part, while +surrounded by high mountains and bleak "paramos," +shut off from the outer world by the forest-covered +declivities of the Cordilleras, were admirably adapted +to favour the growth of compact little states, whose +inhabitants would retain their individual initiative +and local pride even after incorporation in a larger +political system.</p> + +<p>Hualcopo, the fourteenth Shiri, ascended the +throne of Quito in 1430. Tupac Yupanqui had +completed the reduction of the coast tribes of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span> +northern Peru and the mountain tribes as far north +as the present Ecuador border had ceased to resist +him. From the coast valleys of Piura and Paita, he +marched up the easy pass which leads over the +Cordillera into the fertile plateaux of southern Ecuador, +and after a few victories all the tribes as far +north as the nudo of Azuay submitted, and transferred +their allegiance from Quito to Cuzco. Loja, +Zaruma, Jubones, the great valley of Cuenca, and +Cañar were taken away, and Hualcopo was deprived +of all but his hereditary dominions—the old kingdoms +of Riobamba and Quito. The Shiri possessed +no army capable of undertaking an offensive campaign +against the Incas, but, although terrified at Tupac's +rapid advance, the ancient possessions of the Shiri +remained faithful. Tupac spent two years in the +province of Cañar, erecting fortifications and recruiting +his army by new arrivals from the south and +enlistment among the recently conquered tribes. +Meanwhile Hualcopo was fortifying himself in the +valley of Alausi, which lies north of Azuay, and in +the passes that lead over the Tiocajas nudo into +Riobamba. About the year 1455 the Inca army +advanced in force. Defeated in several minor +actions, the Shiri abandoned Alausi and concentrated +his forces in the passes of Tiocajas. After +three months of skirmishes and sieges in which the +forts fell one by one, the Caras were compelled to +accept a pitched battle. The conflict was well sustained, +but with the death of the principal Cara +general, victory declared for the Incas and the Caras +fled from the field leaving sixteen thousand dead.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span></p> + +<p>Hualcopo retired to Riobamba, but there it was +impossible to maintain himself, and he was forced +to retreat to the fortress of Mocha in the nudo +which divides Riobamba from the valley of Latacunga. +Here he made a determined and successful +stand, and all Tupac's efforts to force his way over +the last line of natural fortifications which kept him +out of the northern valleys were in vain. The Inca +emperor was forced to content himself with assuring +his possession of the provinces already conquered. +In 1460 he returned to Cuzco, leaving the territory +garrisoned. Three years later the heroic Hualcopo +died, and was succeeded by his son, Cacha, the fifteenth +and last Shiri. The young man signalised +his accession to the throne by an aggressive campaign +for the recovery of the lost provinces. He +passed south into the valley of Riobamba, surprised +the Inca garrisons, and put them to the sword, revindicating +all the country as far south as the nudo +of Azuay. Beyond that range he was unable to +go, for all his efforts failed before the obstinate resistance +of the inhabitants of Cañar. Tupac began +preparations to lead an overwhelming army against +Cacha, but his own death interrupted him, and it +was not until 1475 that his son, Huaina Capac, surnamed +the "great," was able to take the road for +the north, determined to put an end to the Shiri +dynasty. He first consolidated his power among +the tribes on the coast south of Guayaquil, whom +his father had left half independent, and then extended +his conquests along the northern shore among +the barbarians of Manabi. On the island of Puna<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span> +he put to the sword all the male inhabitants, and +one tribe in Manabi, notorious for its abominable +and unnatural practices, he extirpated. Returning +south, he crossed the mountains in northern Peru, +and descending their eastern slopes, waged a bloody +war against the Pacamorés, who inhabited the forests +where the Upper Amazon debouches into the plain. +Having thus secured his line of communications he +devoted himself to the main object of the campaign—the +conquest of Quito.</p> + +<p>Disproportionate as appeared the resources of the +contending nations, the war which ensued was well +contested. The Caras had resumed their warlike +habits and the imminence of the danger animated +them and their allies to a desperate resistance. For +months the Caras held the great Inca army at bay +in the defiles of the Azuay, but finally they were +defeated and retreated to the line of Tiocajas. The +Incas followed and in a great battle vanquished their +opponents so decisively that not only was Riobamba +lost, as had happened after the former defeat, but +likewise Latacunga and Quito itself. No stand +could be made at Mocha, and the Shiri fled to +Ibarra, through Quito, where the Caranquis, the +most warlike members of the confederacy, were +determined to resist to the last. A considerable +number of Cara warriors had escaped the slaughter +at Tiocajas, and a formidable army assembled to defend +the last fortresses in the extreme north of the +kingdom. Huaina himself laid siege to Otavalo, +the principal stronghold of the Caranquis, but was +not able to reduce it. Their successes encouraged<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span> +them to take the offensive, and in a sortie the Inca +emperor narrowly escaped losing his life. Compelled +to retire to suppress a mutiny among his +southern troops, he left the northern army under +the command of his brother, Auqui Toma, and the +latter was killed in an assault on the redoubtable +fortress of Otavalo. This, however, was the last +victory which the Shiri won. Huaina's reinforcements +had come up and he advanced with an overwhelming +army to avenge his brother's death. +Otavalo was taken and its garrison put to the sword; +the Shiri fled to another fortress, where he was defeated +and slain. The victorious emperor took a +fearful vengeance on the Caranquis, whose obstinacy +had cost him so dear. Tradition tells that twenty-four +thousand were massacred, and their bodies +thrown into a lake which has ever since borne the +name of Yahuarcocha—the "pool of blood."</p> + +<p>Thenceforth the provinces of the old Quito kingdom +were integral parts of the Inca empire. The +southern valleys had readily accepted the Inca rule, +and the central ones appear to have abandoned +the Shiri's cause promptly after the second battle +of Tiocajas. Though the Caranquis had been exterminated +and the Caras had suffered greatly, the +other tribes remained intact. The Inca emperor +saw that a policy of conciliation would best insure +the obedience of these formidable peoples. He +spent the remainder of his long life in Ecuador, married +the daughter of the dead Shiri, and ruled rather +as the legitimate successor of the ancient dynasty +than as an alien conqueror. So far as possible the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span> +religious, political, and social customs of the Incas +were introduced, but it does not appear that the +work of amalgamation had proceeded very far in +the fifty years which intervened until the advent of +the Spaniards. The Quichua had not displaced the +native tongues to any great extent, and while the +Ecuadorean tribes became loyal subjects, they did +not regard themselves as in any way inferior to the +older subjects of the empire. Rather had the balance +of power passed to them; they had acquired +the skill in regular warfare once the exclusive property +of the Incas; and the issue of the civil war between +Huascar and Atahuallpa seems to prove that +they would have played the principal rôle in the +Inca system if the advent of the Spaniards had not +altered everything.</p> + +<p>Huaina Capac died in Quito in 1525, and his body +was taken to Cuzco to be laid with his ancestors. +In order better to secure the northern kingdom to +his descendants he named Atahuallpa, a son by +his marriage with the Shiri princess, ruler of the +old dominions of Quito. His eldest son, Huascar, +was given the rest of the empire with the title of +emperor and a suzerainty over Atahuallpa. But +Huaina's wise provisions were rendered valueless +by the dispute which arose between the two brothers +about the boundaries of Atahuallpa's territories. +The latter insisted that they included the provinces +south of the Azuay, which had been wrested from +Hualcopo by Tupac Yupanqui seventy years before, +but Huascar would not admit that they extended +beyond the hereditary dominions of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span> +Shiri dynasty. The people of Cañar, the most +northerly of the disputed provinces, had always +been bitter enemies of Quito, and their chief now +refused to recognise Atahuallpa as overlord and +sent a deputation to Huascar. Atahuallpa despatched +his uncle Caluchima and his great general +Quizquiz to occupy the province and dethrone the +recalcitrant chief. Huascar hurried up some of his +Inca regulars to aid the people of Cañar, who won +the first battles and advanced towards Atahuallpa's +capital. The northerners rallied around the grandson +of their old Shiri, and two great armies met on +the banks of the Naxichi, only fifty miles south of +Quito. Atahuallpa gained a complete victory, and +followed it up by advancing over the Azuay into +Cañar, where he was again overwhelmingly victorious +over a second army which Huascar had sent against +him. The whole of southern Ecuador fell into his +hands and he took a fearful vengeance on the +Cañaris. Atahuallpa himself remained in Ecuador +while Quizquiz went on into Peru to achieve that +crushing series of victories which resulted in the +taking of Cuzco and the capture of Huascar himself. +By the year 1532 the whole empire as far south as +Cuzco lay prostrate, and it seemed certain that the +Cuzco dynasty would be displaced by the illegitimate +Quito branch.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-i.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-2.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER II</h2> + +<h3>THE SPANISH CONQUEST</h3> + + +<p>The fratricidal war lasting seven bloody years +exhausted the resources of the northern and +central provinces of the Inca empire, and raised the +spirit of faction to a bitter pitch. Hardly had the +last battle been fought when Pizarro landed on +the northern Peruvian coast. The moment could +not have been more favourable. The story of +Atahuallpa's capture, of Pizarro's intrigues with the +different Inca factions, and of his triumphal march +to Cuzco through a country distracted by civil feud, +belongs rather to the history of Peru than of Ecuador. +With Atahuallpa's death and the defeat of +Quizquiz near Cuzco, Quito was left without a master. +The country had been drained of able-bodied +men by Atahuallpa's levies, and bands of troops +who found their way back from Peru fought among +themselves. The indefatigable Cañaris rose again +against the Quito authorities, and following the +fatal example set by the Huascar party in Peru, +applied to the Spaniards. From San Miguel, the +colony which Pizarro had established at Piura, in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span> +the valley where the road from the Ecuador table-land +debouches into the coast plain, Sebastian de +Benalcazar led a force of two hundred Spaniards to +their assistance. Ascending the Cordillera he was +joined by great numbers of Indians in Loja, Cuenca, +and Cañar, and crossed the Azuay before he encountered +the meagre forces of the Quito generals. +Horses and firearms gave the Spaniards an easy +victory, and their enemies retreated to the defences +of Tiocajas. This locality was once more fated to +be the scene of a battle decisive of Ecuadorean history. +Benalcazar and his allies were victorious, but +at such a cost that he thought seriously of giving +up the enterprise. Tradition recites that the giant +volcano Cotopaxi burst forth into a terrific eruption +after the battle, and that the midnight explosions +were heard scores of miles along the plateau. To +the Indians this was an infallible signal of the displeasure +of the sun god. Trembling with superstitious +fear they retreated in disorder; Benalcazar +crossed Tiocajas without resistance, and overran +the country as far north as Quito, taking possession +of the city in December, 1533. Meanwhile Almagro +had been hurrying up from Peru with reinforcements +and on his way along the plateau fell in with +a third expedition under Alvarado, governor of +Guatemala. Coming from Panama on his own account +and landing on the coast a long distance north +of Guayaquil, Alvarado had succeeded in forcing his +way through the dense forests and rain-soaked defiles +and debouched on the plateau near Riobamba. +Almagro paid him one hundred thousand dollars to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span> +withdraw, and Benalcazar was entrusted with the +completion of the conquest he had so well begun.</p> + +<p>Disappointed in the search for gold, Benalcazar +divided the country into feudal lordships, enslaving +the Indians and compelling them to pay tribute. +His restless energy was not satisfied with the conquest +of the old Cara kingdom, and he soon led an +expedition of one hundred and fifty Spaniards and +four thousand Indians against the coast provinces +and founded the city of Guayaquil, whose magnificent +and sheltered port, the best on the Pacific coast, +gave independent access to the sea. Though the +passes leading from Guayaquil to Riobamba were +far more tedious than the southern ones from Piura +to Loja, they brought Quito two hundred miles +nearer the ocean, and their use made Ecuador independent +of northern Peru. Hardly had Benalcazar +returned to the table-land and gone north to +conquer southern Colombia, when the tribes near +Guayaquil attacked and destroyed the settlement. +His lieutenant at Quito despatched another expedition; +Pizarro sent reinforcements by sea; and the +place was re-founded. Again was it destroyed, and +only in 1537, when Pizarro sent up Orellana with +an adequate force, was a permanent settlement made +on the site where to-day is the largest and richest +city of Ecuador.</p> + +<p>Benalcazar had conquered Quito in the name and +under the authority of Pizarro, and the latter now +named his brother Gonzalo governor. Confident of +finding another Peru in the unknown regions to the +east of his new domain, the young Pizarro enlisted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span> +hundreds of adventurers, and in the beginning of +1541 led the largest and best-equipped expedition +yet assembled in South America down the declivities +of the Andes. Difficulties began as soon as he +reached the sweltering, steaming forest region. +Rain fell unceasingly; the soft clay of the defiles +afforded no footing; instead of finding stone highways +like those over which they had marched in +their conquest of the table-land, the Spaniards had +to cut tracks along the mountainsides through the +matted vegetation. Provisions ran short, clothes +rotted, arms rusted, no villages or tribes possessing +food were encountered. Finally Gonzalo was +obliged to halt the main body, sending a detachment +under Orellana, the second in command, on +ahead to find provisions. Orellana followed down +a stream which soon grew large enough to be navigable. +He built boats and proceeded, but still +found no signs of civilised inhabitants. Fearing +that he could never ascend the river to the main +body, he determined to keep on, confident that +ultimately he must reach the ocean. The river he +was descending is now called the Napo. After a +course of nearly a thousand miles, it flowed into the +Amazon, and down the latter's broad current Orellana +and his little band floated to the Atlantic, there +built a little ship, and finally made their way to Spain.</p> + +<p>Hearing nothing of Orellana, Gonzalo gave up +and climbed back to Quito with a starving and +naked remnant of his men. There he learned of the +assassination of his great brother at Lima, and that +Vaca de Castro, the royal commissioner appointed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span> +to settle the disputes between the partisans of Almagro +and Pizarro, had passed through Ecuador +on his way south to Peru, appointing another governor +for Quito. Gonzalo retired to Charcas in +southern Bolivia, whence he emerged a year later +to head the great rebellion. The viceroy was compelled +to fly from Lima, and landing at Tumbez +made his way to Quito. The Spaniards in Ecuador +and southern Colombia were against Pizarro, but +the latter chased the viceroy out of Quito and north +into Popayan, where Benalcazar took sides with him. +Four hundred Spaniards accompanied the viceroy in +a counter-invasion, but near the city he was completely +defeated and decapitated as he lay wounded +on the field. Gonzalo, now undisputed lord of the +whole Inca empire, returned at his leisure to Lima. +The tale of how Gasca, shrewd old priest, by intrigue +and conciliation, re-established royal authority and +brought Pizarro to the scaffold, does not especially +affect the history of Ecuador.</p> + +<p>By 1550 the civil wars were over, the unruly +original conquistadores had been executed, banished, +or reduced to obedience. Shortly afterward +the system of Indian tribute and slavery was modified +so that although the proprietors got rich the +aborigines were saved from rapid extermination, +royal officials and functionaries were installed, an +elaborate system of taxation established, and Ecuador, +with the rest of Spanish America, entered upon +a long period of exploitation under form of law, instead +of being the haphazard prey of irresponsible +private adventurers.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 640px;"> +<img src="images/i302.jpg" width="640" height="427" alt="ECUADOR INDIANS." title="" /> +<span class="caption">ECUADOR INDIANS.</span> +</div> + +<p>For the next two hundred and fifty years Ecuador +has no history. The occasional eruption of a volcano +or an Indian insurrection is all one finds in the +annals, except the interminable lists of the Spanish +officials sent out to enrich themselves and the Crown +at the expense of the hapless Indians. The Spanish +occupation brought about no colonisation of Ecuador +in the true sense of that word, although it +worked a considerable revolution in the life and +customs of the Indians who continued to constitute +the bulk of the population. Indeed, the habitable +area of the Andean plateau was so limited and the +aboriginal population so numerous, that there was +no room for immigration without a war of extermination. +The cultivable area of Andean Ecuador +barely exceeds eight thousand square miles, and it +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span> +is probable that more than a million natives lived +there in the time of the Caras and Incas. Even at +the present day these eight thousand miles contain +more than two-thirds of the total population, and +not more than four hundred thousand people inhabit +the two hundred and eighty thousand square miles +of high, barren mountains, steep declivities of the +Cordillera, and wooded plains on the coast and in +the Amazon valley, which constitute the remainder +of Ecuador.</p> + +<p>One of the important results of the Spanish occupation +was the introduction of new food plants and +domestic animals. Wheat and barley were early +planted by the Castilian proprietors who had divided +the country among themselves, and these grains +quickly replaced the quinoa, which, with the potato, +had been the chief reliance of the Caras. The cultivation +of the potato and also of maize was, however, +continued. The Spanish invaders introduced +the plantain and banana, which immediately became +the staples of the forested and tropical districts, +making possible a great increase of population. +The plateau was found suited to European fruits, +and orchards were soon flourishing in its more +favoured parts. Rice, indigo, and sugar-cane were +also introduced, and an export trade in these articles +grew up, as well as in the native cacao and +sarsaparilla.</p> + +<p>The Spanish rulers effected radical changes in the +political, social, and religious life of the civilised +Indians. A certain apathy and fatalism seems +characteristic of the American aborigine, and in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span> +Ecuador, trained through countless centuries to the +patriarchal rule of his own chiefs, he submitted to +the exactions and innovations of his new masters. +According to Spanish constitutional law and practice, +America was not a component part of the +mother-kingdom, but the new continent was regarded +as the personal property of the king of +Castile, its lands, mines, and inhabitants being +his to dispose of at pleasure. The viceroy at Lima +was the monarch's lieutenant, only responsible to +the king himself or to the advisory board known as +the Council of the Indies. For great territorial +divisions like Ecuador this power was delegated to +governors, and the corregidors were likewise unrestrained +within the smaller subdivisions. The Indians +were regarded as mere chattels, and the tribute +exacted from every adult was a logical consequence +of their legal status. In theory even the Spanish +residents had no rights to self-government, nor did +any constitutional guaranties of life and property +exist.</p> + +<p>But such a despotism largely existed only on +paper. The Spaniards who came to South America +brought with them their characteristic constitutional +traditions and personal independence. Instinctively +they flocked into cities and organised municipal +governments after the time-honoured Spanish form. +So a system came into existence which had the +sanction of the people's co-operation and was therefore +workable. The country districts were left to +the Indians and as long as they paid their tribute +to the Crown or to the Spaniard who claimed the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span> +lands they tilled, little heed was paid to the form of +civil government among them. The influence of +their hereditary chiefs survived for centuries, and +their old laws and customs died out only by degrees. +In the cities contact between Spaniards and Indians +was closer. In process of time the increasing number +of half-breeds aided in the process of amalgamation, +and even the pure-blood Indians of the fields +and villages learned much of what their masters had +to teach them.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 763px;"> +<img src="images/i305.jpg" width="763" height="600" alt="CHURCH OF SANTO DOMINGO AT GUAYAQUIL." title="" /> +<span class="caption">CHURCH OF SANTO DOMINGO AT GUAYAQUIL.</span> +</div> + +<p>The Church, however, operated more powerfully +than any other influence in making Ecuador Spanish. +Within a few years after the conquest a regular<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span> +bishopric was established in Quito, and hundreds +of priests and friars flocked over to take part in +the wholesale evangelisation of the heathen natives. +The gospel was preached everywhere, churches and +chapels built in even the smallest villages, the obdurate +Indians were treated with scant ceremony, and +it soon became well understood among the natives +that a hearty acceptance of the Christian cult tended +to keep them out of trouble. Ecuador quickly became +one of the most devotedly Catholic countries +in the world, and has ever since remained so. The +Crown and the landed proprietors made lavish gifts +to the cause of religion, and a great proportion of +the property of the country ultimately fell into the +hands of the religious orders. Quito has appropriately +been called the city of convents, and if we are +to believe the accounts of travellers in colonial times +half the population must have been priests, monks, +and nuns. The introduction of Christianity among +the Indians aided powerfully in spreading a knowledge +of the Spanish language, but was more effective +in substituting the Quichua for the ancient local +tongues. The evangelists found it easier to preach +to all the tribes in one language, and Quichua was +naturally chosen, since it was already in the most +general use as the official medium of the Inca empire. +The Spanish priests reduced it to written +form and it became a <i>lingua franca</i> which was understood +among all the nations of the Andean plateau +very much as Guarany was among the Indians of the +Atlantic slope.</p> + +<p>The details of Spanish civil, military, and finan<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span>cial +administration in Ecuador did not differ greatly +from those in the other provinces, and there is no +need to repeat them here. The peaceable character +of the Ecuador Indians made the maintenance of a +standing army or even of a militia unnecessary. A +few companies of troops in each of the principal +towns and the natural military aptitude of the +Spanish residents were sufficient to suppress any +symptoms of rebellion, and to keep the Indians at +work for their masters. Happily for the natives no +great finds of silver or gold were made except in the +southern province of Loja, and forced labour in the +mines did not decimate the population, as happened +in Bolivia and parts of Peru. Spaniards did not +immigrate to any considerable extent, and negro +slavery flourished on the seacoast.</p> + +<p>The only schools were priests' seminaries in which +little except theology was taught and the level of +intellectual culture among the Creoles sank very +low. Taxes were heavy, public employments and +titles of nobility were openly sold by the government, +commerce amounted to little, because little +gold and silver was mined and other articles would +not bear the heavy transportation charges and the +exactions and restrictions of the Spanish colonial +system. The magnificent stone highways which the +Cara and Inca monarchs had built were allowed to +fall into ruins, but their remains are to be seen even +to this day on the table-land near Cuenca, still solid +in spite of the storms and earthquakes of four centuries. +Population on the plateau slowly decreased. +Quito had been a great city while it was the Cara<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span> +capital—the residence of Huaina Capac and Atahuallpa—and +in 1735 Ulloa estimated that it contained +over seventy thousand people, but at the end +of the eighteenth century it had fallen to less than +forty thousand. However, the introduction of the +plantain undoubtedly brought about an increase of +population in the coast provinces, and Guayaquil +flourished with the cultivation of cacao and sugar-cane.</p> + +<p>No great figure of a soldier, reformer, or administrator +stands out among all the hundreds of officials +who were sent over from Spain to rule the country. +Even records of the growth of jealousies between +Spaniards and Creoles, such as we encounter in +other countries of South America are wanting. The +Creoles appear never to have been able to interrupt +the monotonous course of Spanish administration. +In 1564 the old kingdom of Quito, with the addition +of some outlying Colombian and Peruvian provinces, +was erected into a presidency, and a royal audiencia, +or court of appeals, with important administrative +functions, was established. The viceroy of Lima +continued to exercise nominal jurisdiction over all +Spanish South America until the year 1719, when +the viceroyalty of New Granada was first created. +The Quito presidency was attached to the new +jurisdiction, and this emphasised the separation +from Peru. Twelve hundred miles of crooked, +wretched road intervened between Quito and Lima, +while the distance to Bogotá was less than half as +great. However, the natural outlet for the plateau +from Cuenca north to Popayan was the road to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span> +Guayaquil, and the Quito presidency was therefore +co-extensive with a natural commercial subdivision +of the continent.</p> + +<p>In 1736 a party of scientists commissioned by the +king of France came to Quito for the purpose of +measuring an arc of the earth's meridian at the +equator. These savants erected two pyramids to +serve as a permanent record of the line they had +measured, and placed upon them an inscription +stating that the work had been done under the +patronage of the king of France. Years afterwards +a Spanish official, offended in his national +pride by the wording of the inscription, obtained +an order from Madrid for the destruction of these +monuments, so invaluable to the science of exact +geography.</p> + +<p>The latter part of the eighteenth century was +marked by a greater interest in education. The +seminaries widened their courses of study to include +something more than the canon law and the Fathers, +and public-spirited Creoles endowed new and better +institutions of learning. No press or periodical +literature appeared, but poetry and belles-lettres +were cultivated with some success by native authors. +Though the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1765 was +accomplished without bloodshed, it resulted in no +material weakening of ecclesiastical influence. The +revolutionary ideas which were transforming the +political thought of the world during the eighteenth +century hardly penetrated Ecuador at all, and +whatever influence they had was confined to the +small percentage of the population that boasted of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span> +non-Indian blood. The news of Lexington and +Yorktown and the enfranchisement of British North +America stimulated no similar movement among the +patient Indians and devout Creoles of the Andean +valleys, and even the tremendous cataclysm of the +French Revolution passed almost unnoticed.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-f.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-5.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<h2>CHAPTER III</h2> + +<h3>THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE</h3> + + +<p>The beginning of the nineteenth century saw +Spain involved to her ruin in the tremendous +struggle between Napoleon and his enemies. Her +fleets were destroyed at St. Vincent and Trafalgar; +her treasury was emptied; her administration demoralised. +Free communication with her American +colonies was impossible while British frigates commanded +every sea, and both on the Peninsula and +in America, Spanish subjects lost their traditional +respect for the monarchy. Though the jealousy +against their imported rulers which always fermented +among Creoles was not so strong in quiet, isolated, +and agricultural Ecuador as in the coast provinces +and mining regions, the news of Spain's defeats +and humiliations awakened ambitious lawyers and +wealthy landowners to a realisation that the Spaniards +might be ousted from the lucrative offices.</p> + +<p>The opportunity came in 1809 with the resignation +of Charles IV., the deposition and imprisonment +of Ferdinand VII., the usurpation of the Spanish +throne by Joseph Bonaparte, and the occupation of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span> +the Peninsula by the French. The viceroys and +governors of Spanish America refused to recognise +Joseph. The many patriots on the Peninsula who +resisted the French usurpation organised provisional +juntas which assumed to be the supreme depositaries +of power pending the expulsion of Joseph and the +return of Ferdinand, while the Queen claimed a +regency for herself. The Spanish authorities did +not know who would come out on top and were +principally anxious to maintain themselves in their +places, while ambitious leaders among the Creoles +immediately began to plot to turn the confusion to +their own advantage and to secure autonomy and +even independence for the colonies.</p> + +<p>In 1809 Don Ruiz de Castilla was president of +Quito. His jurisdiction included not only all present +Ecuador, but also the southern part of Colombia, +extending north three hundred miles along the great +Andean plateau through the populous regions of +Pasto and Popayan and far down the high and fertile +valley of the Cauca. These portions of Colombia +are continuous with the table-land on which Quito +stands and directly accessible therefrom, while they +are separated from the parallel series of plateaux on +which Bogotá, Tunja, and Socorro lie, by the deep +valley of the Magdalena. Castilla's dependence +upon the Bogotá viceroy was therefore largely +nominal, and he could expect as little help from +New Granada as from Peru. He had only a few +troops at Quito—probably not more than two or +three hundred,—while the governors of the subordinate +provinces, Popayan, Guayaquil, and Cuenca,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span> +each could muster only a few dozen armed police. +A number of wealthy Creole proprietors and restless +lawyers determined in the early part of 1809 to overthrow +the president and create a governing junta +composed of residents of Ecuador. Castilla was +powerless to avert the storm. The handful of +troops in barracks was easily suborned by the conspirators, +who included the persons of greatest +wealth, intelligence, and influence in the community. +The mass of the Indian population was inert and +would naturally side with their landlords, while the +Spanish residents and Creole Tories had formed no +plans for common action.</p> + +<p>On the night of the 9th of August, 1809, the +chiefs of the movement, with the officers of the +troops, met in the house of Doña Manuela Canizaries, +the Madame Roland of Ecuador, and assigned +to each the rôle which he was to play in the <i>coup +d'état</i>. The officers went to the barracks, led out +the troops, and took possession of the government +buildings in the name of the revolutionist committee. +The president and those Spanish officials who proved +recalcitrant were imprisoned, a governing junta of +nine with Juan Montufar as chief was appointed, +and an open cabildo summoned which confirmed +these acts. The junta notified the viceroys of Bogotá +and Lima that it had assumed the government, +and sent messengers to the provincial capitals demanding +that they expel their Spanish authorities, +adhere to the new order of things, and recognise the +supremacy of the Quito junta. But the movement +met with no favourable response from the rest of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span> +the presidency. The governors of Popayan, Cuenca, +and Guayaquil immediately began to enlist troops +to defend themselves against an attack from Quito. +The junta prepared for war, but though plenty +of ambitious young Creoles volunteered as officers +there were not firearms enough to go around. At +last an expedition set off to the north against Pasto +and Popayan only to be easily defeated by the hasty +levies the Spanish authorities had made among the +sturdy Indians of those regions. Frightened by +this defeat and their hopeless isolation, the junta +resigned under promise of amnesty and in October +Castilla returned to Quito and resumed the reins of +government. But his position was insecure, and +rumors of a fresh conspiracy soon drove him to repressive +measures and the imprisonment of leading +Creoles. The feeling grew bitter and in August, +1810, a desperate effort was made by the Creoles to +get possession of the barracks. Its failure was followed +by a frightful massacre in which many of the +most popular men in the place were murdered.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, the supreme junta at Seville, anxious +to pacify the revolutionary disorders, had commissioned +Carlos Montufar, a son of the chief of the +fallen Quito junta who then happened to be in +Spain, to go to Ecuador and reconcile the factions. +Under his advice Castilla resigned to a new junta +the direction of affairs, taking, however, the position +of its chief member, and sent away his troops. In +reality the younger Montufar sympathised with +his brother Creoles; the universal indignation at +the massacre of 1810 pushed him on to vengeance;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span> +Spaniards travelling through the country were waylaid +and assassinated; and by the time Molina, appointed +by the Spanish government in Castilla's +place, had reached Cuenca on his way north to +Quito, the old governor had again been deposed +and imprisoned and open war existed between Arredondo, +the Spaniard commanding the troops who +had retired from Quito in accordance with the compromise, +and the junta in the latter city. The year +1811 passed without any material change in the +situation. The Spanish generals controlled Guayaquil +and Cuenca in the south and Pasto and Popayan +in the north, practically isolating the revolutionary +government at Quito. As the troops of both sides +became better trained the war took on a more determined +and cruel character. Royalists and revolutionists +both raised recruits among the sturdy +mountain Indians and half-breeds. In technical +knowledge of their profession the Spanish officers +were superior to the revolutionary leaders and could +procure arms more readily. Their armies were +usually better disciplined and more efficient, although +more liable to depletion by desertion.</p> + +<p>In this state of perpetual war, government rapidly +became exclusively military. On the surface the +contest seemed only a struggle between two sets of +independent chiefs, in whose mouths "liberty" and +"loyalty" were mere catch-words, and who continually +quarrelled among themselves even when they +nominally belonged to the same side. Early in 1812 +Montufar was overthrown by another Creole chief +in Quito who thereupon undertook an expedition<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span> +against the Spanish general at Cuenca. But sedition +among the patriot troops gave an easy victory +to the latter, and the Spaniards took the +offensive. Marching toward Quito, they dispersed +the patriot army at Mocha, and entered the capital +in triumph.</p> + +<p>Montes, the Spanish general who now became +ruler of the presidency, was a wise and moderate +man, and spared no pains to conciliate. He soon +succeeded in so completely consolidating his power +that during nine years Quito and most of the presidency +remained quietly submissive, and became one +of the centres whence Spanish expeditions went out +against the parts of the continent which still remained +in revolution. An able general, Samano by +name, carried the successes of the Spanish arms to +the north, and although the patriots of Colombia +obtained some temporary advantages in the winter +of 1814-15, they never penetrated south of Pasto. +In 1816 the tide again turned with the arrival of +eleven thousand Spanish veterans in the north of +Colombia. The patriots were soon everywhere defeated, +Bogotá itself taken, and a remnant of revolutionists +who attempted the invasion of Popayan +and Pasto were overwhelmed by Samano in 1816 at +the battle of Tambo. The patriot cause was at its +lowest ebb in all South America. Resistance ceased +in Colombia; only a few scattered bands kept up a +desultory warfare in Venezuela; Ecuador, Peru, and +Bolivia were quiet; Spanish authority had been re-established +in Chile; Uruguay had fallen into the +hands of the Portuguese king; and Spanish armies<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span> +were invading the Argentine, the last refuge of the +revolution.</p> + +<p>San Martin's thunderbolt descent upon Chile and +his victory at Chacabuco changed the aspect of +affairs. A fleet was improvised at Valparaiso which +obtained command of the Pacific coast, cutting off +the Spaniards in Ecuador from receiving supplies +except overland from the Caribbean ports. Bolivar +took new heart for his tedious task of arousing the +north and driving the Spaniards from Venezuela and +New Granada. In 1819 he climbed the east side of +the Andes to the neighbourhood of Bogotá and by +defeating the Spanish army at Boyacá, freed most of +present Colombia, and even in Quito the patriots +renewed their revolutionary plotting. Meanwhile +San Martin had completed the expulsion of the +Spaniards from Chile, and in 1820 he transported +an army by sea to the neighbourhood of Lima itself, +opening communications with the anti-Spanish +party all along the coast. On the 9th of October, +1820, a successful revolution broke out at Guayaquil, +and little time was lost in sending an army +to the plateau. The Spaniards defeated it, but with +Bolivar threatening them from Colombia, their comrades +in Peru fighting for their lives against San +Martin, the population of Quito on the verge of a +revolt, and the Pacific in the control of the patriots, +they could not follow up their advantage.</p> + +<p>On June 24, 1821, Bolivar gained the crowning +victory of Carabobo in Venezuela. The Spanish +position in the Caribbean provinces became irretrievable, +and the patriot general was thenceforth free to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span> +pursue his plans for the expulsion of the enemy from +southern New Granada and Ecuador and their incorporation +with Colombia. In the fall of that year +General Sucré, who shares with San Martin the +honor of being the greatest soldier of the patriot +side, arrived at Guayaquil by sea, bringing with him +seventeen hundred Colombian and Venezuelan veterans. +Bolivar was to advance from Bogotá, conquering +Popayan and Pasto on his way to Quito, +while Sucré came up from the south. The latter at +once ascended the Andes to the plateau, but was +badly defeated. Retreating to Guayaquil, he reorganised +his army, incorporating with it a reinforcement +of twelve hundred men sent by San Martin, +and again climbed the Andes. By this time Bolivar +was advancing from Popayan to Pasto and the +Spaniards, thinking it best to concentrate their +forces, abandoned Cuenca and the southern provinces +and allowed Sucré to advance unopposed +to the neighbourhood of Quito. There he outmanœuvred +them and gained a commanding position +on the slopes of the great volcano, Pichincha, overlooking +the city. His foes were forced to the alternative +of giving battle at a disadvantage or permitting +him to effect a junction with Bolivar, and overwhelming +them by superior numbers. On the morning +of the 24th of May, 1822, the battle decisive of +Ecuador's fate was fought. The royal army suffered +annihilation; four hundred dead lay on the +mountainside and two hundred wounded; eleven +hundred men and one hundred and sixty officers +surrendered the following day. The only troops<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span> +who escaped belonged to scattered detachments not +present at the battle, who fled down the eastern +slope of the Andes into the trackless forests and +finally made their way down the Amazon to the +Atlantic.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-c.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-7.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<h3>THE FORMATION OF ECUADOR</h3> + + +<p>At the head of a victorious army of Colombians +and Argentines, Sucré could naturally do as +he liked with Ecuador and an assembly of the people +of Quito accepted incorporation into the republic of +Colombia. Bolivar, meanwhile, had had some hard +fighting with the stubborn loyalists of Pasto, and +the issue remained doubtful until news of the victory +of Pichincha was received. The Spanish commander +surrendered; Bolivar came on to Quito, and thence +proceeded to Guayaquil. The inhabitants of this +important city were divided. Many wanted to be +independent; others preferred incorporation with +Peru, to being tied up with Colombia, a country +whose capital could only be reached by months of +tedious travelling; others, however, were willing to +maintain the ancient political connection with New +Granada. As a matter of fact, discussion was useless, +for Bolivar threw into the scale the weight of +his military power. Guayaquil and the adjacent +coast region became a department of Colombia, +while the southern plateau provinces—Cuenca and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span> +Loja—were also erected into a department of Bolivar's +vast confederation. This completed the division +of the old presidency of Quito into four parts—Pasto +and the northern provinces, Quito and the +central, Cuenca and the southern, and Guayaquil +with the coast, and in all of them the influence of +Bolivar's satraps was predominant.</p> + +<p>Shortly after his arrival at Guayaquil Bolivar and +San Martin had their famous interview. The latter +came up from Lima hoping to arrange plan of joint +campaign, but he quickly saw that Bolivar would +never consent to share the glory of driving the +Spaniards from their last strongholds. The great +Argentine magnanimously determined to retire, and +returning to Lima, resigned the presidency of Peru. +San Martin once out of the way, Bolivar was eager +to lead a Colombian army to Lima, but the Peruvians +declined his assistance. Alone, however, they had +little chance against the able Spanish generals, and, +aghast at the progress of the enemy, they soon sent +to Bolivar begging his assistance on his own terms. +The selfishly ambitious liberator gladly accepted, +and within a month Sucré was on his way south at +the head of a fine army of Colombian veterans. +Bolivar himself followed with reinforcements, and +though hampered and delayed by the revolt of the +Callao garrison, Sucré's military ability backed by +Bolivar's tireless energy and large resources produced +their legitimate results. Bolivar in person advanced +to the plateau and August 6, 1824, won the cavalry +action of Junin which compelled the retirement of +the Spanish army to Cuzco. Bolivar returned to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span> +Lima leaving Sucré in command, and on the 9th of +December the latter annihilated the main body of +the enemy in the battle of Ayacucho—the crowning +victory of the war of South American independence.</p> + +<p>Bolivar was supreme from the Caribbean to Potosí. +As president of the United States of Colombia he +ruled Venezuela, New Granada, and Ecuador, he +himself was dictator of Peru, and his faithful lieutenant +exercised supreme power in Bolivia. The +realisation of his cherished plan for the union of all +South America into one great confederacy, with +himself as life-president, seemed near at hand. But +successful soldier though he was—heroic, resourceful, +and unwavering in reverse—his statecraft was +short-sighted and impracticable. The moment of his +apogee marked the beginning of his decline. He +failed to appreciate that the spirit of South America +was profoundly democratic and local, and that the +war of independence owed its beginning and successful +prosecution to a deeply rooted impulse toward +division, liberty, and anarchy among the Creoles. +To build a tower out of sand would have been easier +than to create a stable union between the recently +liberated provinces of Spanish America. Viewed in +the light of subsequent events the wonder is that +territorial disintegration stopped where it did, and +that South America did not split into twenty instead +of nine separate countries.</p> + +<p>Bolivar's partisans in Colombia were unsuccessful +in their intrigues to replace the Constitution of Cucutá +with one drawn up after the plan their chief +had imposed upon Bolivia and Peru. Neither<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span> +leaders nor people, army nor professional classes, +showed any disposition to concede him greater +powers. His attempts to interfere in the affairs of +Argentine and Chile were repulsed, Peru became +restless under his dictatorship, Bolivia only waited +a favourable opportunity to expel Sucré, the very +troops he had brought from Colombia to Peru +became mutinous, his pan-American congress at +Panama turned out a fiasco. He remained two +years in Peru, until the news of a great uprising in +Venezuela made it necessary for him to hurry to the +north. Hardly had he left Lima than the military +chiefs in Peru virtually disavowed his authority. +Under the leadership of their officers the Colombian +troops in Lima revolted, and the Peruvians, delighted +to be rid of these embarrassing guests, paid +their pecuniary demands, and to the number of over +three thousand despatched them in ships for the +north. They disembarked in Ecuador, where one +division took possession of Guayaquil and another +of Cuenca. Bolivar was so occupied with the +troubles in Venezuela that he could personally take +no measures against this defection, but General +Flores, a Venezuelan whom he had appointed commander +of the military forces of the three southern +provinces of the old Quito presidency,—Guayaquil, +Cuenca, and Quito,—proved energetic and fortunate. +His intrigues sowed discord among the officers of +the revolting troops. A counter-revolution occurred +in his favour at Cuenca, and after a short period of +virtual independence Guayaquil also returned to its +old connection with Quito.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span></p> + +<p>The movement against Bolivar from Colombia +proper involved Pasto and Popayan—the northern +division of the old Quito presidency—while Quito +and the southern provinces were left largely to their +own devices. General La Mar, who had succeeded +in making himself president of Peru, conceived the +idea of enlarging the limits of that country by the +acquisition of Guayaquil and Cuenca, and he was +the more enthusiastic because the latter was his +native province. In 1828 war broke out between +Colombia and Peru. Peruvian ships blockaded +Guayaquil, and in January, 1829, forced the surrender +of that place, while a Peruvian army seven +thousand strong invaded the Ecuadorean plateau +and penetrated beyond Cuenca. Flores and his +rivals united in face of the common danger, the +Colombian veterans scattered through the country +rallied to the banner of Sucré, who came in person +to take command, and the decisive battle was fought +at Tarqui in February. The Peruvians were so +badly defeated that they sued for peace, and agreed +to surrender Guayaquil and the greater part of the +southern provinces.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span> +<img src="images/i325.jpg" width="800" height="475" alt="GUAYAQUIL, ECUADOR." title="" /> +<span class="caption">GUAYAQUIL, ECUADOR.</span> +</div> + +<p>By this time, however, Bolivar's own position had +become desperate. Venezuela had already separated +from the confederation, and when on the 12th of +May, 1830, Flores proclaimed the Quito presidency +independent, it was little more than the announcement +of an existing fact. He attempted to disarm +jealousy against Quito by christening the country +by the fanciful name of Ecuador, and by decreeing +that each province should have an equal vote in the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span> +legislative assembly. Flores was merely one of a +multitude of military chiefs who had been fighting +among themselves since the expulsion of the Spaniards. +Though married to a Quito lady he was a +Venezuelan and could rely on few local friendships +or sympathies, and the Colombian veterans, who +swarmed over the country devouring the substance +of the people and eager for pay and plunder, regarded +him as one of themselves and were ready +to desert him for any chief who might offer higher +wages.</p> + +<p>Now that Bolivar was overthrown and Sucré murdered +on a lonely mountain road by hired assassins, +the sentiment of loyalty to their old chiefs tardily +revived among the fickle Colombian regulars. They +received Flores's declaration of independence with +indignation; an insurrection broke out among the +garrison at Guayaquil; and the veterans marched to +the plateau. Flores had no force capable of making +headway against them, and was compelled to negotiate +a treaty, agreeing to support Bolivar in case +the latter should remain in South America. On the +other hand, the troops consented to recognise Flores +if Bolivar should go into exile. Hardly had the +treaty been signed than word was received of the +lonely death of the great Venezuelan at Santa +Marta. Most of the veterans took service under +Flores, and he pursued the recalcitrants with relentless +and bloody severity. Pasto and Popayan, composing +the province of Cauca, the northern division +of the old Quito presidency, wavered as to whether +they would cast their lot with Ecuador or New<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span> +Granada. The government at Bogotá sent an army +into the disputed territory, and Flores tried to +organise a force large enough to beat it, but he was +hampered by mutinies, conspiracies, and poverty, +and after a year of expensive though nearly bloodless +operations withdrew and consented to a treaty +by which Ecuador gave up all claim to Pasto and +Popayan, losing a third of the territory and population +of the old presidency of Quito.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 582px;"> +<img src="images/i327.jpg" width="582" height="480" alt="COSTUMES OF NATIVES NEAR QUITO." title="" /> +<span class="caption">COSTUMES OF NATIVES NEAR QUITO.</span> +</div> + +<p>Flores, however, managed to hold Guayaquil and +Cuenca as well as Quito and must therefore be +regarded as the founder of Ecuador, though his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span> +reactionary, absolute, and violent government was +hated by all that was young, intelligent, and liberal +in the country. The Indian peasants groaned +under the burden of taxes imposed to subsidise a +horde of functionaries. Finances were in deplorable +confusion; the public debts left unpaid; population +decreased, especially in the Andean region; agriculture, +industry, and commerce remained stationary, +except in the cacao districts on the coast. The +lower classes had a hard struggle for bare existence, +and the parasitical ruling race was solely pre-occupied +with political war and intrigue. But it cannot +fairly be said that Flores or any other one man was +responsible. The lamentable condition of affairs +resulted inevitably from the long struggle with Spain +and from the situation, character, and ideals of the +people. But such a janizary system of government +was too burdensome, unwieldy, and wasteful not to +fall by its own weight sooner or later. The people +were simply unable to pay the taxes which Flores +levied vainly trying to satisfy his troops. Mutinies +broke out among the latter, and the liberals were +encouraged to organise.</p> + +<p>A revolutionary society was formed in Quito +whose ramifications extended among the enthusiastic +youth in every part of the republic. In Guayaquil, +the wealthiest and most commercial city, the +demand for better financial administration became +universal. In 1833 Vicente Rocafuerte, the foremost +of Ecuadorean liberals and the most accomplished +public man in the country, openly assumed +the leadership of the opposition to Flores. Elected<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span> +a member of congress he bravely defied the dictator, +who sentenced him to banishment. But when he +reached Guayaquil the troops and citizens of that +city arose to support him. Flores led an army +down the Andes and attacked and captured Guayaquil, +Rocafuerte and his partisans escaped and kept +up the struggle at different points of the coast, +while sympathetic insurrections broke out on the +plateau in Flores's rear. Though the dictator +finally succeeded in capturing Rocafuerte, the only +use he was able to make of his victory was to secure +better terms from the liberals. Rocafuerte and he +formed an alliance and together they pacified the +country, the former becoming president and the +latter retaining command of the army. Ecuador +enjoyed her first real respite from civil war and +tumult since 1809, and Rocafuerte's inauguration in +1835 marks the beginning of civil and constitutional +government.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-g.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-6.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER V</h2> + +<h3>MODERN ECUADOR</h3> + + +<p>President Rocafuerte was not only +animated by revolutionary principles, imbued +with liberal ideas, and a student of the best political +and economic writers, but he proved to be a good +administrator—practical, cautious, and sure—and +earned the title of the greatest of Ecuador's reformers. +His first step was to summon a constituent assembly +which divided the country into provinces and +parishes, outlined a rational scheme of administration, +and made a substantial beginning toward substituting +civil for military government. Although he did not attempt +to carry into practice the dreams of radical liberals—impracticable +among a population nine-tenths +Indians in semi-bondage, and in a country where +the clergy were dominant—he reformed the taxing +system, set in order the finances, so far as his means +and knowledge would permit, earnestly encouraged +industry, agriculture, and commerce, repaired and +built roads, promulgated a new and humane criminal +code, and established schools. He set up the pyramids +of the French geographers, showing that tender<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span> +regard for his country's repute abroad which is rarely +absent in statesmen of high character and noble +aims. Under his administration Ecuador assumed +the payment of her proportion—twenty-one and a +half per cent., or one million eight hundred thousand +pounds—of the debt contracted by the defunct +United States of Colombia during the war of independence. +However, this debt proved a burden +too great for her resources. Interest fell behind +and the principal has been scaled down repeatedly. +Only in 1900 was an arrangement satisfactory to +the bondholders finally reached.</p> + +<p>His efforts made Ecuador the second South +American republic whose independence was formally +recognised by Spain. In religious matters he proved +true to his liberal convictions, and while never persecuting +the clergy always advocated religious freedom +for the individual. But though he set his +country's feet in the path of progress, the steps were +slow, short, and uncertain. His alliance with the +military element as represented by Flores, and the +religious and social conservatism of the bulk of +the people, hampered rapid progress. The radical +liberals conspired against him, but their plots were +sternly stamped out. Government remained essentially +military and aristocratic, and active participation +was confined to the educated and military +classes. Nevertheless, a sort of equilibrium between +the demands of the governing caste and the capacities +of the producing masses was reached, and a +certain degree of order replaced the indiscriminate +exactions and tyranny which the proletariat had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span> +endured ever since the first Spaniard had landed. +When Rocafuerte finished his term in 1839, Ecuador +was at peace and had recovered much of the material +prosperity lost during the long wars. On the +plateau the Indians cultivated their wheat and potatoes +in security, while on the low coast lands the +cacao industry flourished, making Ecuador one of +the chief sources of the world's supply of chocolate +and multiplying Guayaquil's population and wealth.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 486px;"> +<img src="images/i332.jpg" width="486" height="480" alt="ECUADOR PEON'S HOUSE." title="" /> +<span class="caption">ECUADOR PEON'S HOUSE.</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span></p> + +<p>Flores's command of the army insured him the +succession to the presidency. Though his return to +power meant political reaction, the beneficent effects +of Rocafuerte's system had been too obvious to be +entirely ignored and hastily abandoned. Flores's +first measures were moderate, but his irrational +ambition quickly led him into an expensive and +fruitless intervention in the Colombian civil war of +1840. His financial difficulties and a return to military +habits caused him to adopt measures continually +more arbitrary, and he went stubbornly ahead with +his schemes to make his dictatorship permanent. +He forced the adoption of a new Constitution +lengthening the presidential term to eight years, +and caused himself to be declared elected in 1843. +The conflict with the liberals became acute; Rocafuerte +protested and was forced to fly for his life. +The young radicals of Quito plotted the tyrant's +assassination, while the villagers of the plateau arose +in revolt against the gatherers of an obnoxious poll-tax. +In 1845 a liberal revolution broke out at +Guayaquil. Flores descended from the table-land, +but the liberal army met and defeated him at the +foot of the mountains, and he accepted the offer of +twenty thousand dollars in cash and a pension to +leave the country.</p> + +<p>The better elements of the triumphant party were +not able to keep the upper hand. A new Constitution +was hastily adopted and the mulatto Ramon +Roca installed as president. For four years he +ruled while the gulf between liberals and conservatives +widened day by day, and factional jealousies<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span> +and ambitions within the dominant party became +menacing. The congress of 1849 quarrelled bitterly +over the presidential succession and was unable to +agree on any one. Ambitious chiefs got arms and +men together, and after a year of uncertainty General +Urbina, of Guayaquil, issued a pronunciamento declaring +Diego Noboa provisional head of the government. +A convention called for the purpose adopted +a new Constitution and elected Urbina's nominee +president for the full term. To the consternation +of the liberals he recalled the Jesuits and gave +asylum to the defeated conservatives from Colombia, +going so far as to send troops to the frontier to aid +in their restoration. But Urbina, to whose command +these forces had been entrusted, proclaimed +himself dictator and exiled Noboa. He promulgated +a new Constitution—Ecuador's sixth in +twenty-two years,—persecuted the conservatives, +and ruled for four years as an ultra-liberal. At the +expiration of his term in 1856 he named his friend +Robles as his successor, who maintained himself +against the conservative attacks until in 1859 his +government became involved in a war with Peru. +When Robles and Urbina went to the Peruvian +frontier the conservatives rose behind them. As a +matter of fact the country was tired of the misrule +of the military chiefs, miscalled liberals, whose government +was a compound of oppression for their +enemies and license for their friends. The clericals +armed their adherents in the northern villages and +marched on Quito. The partisans of the administration +at the capital could oppose no effective resist<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span>ance, +and the insurgents entered the city, and on +May 1st installed a provisional government with +Garcia Moreno at its head. The latter at once +pushed on south with a small force, and, though +defeated by Robles, he escaped to Peru, where he +received help for new operations. In spite of Moreno's +temporary reverse his friends retained possession +of Quito, and the Peruvian blockade of +Guayaquil absorbed the president's attention. The +forces under Robles soon crumbled away, and he +resigned and went into banishment. Urbina, the +real chief of the liberal party, had a small body of +troops in Cuenca with which he tried to maintain +the unequal contest, but his position soon became +untenable and he followed Robles into exile.</p> + +<p>Moreno was now master of the whole Andean +region. Guayaquil, however, remained in the hands +of a liberal chief; the Peruvian government had +tired of its bargain to support the Ecuadorian clericals; +the blockade was abandoned, and the Peruvian +ships retired after making a treaty with the Guayaquil +authorities. This rid Moreno of an embarrassing +entanglement with a foreign power, although it +left the Guayaquil insurgents free to employ all their +forces against him. Descending with all the forces +he could muster, his mountaineers defeated the coast +troops in every encounter, and on the 2d of September, +1860, Moreno captured the great seaport, putting +an end to open opposition in all Ecuador. +Every successful revolutionist in those days made +his own Constitution, so it is a waste of words to +tell that Moreno summoned a convention which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span> +promulgated a new fundamental law for the republic. +During the next fifteen years he remained the +dominant personality in Ecuadorian history. His +biography is typical of the careers of the higher class +of Creole statesmen, and profoundly interesting to +a student of South American history as illustrating +the difficulties with which men of constructive minds +and a passion for order have been obliged to contend. +A scion of one of the oldest and proudest +Spanish families, he had been proscribed in his +youth, and spent the years of his exile studying in +the old world. He returned with his naturally fine +mind stored with the fruits of study and observation, +but with his prejudices of caste and religion +unshaken. The clericals set all their hopes on this +brilliant young advocate, and his public life, his +opinions, and his personality résumé the reactionary +characteristics of Ecuador. Nevertheless it is hard +for an unprejudiced outsider to study the history of +his country during his time without retaining a +strong admiration for his abilities and force, even +if not convinced that his career made for the moral +uplifting of the republic.</p> + +<p>He found the finances in a wretched state. Salaries +were unpaid, the revenue amounted to less than +a million pesos, and the government was living from +hand to mouth on twenty-per-cent. loans. He +directed his activity principally toward effecting +urgent material reforms—increasing the revenue by +systematising taxation, suppressing frauds and contraband, +founding a mint and hospital at Quito, +building the great waggon-road from Quito to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span> +southern provinces, and connecting that remote and +mountain-locked capital by a telegraph line with +Guayaquil. The whole of his own salary he devoted +to the public use, the laws were better enforced, life +and property became safer, and material prosperity +increased. The government was centralised, the +semi-independency of the departments abolished, +the Jesuits recalled, the rights and privileges of the +clergy restored and increased, and a Concordat +signed with the Holy See which virtually freed the +Ecuadorian Church from all secular control.</p> + +<p>The Concordat was denounced throughout the continent +as treason to South American independence, +and his relations with European diplomatic representatives +were so cordial and frank that rumours +of his willingness to accept a foreign protectorate +or even annexation by Spain were rife in the other +capitals. The publication of his personal correspondence +with a French diplomatist raised such a +storm against him that other countries plotted his +overthrow, and the democrats of Colombia, victorious +in the civil war of 1863, sent an army to the +frontier, proclaiming that their purpose was "to +liberate the brother democrats of Ecuador from the +theocratic yoke of Professor Moreno." His army +was defeated in the battle of Cuaspud, but he stood +firm and his people showed no eagerness to accept +Colombia's invitation and re-enter that confederacy. +Her army was unable to follow up its advantage, +and the danger quickly passed. When war broke +out between Spain and Peru he, like the Emperor +of Brazil, refused to follow Chile's example and take<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span> +sides, against the mother country. In a word, his +foreign policy was a selfish but intelligent opportunism, +and he was not influenced by vague sentimental +considerations and blind chauvinism.</p> + +<p>In 1864 Urbina, with the countenance and assistance +of Peru, invaded the southern province, Loja, +but the insurrection was promptly crushed. Next +year Moreno's term expired, and he named a disciple +and friend to be president in his place, but his own +political preponderance was so unquestioned and his +prestige so enormous in the barracks, convents, and +pulperias that he continued the real ruler of the +country. His understudy did not please him and he +demanded and received a resignation. The incumbent +next selected proved insubordinate and had to +be displaced by force. When Moreno declared himself +provisional dictator the Guayaquil liberals undertook +an armed resistance, but by 1869 he was firmly +in the saddle once more. He kept his hold on the +government, apparently becoming more securely +entrenched each year in the love and confidence of +the soldiery, the priests, and the common people. +From the safety of exile the liberals wrote crushing +pamphlets against him and his despotism, his +favouritism toward the clergy, his steady, relentless +policy of conservatism and reaction. But their +attempts at insurrection were feeble and in 1875 he +was re-elected as a matter of course. The liberals, +hopeless of ending his domination constitutionally +or by open war, had recourse to assassination. On +the 6th of August a party of young Creoles deliberately +killed him at midday on the principal square<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span> +of Quito in the presence of the populace and the +soldiery.</p> + +<p>The murderers were executed and the vice-president +succeeded to the vacancy. However, no one +appeared big enough to fill Moreno's shoes, and +his death made civil war inevitable. After a few +months the vice-president was deposed; then one +of Moreno's ministers remained at the head of affairs +for a short time; but finally Antonio Borrero was +selected president in constitutional form. He proved +not to possess the resolution requisite to cope with +the situation. General Veintemilla, commander of +the troops in Guayaquil, revolted in the name of the +liberal party, defeated Borrero, and went through +the usual form of summoning a convention, adopting +a new Constitution, and having himself named +president. He held power insecurely and by the +aid of a personal party from 1878 to 1883, but +neither conservatives nor liberals were satisfied. +The radicals attacked him furiously for not putting +in practice anti-clerical principles, and the conservatives +never trusted him. When his constitutional +term expired, the army proclaimed him dictator, +but he soon fell before the combined forces of his +enemies. During the fighting José Camano came +to the front, and now seized the presidency. Alfaro, +the principal liberal leader who had co-operated +with Camano in overthrowing Veintemilla, made +war against his late ally, but was defeated. The +new president, once securely in his seat, formed close +relations with the clergy and the old partisans of +Moreno, and though the liberal chiefs kept up a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span> +guerilla warfare in the forests and swamps, he +finished out his term. In 1888 he was succeeded +by Antonio Flores, who followed his predecessor's +policy in the main, and was in his turn succeeded +by another friend of Camano's—Luis Cordero. It +was not until 1895 that the liberals were able to +gather their forces for a formidable rebellion. Camano +was then governor of Guayaquil, and the immediate +occasion of the outbreak was the charge +that he had taken part in the sale of the Chilean +iron-clad, <i>Esmeralda</i>, to Japan, then at war with +China. It was claimed that Ecuador had acted as a +go-between and committed a wilful breach of the +rules governing the conduct of neutral nations. +President Cordero's prestige was seriously compromised +by this incident. His forces were defeated +in several actions and he resigned. Alfaro, +who had been in exile since 1883, returned, took +possession of Guayaquil, was proclaimed dictator, +and finally completely overthrew the conservatives +in the battle of Gatajo. His election to the presidency +followed in 1897, and he was succeeded four +years later by the present incumbent, General Leonidas +Plaza.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 754px;"> +<img src="images/i340.jpg" width="754" height="600" alt="PRINCIPAL STREET IN GUAYAQUIL." title="" /> +<span class="caption">PRINCIPAL STREET IN GUAYAQUIL.</span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span> +</div> + +<p>The Ecuador coast is one of the most fertile and +lovely regions on the earth. It already furnishes a +considerable proportion of those tropical products +of which the great nations of the temperate zone +demand more every year. Like a Luzon which has +been stranded at the foot of the Andes, its green +shores refresh the eyes of the north-bound traveller +tired of the dreary desert that stretches from Valparaiso +to the Gulf of Guayaquil; it possesses the +best harbour on the Pacific south of Panama and +one of the few in all South America which is not +mountain-locked. Between the Cordillera and the +sea there is room for untold millions of cacao and +coffee trees. In spite of civil war and political upheavals +which have made her custom-house so often +the prey of irresponsible bandits, masquerading +under the name of dictators, Guayaquil's population +and wealth have increased until she has outstripped +the hoary old capital, which, enthroned on a volcano +side, overlooks a narrow strip of cultivable land. +Nevertheless the plateau is still predominant in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span> +Ecuadorian state, and supports a vast majority of +the population. Nine-tenths of the inhabitants of +the Andean region are Indians, mostly in a condition +not far removed from bondage, by circumstance and +their own distrustful natures shut up within the +narrow limits of an existence which has no outlook +over the mountains. None the less, they are sturdy +fellows, admirably suited to the climate of those +high altitudes, and though their numbers have been +practically stationary since the Spanish conquest, +the failure to increase has been rather due to lack of +room than to misgovernment, vice, or the want of +the qualities that make for success in the struggle for +existence. In that day, now near at hand, when +a great railway shall connect the string of towns +on the Ecuador plateau with Peru and Colombia, +and when branches shall run to the ports and take +the place of the well-nigh impassable trails down the +tremendous, rain-soaked slopes of the Andes, the +mountain region of Ecuador may be transformed +and revivified by new systems of agriculture, and +the artistic taste and remarkable ingenuity of the +people may find a market and a reward. The railway +from Guayaquil long stopped at the foot of the +mountains, but within the last three years the almost +insurmountable difficulties of the ascent have been +overcome by American engineers, and the line is being +rapidly built along the plateau to Quito. Ecuador +already supplies the world with Panama hats, +and other manual industries may flourish when unfavourable +transportation conditions are removed. +Not only are the common people patiently indus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span>trious, +but they possess innate good taste and artistic +feeling. Such a people has special aptitudes, sure +to give it a place in that vastly complicated workshop +into which the multifarious needs of modern +civilisation are transforming the earth. The plateau +of Ecuador does not, however, offer room for any +considerable immigration, and its wheat, barley, and +potatoes do not and will not much more than suffice +for local consumption. Ecuador's great future lies +in the beautiful and as yet sparsely peopled Pacific +plain, and in the vast and absolutely unknown forests +which stretch east from the Andes.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-h.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span></p> + + +<div class="bbt"> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span></p> +<h1><a name="VENEZUELA" id="VENEZUELA"></a>VENEZUELA</h1> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-1.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<h2>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<h3>CONQUEST, SETTLEMENT, AND COLONIAL DAYS</h3> + + +<p>On his third voyage in 1498 Columbus sighted +the Venezuelan coast just south of the Windward +Islands. A year later, Alonso de Ojeda saw +the mainland at about the same place and skirted +the coast for four hundred miles west without finding +any important break in a line of mountains +which rose almost directly from the sea to a height +of three to nine thousand feet, covered to their very +tops with luxuriant vegetation. But there was no +such barrier as that made by the main Andes on the +Pacific; the passes were only half a mile instead of +nearly three miles high; the slopes were not dry +and desolate as in Peru, or covered with a tangled +mass of forest as in Pacific Columbia and Ecuador. +Just beyond the harbour where Puerto Cabello now +stands, the coast-line turned abruptly to the north-west, +leaving the mountains farther inland, but the +intervening plain was swampy and uninviting. Still +following west, Ojeda rounded Cape San Roman and +turned south into the great Gulf of Maracaibo. +There he saw Indian villages of houses built on piles<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span> +near the shallow shores, and he called the place +Venezuela—"little Venice,"—a name shortly extended +to the whole coast from the mouth of the +Orinoco west to the forbidding and uninhabitable +peninsula of Goajira, which forms the western promontory +of the Gulf of Maracaibo.</p> + +<p>There is no record that either Columbus or Ojeda +effected a permanent landing, and it was not until +1510 that some adventurers founded a settlement on +the small island of Cubagua, in the channel between +the large island of Margarita and the mainland. +This was a mere nest of pirates who persecuted the +Indians of the shore, kidnapping and selling them +as slaves to the Spaniards on the Antilles, and it +was shortly abandoned. In 1520, on the coast just +opposite, was founded the settlement of Cumaná, +the oldest city on the South American continent, +which, though destroyed by the natives, was rebuilt +in 1525, when valuable pearl fisheries were discovered +in the neighbouring waters of Margarita. However, +the place remained of little importance and +did not become a centre for the colonisation of the +adjacent country, the Spaniards attaching little +value to this region because it contained no gold +washings.</p> + +<p>The real colonisation of Venezuela began four +hundred miles farther west with the foundation in +1527 of the city of Coro on the narrow neck of land +which separates the Gulf of Maracaibo from the +Caribbean Sea. Thence there was easy access by +water to the shores of the great lagoon, or by land +over the coast plain to the north-western slopes of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span> +the Andean range which runs south-west to the giant +plateau of Pamplona just over the Colombian border. +The Andean valleys were filled with gold, and among +the higher mountains lay fertile plateaux, cultivated +by tribes of semi-civilised Indians. Altogether the +region was well calculated to stimulate the cupidity +of adventurers.</p> + +<p>Charles V. granted the Venezuela coast to the +Welser family of Augsburg, the greatest merchants +of their time and his heavy creditors. Under their +commission the first adelantado, Alfinger, took possession +of Coro and conducted various expeditions +south-west along the Andes, perishing near Pamplona +about 1531. His successors continued these murdering, +kidnapping incursions into the interior, often +being led to their ruin among remote mountain fastnesses +by tales of a mythical Eldorado, where the +rivers ran over silver sands, the palaces were of solid +gold with doors and columns of diamonds and emeralds, +and the Indian king every morning covered his +body with gold dust and bathed in precious aromatic +essences.</p> + +<p>Eighteen years, however, elapsed before the Spaniards +established a permanent settlement in the interior, +and only in 1545 was the city of Tocuyo +founded in a beautiful Andean valley a hundred and +fifty miles south of Coro. But the cruelties of +the proprietors' agents scandalised public opinion. +Charles V. declared their concession cancelled and +a governor, responsible directly to the government, +was appointed in 1547. Thenceforward the settlement +of Venezuela proceeded more rapidly. Five<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span> +years later the city of Barquisimeto, fifty miles +north of Tocuyo and near the point where the +Andes join the coast range, was established on a +secure footing after hard fighting with the Indians; +in 1555 the Spaniards penetrated east a hundred +miles along the lovely plateaux of the coast mountains, +and founded Valencia. The following year +they settled Trujillo, fifty miles south-west of Tocuyo, +and two years later Merida, a hundred miles +farther in the same direction and not far from the +Colombian frontier.</p> + +<p>To the east of Valencia lay valuable gold washings, +and to work these the Spaniards fixed a camp at San +Francisco in the Aragua Valley about 1560. This +is the garden spot of Venezuela, and the warlike +Teques Indians, under their terrible chief, Guaicaipuro, +massacred the miners and defeated several +expeditions from Valencia and Barquisimeto. It was +not until 1567 that the Spaniards succeeded in establishing +their power in the valley of Caracas, which, a +hundred miles east of Valencia, lies close to the +shore, although three thousand feet above sea-level +and separated from the ocean by high mountains. +The defensibility of the site as well as the fertility +of the soil pointed it out as the best place for the +seat of government. A city was founded which ten +years later replaced Coro as the capital of the province, +and shortly thereafter a port was opened at +La Guaira giving direct communication with Spain. +The savage tribes fought more pertinaciously than +the civilised natives of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and +northern Chile and Argentina, and a greater number<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span> +of Europeans and negroes replaced those who were +slain. Finally, however, the majority submitted, +and were incorporated as peasants into the Spanish +system.</p> + +<p>By the end of the sixteenth century the Spaniards +had obtained undisputed possession of that lovely +strip of mountainous country which extends from +Cape Codera west between two parallel coast ranges +to Barquisimeto and thence west-south-west nearly +to the head of Lake Maracaibo—a belt some four +hundred miles long and fifty or seventy-five wide. +They also held the great peninsula east of Maracaibo +Gulf, and had established outlying settlements in +the llanos south of the mountains, besides the two +isolated ports—Cumaná on the eastern coast and +Maracaibo on the western. Notwithstanding the +sack of Caracas in 1595 by the daring British buccaneer, +Amyas Preston, the colony prospered. +Unlike the Pacific coast, it had easy and direct +communication with the Antilles and Europe; the +altitude was great enough to ensure a healthful +climate, while its fertile valleys could be reached +from the sea in a few hours over easy passes, far +different from those formidable gorges which are the +only ways of reaching the table-lands of Colombia, +Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. The interior, instead +of being a heavily forested plain like that of the +Amazon, practically inaccessible behind tremendous +rain-soaked declivities, was an open prairie into +which the mountains sank gently, and whose grassy +expanses afforded pasture for innumerable herds. +These geographical and topographical features have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span> +been determinative of Venezuela's development and +history, political as well as industrial.</p> + +<p>In the early years of the seventeenth century the +long-neglected Cumaná district on the eastern coast +began to be developed. The city of Barcelona was +founded in 1617 near a magnificent body of grazing +land and in the best tobacco country in Venezuela, +where the Indians had grown the plant for +untold generations. Barcelona soon became an +important centre of population, and the starting-point +for missionaries to the interior tribes. The +gold placers which had attracted the first adventurers +to the mountains west of Caracas became exhausted +within a few decades. Nevertheless, the fertile +lands, distributed among the Spaniards in encomiendas, +continued to be cultivated by Indian and negro +labour, but, although maize, bananas, potatoes, and +in the higher valleys even wheat, as well as the vine +and olive, with the cattle introduced by Europeans, +furnished an abundant supply of food, to say nothing +of tobacco and sugar, Spain's blind colonial +policy virtually prevented export of agricultural +products. The Spanish authorities wanted nothing +from their American dominions but gold and silver, +and when Venezuela's placers were exhausted the +colony was neglected. It was in spite of the prohibition +of the Spanish government that cacao trees +were introduced, and the exportation which soon +grew up—the first of any importance from Venezuela—was +mostly clandestine. Practically all the +goods legally imported had to be procured from the +Cadiz monopoly, and were sent to the Isthmus and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span> +there transhipped into coasting vessels, paying +enormous freight charges, profits, and duties. Tobacco +and salt were monopolised by government +concessionaires, and not a chicken could be sold in +the markets without paying an exorbitant tax.</p> + +<p>Education was completely neglected. It was not +until 1696 that a priests' school was established in +Caracas, and when the city of Merida asked a similar +boon, it was denied because "His Catholic Majesty +did not deem it wise that education should become +general in America." So the Creoles grew up nearly +as ignorant as the Indians around them, although retaining +all the fierce pride of their Spanish descent, +acknowledging no man as superior, and retaining +very dim sentiments of loyalty to the mother country. +Nevertheless, the ancient municipal forms, +traditional among peoples of Spanish descent, survived, +furnishing the framework of civil government, +while the priesthood constituted a moral and +intellectual tie binding the Creoles to their Castilian +ancestors.</p> + +<p>The repressive regulations against commerce could +not be perfectly enforced. Although the arrival of +a ship from Spain was a real event, British, Dutch, +and French traders frequented the coast, opening +markets with their swords, and often turning buccaneers +and sacking a town when not satisfied with +their reception. But the burning of a few coast +hamlets was more than compensated by the advantages +of practical free-trade, and Venezuela owed +much of the prosperity she enjoyed during the +seventeenth century to these semi-pirates. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span> +settlements crept along the Andean valleys to the Colombian +frontier; the Creoles ventured farther and +farther into the wide plains of the Orinoco and their +cattle were soon roaming half-wild in the immense +and luxuriant pastures stretching south of the agricultural +strip. From the mixture of the Indians of +the llanos with Europeans sprang a new race of men, +the semi-nomadic llaneros, whose hardiness, courage, +horsemanship, and prowess as hunters of big game +have given them equal celebrity with the gauchos of +the Argentine, the cossacks of the Russian steppes, +or the Texas cowboys. The buccaneers and smuggling +traders were especially active in the latter +part of the seventeenth century. In 1654 Frenchmen +were repelled in an attack on Cumaná, but in +1669 the Britisher, Morgan, sacked Maracaibo, and +in 1679 the French pillaged Caracas itself. The +paralysis suffered by Spain during the war of the +Spanish Succession nearly destroyed Venezuelan +commerce, and it did not recover with the peace of +Utrecht. Only five ships arrived in the first thirty +years of the eighteenth century, and from 1706 to +1721 not a single vessel sailed for Spain.</p> + +<p>The Spanish government determined to try if +another system would not bring a larger revenue +into the royal treasury. The Guipuzcoa Company +was granted an exclusive franchise to buy and sell in +the colony, and the operations of this powerful corporation +galvanised commerce into a certain activity. +In order to stimulate the receipt of hides, and prevent +the incursions of wild plains Indians, trading +posts were established in the llanos, and soon the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span> +prairies south of Valencia and Caracas rivalled the +Barcelona country in cattle, and the ranches extended +up the Apuré, the great western tributary of +the Orinoco, to the foot of the Colombian Andes. +Meanwhile expeditions penetrated up the Orinoco +from its mouth, and in 1764 the city of Angostura +was established four hundred miles from the sea. +The operations of the Guipuzcoa Company did not +aid in establishing a more friendly understanding +between the home government and the Venezuelan +Creoles. The independent merchants constantly +quarrelled with the company's agents; the low prices +for which they were compelled to sell their stock +outraged the ranch owners; the farmers resented the +monopolisation of tobacco and the restrictions on +sugar-culture; exorbitant prices were demanded +for imported goods. Protests became so loud that +special commissioners were sent from Spain to investigate, +but they gave no satisfactory relief. +Shortly after the foundation of the Guipuzcoa Company, +Venezuela had been raised to the dignity of a +captaincy-general. The increased efficiency of the +administration assisted the monopoly in suppressing +clandestine trading, and the feeling grew to such a +height that in 1749 a Creole leader, named Leon, +menaced Caracas itself at the head of six thousand +armed men, demanding the suppression of the company +and the expulsion of its factors. The captain-general +was forced to yield and the revolutionists +dispersed, but his promise was never redeemed. The +active measures of the company effectually shut off +foreign trading-ships, and the ports were so fortified<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span> +that the British expeditions retired defeated from +the attacks they made in 1739 and 1743 on La Guaira +and Puerto Cabello, although in 1797 they captured +the island of Trinidad and menaced the entrance to +the Orinoco. It was not until 1778, when the Spanish +government finally abandoned the monopolistic +colonial system and opened all the ports of South +America to free commerce with each other and with +Spain, that the Guipuzcoa Company retired from +business. Six years before this the provinces of +Maracaibo, Cumaná, and Guiana—as the lower +Orinoco region was called,—all of which had heretofore +been directly dependent upon the viceroy of +Bogotá, were placed under the jurisdiction of the +captain-general of Caracas, fixing the modern boundaries +of Venezuela.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-d.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-4.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER II</h2> + +<h3>THE REVOLT</h3> + + +<p>Venezuela's conditions during colonial times +produced a people possessing in the clearest +and most accentuated form the characteristics distinctive +of the Spanish Creole. Not more than one +per cent. of the total population of over eight hundred +thousand were native Spaniards; fifteen per +cent. were Creoles of pure European descent; sixty +per cent. were Indian, two-thirds of whom had an +admixture of white blood; and three-fourths of the +twenty-five per cent. of negroes and mulattoes were +free. The majority did not consist of docile, inert, +pure-bred natives as in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and +Paraguay, though the white element was not so large +that the Creoles had ceased to occupy the position +of a governing and property-owning caste who lived +upon the labour of the half-breeds, Indians, and +negroes. They regarded themselves as a superior +class, entitled by birth to exemption from manual +labour, and even considered commercial pursuits +unworthy a gentleman.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 640px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></span> +<img src="images/i358.jpg" width="640" height="424" alt="ANCIENT INDIAN ROCK FOR GRINDING MAIZE." title="" /> +<span class="caption">ANCIENT INDIAN ROCK FOR GRINDING MAIZE.</span> +</div> + +<p>The Spanish government had concerned itself +little with this purely agricultural colony, and its +hand was felt only in the collection of taxes. The +officials were comparatively few, the number of resident +Spaniards small, and neither mutual commercial +interests nor a solid administration existed to +strengthen the flimsy ties that bound Venezuela to +the mother-country. So little had the interference +of the Spanish government been felt since the abolishment +of the Guipuzcoa Company that no well-defined +and widespread sentiment in favour of +separation existed. There was a vague feeling of +dissatisfaction among the masses, but their ignorance +prevented them from forming any rational plans for +the betterment of their condition. However, the +Venezuelan coast is so accessible that the fertilising<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</a></span> +and disturbing currents of trade and ideas had really +profoundly modified the people, and the leaven of unrest +was at work. The wealthier Creoles had imbibed +radical notions and were ambitious of trying their +hands at governing. By heredity, social custom, +and environment indisposed to industry and commerce, +their unemployed activities naturally flowed +into the channel of politics, intrigue, and fighting.</p> + +<p>The first outbreak owed its origin to events in +Spain. In 1796 a republican conspiracy was brought +to light on the Peninsula, and several of its leaders +were exiled to La Guaira. In their prison they +were visited by many prominent Creoles, into whose +minds they inculcated their republican principles, +and it was not long before the existence of an extensive +republican plot among the Creoles of La +Guaira and Caracas was denounced to the captain-general. +Many persons were arrested, and of the +two principals, España expiated his treason on the +scaffold, while the other, Gual, escaped into exile. +But the seed of revolution had been planted, and +many leading Creoles entered into correspondence +with the British authorities on Trinidad, who promised +aid in arms, munitions, and ships. Francisco +Miranda, a native of Caracas, who had fought under +Washington, and distinguished himself at Valmy +and Jemappes as a soldier of the French republic, +planned an invasion with the avowed purpose of +achieving Venezuelan separation from Spain. With +three ships manned by American filibusters he sailed +from New York early in 1806, and attempted to +land at Ocumare, near Puerto Cabello. But the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</a></span> +Spanish authorities had been warned and he was +beaten in a sea-fight where he lost sixty prisoners. +Ten North Americans were condemned by court-martial +and shot in Puerto Cabello, and their names +are inscribed on a monument recently erected in the +principal square of the town. The captain-general +offered thirty thousand dollars for Miranda's head, +but the latter retired to Jamaica, where, with the +help of the British authorities, he organised a force +of five hundred foreigners. Three months later he +made a descent on Coro, effected a landing, and took +the city. But the population remained inert, and +the indifferent or hostile attitude of the region forced +him to withdraw.</p> + +<p>Though the western provinces received Miranda +so coldly, among the Creoles of the upper classes at +Caracas aspirations for constitutional government, +autonomy, and even for independence had made +headway in the ten years since the suppression of +the conspiracy of Gual and España. In 1808 French +commissioners arrived bringing the news of Ferdinand's +expulsion. They were empowered to receive +the allegiance of the colony for Joseph Bonaparte, +but the captain-general hesitated and asked the +advice of leading citizens, who proved unanimous +against recognising the French régime. The captain-general's +vacillation gave the Creoles of the +cabildo a predominance in governmental councils. +Although in the middle of the following year it was +decided to recognise the Seville junta as supreme, +pending Ferdinand's return, this decision was +reached only after many debates, and a numerous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></span> +party among the Creoles saw no reason why Venezuela +should not establish a junta of her own. The +news of the frightful cruelties perpetrated by Goyeneche +in suppressing the junta at La Paz excited +great indignation among Creoles; the anti-Spanish +feeling grew rapidly; and when, on the 19th of +April, 1810, the captain-general summoned an open +cabildo to receive the news that the French armies +had overrun nearly the whole of Spain and that +only Cadiz remained faithful to Ferdinand, the electors +had no sooner met than, excited by suggestions +of ambitious persons, they turned into a mob howling +for the resignation of the captain-general and the +establishment of a Caracas junta. Accordingly a +junta was named which exiled the Spanish functionaries +and sent messages to the provincial capitals +demanding their adhesion. The cities of the mountain +strip extending from Cumaná to the Colombian +Andes responded favourably and sent delegates to +Caracas, while Maracaibo, Coro, and Guiana refused. +As a matter of fact the masses as yet took little interest. +The Caracas revolution was effected by a +few determined spirits, and the adhesion of the +mountain provinces was given by Creole municipal +authorities who saw in the change an opportunity +to better their personal fortunes. Nor was the resistance +of Coro and Maracaibo so much inspired by +love of Spain as by the presence of the resolute, +clear-headed José Ceballos, who gathered troops and +sent emissaries into the revolted provinces. The +Caracas junta responded by raising an army which +marched toward Coro, and the civil war was on.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</a></span></p> + +<p>The news of the massacre of the Ecuadorean +revolutionists at Quito in August, 1810, warned the +junta Creoles that they had engaged in no child's +play. A commission went to London to solicit the +intervention of the British government in reaching +an accommodation with the patriot authorities in +Spain, but the Seville junta declared the Caracas +revolutionists traitors. The commissioners fell under +Miranda's influence and he convinced them that an +open declaration of independence was the only course +left. Meanwhile the troops sent to conquer Coro +had been defeated by Ceballos. Threatened by the +royalist arms, unable to count on the support of +any considerable proportion of the rural population +of even their own provinces, the Creoles of the ruling +coterie proceeded to extreme measures. A congress +met in March and on the 5th of July, 1811, +adopted a declaration of independence, proclaiming +the seven provinces of Cumaná, Barcelona, Caracas, +Barinas, Trujillo, Merida, and Margarita free and +sovereign states. Venezuela was, therefore, the +first independent republic in Spanish America. +Congress adopted a Constitution full of the most +radical reforms and advanced ideas, and a handful +of political theorists and advanced radicals took the +direction of affairs, and imposed their crude theories +on a bewildered and reluctant population. The +ruling clique issued fiat money in immense quantities, +and the resulting disorganisation of business +increased discontent.</p> + +<p>Miranda, who had come from Europe to take +command of military operations, warned them that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</a></span> +the fabric was not strong enough to withstand the +shock of battle, but the eager young reformers persisted. +The clergy and the native Spaniards were +the first to react. Though an outbreak of the +Spaniards in Caracas was bloodily suppressed, the +priests stirred up the people of Valencia, and that +city—the second in the republic—declared against +the Caracas government. Miranda succeeded in +reducing the place only after costly fighting. The +ruling clique did what they could to raise and equip +troops to meet the approaching attacks from Coro +and the West Indies, but their efforts were hampered +by loyalist risings. In February, 1812, Monteverde, +a Spanish leader, marched with a small detachment +south from Coro, and northern Trujillo welcomed +him. Defeating the patriot forces wherever he met +them and refusing quarter to his prisoners, he prepared +to advance eastward on the centre of the +revolution. The junta was already trembling, when, +on the 26th of March, a terrific earthquake devastated +the revolted provinces. The solid ground +rocked with such violent oscillations that in less +than a minute the cities of Caracas, Barquisimeto, +and Merida were mere heaps of ruins. Twelve +thousand persons perished in Caracas alone. The +loyalist provinces escaped injury, and the priests +preached that the earthquake was a punishment sent +by God upon impious rebellion. The people of +Barquisimeto joined Monteverde, and he marched +east, slaughtering the raw recruits with which the +patriot leaders tried to block his way. Merida, +Trujillo, and Barinas declared for the king, and an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></span> +expedition sent from Caracas to the lower Orinoco +was destroyed. Monteverde entered Valencia unopposed +and only the coast from Caracas east to +Cumaná remained to the republic. In despair the +politicians made Miranda dictator, but, though the +army numbered five thousand, he had no confidence +in his men. He signed a capitulation and tried to +fly while his army dispersed or joined the loyalist +forces. On the 30th of July Monteverde entered +Caracas and the first Venezuelan revolution ceased +to exist.</p> + +<p>Among the volunteer officers who had been entrusted +with positions of confidence by Miranda was +a young Creole, named Simon Bolivar. Heir to +some of the largest estates in Venezuela he had been +left an orphan at three years of age, and was educated +by a tutor who filled his marvellously impressible +mind with a crude political philosophy, and +under whose teachings he evolved original theories +of government which all the wars, debates, and +revolutions of his stormy life failed to modify. Preoccupied +with his own ideas, he gave no heed to the +counsels of others, took no thought of obstacles, +and, victor or vanquished, stubbornly followed his +own way, always confident of infallibility and persevering +in the face of difficulties that would have +appalled a rational man. From his earliest childhood +a little feudal lord, owing obedience to no +parent, with hundreds of slaves at his orders, his +precocious intelligence the object of that ruinous +admiration with which thoughtless strangers and +servants spoil a rich and lonely child, his naturally<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span> +strong will uncurbed by any discipline, he grew into +manhood—arrogant, uncompromising, solitary, suspicious, +a deep thinker, wildly ambitious, marvellously +brilliant, though lacking steady common-sense, +blindly confident of his own moral and intellectual +infallibility, firmly convinced that he was destined +for vague great things, inordinately fond of honours +and praise, and absolutely unable to distinguish his +desires of gratifying selfish ambitions, and his yeasty +notions of regenerating mankind. At sixteen he +went to Spain to complete his education; his wealth +procured him an entrance into the aristocratic families +of Madrid; and he even penetrated the precincts +of the ceremonious court and had the honour of +playing ball with the lad who afterwards became +Ferdinand VII. When only eighteen he married a +beautiful girl, who died shortly after he brought her +back to Caracas. For the rest of his life he remained +without family ties. Again he went to +Europe and wandered through England, France, +and Italy, falling more and more under the spell of +the mighty spirit of Napoleon the Great. At the +age of twenty-three Bolivar returned to his native +country and took up his life as a rich slave-owner. +When the revolution broke out in 1810 he took no +part until the junta requested him to go to England +on the embassy previously mentioned. There he +became acquainted with Miranda, and, appreciating +that the South American revolution must be decided +by arms, made up his mind that only as a soldier +could he put himself at the head of affairs in Venezuela. +His first essays in the military art were not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span> +successful, and it was he who lost Puerto Cabello, +giving the first revolution its <i>coup de grâce</i>. But +a situation in which others saw no hope he regarded +as an opportunity, and he resolved to devote his life +to South American independence.</p> + +<p>Bolivar went to Cartagena in Colombia and offered +his sword to the patriot junta which ruled that city. +Given a small military command on the Magdalena +River, he embodied a few militia and surprised two +posts which were obstructing the navigation of the +river. Delighted at these successes, the Cartagena +junta sent him reinforcements, with which he captured +Ocana, an important city lying east of the +Magdalena and not far from Pamplona and the +Venezuelan border. The loyalists had collected a +considerable force in the Venezuelan province of +Barinas, with which they proposed to advance into +Pamplona. The patriot chief of this Colombian +province appealed to Bolivar and this suggested to +him the Napoleonic plan of relieving Pamplona and +reconquering Venezuela. On his own responsibility +he dashed with only four hundred men over the +Andes in front of Ocana, descended into the plain +north of Lake Maracaibo, took the royalists on their +march to Pamplona by surprise, and routed them. +Joined by the patriots from Pamplona, he received +formal authorisation to drive the Spaniards from +the Venezuelan provinces of Merida and Trujillo. +His movements among the mountain valleys were +like lightning flashes, and though the Spanish forces +were more numerous their commanders were demoralised +by his attacks made in defiance of all the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</a></span> +rules of prudent warfare. Within fifty days there +was not an enemy left in the two provinces, and +Bolivar's army had been trebled by enlistments. The +New Granadan government ordered him to pause, +but he paid no heed. Issuing a proclamation that +no quarter would be given, he crossed the mountains +south-west into the province of Barinas, annihilated +the Spanish forces there, and rushing to the +east caught another army of a thousand men near +Valencia and destroyed it. Monteverde had no +time to concentrate his scattered forces, and the +news of this last defeat caused him to flee to the +protection of the fortifications of Puerto Cabello. +Bolivar occupied Valencia and Caracas without +resistance. In a campaign of ninety days, with a +handful of New Granadans and mountaineers from +western Venezuela, he had defeated and dispersed +over four thousand royalists, and conquered the +country from the Andes to the capital.</p> + +<p>Only the lower plains of the Orinoco and the coast +provinces of Maracaibo and Coro remained royalist, +for while Bolivar had been overrunning the west, +another young Creole, Mariño, had led a small expedition +from the island of Margarita, captured +Maturin just east of the mouth of the Orinoco, and +with the military stores found there armed the inhabitants +of Cumaná province, made ripe for revolt +by the cruelties of Monteverde. The Spanish attempts +to recover Maturin by assault were repulsed +with great slaughter, and Mariño followed up his +success by besieging Cumaná. By the time Bolivar +reached Caracas the place was in the last extremities<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[Pg 368]</a></span> +of starvation, and Monteverde's flight was a signal +for its surrender. There were therefore two dictators +in Venezuela, and Mariño sent to Bolivar to +treat about the form of government, but the latter +had determined on a centralised administration with +himself supreme. Mariño refused to agree, and only +the activity of the loyalists prevented a war between +him and Bolivar.</p> + +<p>Monteverde held out in Puerto Cabello, and when +reinforcements arrived from Spain resumed the +offensive. Though Bolivar won a victory at Las +Trincheiras, and was greeted on his return to Caracas +with the title of "Liberator," reaction had in +fact begun. Reports of loyalist movements came +from all sides; Bolivar's power was confined to the +towns; the terrible Boves roused the llaneros and +gathered the nucleus of a formidable army of horsemen. +Ceballos sallied out from Coro and captured +Barquisimeto, utterly defeating Bolivar when the +latter attacked him. Difficulties, however, only +stimulated this remarkable man to fresh exertions. +The patriot leader, Campo Elias, overthrew Boves's +horsemen near Calabozo on the llanos south of Caracas, +killing the prisoners and butchering every man +in the town because it had helped the loyalists. +This cruel deed decided the llaneros for the Spanish +side, and though Bolivar, with the assistance of +Campo Elias's troops, won the pitched battle of +Araure from Ceballos, Boves had escaped to the +plains there to recruit another army of llaneros, +which was destined to expel the Liberator.</p> + +<p>Bolivar was soon reduced to the possession of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</a></span> +Caracas and its neighbouring valleys, with a feeble +reserve at Valencia. Mariño had thirty-five hundred +men, and Bolivar finally agreed to recognise him +as dictator of the eastern provinces as the price of +his help. But their union only put off the evil +day. Boves crushed Campo Elias at La Puerta and +advanced on Caracas. Raging like a trapped wild +beast, Bolivar ordered the wholesale assassination of +eight hundred and sixty-six Spaniards confined at +La Guaira. His desperation inspired his followers, +and when Boves attacked the entrenchments outside +Caracas and rushed the patriot magazine, the young +Granadan who was in command, seeing that the +place could not be held, ordered his men to fly, but +when the loyalists triumphantly rushed into the +building they found him in the act of throwing a +match into the powder. In the explosion eight +hundred of the assaulting column were blown into +the air and the survivors desisted. Mariño was +coming by forced marches from the east along the +plains, and Boves retired to cut him off, while +Ceballos also abandoned the siege of Valencia. +Mariño eluded Boves and beat off one attack. If +the Liberator had concentrated his forces and united +with his colleague the patriots would have stood a +chance, but he sent most of his own troops to recover +the west, joining Mariño with only a few men. +At La Puerta on the 14th of June, 1814, the battle +decisive of the second Venezuelan revolution was +fought. The desperate charges of Boves's llanero +horsemen overwhelmed the patriots, and more +than half their number were left dead on the field.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[Pg 370]</a></span> +Bolivar fled to Caracas, gathered all the money and +jewels, and, encumbered by a great multitude of +fugitives, retreated east. But at Aragua the patriots +were driven out of their trenches with terrific slaughter. +The Liberator took ship at Barcelona with the +intention of making a last stand near the mouth of +the Orinoco, but his comrades had had enough of +him. He was declared a traitor and Rivas put in +command. The remaining patriots managed to repulse +one attack of the royalists, but in a second +they were defeated, and in a third Boves slaughtered +them nearly to the last man, although he himself +was killed in the mêlée. Only a few scattered bands +on the plateaux of Barcelona and the plains of the +upper Orinoco kept up a resistance. The detachment +which Bolivar had so imprudently sent west +before the battle of La Puerta escaped into New +Granada, while the Liberator went by sea to that +country and took service under its government.</p> + +<p>The revolution headed by Bolivar and Mariño had +been crushed by Boves, Morales, and Ceballos with +troops recruited in Venezuela itself. Monteverde's +defeat and Boves's death left Morales master of +Venezuela, and virtually independent of outside +control. But by 1815 Ferdinand was securely on +the throne of Spain, and absolutism had replaced +the Constitution established by the popular leaders +of 1812. The Spanish government determined to +suppress the revolutionists who still maintained +themselves in New Granada and the Argentine, and +to reduce the semi-independent royalist chiefs to a +more exact obedience. In April, Morillo, Spain's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</a></span> +ablest general, arrived near Cumaná at the head of +ten thousand veteran regulars. Morales sailed out +to meet the Marshal and place his troops at his +orders, but the regular officers gazed in astonishment +at the dark-skinned llaneros, wearing only a +hat and a waist-cloth, who were the pillars of royal +authority in Venezuela. At first the Spaniards accepted +the aid of these half-savage allies, but Morillo +lost no time in establishing a military despotism in +which the llanero chiefs had no place. Even more +unpopular was his leaving three thousand Spaniards +to garrison Venezuela while he impressed an equal +number of native troops to accompany him on his +expedition against New Granada. Nearly a third +of the latter deserted rather than embark, and the +attitude of the Spanish officers who were left behind +to rule the country roused the native instinct for +independence.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the scattered bands of patriot guerillas +on the western headwaters of the Orinoco, near the +Granadan border, had been uniting and increasing +in strength. José Antonio Paez, a mixed-blood, +only twenty-six years old, who could neither read +nor write, but of herculean strength and skill in the +use of lance and sword, proved the leader for the +occasion. A small corps in which he was a simple +captain was threatened by the Spanish governor of +Barinas at the head of fourteen hundred men. His +own commander wished to retreat, but Paez persuaded +five hundred reckless fellows to follow him +in a night assault. Leading his men in a furious +charge he bore down the enemy with a rush, killing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</a></span> +four hundred and taking many prisoners, whom he +treated so well that they all joined him. The fame +of his success spread through the llanos and the +rough plainsmen, dissatisfied with the discipline and +routine of the regular Spanish officers, flocked to +the banner of this new chieftain, and he began the +organisation of the army of the Apuré, destined to +be the principal instrument in the redemption of +Venezuela.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[Pg 373]</a></span> +<img src="images/i373.jpg" width="800" height="470" alt="THE PASS OF ANGOSTURA, BOLIVAR CITY." title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE PASS OF ANGOSTURA, BOLIVAR CITY.</span> +</div> + +<p>Meanwhile the guerilla chiefs farther down the +Orinoco made headway against the Spaniards, and +the whole plain turned to the patriot side. Hearing +of these successes, Bolivar resolved to return to +Venezuela. He landed near the mouth of the +Orinoco, but was soon driven thence and took ship +for Ocumare, near Puerto Cabello. From this point +he sent a small expedition inland towards Valencia +under the command of MacGregor, who achieved +some successes against isolated bodies of loyalists, +was joined by many llaneros, and finally made his +way to the plains of Barcelona, while Bolivar was +compelled to re-embark and flee to Hayti. MacGregor +took the city of Barcelona, and then with +the assistance of the negro chief, Piar, who had been +besieging Cumaná, repulsed Morales himself at the +battle of Juncal. By the end of 1816 the patriots +had gained so many advantages that Morillo thought +himself obliged to return to Venezuela at the head +of huge reinforcements. However, the patriot cause +needed a head. The chieftains were rude and ignorant +men with a talent for fighting and nothing more, +while Bolivar was a man of wide and varied +accom<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[Pg 374]</a></span>plishments. In spite of his failures he retained great +prestige among the Creole officers. He was agreed +upon as general-in-chief, and in December landed at +Barcelona. But Piar had led his victorious army +over to the Orinoco, and notwithstanding Bolivar's +entreaties the llaneros persisted in their refusal to +return to a country where cavalry could not manœuvre +to advantage. When Bolivar arrived at Piar's +headquarters near Angostura he appreciated that +the true theatre for a successful war had been +found. In those plains the llanero cavalry, which +formed the bulk of the patriot force, was invincible. +Morillo also realised that the coast would not long +remain tenable if the line of the Orinoco were in the +hands of the patriots, and he sent a regular force of +three thousand men under La Torre down the Apuré +and Orinoco to Angostura, while he himself quickly +made an end of the few insurrectionists who stubbornly +refused to retire from the coast to the llanos. +During one of Bolivar's absences, La Torre offered +Piar battle, and at San Felix, in April, 1817, the +plainsmen annihilated the Spanish infantry.</p> + +<p>Bolivar now went vigorously to work to secure +complete command of the river and soon had quite +a fleet. His ascendancy over his officers increased +daily, and when Piar conspired against him he was +strong enough to have the negro hero arrested and +shot as a traitor. Before the end of 1817 the +patriots were in command of the whole line of the +rivers except the fortress of San Fernando, near +the junction of the Apuré and Orinoco, and Morillo +could do nothing against them because the plains<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[Pg 375]</a></span> +were flooded. When the waters fell in early spring +the royalists achieved some successes, but Bolivar +joined Paez, established a blockade of San Fernando, +and surprised Morillo himself near Calabozo. Against +Paez's advice he now insisted on making a campaign +for the recovery of Caracas, but was badly defeated +by the marshal at La Puerta—a spot for the third +time the scene of a patriot downfall. Though Paez +had captured San Fernando his expedition into the +mountain country was no more successful than Bolivar's, +and the two retreated to the river to raise +fresh troops. Morales followed the patriots to the +Apuré, but was in his turn repulsed by Paez, giving +Bolivar a breathing spell.</p> + +<p>The Liberator's position was desperate; his infantry +had been destroyed; his cavalry reduced in +numbers; his men were nearly without arms; his +ammunition exhausted. Ill-considered movements +had turned the brilliant situation in which he had +found patriot affairs a year before into the gloomiest +sort of an outlook. On the other hand, a defensive +campaign in the llanos could be kept up indefinitely, +and though Morillo had twelve thousand men in the +populous mountain provinces north of the plains, +he also was without money, arms, and supplies. As +he reported to the Peruvian viceroy: "Twelve +pitched battles in which the best officers and troops +of the enemy have fallen, have not lowered their +pride or lessened the vigour of their attacks." +With that indomitable energy which more than +compensated for his inferiority as a strategist, Bolivar +set to work to create a new army. Cavalry of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[Pg 376]</a></span> +most admirable sort could be recruited in sufficient +numbers among the llaneros, but bitter experience +had convinced him that against Spanish regulars the +native infantry stood little chance. The cessation +of the Napoleonic wars had left thousands of European +veterans without employment, and Bolivar +contracted for a few thousand Britishers and Irishmen, +paying a bounty of eighty dollars per man on +enlistment and promising five hundred dollars at +the conclusion of the war. Some of these troops +arrived opportunely late in 1818, and, few as their +numbers were, no soldiers in South America could +stand against them.</p> + +<p>In October Bolivar issued a proclamation foreshadowing +the union of Venezuela and New Granada. +In the midst of defeat, with all of both +countries except the thinly populated Orinoco plains +in possession of the Spaniards, he was confidently +planning the creation of a great empire. Morillo +opened the campaign of 1819 by advancing with +over six thousand men against Paez on the upper +Orinoco. The Creole's four thousand were mostly +cavalry, and he had learned better than to risk a +pitched battle. The Spanish columns were harassed +beyond endurance by his light horsemen, and after +weeks of heartbreaking marches Morillo had to retire, +having accomplished nothing.</p> + +<p>From Bolivar's erratic genius now emanated a +great stroke of strategy. West of the plains of the +Apuré and Casanare, tributaries of the upper Orinoco, +rises the giant range of the Cordillera and on +its top lay the fertile plateaux of Socorro, Tunja,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[Pg 377]</a></span> +and Bogotá, the populous heart of New Granada. +For three years the Spaniards had been in secure +possession and all except three thousand troops +had been drafted for service in Venezuela and Peru. +A small Spanish force came down from Tunja to +attack the patriot guerillas in Casanare, and was +repulsed. Where the enemy could go he could follow, +reasoned Bolivar. Paez's cavalry had proved +itself amply able to hold the llanos, so no risk to +Venezuela would be incurred by temporarily withdrawing +part of the infantry. With two thousand +natives and five hundred British the Liberator followed +up the Orinoco, Meta, and Casanare to the +latter's sources at the foot of the Paya pass, which +leads directly into the fertile valley of Sagamoso, +the heart of Tunja province. This pass is high and +very difficult, although the distance to be traversed +was only eighty miles. The road was a mere track +leading along precipices, crossing and recrossing +mountain torrents, and the rain fell incessantly as +the patriots struggled up the slippery path. When +they reached the higher regions a hundred men perished +with the cold, and not a horse survived. The +army arrived at Sagamoso in a pitiable condition, +but without seeing an enemy except an outpost, +which was easily dislodged.</p> + +<p>Not knowing Bolivar's numbers, Barreiro, the +Spanish commander, dared not attack, and the +Liberator thus obtained a much-needed opportunity +to rest his men and gather horses for his dismounted +cavalry. As soon as he got his army in hand he +outmanœuvred Barreiro and by a rapid march<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[Pg 378]</a></span> +captured the city of Tunja, where he found a good +store of arms and material. This movement also +placed the patriot army between the Spaniards and +Bogotá. Barreiro, seeing himself cut off from his +base, made a desperate dash for the capital, but +Bolivar knew the enemy's route and took up a position +directly across his path on the right bank of the +small river Boyacá. Though the patriots were only +slightly superior in numbers, the Spaniards had to +attack at a disadvantage, and fled completely defeated +after losing a hundred men. Practically +their whole force was dispersed or made prisoners. +Small as were the numbers engaged and easily as it +was won, Boyacá was the most important battle +fought in northern Spanish America. Central New +Granada, the wealthiest and most populous part of +the country, fell into Bolivar's hands without a +further blow. Its revenues relieved his financial +difficulties and among its sturdy inhabitants he +recruited a new army. Morillo, now isolated in +Venezuela, must expect an attack from the llaneros, +reinforced by the Granadan mountaineers.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[Pg 379]</a></span> +<img src="images/i379.jpg" width="600" height="784" alt="ROAD NEAR MACUTO." title="" /> +<span class="caption">ROAD NEAR MACUTO.</span> +</div> + +<p>During the Liberator's absence from Venezuela +he had been branded as a traitor for abandoning his +country without the authorisation of congress, and +Mariño made commander-in-chief. But the news +of Boyacá fell like a thunderbolt among the disaffected, +and his return in December quelled them +utterly. No opposition was made when he announced +that Venezuela and New Granada were +united into a single republic, the United States of +Colombia, with himself as president and military +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[Pg 380]</a></span> +dictator. The year 1820 passed without any decisive +campaign. Bolivar occupied himself principally +in recruiting and refitting his armies. Twelve +hundred Irish mercenaries arrived and were incorporated +with an army which was sent by sea to +threaten the Spaniards in Cartagena, and co-operate +with the New Granadans on the lower Magdalena. +A strong division of Venezuelans was sent against +Quito. Paez with the main army of the Apuré was, +however, repulsed in an advance into Barinas. In +spite of this success Morillo could only lie inactive +south of Caracas. His forces were not numerous +enough both to retake New Granada and to hold +northern Venezuela. But word came that Ferdinand +was preparing an army of twenty thousand men +which would shortly sail from Cadiz for America, +and with this reinforcement the marshal believed he +could destroy all the patriot armies. The revolution +which broke out in Spain in 1820 against Ferdinand's +absolute government overturned his hopes. +The expedition never sailed, and the new liberal +government showed itself disposed to make terms +with the revolted colonies. In November a six +months' armistice was arranged pending the despatch +of peace commissioners to the mother-country, +and Morillo resigned in favour of La Torre.</p> + +<p>Bolivar's lieutenants respected the armistice only +where convenient, and shamelessly continued warlike +operations, wresting the New Granadan coast +from the Spaniards, beginning the siege of Cartagena, +and encouraging a revolt in the province of +Maracaibo. When La Torre declared the armistice<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[Pg 381]</a></span> +at an end late in April, 1821, Bolivar had twenty +thousand men in the field disposed in five armies. +Montilla was besieging Cartagena with three thousand; +one Granadan army held the valley of the +Magdalena; another was operating against Ecuador; +Bermudez with two thousand men threatened Caracas +from the east; and Bolivar and Paez at the head +of nine thousand men were ready to advance directly +from the Orinoco on Valencia and Caracas. To +these forces La Torre could only oppose nine thousand +troops besides his garrisons. The moment the +armistice was formally terminated Bolivar started +straight for La Torre. The latter had made the +fatal mistake of dividing his forces, and had only +about three thousand men drawn up on the wide +plain of Carabobo, at the northern foot of the passes +which lead through the mountains from the llanos +to the Valencia plateau. Bolivar's six thousand +captured the passes, but he could not deploy his +infantry on the flat ground in front except at the +risk of having them cut to pieces. On June 23, +1821, he detached the British legion of one thousand +men and fifteen hundred cavalry under Paez around +to the left to take the Spaniards in flank. The +charge of the llanero horse was driven back by +the musket fire, but the pursuing Spaniards were +checked by the steady Englishmen, who stood in +their tracks and withstood the fire of the whole Spanish +army. Their ammunition was soon exhausted; +no help came from Bolivar; all seemed to be over +with them; a second cavalry charge was as unsuccessful +as the first; and the surviving Britishers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[Pg 382]</a></span> +made up their minds to carry the enemy's position +or perish. Their commander had fallen; the +colours changed bearers seven times; still they kept +their formation as steadily as if on parade, and bayonet +in hand rushed on the Spaniards, who outnumbered +them four to one. For a brief time the +struggle was fierce and the result doubtful, but cold +steel in the hands of such a desperate, forlorn hope +was too much for the Spaniards. They began to +give ground and at last broke and fled. The llanero +horse rode them down, and only a remnant escaped +to the shelter of Puerto Cabello. Bolivar entered +Caracas acclaimed—and this time justly—as the +liberator of his country.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the constituent congress of the new +republic of Colombia had met at Cucutá, a town +near the limits of Venezuela and New Granada. It +was composed entirely of civilians and lawyers and +proved to be radically republican and opposed to +Bolivar's anti-democratic theories. Though a centralised +government was adopted, congress rejected +the life presidency and hereditary senate, and abolished +the military dictatorship by providing that the +commander-in-chief, when on active service, should +leave his political functions in the hands of the vice-president. +Bolivar made a pretence of declining the +presidency, but yielded to the importunities of congress +and continued in command of the army on the +terms proposed, stipulating, however, that he be +allowed to organise as he saw fit the provinces he +might conquer in the rest of South America.</p> + +<p>The Spaniards now held only Puerto Cabello and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[Pg 383]</a></span> +Cumaná, but no progress was made toward driving +them out of these positions during the remainder of +1821, nor until after Bolivar had, early in 1822, left +for the south to co-operate with Sucré in the conquest +of Quito. In October Cumaná surrendered +to Bermudez, but from Puerto Cabello Morales led +an expedition which reconquered Maracaibo and +Coro. He was unable to hold them and the defeat +of his squadron on Lake Maracaibo in July, 1823, +forced him to surrender. On the 8th of November +Puerto Cabello was taken by assault and the long +war for Venezuela's independence was over.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-b.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[Pg 384]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-2.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER III</h2> + +<h3>MODERN VENEZUELA</h3> + + +<p>In 1822 Bolivar departed bent on the conquest of +Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, leaving a New +Granadan vice-president as ruler of the great Colombian +republic, of which Venezuela was merely one +division. The massacres and sackings of ten bloody +years had depopulated and impoverished Venezuela, +and the cost of maintaining the army and aiding +Bolivar in his foreign contests drained its exhausted +resources. The educated Creoles, especially powerful +in the agricultural regions near the coast, saw no +place for themselves in Bolivar's centralising system. +They wanted to control the offices in their own +localities, and did not relish the establishment of a +bureaucracy in which appointments and promotions +would be settled at Bogotá. The predominant +radical French ideas added force to the sentiment of +local independence. The theorists were offended by +Bolivar's manifest predilection toward aristocratic +forms and the favours which he granted the clergy. +Most dangerous of all, jealousy of the Liberator was +rife among the generals.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[Pg 385]</a></span></p> + +<p>Paez had been left at the head of military affairs +in Venezuela and soon after the capture of Puerto +Cabello he became involved in quarrels with the +municipal authorities. The llanero general recked +little of the arguments of the lawyers, and carried +things with a high hand. In 1826, when the Bogotá +government sent an order for the organisation of +militia, he filled the measure to overflowing, and the +municipality of Caracas made a formal complaint to +the central government. A decree for his suspension +was issued, but a riot in the streets terrorised +the cabildo and he was replaced in power as a sort +of dictator. This amounted to a destruction of the +influence of the central Colombian government in +Venezuelan affairs. Many cities raised the standard +of rebellion and made themselves virtually independent. +Bolivar hastened back from Peru to reduce +his old companion in arms to obedience. He cajoled +Paez into temporary co-operation, subdued +most of the revolted cities, and, seeing that his +system could not be sustained without coercion, +assumed a dictatorship. But the news that Peru +had revolted destroyed his dream of a continent-wide +dominion, and the demand for local autonomy +continued so strong throughout Venezuela and New +Granada that he was forced to call a national assembly +to amend the Constitution on the basis of a +compromise. In spite of Bolivar's intrigues nearly +half the elected delegates staid away, and a majority +of those who presented themselves at Ocana, in +March, 1828, though chosen under the pressure of +his influence, opposed his measures.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[Pg 386]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 640px;"> +<img src="images/i386.jpg" width="640" height="430" alt="ENTRANCE OF PUERTO CABELLO IN 1870." title="" /> +<span class="caption">ENTRANCE OF PUERTO CABELLO IN 1870.</span> +</div> + +<p>The minority who favoured him withdrew at his +suggestion, leaving the congress without a quorum. +It dissolved and the Liberator visited Caracas, Cartagena, +and Bogotá, calling popular assemblies whose +deliberations were directed by bayonets and which +obediently besought him to save the country from +anarchy in his own way. He issued a decree virtually +abolishing the Cucutá Constitution, but a conspiracy +to assassinate him was formed at Bogotá in +the fall of 1828, and he was saved only by the devotion +of his mistress, who stood in the way of the +midnight assassins, giving him time to jump from a +window and escape. He took a fearful vengeance +on the conspirators and banished his worst political +enemies, but the incident failed to turn public senti<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[Pg 387]</a></span>ment +in his favour, and it was in vain that he exhibited +himself as a martyr. His old friend, General +Cordoba, headed an unsuccessful insurrection in the +province of Antioquia; insurgents rose in Popayan +and Rio Negro, and towards the end of 1829, in +Bolivar's native city, Caracas, an assembly of one +thousand generals, public functionaries, and prominent +citizens announced that Venezuela would shortly +separate from Colombia and called upon Paez to +assume a dictatorship. The Liberator struggled +vainly against the rising tide of federalism; the +country was at heart opposed to Cæsarism and +union; he had been unable to convince the Creoles +of the advisability of providing a strong centralised +government; and his only supporters were personal +ones. Bitterly protesting that he was falsely charged +with aspiring to mount a throne, and insisting that +his real ambition had been only to secure the perpetuity +of the Colombian union and establish an +ordered government, he offered his resignation. +Congress, however, contained many of his friends +and hesitated at coming to an open breach. He +was re-elected and made one last effort to enforce +the obedience of Venezuela. But the troops he +raised in New Granada did not dare to attack Paez, +who with superior forces was waiting in an impregnable +position near the frontier. Sick and discouraged, +the Liberator renewed his resignation—this +time in earnest—and retired to the seacoast, where +a few months later he died of a wasting sickness at +the early age of forty-seven. Though his courage, +energy, and sublime persistence and self-confidence<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[Pg 388]</a></span> +had been the chief factors in securing South American +independence, those qualities proved utterly +inadequate to hold in check the unruly ambitions of +the Creoles. He died clearly foreseeing the decades +of anarchy which lay before the northern countries +of the continent. "I blush to admit it," he said to +congress on the eve of his fall, "but independence +is the only benefit we have achieved, and that has +been at the cost of all others." On his death-bed +he wrote: "Our Constitutions are books, our laws +papers, our elections combats, and life itself a torment. +We shall arrive at such a state that no +foreign nation will condescend to conquer us, and +we shall be governed by petty tyrants."</p> + +<p>The Venezuelan federalists had not waited for +Bolivar's death to complete the formal separation +from Colombia. In May, 1830, a constituent congress +assembled which named Paez dictator and +notified Bogotá that the country regarded itself as +absolutely independent. But Bolivar had partisans +and the ruling clique enemies. The eastern provinces +refused to recognise Paez's authority and the +whole country was soon under arms. But Bolivar's +death and the virtual recognition of Venezuela's independence +by New Granada brought about a treaty +between Paez and Monagas, the chief of the insurrection. +The Creole aristocracy came to a working +understanding with the generals, and little cliques +in each city supported the central government as +long as they were recognised as dominant in their +own localities. Naturally the ignored outsiders +were dissatisfied and plotted to overthrow these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[Pg 389]</a></span> +oligarchies. In May, 1831, a revolution broke out +in Caracas which menaced nothing less than the extermination +of the property-holding classes, but it +was suppressed and its leaders executed. On paper +the form of government was most liberal, congress +abolishing the tobacco monopoly and many odious +taxes inherited from Spanish times, proclaiming religious +freedom, and adopting a Constitution very +similar to that of the United States. But in practice +the conservative cliques had things their own way. +Though ambitious chiefs headed insurrections from +time to time, they were all bought off or defeated, +and Paez continued president until 1835, leaving +the country in a condition of comparative order and +prosperity.</p> + +<p>Doctor Vargas, a civilian, succeeded him, but +against him the generals revolted, declaring Mariño +dictator. Carujo, the soul of the insurrection, said, +in the act of making the president and his ministers +prisoners, "Doctor Vargas, the world belongs to the +strongest," and the latter nobly replied, "No, the +world belongs to the just," résuméing in a word +the conflict between force and law, between unbridled +ambition and the necessity for order, which +has desolated Venezuela to this day and which will +last until the selfish elements learn that their own +true interests would best be served by promoting +the prosperity of the whole people—by relying upon +their own industry rather than on chances to despoil +the producing classes. The government party appealed +to Paez, and the llanero general accepted the +command. His prestige with the common people<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[Pg 390]</a></span> +and the army enabled him to gather forces with +which he overcame the revolted generals after eight +months of bloody civil war. Vargas was recalled +from exile, but after a short time refused to continue +in the presidency, and his place was taken by +the vice-president, Doctor Narvarte. In 1839 Paez +was again made president, and was succeeded in +1842 by General Soublette, another of the heroes of +the war of independence. Until 1846 there was +comparative tranquillity in Venezuela. The population +had decreased by a fifth during the Spanish +wars, being estimated at six hundred and fifty thousand +in 1825, but within the succeeding twenty +years it grew to a million and a quarter. Cacao, +coffee, and sugar became important articles of export +and made the landed proprietors rich. With +the cessation of warlike operations on the plains, +cattle rapidly multiplied, the first waggon roads were +built, and a bank was established.</p> + +<p>In 1846 an anti-Creole insurrection broke out +among the men of colour, and Paez was again invested +with dictatorial powers. When he had completed +his work he installed Monagas as president. +Popular irritation against the ruling conservative +coterie was, however, profound and Monagas quarrelled +with congress, and sent his soldiers to break +up its meetings. Paez took up arms again and tried +to expel his nominee, but was defeated, and for the +next nine years Monagas and his brother alternated +in the presidency. Though raised to power by the +conservative party they abandoned it and before +1850 had thrown themselves into the arms of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[Pg 391]</a></span> +liberals, or federalists. Extravagant powers were +granted to the states; the provincial coteries ran +their localities to suit themselves; the ties binding +the different parts of the country together were +weakened; an elaborate and confused set of taxes, +national, provincial, and municipal, well-nigh choked +commerce out of existence. More and more liberty +was conceded to the states and municipalities, and, +on paper, to the individual also. Slavery was abolished +in 1854.</p> + +<p>Revolutions broke out from time to time, and +finally, in 1858, the so-called conservatives overthrew +the Monagas régime. But they immediately +divided into warring groups, and their new Constitution +proved too centralising to suit the Creole +politicians. The liberals hoisted the banner of federalism +and several provinces rose in revolt. Under +the leadership of Pedro Gual the conservatives were, +however, victorious, but they again split to pieces, +and Gual himself went over to the liberals. A revolution +in Caracas brought back old General Paez, +who assumed a dictatorship and tried to re-establish +the power of the central government. But it was +impossible. Many disappointed conservatives had +turned federalist. No politician seemed willing to +submit to any administration unless he was a member +of it. The struggle had degenerated into a mere +selfish contest for power, and the terms liberal and +conservative, federalist and unitarian, had ceased +to have any real relation to the opinions of the persons +who bore these appellations. General Falcon, +with Guzman Blanco as lieutenant, led a successful<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[Pg 392]</a></span> +insurrection in Coro and made himself undisputed +master of a considerable portion of the country. +The province of Maracaibo formally declared itself +separated from all connection with Caracas. For +three years civil war raged, when finally Paez gave +up and Falcon assumed direction of the exhausted +country. On only one thing had the rapid succession +of dictators, provincial and national, been +agreed,—the increase of taxes. Import duties had +been raised to such a point that commerce could +stand no more. But in spite of the enormous sums +wrung from merchant, producer, and consumer, the +treasury was empty, for the local chiefs openly took +possession of the receipts of the custom-houses in +their respective districts, and diversions of public +funds to private use were the rule among all ranks of +officials.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 419px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[Pg 393]</a></span> +<img src="images/i393.jpg" width="419" height="640" alt="VENEZUELAN SOLDIER OF 1870." title="" /> +<span class="caption">VENEZUELAN SOLDIER OF 1870.</span> +</div> + +<p>Falcon's success meant the definite triumph of unrestrained +federalism. The twenty states into which +the seven old provinces had been divided in the +effort to provide enough offices to go around, became +in law sovereign; the presidential term was +reduced to two years; absolute liberty of the press +was permitted, and the right of meeting for any +purpose guaranteed. Imprisonment for debt, the +death penalty, and religious instruction in the +schools were all abolished. During the five years +that Falcon was the chief political figure affairs in +Venezuela grew worse and worse. State after state +burst into revolution. Falcon sometimes whipped +the insurrectionists and sometimes bought them off, +but more often was unable to secure even a +sem<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[Pg 394]</a></span>blance of obedience except by conceding everything. +National penury reached the limit, the states collected +and pocketed the dues in most of the custom-houses, +officials were in regular partnership with +smugglers, and finally the feeble ghost of a federal +administration simply flickered out of existence +because it could pay nobody.</p> + +<p>A chief of the so-called unitarian party was declared +president in 1868, but Guzman Blanco, now +the undisputed head of the federalists, retook Caracas +in 1870 and installed himself as dictator. He +proved the strongest and most tenacious man who +had yet come to the front. With a terrific insurrection +raging against him, he concentrated all powers +in his own hands, suppressed the peculations of +his agents, and relentlessly dragged the half-breeds +and negroes into his armies. He finally put down +all his enemies and in 1873 was installed as constitutional +president. Until 1889 he virtually reigned +over Venezuela. Though occasionally he might +allow some one else to be elected president, after a +short interval he would find a pretext for intervention +and oust his nominee. Though the Constitution +was left substantially unamended, he interpreted it +as he pleased. He organised a regular machine +through which he governed the "sovereign" states, +taking care that none but his creatures should become +governors and that the members returned to +congress should be docile. To all intents and purposes +his will was the law of the land, for the legislative +and judicial departments were his instruments, +and his executive decrees covered nearly every im<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[Pg 395]</a></span>aginable +subject. The minutest details of commercial +and social life were regulated, the clergy owed +their positions to the dictator, and even private +property was not safe if Blanco took a fancy to it. +But in the main his tyranny was intelligent. The +country escaped the desolating outbreaks of local +chiefs, with forced loans wrung from property owners +and merchants, the seizure of cattle and coffee +for "war purposes," and the lassoing of peons to +serve in the armed bands. Though the taxes imposed +by Blanco were enormously heavy, the marvellous +productive forces of the soil could stand +almost any burden provided its amount were certain +and its collection regular. Though the dictator +withdrew millions for his private use, depositing +them in Paris against the evil day of his expulsion, +indiscriminate exactions by subordinates were suppressed. +Large sums were spent on public works +and buildings, and the beautification of the city of +Caracas, one of the handsomest and best-built cities +in America, dates from Guzman Blanco's time. +Nearly five hundred miles of railroad were constructed. +The country was given and has retained +the inestimable blessing of a stable currency, and +the coffee and cacao businesses increased enormously. +The number of cattle, which the civil wars +prior to 1870 had reduced to one million four hundred +thousand, increased sevenfold in fifteen years.</p> + +<p>But Blanco's system was anomalous and rested on +no secure foundation. The commercial and property-holding +classes abstained from politics, the +people became tired of his busybody tyranny, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[Pg 396]</a></span> +peons were still an inert and ignorant mass, harmless +by themselves, but furnishing a tempting recruiting +ground for ambitious revolutionists. Nor had the +Creole politicians changed their nature. There were +plenty of talented adventurers whose mouths fairly +watered seeing the immense fortune Blanco was accumulating, +and who only waited a favourable opportunity +to conquer a share in the spoils. The +successful outbreak came in 1889, headed by Rojas +Paul. His success was a signal for other chiefs to +imitate his example. Resolute leaders hastily organised +bands of peons, and the old story of pronunciamentos, +kidnappings of peaceful peasants, +attacks, surprises, forced loans, and all the demoralising +and disintegrating horrors of civil war were repeated. +Paul was overthrown by Andueza, and in +1892 Crespo got to the head of affairs and held +power long enough to accumulate a respectable +fortune. Andrade succeeded Crespo, but had to +divide the spoils with his predecessor. The disturbances +did not become of a character to injure +seriously Venezuela's commerce and production +until 1896, but there then began a rapid decline in +the value of her exports. The government's revenues +diminished a third and amounted to less than +half the expenditures. The debt grew to alarming +figures and the guaranteed interest on foreign capital +employed in building railroads was allowed to +fall into arrear. In 1899, Castro, a man hitherto +unknown in politics, started an insurrection against +Andrade in the western state of Los Andes. +Marching from one town to another his army grew<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[Pg 397]</a></span> +like a rolling snowball by forced enlistments, and +though the sturdy hillmen did not know what they +were fighting for and would gladly have been at +home, they showed all the stolid bravery that seems +inborn in their race. The government troops could +not stand against them, and Castro finally entered +Caracas in triumph. Though insurrection after insurrection +has broken out against him, the dauntless +courage with which he leads his men has enabled +him to maintain himself. The successful South +American revolutionist must be willing to risk losing +his own life, for so long as he leads he will be followed, +but his cowardice or death means a rapid +dissolution of his forces.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 785px;"> +<img src="images/i397.jpg" width="785" height="600" alt="VENEZUELAN GUERILLAS." title="" /> +<span class="caption">VENEZUELAN GUERILLAS.</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[Pg 398]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 742px;"> +<img src="images/s-398.jpg" width="742" height="600" alt="ECUADOR COLOMBIA AND VENEZUELA" title="" /> +<span class="caption">ECUADOR COLOMBIA AND VENEZUELA</span> +<p class="center"><a href="images/map-398.jpg">Click here for a larger image</a></p> +</div> + +<p>Though the solidity acquired by the Venezuelan +commercial and financial structure during the long +years of Blanco's reign has prevented the country +from reverting into the anarchy which prevailed before +1873, and though the spirit of federalism is not +so rampant and the chieftains aspire rather to a control +of the whole country than to power confined to +their own localities, the recent civil wars have disorganised +the finances. Internal production has +been hampered and external obligations have been +deferred—the latter with serious consequences. +Anti-foreign sentiment, already raised to a threatening +height by the boundary dispute with British +Guiana—a long-standing matter which was happily +settled by arbitration after menacing a serious rupture +between the United States and Great Britain,—was +further exacerbated by the blockade of Venezuelan +ports and the destruction of the Venezuelan +navy by the joint fleets of Germany, England, and +Italy in 1902—measures to which the European +governments had been incited by the failure of +Venezuela to settle claims of their citizens. In the +face of this foreign war the civil conflicts were interrupted, +and President Castro empowered the American +minister to negotiate for the submission of the +claims to arbitration. To the weight of the sentiment +that international money claims should not be +enforced by warlike measures was added the existence +of a current of opinion in the United States +which favoured arbitration as in this instance +certainly the best method of adjustment. The +temporary occupation of ports on American soil by +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[Pg 399]</a></span>European powers might give the latter a military +hold in the western continent which would embarrass +and complicate more important relations. The +submission was quickly and amicably arranged, the +claims of the citizens of other countries are to be +ascertained at the same time, and the matter is now +before The Hague international tribunal.</p> + +<p>By a resolution of congress General Castro is empowered +to hold the office of president for six years +from 1902. Bitter and costly as have been the +experiences through which Venezuela has passed +during the last twelve years, the vast majority of the +intelligent and property-holding classes realise more +clearly than outsiders possibly can that internal +stability will alone ensure the commercial development +of the country; that Venezuela united is far +more likely to prosper than if separated into always +jealous and often warring provinces. The mass of +the people are industrious and peaceable. Real +progress has been made since the time of Bolivar in +the almost impossible task of adjusting republican +forms and procedure to a people who by inheritance +and tradition knew nothing of the difficult art of +self-government. It cannot fairly be said that Venezuela +as yet sees her way clear to a solution of the +problem, but her commercial statistics for the last +thirty years prove that her people have acquired industrial +capacity, and the history of other Spanish-American +countries shows that the power for evil of +the turbulent military class may perish once for all +with startling suddenness when the right stage in +national development is reached.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[Pg 400]</a></span></p> + + +<div class="bbt"> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[Pg 401]</a></span></p> +<h1><a name="COLOMBIA" id="COLOMBIA"></a>COLOMBIA</h1> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[Pg 402]</a></span></p> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[Pg 403]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-5.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<h3>CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT</h3> + + +<p>When Alonso de Ojeda coasted along the +Venezuelan shore in the spring of 1499 he +stopped short just west of the Gulf of Maracaibo, +near the present boundary between Venezuela and +Colombia. The following year Rodrigo Bastida +doubled the Goajira peninsula and pursued his voyage +to the west, catching sight of the giant snowclad +mountains of Santa Marta and of the low land +which lies between them and the sea. Coming to +the mouth of a great river on the day sacred to Saint +Magdalene, he named it the Magdalena, and farther +to the south-west found the fine harbour where the +city of Cartagena now stands. At the head of the +Gulf of Darien he came to another great river, +the Atrato, and here his explorations stopped.</p> + +<p>More than a year later the great Columbus himself, +on his fourth and last voyage, sighted the +Central American coast at Cape Gracias á Dios, near +the present boundary between Nicaragua and Honduras. +Thence he sailed south-east along a pestilential +shore for eight hundred miles, finally arriving near<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[Pg 404]</a></span> +the point where Bastida had left off his explorations. +It is said that Bartholomew Columbus founded a +settlement on the Atlantic shore of the Isthmus, but +it was soon destroyed by the neighbouring Indians. +The long stretch of coast was unfit for the abode +of Europeans, but the Indians had gold in abundance, +and the Spaniards were satisfied that the interior +was full of mines. Hundreds of fortunate +adventurers had accumulated fortunes in the placers +of Hayti, and with a view of repeating their successes +on the mainland, Alonso de Ojeda solicited +and obtained from the Spanish Crown the grant of +the territory from Goajira to the Atrato, while Diego +de Nicuesa was given the coast from the Atrato to +Cape Gracias á Dios. In 1510 one of Ojeda's lieutenants +founded a town called Sebastian on the +eastern shore of the Gulf of Darien. The Indians +soon destroyed it, but Antigua was established +across the gulf. This place was in fact on the +Isthmus of Panama, and not much more than one +hundred miles from the Pacific Ocean, of which the +Spaniards then knew nothing. Among the military +adventurers who had followed Ojeda to Darien were +Nuñez de Balboa and Francisco Pizarro. In 1511 +the former went a short distance into the interior +looking for gold, and fell in with an Indian chief +who told him that only a few leagues south lay a +great sea whose shores were inhabited by numerous +rich and civilised nations. Two years later he headed +an expedition from Antigua which resulted in the +epoch-making discovery which has immortalised his +name. As the band of Spaniards approached the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[Pg 405]</a></span> +line of hills from which the natives told them they +could see the mysterious ocean, Balboa hastened +ahead of his men and was the first to catch a +glimpse, but in the headlong rush for the honour of +first touching its waters he was beaten by Alonso +Martin and that lean and tireless soldier who was +afterwards to conquer Peru—Francisco Pizarro.</p> + +<p>The Pacific side of the Isthmus proved to be +more healthful and habitable than the marshy shores +of the Atlantic, and the settlers at Antigua were +soon driven by fevers and dysenteries, torrential +rains and sweltering heat, to the more healthful +region of Panama. Nicuesa likewise had been able +to do nothing with his long stretch of Isthmian and +Central American coast. Nombre de Dios, not far +from the present site of Colon, was the only town +which he succeeded in establishing, and that maintained +itself only as landing-place on the way to +Panama. To this day the Caribbean coast from the +Atrato delta as far as Gracias á Dios is practically +uninhabited by white men; on the site of Antigua +there is left not a trace; the Indians in its neighbourhood +are still independent savages; and the +north shore of the Isthmus has been a hospital and +a grave for successive generations of white men +during four hundred years. Only its position at +the strategical gate to the great South Sea has induced +men to go to its noisome shores.</p> + +<p>The Isthmian settlements were, as they remain, +separated from the continent of South America by +the deep and broad valley of the Atrato, where the +rainfall is the greatest known, and whose dense<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[Pg 406]</a></span> +tropical forests are uninhabitable and practically impassable. +No land communication exists between +Panama and Colombia proper. However, the coast +east of the Atrato delta is dryer, and at Santa Marta, +beyond the mouth of the Magdalena and at the foot +of the great outlying mountain mass of Colombia's +north-eastern peninsula, was founded in 1525 the first +permanent settlement in Colombia proper. It was +nothing more than a kidnapping station, whence +expeditions scoured the interior for slaves to be sold +to the Haytian gold mines. Meanwhile from Coro, +established two years later, on the eastern side of +Maracaibo Gulf, murdering and slaughtering expeditions +were sent across the gulf, returning to Venezuela +after making a circuit among the mountains +lying south of Maracaibo Bay. Later these expeditions +from Coro penetrated over these mountains, +reaching the llanos of the Apuré and finally +the plains of Casanare lying east of Bogotá, which +now belong to Colombia.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[Pg 407]</a></span> +<img src="images/i407.jpg" width="800" height="535" alt="OLDEST FORTRESS IN AMERICA, AT CARTAGENA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">OLDEST FORTRESS IN AMERICA, AT CARTAGENA.</span> +</div> + +<p>The exploring parties from Santa Marta and +Coro, and information picked up along the coast, +gave the Spaniards a pretty fair idea of the geography +of the interior, and the existence of immense +quantities of gold and of civilised nations living on +the high plateaux was verified from many sources. +The conquest of the fertile and salubrious interior +of Colombia was effected from three distinct centres,—Cartagena +and Santa Marta on the Caribbean +coast, and Quito on the Ecuador table-land. Serious +colonisation began with Heredia's foundation of +Cartagena in 1533. The new leader set vigorously +to work to establish himself firmly on the magnificent +harbour and seek for gold. Cortes' and Pizarro's +marvellous successes had brought a multitude +of adventurers to the new world, all of whom were +eager for a share in the spoils of the yet independent +Indian kingdoms. Heredia found the rocky +hills which rise not far south of Cartagena full of +profitable gold washings, and the Indians reported +that only a short distance in the interior, where the +mountains rose higher, there was a region called +Zenufana which produced the precious metal far +more abundantly. Their story was true, and Zenufana +was none other than the present state of Antioquia, +which has produced hundreds of millions of +dollars of gold. No time was lost in starting on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[Pg 408]</a></span> +search. Heredia's first expedition penetrated to +the headwaters of the river Sinu, which flows into +the Caribbean not far south-west of Cartagena, and +though successful in finding gold he was unable to +force his way over the high sierra of Abibe, the +most northern bulwark of the great Maritime Cordillera, +which barred his way into Antioquia and the +valley of the Cauca. In 1535 the town of Tolu was +founded between the mouth of the Sinu and Cartagena, +and the expeditions skirted the northern end +of the Andes until they reached the river Cauca +where it debouches into the Magdalena. In 1537 +Spanish expeditions succeeded in crossing the +formidable Abibe Mountains, and penetrated east +into the coveted mining country. Up the Cauca +they followed for two hundred miles, passing the +rapids which place an almost inexpugnable barrier +between the upper and lower river. Not far from +the present city of Cartago they found traces of +white men, and learned that while they themselves +had been pushing south the indomitable companions +of Pizarro had extended their explorations and conquests +more than a thousand miles north from their +landing-place on the Peruvian coast. The men from +Cartagena went on to Cali, where the conquerors of +Popayan had their headquarters, and there an expedition +was fitted out which, under the leadership of +Jorge Robledo, returned down the Cauca and conquered +Antioquia after much bloody fighting with +the Indians. It is said that each of Heredia's men +received a larger amount than the conquerors of +Mexico and Peru. Certain it is that the founding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[Pg 409]</a></span> +of Cartagena resulted in putting the Spaniards in +possession of the valley of the Cauca and the wonderful +gold mines of Antioquia as far south as the 5th +degree.</p> + +<p>Benalcazar, one of Pizarro's lieutenants, after conquering +Quito in 1533, had proceeded north along +the Andean plateau between the two Cordilleras. +A hundred miles from Quito he entered the high region +of Pasto, inhabited by vigorous, semi-civilised +Indians much resembling those of Ecuador. Near +this point the Andes, heretofore massed in one great +chain, split into three parallel ranges. The western +and central chains are separated from each other by +the valley of the Cauca and near the Caribbean dip +down to sea-level. The eastern range bears off a +little to the right, with the Magdalena valley between +it and the central mountains, and six hundred +miles north turns north-east and enters Venezuela +just south of Maracaibo Bay. Benalcazar went +straight north from Pasto and entered the region +where the Cauca gathers its headwaters. This was +Popayan, a lower country than Pasto, but still high +enough to be healthful, pleasant, and densely populated. +In rapid succession the tribes inhabiting +the whole upper Cauca valley were conquered, and +Benalcazar's officers only stopped when they met +their countrymen coming up from Cartagena. The +city of Cali was founded in 1536, Popayan in 1538, +Pasto and Anserma in 1539, and Cartago in 1540. +This beautiful valley is one of the most isolated +regions on the globe. To the east and west the +high walls of the Quindio, or central, and of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[Pg 410]</a></span> +western Cordillera shut it off from the Magdalena +valley and from the Pacific, and the rapids near +Cartago make communication with the Caribbean +almost impossible.</p> + +<p>Benalcazar himself had returned to Quito and it +was not until 1538 that he was able to undertake the +conquest of the upper Magdalena and those lovely +plateaux and rich kingdoms which nestled on the +broad top of the eastern Cordillera. In the meantime +he had been forestalled by an expedition coming +from the Caribbean. In 1536 Jimenez de Quesada +sallied forth from Santa Marta with eight hundred +men and one hundred horses. Avoiding the swampy +delta of the Magdalena, he passed through the +Chimilas mountains which lie east of it, and reached +the solid ground of the foothills that approach the +river banks some three hundred miles above its +mouth. Along these he made his way through incredible +difficulties and hardships, months being +consumed in the journey, and his men perishing by +scores from fatigue, starvation, and continual fights +with the savage natives. When he reached the +river Opon, he determined to climb to the plateau, +near the site of Velez, where he was told that the +mountain top was inhabited by a civilised race. +After fighting his way through the unconquerable +savages of the Opon valley he found himself in the +centre of a series of lovely table-lands, many of them +the beds of ancient mountain lakes whose alluvial +bottoms were inexhaustibly fertile, where the climate +was perfect and all the products of the temperate +zone grew luxuriantly. The plateaux, interrupted +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[Pg 411]</a></span>by valleys and ridges, stretched from Pamplona to +beyond Bogotá—a distance of more than two hundred +miles. This region was then and remains to +this day the populous heart of Colombia, the principal +seat of power, wealth, and national civilisation. +However, it is so isolated that it has never constituted +a nucleus around which the widely separated +provinces of Colombia could unite into a well +organised nation. To reach Tolima, Bogotá's +nearest neighbour in the upper Magdalena valley, it +is necessary to descend thousands of feet of steep +mountainside, along which the sure-footed mule +can hardly climb. To reach Cauca, not only must +the Magdalena valley be crossed but the enormously +high Quindio range must be climbed, and before +getting to the Pacific, still another mountain chain +intervenes, while the populous gold regions of Antioquia +can only be reached by following down the +Magdalena and up the Cauca. Weeks of the most +difficult journeying are required to get to the seacoast +or any of the other states, and Panama might +as well be on the other side of the globe so far as +practical communication goes.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 640px;"> +<img src="images/i411.jpg" width="640" height="440" alt="TRAVELLERS DESCENDING A MOUNTAIN ROAD." title="" /> +<span class="caption">TRAVELLERS DESCENDING A MOUNTAIN ROAD.</span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[Pg 412]</a></span> +</div> + +<p>Quesada had lost three-fourths of his men in +reaching the promised land, but once there he encountered +fewer difficulties than any of the other +great Spanish conquerors. The numerous nation +of the Chibchas inhabited the southern plateaux, +who acknowledged allegiance to the zipa of Meuqueta. +But their so-called empire possessed no +military force or cohesion, although they had carried +agriculture to a high degree of perfection. They +manufactured cotton cloths, mined gold and emeralds, +worked artistic ornaments, had a circulating +medium and a calendar, lived in houses, built splendid +temples, and had tools hard enough to carve +stones into elaborate sculptures. Their government +was absolute; crimes were severely and relentlessly +punished; the caste of priests wielded great power. +Altogether they appear to have reached a stage of +material civilisation not much inferior to the aztecs +of Mexico, the caras of Ecuador, or the incas of +Peru, but in efficiency of governmental and military +organisation they fell far below those great peoples. +Spanish chroniclers have amused themselves with +recording traditions of great wars in which the +Chibchas had assembled armies of hundreds of thou<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[Pg 413]</a></span>sands +not long before the conquest, but the fact +remains that less than two hundred Spaniards overcame +them and reduced them to unquestioning +obedience within a few months and without serious +loss. Indeed, Quesada's successors had more difficulty +with the smaller nations who inhabited the +northern plateaux of Tunja, Socorro, and Tundama, +and the most serious resistance was made by the +semi-savage tribes of the upper Magdalena, who +fought nearly as desperately as the Indians of Antioquia +and the Caribbean coast.</p> + +<p>Quesada chose the site of the ancient Chibcha +capital for his city and there Bogotá was founded +on the 7th of August, 1538. It lies on the eastern +border of a magnificent level plain, the bed of the +largest of the prehistoric lakes, thirty miles broad +and sixty long, and nearly nine thousand feet above +sea-level. One hundred and fifty thousand people +live on that plain to-day, and the population in +Chibcha times was probably even larger. The same +year Benalcazar reached the neighbourhood of Bogotá, +having come down the valley of the Magdalena +from Quito and Pasto, and at the very same moment +arrived an expedition from Coro in Venezuela, +which had crossed the mountains south of Maracaibo +and followed south along the llanos lying at +the eastern base of the Colombian Andes, thence +climbing the sierra to Bogotá. Remarkable as it +may seem, these three bands of indomitable Spaniards, +starting from widely separated points on the +coast, met each other in the remote interior of the +continent, brought to the same place by the fame<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[Pg 414]</a></span> +of the fertility and riches of the Chibcha kingdom. +The Venezuelans under Federmann, and the Ecuadoreans +under Benalcazar, accepted the bribe which +Quesada offered them not to interfere with his conquest, +and the three chiefs, laden with gold, returned +to Spain in the same ship.</p> + +<p>Quesada left his brother in nominal command of +the colony, but each of the conquerors was a law +unto himself. When the governor of Santa Marta +came up to Bogotá they refused to recognise his +authority. Tunja and Velez were founded in 1539 +on the plateaux north of the capital, and a year or +two later Quesada's brother wasted a great part of +his forces in a fruitless expedition to the mountains +of Pasto in search of the Eldorado. Meanwhile, in +1539, the Portuguese Geronimo Mello had succeeded +in entering the mouth of the Magdalena, +making his way for a considerable distance upstream. +The great river proved to be perfectly +navigable from the sea to a point nearly as far south +as Bogotá, and the Spaniards immediately utilised +it as a route to Santa Marta and Cartagena far preferable +to the track through swamps and foothills +which Quesada had followed. Each of the plateau +provinces lying on the mountains which follow its +eastern bank had its own paths down the slopes to +the river, and a practicable though tedious and expensive +communication with the Caribbean was +developed.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[Pg 415]</a></span> +<img src="images/i415.jpg" width="800" height="463" alt="NATIVE BOATS, MAGDALENA RIVER." title="" /> +<span class="caption">NATIVE BOATS, MAGDALENA RIVER.</span> +</div> + +<p>In 1542 Lugo, an adventurer who had successfully +intrigued against Quesada, arrived with a commission +as adelantado and considerable reinforcements. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[Pg 416]</a></span>New cities were founded among the gold mines of +the upper Magdalena at Tocaima, Ibague, and +Neiva, as well as at Pamplona at the northern end +of the plateaux. The tribes of Bogotá, Tunja, +Velez, Socorro, and Pamplona submitted without +appreciable resistance, and their fertile fields were +divided into great estates among the Spaniards. +But the more savage tribes in the gold-bearing valleys +of the Upper Magdalena and Cauca and in +Antioquia struggled hard to escape impressment +into the mines, and war almost exterminated them. +The same thing happened on the plains of the Caribbean +coast, although in that region some tribes maintained +their independence. To work the mines and +plantations negro slaves had to be imported, with +the result that black blood predominates in the +lower regions of Colombia, while the descendants of +the aborigines are in a majority on the eastern +plateaux.</p> + +<p>Within twenty-five years after the establishment +of the first permanent Spanish post at Santa Marta, +the whites were in undisputed control of practically +all Colombia which is now inhabited by civilised people. +Three great territorial divisions corresponded +to the three directions in which the conquest had +been effected. From Cartagena, Antioquia and +the lower Cauca had been settled; from Quito, +Popayan, Pasto, and the upper Cauca; and Bogotá +was the centre of the region extending from Pamplona +south along the plateaux and into the valley of +the upper Magdalena. This division of the country +soon brought on disputes as to pre-eminence and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[Pg 417]</a></span> +jurisdiction between the authorities, foreshadowing +the demand for local independence which desolated +Colombia with civil war during so many years +of the last century. Lugo, the new adelantado, +who had displaced Quesada, deprived many of the +original conquerors of their grants of lands and Indians, +and the old and new comers fell to fighting +among themselves. But their numbers were too +small to make their disagreements really threatening +to the interests of the Spanish Crown. In 1545 the +Spanish government sent out a commissioner to reduce +the country to order. The first royal commissioner +was replaced by a second in 1553, who carried +things with a high hand, depriving proprietors of +their grants, nominating members of his own family +to the lucrative posts, and finally even exiling +Quesada himself and executing some of the most +famous of the original conquerors. Under instructions +from Madrid he promulgated many laws for +the protection of the Indians from the exactions and +tyrannies of the encomenderos—regulations which, +as in Peru, excited great dissatisfaction among the +colonists and were constantly evaded. It was forbidden +for any encomendero to be military governor +of his district, and the original conquerors were replaced +in all positions of authority by officials newly +brought out from Spain. However, the office of +commissioner was an irregular and extraordinary +one and his powers ill-defined. Even at Bogotá his +authority was defied by the audiencia and the +municipal councils, and over the remote provinces +of Antioquia and Popayan, Cartagena and Panama,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[Pg 418]</a></span> +his power was a mere shadow. The Spanish government +resolved to erect Quito and Bogotá into +presidencies, whose governors would be responsible +directly to Madrid and have greater authority over +subordinate officials.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-f.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[Pg 419]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-7.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<h2>CHAPTER II</h2> + +<h3>COLONIAL TIMES</h3> + + +<p>In 1564 the president arrived in state with all the +trappings appropriate to his high rank. His +powers were most ample; he was practically vicegerent +of the Castilian king; his jurisdiction extended +not only over the Bogotá-Pamplona plateaux +and Tolima on the upper Magdalena, but also over +Santa Marta, Cartagena, Antioquia, and even to +Panama and the Mosquito coast. The name of New +Granada, which Quesada had given to his conquests +in honor of his native province in Spain, was extended +to the whole presidency. To it were also +attached, though loosely, the provinces that now +make up the republic of Venezuela. But access to +the Venezuelan coast from Bogotá was so difficult as +to prevent that region from ever being really a part +of the New Granada presidency, and it became an +independent captaincy-general in 1731. The eastern +boundary of the president's immediate jurisdiction +included the provinces which naturally communicated +with the Colombian plateaux, but the extension +of the Andes north-east from Pamplona along<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">[Pg 420]</a></span> +the Venezuelan coast was left to be settled from +Coro. For similar reasons the valley of the upper +Cauca—Cali and Popayan, as well as Pasto—was +attached to the presidency of Quito, and the subordination +of its governor to Bogotá was only incidental +and gave rise to many disputes and conflicts. +The administrative entity of New Granada may be +said to have included the territory which the Spaniards +had reached by the line of the Magdalena, and +in addition the Cartagena region and the Isthmus. +The last named province was a source of constant +trouble, because the difficulties of communication +and the diversities of interests really made it separate +from the rest of New Granada. Panama's +governor and independent audiencia frequently defied +the commands received from Bogotá.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 610px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[Pg 421]</a></span> +<img src="images/i421.jpg" width="610" height="480" alt="THE NATURAL BRIDGE AT GUARANDA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE NATURAL BRIDGE AT GUARANDA.</span> +</div> + +<p>The disorders near Bogotá ceased after the arrival +of the first president, Neiva. He actively engaged +in promoting new colonisation, founding the city of +Ocana in the Maracaibo watershed north-west of +Pamplona, as well as Leiva and several other towns. +He opened a road down from Bogotá to Honda at +the head of navigation on the Magdalena, and in +his time great flatboats were introduced. These +were poled against the river's rapid current, and +they continued the sole means of river freight transportation +for nearly three centuries. The cornerstone +of the Bogotá cathedral was laid, and schools +established which soon counted among the most +successful and famous in Spanish America. The +country prospered after a fashion. The fertile +plateaux from Bogotá to the north were admirably +adapted to the residence of Europeans, and the rich +soil soon produced large crops of wheat and fed +great herds of cattle. This region was so attractive +that the Spaniards became attached to the country +and contentedly established themselves as semi-feudal +proprietors of estates cultivated by the docile +and industrious Indians. A considerable proportion +of the successive generations of office-holders sent +out from Spain, applied for land-grants and remained +in the country, founding new Creole families. Mixture +with the aborigines occurred on a large scale +and the process of Caucasianising the population +made greater progress than in many other parts of +Spanish America. The region was too far from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[Pg 422]</a></span> +sea-coast to attract haphazard adventurers or to +serve as a Botany Bay for convicts; the Spanish +settlers belonged as a rule to good families; and the +standard of living, education, and manners was exceptionally +high. Bogotá became one of the principal +centres of Spanish American culture, and +Colombian authors are celebrated for their excellence +throughout the Spanish-speaking world. In +the invigorating climate the Creoles retained their +physical vigour and the concentration of population +on these densely inhabited plateaux increased their +mental alertness. Living, however, as a superior +class in the midst of a subject population, they +acquired no taste or capacity for commerce or industry. +A Creole was by birth a gentleman and +exempt from manual labour. The Colombian plateaux +made little material progress, and settled +down into an eventless, patriarchal existence.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 451px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">[Pg 423]</a></span> +<img src="images/i423.jpg" width="451" height="640" alt="FALLS OF TEQUENDAMA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">FALLS OF TEQUENDAMA.</span> +</div> + +<p>Conditions were entirely different in the deep, hot +valleys of the Magdalena and Cauca and on the +sweltering sea-coast plain. The semi-savage Indians +did not make good labourers, and were massacred +or driven into the fastnesses on the mountain sides, +while their places were taken by negro slaves. The +white population fell into much the same position +as it occupies in the West Indian Islands. In the +mining regions the Indians were pretty nearly exterminated. +Antioquia, the great mineral province, +has always contained a larger proportion of white +blood than any other part of Colombia, and with +the decline of its mines it became a centre whence +white emigration poured into the other departments. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">[Pg 424]</a></span> +Still different conditions prevailed in the extreme +south, where the highlands of Popayan and the dry, +cold tablelands of Pasto offered the same aspect as +adjoining Ecuador. In those utterly isolated and +comparatively unattractive regions the Indian population +remained predominant.</p> + +<p>In Colombia, as in all the other Andean countries, +the impulse toward conquest, expansion, and colonisation +seems to have died out completely with the +disappearance of the first generation of conquistadores. +We read of the foundation of new cities +from time to time, but it usually means that previously +existing villages were given municipal charters. +After one brief spurt the Spaniards settled +down to enjoy the fruits of their ancestors' heroic +marches and battles. Except near Panama the +rainy Pacific coast was left untouched, and the +forests of the Amazon in the south-east could not +be penetrated. The open prairies of the Orinoco +north-east of Bogotá could be occupied and the province +of Casanare at the foot of the eastern Andean +range became a stock region, inhabited by the same +hard-riding, semi-civilised llaneros as the adjoining +Venezuelan plains.</p> + +<p>The Spanish government applied its restrictive +colonial system with the utmost rigour. The obnoxious +market tax was imposed as early as 1690; +tobacco and salt were made monopolies; the exportation +of agricultural products was discouraged; +and the production of gold, emeralds, platinum, and +silver, was jealously watched and heavily taxed. +In the early history of the colony the profits of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[Pg 425]</a></span> +mining were prodigious, but during the seventeenth +century, after the cream of the surface placers had +been skimmed, progress was slow. The unhealthful +climate of the mining regions almost exterminated +the settlers; the native population diminished so +rapidly that soon the mines were short-handed; and +the importation of negro slaves was so costly that +the smaller proprietors could not operate on their +own account, and even the great mine owners had +to be content with moderate profits. One-fifth of +the gross product was required to be paid to the +government, and there were other fiscal exactions. +The efforts of the authorities to prevent the smuggling +of gold introduced a swarm of soldiers, collectors, +and guards with whom the miners were in a +constant turmoil.</p> + +<p>The influence of the Church was very powerful, +and the population became devotedly Catholic. +Great tracts of the best lands were given to the +bishoprics and the religious orders. Piously disposed +persons left property in trust charged with +the payment of so many dollars a year for the saying +of so many masses, and the stewardships, or +rights to administer these estates, were the subject +of sale or descended from father to son. In 1630, a +daring president, Jiron, presumed to arrest and +banish the archbishop of Bogotá, but fifty years +later one of his successors wrote back to Spain that +"in New Granada there is much Church and little +king." The poor Indians were decimated not only +by war, massacre, and forced labour in the mines, +but the white man's diseases played havoc with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[Pg 426]</a></span> +them. The small-pox was introduced on the plateaux +within a few years after the conquest, and +continued to ravage the country throughout the +early part of the seventeenth century. The third +president died of the leprosy within a few months +after his arrival in 1579, and the first case of elephantiasis, +which has proved a curse to Colombia, +occurred in 1646.</p> + +<p>The quarrels and disagreements between the +president and the governors and audiencias of the +associated provinces, especially Panama, to say nothing +of the disputes with the president of Quito +and the governor of Venezuela on account of conflicting +jurisdiction, became so acute early in the +seventeenth century that the Spanish government +determined to erect New Granada into a viceroyalty, +extending the power of the Bogotá central authorities +over Ecuador and Venezuela. The first viceroy +was inaugurated in 1719, but he recommended a return +to the old system. In the year 1740 the viceroyalty +was re-established and all connection with +Peru ceased. Although in the meantime Caracas had +been made a captaincy-general, it was placed nominally +under the viceroy's jurisdiction, and Ecuador +was again detached from Lima. Within a few +years the attempt to govern Maracaibo, Cumaná, +Margarita Island, and Guiana from Bogotá was +abandoned, and these provinces transferred to the +Venezuelan captaincy-general. But the high rank +and royal powers of the viceroys did not save them +from troubles. They were engaged in an almost +continual struggle against the encroachments of the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[Pg 427]</a></span>clergy, while the laity protested vigorously at the +constantly increasing taxation. A special royal +commissioner came out in 1774 to perfect the tobacco +monopoly, and five years later another agent +arrived with instructions still more irritating. The +Creoles of Santander arose in the "Rebellion of the +Communes" and so formidable was the insurrection +that the authorities were compelled to make a feint +of yielding to the people's demands. They promised +to expel the obnoxious commissioner; to abolish +not only the tobacco monopoly, but the market-tax +on the sale of domestic products, the requirement +that every shipment be accompanied by a high-priced +official invoice, and the poll-tax; to lower +the stamp duties, the curates' tithes, and the Indian +tribute; to cease burdening commerce with +unreasonable highway, bridge, and ferry dues; and +to require the priests to give up the practice of forcing +the Indians to pay for masses. The viceroy also +promised to open public employments to Creoles, +to permit the establishment of a militia, and to concede +to the people the right to confirm the governors +nominated by the Crown or viceroy. But no +sooner had the insurgents dispersed, than the government +repudiated all these pledges and dragged +the popular leaders to the scaffold.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 640px;"> +<img src="images/i427.jpg" width="640" height="427" alt="NATIVE HOUSES IN COLOMBIA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">NATIVE HOUSES IN COLOMBIA.</span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">[Pg 428]</a></span> +</div> + +<p>The foreign commerce of the viceroyalty had +diminished until only one small fleet came each year +to Cartagena and Porto Bello, and though, during +the latter part of the colonial period, certain viceroys +did something to open up roads by which +wheat, sugar, cacao, and hides could be exported at +a profit, no measures could prove effective while the +enormous fiscal exactions of the Spanish government +continued. During the last few years of the eighteenth +century, commerce was made nominally free, +but this meant simply that the old prohibitions on +private shipments by sea were abolished, and the +ports opened for trade with Spain and the other +colonies. These wise measures were, however, accompanied +by such an increase in taxes that their +effect was nugatory.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile New Granada had also had her external +troubles. In 1586 Sir Francis Drake reached +Cartagena and forty years after the Spanish government +fortified the place at great expense. Nevertheless +Ducasse took it in 1695 though Admiral +Vernon, with a great fleet and army, unsuccessfully<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[Pg 429]</a></span> +besieged the place in 1741, after having captured +Porto Bello. The unsettled Central American coast +north from the Isthmus was nominally a part of the +vice-royalty, but had been completely neglected by +the Bogotá authorities, and in 1698 a colony of +twelve thousand Scotchmen, with authority from +Parliament and backed by a vast popular subscription, +landed on the north shore of the Isthmus. +They purposed the establishment of a general emporium +for all nations on the spot which the great +financier, William Paterson, who originated the +scheme, regarded as "the key of the commerce of +the world." There was to be free-trade; the Indians +were to be protected; religious liberty was to +be established; and the Spanish monopoly of South +and Central America destroyed. The far-sighted +Paterson hoped to found a colonial empire and to +enrich his own country by the resulting trade. But +the enterprise was wrecked by the fatal climate and +the supineness of the British Government. Provisions +fell short, and within a year the survivors +re-embarked in a miserable plight. Two small supplementary +expeditions arrived in 1699 to find assembled +a Spanish fleet and army against which no +serious resistance could be made. After a little +half-hearted fighting the Scotchmen capitulated and +the colony was definitely abandoned. The Bogotá +government continued to neglect that coast. It was +placed under the jurisdiction of the captain-general +of Cuba, and the claim that Colombia set up after +she became an independent nation has never held +good against the Central American republics.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">[Pg 430]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-8.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<h2>CHAPTER III</h2> + +<h3>THE WAR AGAINST SPAIN</h3> + + +<p>The stirring events of the year 1808 in Spain and +the disorganisation of the monarchy produced +great excitement in the New Granadan cities. When +the news of the establishment of a junta at Quito +came in September of the following year, Amar, the +Bogotá viceroy, summoned an assembly of the authorities +and leading citizens for consultation. The +Creoles favoured an independent junta, but the +prestige of the Spaniards and Amar's popularity +prevailed, and it was resolved to recognise the home +revolutionary government, and to send an expedition +to crush the Quito junta. Meanwhile the +Ecuador patriots had despatched troops to Pasto, +but the sturdy conservative mountaineers resented +the invasion and repulsed the Quiteños. Thenceforth +to the end of the war Pasto remained a loyalist +stronghold. Though Quito soon laid down its arms +under promise of amnesty, the re-established Spanish +government massacred the insurgent leaders, and +reports of these cruelties threw the Creoles of the +cities into effervescence, though the Indian and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">[Pg 431]</a></span> +negro population of the rural districts remained indifferent. +On May 22, 1810, the citizens of Cartagena +demanded and obtained an independent revolutionary +junta; shortly after an insurrection broke out +among the llaneros on the Orinoco plains north-east +of Bogotá; on the 4th of July Pamplona followed +Cartagena's example and set up its own junta; and +a little later Socorro did likewise. By this time +things were ripe in Bogotá for an anti-Spanish revolution. +Ambitious Creoles intrigued among the +people; the natural feeling of jealousy and hatred +between Spaniards and Americans became inflamed; +a contemptuous remark about Creoles made by a +Spaniard in the streets was the signal for the gathering +of a great mob which rushed tumultuously to +the public square and howled for an open cabildo +and the immediate appointment of a junta. With +six thousand armed men in front of his palace the +viceroy had no choice. The junta was named and +a circular sent to the other cities inviting them to +name deputies for a congress to arrange a federal +union. But local jealousies, hardly held in check +by the rigid colonial system, now flamed forth; the +people instinctively grouped along geographical +lines; and divergencies of opinion and ambition +among leaders increased the confusion. Cartagena +and other provinces declined to send delegates to +Bogotá, preferring to act independently until the +re-establishment of regular government in Spain.</p> + +<p>When the congress met it represented only a part +of the territory, and but a small percentage of the +population. Nariño and other popular young leaders<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">[Pg 432]</a></span> +in Bogotá intrigued for a centralised system in which +Bogotá was to be master province. An insurrection +against the junta installed him as dictator, and congress +fled from the capital. The royalists had made +no effort to oppose the revolution in the centres of +population, contenting themselves with sending expeditions +from Quito to occupy Pasto and Popayan, +with keeping possession of the Isthmus, and establishing +themselves on the lower Magdalena. Cartagena +was thereby isolated from the rest of the +revolted provinces, and Bogotá cut off from communication +with the sea. In March, 1811, the patriots +marched up the Cauca from Cali and defeated +the Spaniards in Popayan. Quito rose in rebellion +a second time, and the Ecuadoreans advanced north +into Pasto, only to be beaten once more by the loyalist +peasantry. The Granadans, who invaded by way +of Popayan, met with no better success, and their +forces under the command of a North American +adventurer, Macaulay, were annihilated. The re-establishment +of the royal authority at Quito followed, +and Bogotá again lay open to attack from +the south.</p> + +<p>While the royalist reaction was thus closing in +around the revolution in central New Granada, the +mass of the people cooled, the patriot leaders fought +among themselves, and the interior was a prey to +anarchy. Dictator Nariño had broken completely +with the ambulatory congress, and was sending his +troops into the adjacent provinces. Congress protested +and a civil war broke out in central Granada. +Nariño was defeated in an attack on Socorro, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">[Pg 433]</a></span> +the federalists were in their turn repulsed when they +lay siege to the capital, and Bogotá declared itself +an independent state. In the midst of these disorders, +the alarming news was received that General +Samano, advancing from Quito and Pasto, at the +head of two thousand well-equipped men, had retaken +Popayan, and was already menacing Antioquia +and the lower Cauca. In the face of this common +danger Nariño and congress came to terms. The +latter advanced to meet Samano and badly defeated +him at the battle of Calivio, January 15, 1814. The +re-occupation of Popayan was the only result of this +victory. Pasto remained faithfully loyalist—a +Vendee into which many republican armies were +destined to dash in vain. The Spaniards brought +up reinforcements, and when Nariño again advanced +his army was overwhelmed and himself captured. +However, the loyalists were not able to equip an +army large enough to justify undertaking the conquest +of central Granada, so the jarring factions and +provinces were left alone for the present to waste +their energies in internecine conflicts.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[Pg 434]</a></span> +<img src="images/i434.jpg" width="800" height="528" alt="ROPE BRIDGE OVER THE MAGDALENA RIVER." title="" /> +<span class="caption">ROPE BRIDGE OVER THE MAGDALENA RIVER.</span> +</div> + +<p>Cartagena had all the while remained independent, +and in 1813 Bolivar, flying from his native Venezuela +after the suppression of its first insurrection, took +service with the Granadan city. With a handful of +militia he drove the Spaniards from the lower Magdalena, +and retook the important city of Ocana near +the Venezuelan border. His unexpected success +created such enthusiasm that the Cartagena dictator +gave him a small body of regulars, and with +them the daring Venezuelan began that marvellous +campaign which for the second time expelled the +Spaniards from Venezuela. His triumph was shortlived, +and by September, 1814, his forces had been +dispersed by the loyalist llaneros and he was back in +New Granada. He now offered his services to the +federated provinces, and in spite of his recent defeats, +the prestige of the 1813 campaign secured him +the command of the army which was about to march +on Bogotá to force that recalcitrant province into +the union. At the head of eighteen hundred men +Bolivar prosecuted the campaign with all his usual +activity. The outlying towns of the province surrendered +at his approach, and the capital itself, +which had been denuded of troops by Nariño for his +ill-fated expedition against Pasto, and which in fact<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">[Pg 435]</a></span> +was tired of the dictatorship, could not make much +resistance. The seat of the federal government was +transferred to Bogotá, and the victorious general, +though a Venezuelan, became captain-general of its +forces, and to his title of "Liberator" was added +that of "Illustrious Pacificator." If the adhesion +of Cartagena could be secured, the union of New +Granada would be well-nigh complete; so with two +thousand men he proceeded to the lower Magdalena +and established his headquarters just above the delta +and within striking distance of the sea-port. However, +his intrigues with its government led to nothing. +Cartagena refused to co-operate with the +confederation on any terms, and finally Bolivar made +a foolish attempt to besiege the strongest fortress in +America without artillery. He soon came to his +senses, raised the siege, gave up his command of +the Granadan army, and withdrew to Jamaica to +wait a new opportunity to make war on Spaniards.</p> + +<p>The revolutionary cause was in a bad way. The +loyalists of Venezuela, Ecuador, and southern New +Granada had put down the insurgents in their own +provinces. Bogotá was only held back by the military +pressure of a few resolute republicans from declaring +for the king, and the other provinces were +disgusted with civil disorder and wavered in their +allegiance. However, they were destined not to be +given the opportunity to return peaceably to obedience +on reasonable terms. Wellington's peninsular +campaigns and Napoleon's fall changed the +face of affairs in Spain. Ferdinand once more on +the throne of his fathers, and absolute government<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">[Pg 436]</a></span> +re-established, all thought of compromising with the +American rebels on the basis of autonomy or representation +in the Cortes was abandoned. In April, +1815, Marshal Morillo, Spain's ablest general, arrived +on the Venezuelan coast with more than ten thousand +veteran regulars. Having reinforced himself among +the Venezuelan loyalists, and leaving a large garrison +of Spaniards in Venezuela, he proceeded to Cartagena +at the head of over eight thousand troops. +The defenders numbered less than four thousand, +but behind the strongest fortifications in America +they prepared to make a desperate resistance. So +formidable were the walls that Morillo did not try +to take the place by assault. His main body landed +at Santa Marta and crossed the Magdalena to blockade +the city from the rear, while his fleet cut off +communication by sea. The besiegers suffered terribly +in the pestilential swamps, but the defenders +were reduced to the most horrible extremities during +four months and a half. The provisions ran out; +fevers decimated the people; the starving garrison +ate rats and hides, sentinels fell dead at their posts; +the commander drove out of the city two thousand +old men, women, and children, and of this procession +of spectres only a few reached the Spanish +lines. Finally, the surviving soldiers escaped by +boats in the midst of a storm which dispersed the +Spanish squadron, and Morillo entered a deserted +city where the very air was poisoned by the rotting +bodies of famished people. It is calculated that six +thousand persons died of hunger and disease. The +Spaniards hunted down and shot the revolutionary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">[Pg 437]</a></span> +leaders; the absolute powers of the governor were +revived; and even the inquisition re-established.</p> + +<p>While Cartagena was being besieged, a Spanish +army advanced along the Venezuelan Andes to the +Granadan border and climbed to the Pamplona plateau. +There they defeated the local patriots, and the +latter fled from the province after killing all the Spanish +non-combatants on whom they could lay hands. +Desperately alarmed, the congress at Bogotá made +Camilo Torres dictator, and he resolutely advanced +with twenty-five hundred recruits against Pamplona. +The Spanish general retreated to Ocana, with the +patriots following, but receiving reinforcements, +turned upon Torres, and on the 22nd of February, +1816, utterly defeated him. The revolution lay +helpless at Morillo's feet. The royalist forces +promptly occupied the great plateau provinces of +Pamplona and Socorro, as well as Antioquia. Bogotá +had in fact long been disaffected to the insurgent +cause and now became openly royalist. Torres +resigned, and when Madrid, whom the revolutionary +chiefs appointed in his place, called for volunteers +only six men presented themselves. Congress dissolved, +and the dictator and a few determined leaders, +with a remnant of the army, fled north to Popayan. +There they joined a band of local patriots under +Mejia, and gave unsuccessful battle to General Samano, +who had advanced from Quito. This fight of +Tambo seemed the revolution's <i>coup de grâce</i> in New +Granada, Ecuador, and Venezuela. Only on the +plains of eastern Venezuela, and in the llanos on the +Apuré and Casanare headwaters, did a few guerrilla<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">[Pg 438]</a></span> +bands maintain themselves. In far away Argentina, +the town of Buenos Aires and the gauchos were still +defiant, but elsewhere in all Spanish South America +resistance to the King's generals had ceased.</p> + +<p>Marshal Morillo fully appreciated how dangerous +to Spanish domination in New Granada and Venezuela +were the fierce, hard-riding, llaneros, uncatchable +and unconquerable in the vast Orinoco plains. +Fighting on the royal side under guerrilla chiefs they +had beaten the republicans and Bolivar, but they +turned insurrectionist the moment Spanish regular +officers assumed command. Morillo resolved to +crush the towns completely, and hoped gradually to +wear out or exterminate the llaneros. In pursuance +of this policy all officers above the rank of captain +were denied amnesty, and shot wherever found. +The same fate was reserved for those who had held +high civil office during the insurrection. The Marshal +came to Bogotá in person to see that his bloody +orders were carried out. The city's prisons were +filled with unfortunates whose wives and daughters +pleaded in vain for mercy. The most prominent +patriots were shot in the back as traitors and their +bodies hung on gibbets. The great scholar, Caldas, +the pride of Bogotá for his world-wide reputation as +a scientist, suffered a not much better fate. In the +capital alone one hundred and twenty-five of New +Granada's brightest and best perished on the scaffold, +their property was confiscated, and their families +reduced to abject poverty. Because they had +not actively resisted the rebellion, the entire male +population were adjudged to have forfeited all civil<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">[Pg 439]</a></span> +rights, and gangs of Granadan youth were impressed +into the army, or, worse still, forced to work on the +public roads. Even the ladies of Bogotá were sent +to country towns to remain under police surveillance +with women of doubtful character.</p> + +<p>While thus engaged in stamping out the revolutionary +embers in New Granada word came to +Morillo that the Venezuelan llaneros had risen against +his lieutenants, and that Bolivar had landed near +Valencia. Leaving a garrison of Venezuelan and +Pasto royalists at Bogotá under the command of +Samano, the Marshal, with four thousand Spanish +troops, took the plateau road to the frontier, carrying +with him some prisoners to shoot on the line. +Samano's first act on assuming the government of +Bogotá was to erect a gallows in the great square +facing the windows of his palace, and to set up four +execution benches on the public promenade. Of +the victims who sat thereon with their backs to the +firing squad, one of the first was the beautiful Policarpa +Salabarrieta, with seven men also implicated in +sending information to the llanero insurgents. She +died exhorting her companions to meet their fate +like men, and under the name of La Pola her memory +is preserved in the songs of the Colombian people. +Sixty years after her death the Colombian congress +voted a pension to her surviving relatives.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 755px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">[Pg 440]</a></span> +<img src="images/i440.jpg" width="755" height="600" alt="THE HOME OF BOLIVAR." title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE HOME OF BOLIVAR.</span> +</div> + +<p>Morillo never returned to New Granada. Before +he arrived in Venezuela, Bolivar had temporarily +retired, and the llaneros retreated to the vast solitudes +in which they were unconquerable. Though +the Spanish regulars won battle after battle their +victories were fruitless, and Bolivar soon returned +to Venezuela to be again placed at the head of +the patriots and to wage unremitting warfare with +cavalry from a secure base in the llanos, while he +imported British mercenary infantry capable of making +headway against the Spanish regulars. From +1816 to 1819 New Granada suffered hopelessly and +silently the bloody despotism of the Spanish generals, +while the tide of war rolled to and fro in +Venezuela. In the early part of the latter year +Samano sent a small expedition down the steep Cordillera +slope against the guerrillas in the Casanare +plains north-east of Bogotá. This gave Bolivar a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">[Pg 441]</a></span> +great strategical idea. He knew that the tableland +of New Granada had been denuded of troops; but +it was useless to try an attack from the direction of +the provinces south of Maracaibo Bay because this +well-travelled route and its populous towns were in +secure possession of the enemy. Where Spaniards +could go he could follow—so he reasoned—and determined +to assault Bogotá directly from the Orinoco +plains, thus striking the centre of the Spanish line.</p> + +<p>With a mixed army of British mercenaries and +hardy Venezuelans the Liberator mounted the difficult +pass which leads from Casanare up to Tunja. +Samano had only three thousand troops and these +he sent under the command of General Barreiro to +meet Bolivar. Though the patriots were somewhat +inferior in numbers and arrived on the plateau fatigued, +starving, and without horses, Barreiro, not +knowing their real numbers, hesitated about attacking. +Bolivar was given time to rest and remount +his men, and then took a vigorous offensive. His +rapid movements confused the Spanish commander, +and the latter allowed the patriot army to get between +him and Bogotá. Thus cut off from his base, +Barreiro made a desperate dash to reach the capital, +but ran against the patriots posted directly across his +path at Boyacá, on the 7th of August, 1819. The +loyalists attacked at a disadvantage and without +hope. After losing a hundred men they fled in disorder +and the whole army dispersed or was captured. +The way to Bogotá lay open, and Samano had no +forces to defend the city. Within three days Bolivar +had traversed the hundred miles from the battlefield,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">[Pg 442]</a></span> +and Samano fled in such precipitous haste that he +left behind the government archives and even the +money in the treasury. A month later the whole of +New Granada, except the stubbornly loyalist Pasto +and the fortress of Cartagena, was free. Bolivar +had himself made president and military dictator, +naming Santander vice-president, and giving each +province two governors, one military and the other +civil, responsible directly to Bogotá. The municipal +governments were preserved, and the Spanish system +of taxation continued, but patriot republicans displaced +loyalists in all the offices.</p> + +<p>Bolivar soon returned to his Venezuelan headquarters +on the Orinoco to fight Morillo and organise +the grand republic he had dreamed of so many years. +Though all of Venezuela except the Orinoco valley, +all of Ecuador, and the sea-ports and southern provinces +of New Granada still remained in the hands +of superior Spanish armies, and although the Creole +ruling class had already proved strongly prejudiced +in favour of local autonomy and the tearing down +of aristocratic forms, his imagination vaulted all obstacles +and he planned the new state down to its +minutest details. His idea was a centralised system +with himself at its head as life president, backed by +a hereditary senate, and ruling the three grand divisions +of his empire through docile vice-presidents. +But his military power and prestige were insufficient +to overcome the opposition of jealous generals and +ambitious lawyers. He spent the year of 1820 in +futile intrigues among the politicians, and in unsuccessful +campaigns against the Spaniards in Venez<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">[Pg 443]</a></span>uela, +while the patriots trembled at the news that a +great army was assembling at Cadiz which would +surely sweep them out of existence. A liberal revolution +in Spain came opportunely to interrupt military +operations.</p> + +<p>Bolivar was obliged to compromise with the +advocates of federalism and democracy. A congress +representing the Granadan and Venezuelan +provinces then in the hands of the patriots assembled +at Cucutá early in 1821. Composed of ambitious +civilians it was opposed to centralisation or +military rule, and in spite of the Liberator's protests +adopted a compromise Constitution. Though +Bolivar was conceded the title of president, he was +required to give up his civil authority whenever he +took command of the army, and this meant an +abolishment of the dictatorship. The idea of a life +presidency or a hereditary senate was abandoned, +and the only part of his system which Bolivar managed +to retain was the subordination of the provinces +to the central government. The Liberator now devoted +himself to the direction of the war, leaving +that long-headed schemer, Santander, in power at +Bogotá as vice-president. The winning of the battle +of Carabobo in Venezuela in June, 1821, and the surrender +of Cartagena in September, made necessary +the withdrawal of the Spanish troops from the Isthmus. +Panama immediately declared itself independent, +in November, 1821, and announced its intention +of joining the great confederation of Colombia, then +composed of the provinces of Venezuela, and New +Granada, and later of those of Ecuador.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">[Pg 444]</a></span></p> + +<p>Pasto alone remained in the hands of the Spaniards. +Bolivar determined to expel them from this +province, and also from Quito and Guayaquil, while +visions of conquests in Peru and Bolivia, and of +returning to his dazzled countrymen in Colombia +crowned with laurels gathered on southern battle-fields, +floated through his mind. Congress gladly +gave him leave of absence and Santander promised +supplies of money and soldiers. In 1822 he advanced +against Pasto, sending his able lieutenant, Sucré, +around by sea to Guayaquil to take Quito from the +south. Gathering three thousand men at Popayan +he marched into Pasto and on the 7th of April came +upon the royal army at Bambona. A bloody battle +followed and Bolivar by inciting his men to reckless +charges remained master of the field. However, he +lost three times as many men as the royalists; the +latter retired in good order, and the Liberator, after +encamping eight days on the plateau, surrounded by +a hostile population, hampered by the difficulties of +the mountain paths, with a strong enemy in front, +was compelled to retreat on Popayan, leaving his +sick and wounded. He remained inactive until the +glorious news of Sucré's overwhelming victory at +Pichincha arrived. The loyalists in Pasto were now +completely isolated. The Spanish commander made +terms with Bolivar and the indomitable mountaineers +were induced to submit on the promise that they +should be allowed to retain their local laws and +customs.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">[Pg 445]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<img src="images/i445.jpg" width="800" height="498" alt="PANAMA FROM THE BAY." title="" /> +<span class="caption">PANAMA FROM THE BAY.</span> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">[Pg 446]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-3.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<h3>MODERN COLOMBIA</h3> + + +<p>After Bolivar's departure for Peru, a period of +relative quiet ensued. Nevertheless, ambitious +local politicians constantly intrigued against Santander, +who in his turn was suspected of encouraging +federalist agitation in the hope of overthrowing +Bolivar. The United States and England recognised +the independence of Colombia shortly after +the expulsion of the Spaniards, but foreign troubles +arose when the new republic faced the question of +paying the immense debt contracted by Bolivar's +agents in recruiting and equipping the mercenary +troops and buying ships, artillery, and ammunition. +This debt had been enormously swollen by the dishonesty +of some Colombian commissioners and by +the greed of money lenders who insisted on receiving +bonds for double the amount they had really +advanced. The temptation to borrow more when +it was refunded was too great to be resisted, and +Colombia soon saw herself burdened with foreign +obligations amounting to nearly seven millions sterling. +All the revenues were insufficient to pay inter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">[Pg 447]</a></span>est +on this sum—a truly stupendous one for so poor +a country. The payments fell into arrears, and +though the debt has been scaled down repeatedly, +interest has rarely been paid. At the very beginning +of her independent existence Colombia's credit +was ruined, and the three countries into which she +was shortly divided have remained burdened to this +day with the debts then contracted, their finances +disorganised, their attempted operations blighted by +the reputation of bankruptcy, and their diplomatic +relations hampered by the clamours of bondholders.</p> + +<p>Santander's administration was further embarrassed +by Bolivar's demands for money and troops +with which to pursue his conquests in Peru and +Bolivia, and still graver difficulties soon arose. +Paez, left in command of the army in Venezuela, +became involved in disputes with the authorities of +the Venezuelan cities and with the ministers at Bogotá, +all of whom he despised as mere civilians or as +foreigners who had no right to interfere.</p> + +<p>Finally, in 1826 the central government formally +deprived him of his position and summoned him to +Bogotá, but a revolution which promptly broke out +in Caracas made him dictator. The news brought +Bolivar back from Lima, where for two years he had +reigned an absolute monarch, leading the life of a +voluptuous eastern prince. For the next four years +the Liberator struggled in vain to repress the rising +tide of federalism and radicalism in Venezuela and +New Granada. The republican theorists could not +forget that he had re-established the convents, +placed the schools under priestly control, abrogated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">[Pg 448]</a></span> +government contracts for personal reasons, introduced +aristocratic decorations, and schemed for a +hereditary senate and a life tenure of the executive; +nor that his influence had stopped the Cucutá convention +in the path of political reform, prevented +the abolition of slavery and capital punishment, and +retained the connection of Church and State, and +the exemption of the army and clergy from civil +jurisdiction. Santander was more liberal and a +better practical politician. He had shown much +ability during the Liberator's absence, and risen to +be the head of a considerable party.</p> + +<p>Bolivar succeeded in temporarily crushing some +of the opposition in Venezuela and in cajoling Paez, +and on his return to Bogotá he made a feint of resigning +the presidency. Congress, however, was +still under his spell and re-elected him. He then +made an attempt to secure legal sanction for his +system by summoning another constitutent convention. +But news had come of Peru's and Bolivia's +defection, and the agitation of the transcendental +liberals, the universal desire for local self-government, +and the ambitions of a hundred intriguers for +high office, proved too much for him. A majority +of the convention which met at Ocana in 1828 were +partisans of Santander and opposed Bolivar's proposals +although the Liberator at the head of three +thousand soldiers watched the proceedings. Though +he did his best to intimidate the majority, he shrank +from frankly playing the role of a Cromwell, and +contented himself with ordering his supporters to +withdraw, leaving the convention without a quorum. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">[Pg 449]</a></span>It dissolved and the country trembled on the verge +of disintegration. His friends called an assembly +which obediently proclaimed him dictator. The +Liberator accepted, and deprived Santander of the +vice-presidency. The press was muzzled, protesters +banished, and military rule established. Some fiery +young republicans, determined to emulate the example +of Brutus, struck down the palace guards at +midnight and rushed into the house to kill the dictator. +But his mistress, Manoela Saenz, awakened +by the noise, directed him to a window. He +dropped a few feet to the pavement and ran and +hid himself under a bridge, while the woman, in her +night clothes, met the assassins on the stairs and +told them they could enter only over her dead body. +They pushed her aside with their bloody hands only +to find the quarry escaped. The next day Bolivar +returned to the palace and his spies soon hunted +down the criminals. Santander, suspected of knowledge +of the plot, went into banishment, and for the +moment civil war was averted.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 449px;"> +<img src="images/i449.jpg" width="449" height="640" alt="SCENE IN THE ANDES, EN ROUTE TO BOGOTÁ." title="" /> +<span class="caption">SCENE IN THE ANDES, EN ROUTE TO BOGOTÁ.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">[Pg 450]</a></span>But the incident did not revive Bolivar's waning +popularity. News came in 1829 that Paez had again +assumed the dictatorship of Venezuela. This was +fatal to Bolivar's hopes. With New Granada in a +ferment behind him he could not expect to conquer +Paez and the formidable llaneros. He made a half-hearted +attempt to raise an army, but recoiled before +the insuperable difficulties. Again he resigned +the presidency, protesting that he was ready to +sacrifice all personal ambition to secure the integrity +of the Colombian union and the establishment of a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">[Pg 451]</a></span> +strong and ordered government. Again he was re-elected, +but meanwhile civil war was raging in +Ecuador, where his own troops disavowed his authority. +Rebellion also broke out in Pasto, and Peru +intervened in Ecuador and sent a fleet to capture +Guayaquil and an army to invade Cuenca. Bolivar +exhausted his last resources in despatching troops +to meet the Peruvian onslaught, but the principal +result of the war was to put General Flores in a +position to make himself independent dictator of +Ecuador. Despairing of longer maintaining himself, +but loath to give up his ever-cherished idea of union, +the Liberator entered into negotiations with European +diplomats to appoint a prince of a reigning +family as king of Colombia. But the idea was impracticable. +There was no place for a monarch, +either native born or foreign, on the Granadan highlands, +and Venezuela had already virtually separated. +Although a rebellion in Antioquia headed +by his old companion in arms, General Cordoba, +failed in the fall of 1829, at the end of the year +word came that Venezuela had formally declared +her independence and had pronounced a sentence of +perpetual banishment against the Liberator. This +was the last straw, and Bolivar made no further resistance +to his fate, but summoned a congress and +retired to his country house penniless, sick, and +heartbroken. All his vast estates had been sacrificed +to the cause of independence; the hardships +of his innumerable marches over the cold mountain +roads had broken his health; and his mode of life +during the intervals of peace had not tended to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">[Pg 452]</a></span> +restore it. Although only forty-seven he was a dying +man. Still he clung to his hopes of vindication and +re-election, but seeing that even the bulk of his own +friends opposed, he at last sent in a formal resignation. +He lived only a few months after congress +had elected Mosquera president.</p> + +<p>Though Bolivar's overthrow was a triumph for the +federalists and red republicans, congress shrank from +going too far and installed a wealthy aristocrat as +president. However, his feeble administration was +soon driven from power by the revolt of General +Urdaneta, who made use of Bolivar's name as a +rallying cry, but who in fact was actuated alone by +personal ambition. The federalists and anti-Bolivarists +did not leave him long in possession, and in +May, 1831, he was expelled in his turn. Obando +and Lopez, both bitter enemies of the Liberator +during his lifetime, and the latter suspected of complicity +in the cowardly murder of the great Marshal +Sucré, came to the head of affairs. New Granada's +intestine troubles made her too weak to attempt the +coercion of Venezuela and Ecuador, so their independence +was recognised and the Colombian republic +ceased to exist.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">[Pg 453]</a></span> +<img src="images/i453.jpg" width="600" height="758" alt="CATHEDRAL PANAMA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">CATHEDRAL—PANAMA.</span> +</div> + +<p>A federalist Constitution for New Granada was +framed in 1832, and shortly afterwards Santander +became the first legal president. Unquestionably +the strongest man in the nation, a good administrator +and a shrewd politician, he was helpless to +check the tendency toward disintegration, though +he reduced Bolivar's army of twenty thousand to +less than one half, and did much to establish civil +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">[Pg 454]</a></span> +administration. His energy in enforcing order +earned him the title of the "Man of Laws," and +many Granadans regard him as the real founder of +their nationality. Marquez, who succeeded to the +presidency in 1837, was not radical enough to suit +the advanced federalists and republicans, although +the first serious rebellion which broke out against +him was caused by his suppression of convents in +reactionary and Catholic Pasto. At the same time +Obando was intriguing against the government, and +many of the provincial governors aided the plots. +When summoned to trial, Obando fled to the wilds +of Popayan and Pasto, and civil war raged through +1839 and 1840. In this latter year Panama successfully +revolted, maintaining its independence until +1842. Tomas Mosquera, the minister of war, with +the help of his son-in-law, General Herran, eventually +triumphed over the rebels. In 1841 the latter +became president, and set vigorously to work to +strengthen the power of the central government.</p> + +<p>By this time, all the people who took any interest +in politics had divided into two parties. The liberals +insisted on universal suffrage, the separation of +Church and State, the granting the provinces the +fullest autonomy, the division of the greater portion +of the national revenue among the provincial governments, +and even opposed the theoretical right of +any government to impose its will on the individual +citizen. The conservatives believed in respecting +the clergy, in continuing the old system of education +under priestly control, and resisted any further +emasculation of the national government. Herran +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">[Pg 455]</a></span> +recalled the Jesuits, and under his direction a conservative +convention framed a more centralising +Constitution than that of 1832. Bolivar's ashes +were delivered to the Venezuelan government with +impressive solemnities, and his memory apotheosised +as the father of the nation and the apostle of centralisation. +Herran was succeeded by his father-in-law, +Tomas Mosquera. During his administration, +which lasted until 1849, steam navigation was introduced +on the Magdalena, the Panama railway was +begun, the finances were brought into some sort of +order, the army was further reduced, and the post-office +system was improved.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 544px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">[Pg 456]</a></span> +<img src="images/i456.jpg" width="544" height="480" alt="CROSSING THE MOUNTAINS IN 1850." title="" /> +<span class="caption">CROSSING THE MOUNTAINS IN 1850.</span> +</div> + +<p>The liberals and federalists were constantly becoming +more powerful and more discontented. Disturbances +broke out from time to time and when +Mosquera's term expired, the attempt to elect a +successor in an orderly and constitutional manner +utterly failed. Riots and bloodshed followed, and +it was officially announced that no candidate had +received a majority of the popular vote. The duty +of making a choice fell upon congress, and Lopez, a +general of the war of independence who had taken +part in the overthrow of Bolivar, was installed. +This meant a resumption of the march toward complete +decentralisation, temporarily checked during +Herran's and Mosquera's administrations. The +Constitution was reformed so as to reduce the power +of the national executive and guarantee greater +privileges to the provinces. The latter were divided +and subdivided to suit the exigencies of local politicians +until their number reached thirty-five. Lopez +had been a revolutionist himself and did not know +when he might be one again, and his abolishment of +the death penalty for political crimes met with the +hearty approval of the large number of Granadan +politicians who were in the same case. The central +government transferred a large part of its revenues +to the provinces, and gave up to them the control +of judicial administration, of education, and of transportation. +The tide of liberal legislation also swept +over the privileges of the clergy. Laws were voted +suppressing of tithes, giving the nomination of parish<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">[Pg 457]</a></span> +priests to the civil authorities, taking control of education +out of their hands, separating Church and +State, and establishing civil marriage. But it was +easier to pass such laws than to enforce their observance +by the Granadans. The clergy were enormously +powerful among the common people and +the conservative aristocrats. The banishment of the +archbishop and several suffragans roused the conservatives. +Politics became the principal preoccupation +of the educated classes. Hardly a village in +the country but had its political club, and more +than a hundred party newspapers, besides innumerable +pamphlets, thundered against their opponents. +The conservative revolution broke out in 1851, beginning +in Pasto and immediately spreading over +the whole western half of the republic and even to +the eastern plateau. Antioquia was the stronghold +of the clericals, and there they gathered a force of a +thousand men which was beaten at Rio Negro on +the 10th of September, 1851, while the insurgent +bands in a dozen other provinces were reduced in +detail. Although the liberal government was thus +triumphant in the field, the danger had been too +great and was still too menacing to make it safe to +maintain an uncompromising attitude on the religious +question.</p> + +<p>Lopez procured the election of Obando, another +political general of the same type and opinions as +himself, as his successor in the presidency. The +new president's first act was to summon a convention +which abolished the last traces of Herran's +moderately centralising Constitution, and depriving<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">[Pg 458]</a></span> +the executive of the power of naming provincial +governors. Obando gave satisfaction to no one, +and in 1854 General Melo, commander of the cavalry +in Bogotá, incited the garrison and workingmen +of that city to join him in an insurrection. However, +the chiefs of the conservative party would +have none of him; the recent concessions to the +clergy had removed the strongest motives for rousing +fanaticism to arms; and the clericals declared in +his favour in only a few provinces. The property-holding +and educated classes were practically unanimous +against him. Mosquera and Herran, the most +powerful men in New Granada and the historical +chiefs of the moderate conservatives, had modified +their views to suit the exigencies of the situation +and become in effect moderate liberals. It was +Mosquera himself who led the provincial militia +against Bogotá and overcome the dictator after +much bloody street fighting.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">[Pg 459]</a></span> +<img src="images/i459.jpg" width="600" height="670" alt="TYPES OF COLOMBIAN NATIVES." title="" /> +<span class="caption">TYPES OF COLOMBIAN NATIVES.</span> +</div> + +<p>The unhappy country, tired of continual internecine +disorder and exhausted by the harrying civil +wars, rested willingly for two years under the compromise +administration of Mallarino in which representatives +of both parties and most of the principal +factions had a voice. As a matter of fact the federal +government had almost ceased to exercise the greatly +reduced functions which nominally remained to it. +The executive had only the shadow of a control +over the provinces, its revenues sank to well-nigh +nothing, its army was reduced to eight hundred +men. The very name of the country was changed +from the "Republic of New Granada" to the "Granadine +Confederation," and the organisation of +powerful and independent federal departments was +begun, foreshadowing the abolition of the old provincial +system. In 1857 three candidates had presented +themselves—Ospina, representing the clerical +conservatives; Murillo, the advanced liberals; and +Mosquera, the moderates. Suffrage had been made<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">[Pg 460]</a></span> +universal, and under the conditions necessarily prevailing +among a population almost entirely illiterate +and used for centuries to monarchical and military +government, a satisfactory election was impossible. +On the face of the returns Ospina received a plurality, +but the radicals were able to force the adoption +of a new federal Constitution in 1859 which abolished +the old provinces. However, the new system +had not the sympathy of the conservative and clerical +president. He tried to usurp control of the +elections, the liberals accused him of acting unconstitutionally, +insurrections broke out in various parts +of the country, and the confusion became worse +confounded.</p> + +<p>In the state of Bolivar, the liberal insurrectionists +triumphed, while in Santander the conservatives +themselves started a revolution which Ospina only +succeeded in suppressing by the bloody battle of Oratorio. +Meanwhile Mosquera had become governor +of Cauca, and when the conservatives of that state +tried to expel him, he beat them and took advantage +of his victory to declare himself independent +of Ospina. The latter advanced, but Mosquera +defeated him, and invaded the upper Magdalena, +gaining the battle of Segovia. In every state there +was an insurrection against Ospina, and three ex-presidents +accompanied the insurgent armies. On +the surface the civil war appeared to be a mere contest +for personal power between Mosquera and +Ospina, but the former had ensured a large support +by raising the banner of federalism, and the latter's +triumph would probably have meant a strengthening<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">[Pg 461]</a></span> +of the national government and certainly a reaction +from the radicalism which had gained ground year +by year since the fall of Bolivar. Supported by the +clericals, conservatives, and reactionists, Ospina +fought tenaciously and with a fair prospect of success. +But the federalist armies advanced relentlessly +from both north and south, and one after another +the provinces of the eastern plateaux were wrested +from him by bloody and well-contested battles. +Bogotá was finally taken and the president imprisoned, +but Mosquera's opponents kept up the +conflict for some time in the states of Panama, Santander, +and Antioquia, and it was near the end +of 1861 before the federalists were everywhere +triumphant.</p> + +<p>With Mosquera at the head of affairs, under the +title of "Supreme Director," a congress was summoned +whose members were called, not deputies, +representatives, or delegates, but "plenipotentiaries" +of the sovereign states. This congress +adopted a new constitution, New Granada's sixth +since 1830. The triumphant liberals expelled the +Jesuits, abolished ecclesiastical entails, extinguished +the monastic orders, confiscated Church property, +decreed the absolute separation of Church and +State, imprisoned the archbishop, and secularised +the schools. Suffrage was made nominally universal, +and the death penalty abolished. The name +of the country was changed to the "United States +of Colombia," and it became little more than a +league of nine federal states for the purpose of defence +against foreign attack. The national govern<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">[Pg 462]</a></span>ment +was expressly prohibited from interfering in +the affairs of the states, even for the preservation of +order, and a clause of the Constitution provided +that "when one sovereign state of the union shall +be at war with another, or the citizens of any state +shall be at war among themselves, the national government +is obligated to preserve the strictest neutrality." +The federal judiciary had no power to +decide any constitutional questions nor could its +decisions bind the state authorities. The national +government was deprived of half its revenue for the +benefit of the states, and the receipts of the latter +equalled the federal income. This Constitution remained +in force for twenty-two years, during which +civil wars and factional disputes continually racked +Colombia.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 788px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">[Pg 463]</a></span> +<img src="images/i463.jpg" width="788" height="600" alt="POST-OFFICE AT BOGOTÁ." title="" /> +<span class="caption">POST-OFFICE AT BOGOTÁ.</span> +</div> + +<p>Moreno, the clerical dictator of Ecuador, had +aided Ospina during the civil war, and to punish him +Mosquera undertook a campaign which resulted in +a Colombian victory at Cuaspud on the 30th of +December, 1863. However, he desisted from his +announced intention of deposing Moreno and installing +an anti-clerical government in Ecuador, and +granted peace without the imposition of any onerous +terms. Murillo was elected president in 1864 for +the ensuing two years, to which short period the +term had been reduced. The religious question +would not down, and he found a conservative revolution +going on in the state of Antioquia. It +triumphed, and Murillo prudently recognised the +successful insurgents as the legal government. He +followed this same policy in regard to other +revolutions in the states of Bolivar, Magdalena, and +Panama, and cautiously refrained from all intervention, +even when conservative insurrections occurred +in the neighbourhood of Bogotá itself, or when the +clericals of Antioquia invaded Cauca, and defeated +the liberals. One of the last acts of his administration +was to impose on the impoverished federal +treasury the settlement of all the forced loans and +confiscations made during the three years of terrible +civil war. Mosquera, who succeeded Murillo in +1866, was not content to remain a mere figurehead, +although it was under his leadership that the federal +system had been definitely established. He bought<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464">[Pg 464]</a></span> +ships and artillery without authorisation from congress, +and claimed the power of intervening by force +whenever the legal government of a state was unable +to maintain order. This attack on the right of revolution +outraged the radical republicans. According +to their theory and practice the federal government +was merely an alliance between the peoples of the +states, but Mosquera's doctrine would tend to make +it an alliance between the state governments, creating +a ruling oligarchy whose power might be continued +indefinitely. Denounced as the assassin of Colombian +liberty, he broke off relations with the liberal +majority in congress, and in 1867 assumed dictatorial +powers. But the Bogotá garrison was suborned by +his enemies, and its revolt was followed by his deposition +and the substitution of Acosta.</p> + +<p>The new president renewed Murillo's policy of +non-intervention. Colombia had begun to reap a +benefit from the increasing foreign demand for +tropical products. Exports grew in value, and with +them, imports and revenue. But expenditures grew +faster; the poorer states demanded and received +subsidies from the federal treasury; public buildings +and local improvements were planned beyond the +nation's ability to pay; and a swarm of employees +and pensioners battened on the public revenues. +Under the concession of 1850 the Panama railway +had agreed to pay three per cent. of its net revenue +to the government, and the receipts from this source +amounted to fourteen thousand dollars a year. Colombia +had stipulated for the right to purchase the +road in 1870 for the ridiculously low price of five<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465">[Pg 465]</a></span> +million dollars, but Acosta's administration had no +money to invest and was greedy for ready cash. So +the franchise was extended until 1966 for one million +dollars down and an annual subsidy of a quarter of +a million. In 1880, under the pressure of poverty, +the installments until 1908 were alienated.</p> + +<p>Under Gutierrez's administration (1868-69), when +the governor of Cundinamarca gathered troops and +assumed a dictatorship, the president deposed him. +Even a liberal administration found it impracticable +to carry out the theory of non-intervention. An +attempt was now made to secure the nation's +creditors by authorising the hypothecation of specific +revenue—a measure which left the administration +insufficient means to meet ordinary running +expenses. Under Salgar (1870-72), the acknowledged +deficits amounted to fifty per cent. of the +total revenue. The increasing revenues had proved +a curse instead of a blessing, for the demands of the +states and officials were insatiable, and the sums +spent in subsidies and internal improvements grew +beyond all reason. Meantime the most extreme +and unrestrained liberalism dominated the politics of +the country. Congress passed a formal vote of condolence +for the death of Lopez, Paraguay's unspeakable +tyrant, who had just succumbed to Brazil and +Argentina, after having devoted to destruction nine-tenths +of his people. All honorary and useless +military titles and employments were abolished, +and the law on that subject contains the following +curious provision: "In naming the eight generals +spoken of by the Constitution, from whom must<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466">[Pg 466]</a></span> +be chosen the commander-in-chief of the army, all +Colombians over twenty-one shall be considered as +generals of the republic."</p> + +<p>Murillo was elected for a second term in 1872, and +at once devoted himself, and with considerable success, +to the re-organisation and regulation of the +finances. The law of 1868, which had hypothecated +the revenues to meet the charges of the public debt, +was repealed and the foreign bonds were scaled down +to less than one-third their face. By such measures +the president succeeded in paying the government +employees and taking care of pressing home necessities, +and even showed a nominal surplus at the end +of his term.</p> + +<p>During the administration of Santiago Perez +(1874-76) the first mutterings of the terrible storm +of civil war soon to burst over the country were +heard. The state of Panama defied his authority +and imprisoned his officers, but he applied conscientiously +the constitutional doctrine of non-intervention, +and disavowed a general who on his own +responsibility had deposed the governor. The governor +of the state of Magdalena took possession of +the custom houses at the mouth of the river, and +the troops of the state of Bolivar attacked federal +detachments passing along the Magdalena—a river +which is inter-state, and whose navigation was free +by the terms of the Constitution. The popular +election of 1875 was so disturbed that congress assumed +the power of selecting a president, and Parra +was installed the following spring. An internecine +conflict broke out in Cauca; the president started to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467">[Pg 467]</a></span> +intervene, and the states of Antioquia and Tolima +declared war against him. Although guerilla bands +in Cundinamarca, Boyacá, and Santander menaced +the government's rear, twenty-five thousand recruits +were raised and sent against the rebelling states. +Antioquia was beaten at Chancos and Garrapata, +and the rebels of central Colombia at La Donjuana, +in battles where the largest numbers of soldiers ever +gathered on Colombian soil were engaged.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 493px;"> +<img src="images/i467.jpg" width="493" height="480" alt="RAFAEL NUÑEZ, PRESIDENT OF COLOMBIA IN 1879-1883, 1885-1891." title="" /> +<span class="caption">RAFAEL NUÑEZ, PRESIDENT OF COLOMBIA<br /> +IN 1879-1883, 1885-1891.</span> +</div> + +<p>Peace was followed by a general amnesty, because +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468">[Pg 468]</a></span> +the victorious liberals dared not proceed to extremities +against their adversaries. Trujillo was installed +as president without opposition, and the harried +country recovered somewhat from the exertions and +disasters of the terrible year of 1876. The finances +were, however, in horrible disorder; expenses +amounted to enormous figures; the deficits became +greater than the total revenues; interest on the +public debt, which had been regularly kept up since +1873, was indefinitely suspended. Disturbances +soon began to break out again, and the national +guard deposed the governors of Cauca and Magdalena. +The president showed an inclination toward +centralisation; he formed alliances with state governors, +encouraged them to prolong their terms, and +systematically fostered divisions in the liberal party. +Trujillo was succeeded by Nuñez, nominally a liberal, +but who at heart had also sickened of the federalistic +system and was looking for an opportunity to +strengthen presidential prerogatives. The Constitution +stood during his first term and those of +his two successors, but when he was re-elected in +1884 the policy which he followed soon caused him +to be denounced by the liberals as a traitor to the +Constitution.</p> + +<p>The failure of a liberal insurrection in 1885 was +followed by a complete unitarian and clerical reaction. +In 1886 a new Constitution was adopted +which substituted a consolidated republic for the +loose confederation. The country's name was +changed from the "United States of Colombia" to +"Republic of Colombia" in order to express the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469">[Pg 469]</a></span> +dominating principle of the new régime. The sovereignty +of the individual states was expressly denied +in the document, and the two most refractory ones—Panama +and Cundinamarca—temporarily reduced +to territorial dependencies. The governors were +named from Bogotá instead of being elected and +the right of federal intervention re-affirmed. Suffrage +was limited by an educational and property +qualification; the clergy were admitted to participation +in politics; the Roman Catholic was declared to +be the national religion, although individual freedom +of worship was permitted; the presidential term was +extended to six years; and an attempt was made to +insure judicial independence by a life tenure.</p> + +<p>Under this Constitution there was for a long time +less disorder. In Colombia political hatreds are, +however, incredibly virulent and persistent because +party differences are fundamental and irreconcilable. +The clericals regard their opponents as pestilent enemies +of religion and order, and the liberals anathematise +the ruling party as a reactionary, corrupt, +and benighted oligarchy. The exiled liberals have +made repeated efforts to regain power, and the administrations +have not been able to avoid a constantly +mounting national expenditure and the +continuation of deficits and repudiation. In 1899, +a formidable insurrection, aided from Venezuela, +broke out, President Sanclemente was imprisoned, +and in 1900 Vice-President Marroquin assumed the +executive functions. This terrible civil war ended +only in November, 1902, when the insurgents surrendered +their fleet and stores. President Marroquin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">[Pg 470]</a></span> +and the conservative government seem now firmly +established, backed as they are by the tremendous +influence of the Church among the masses. The +people are returning to their usual avocations, +though business has been demoralised by the stupendous +depreciation of the paper currency.</p> + +<p>The vast expenditures of the French canal company +boomed Panama, but the resulting prosperity +was confined to the Isthmus. The Bogotá government +hoped for a great increase of income when the +canal should be completed, and the abandonment of +the enterprise was a disappointment. The principal +subject of public preoccupation during 1903 was +the negotiation with the United States concerning +the permission desired by the latter to continue the +work. Colombia proper has its outlet down the +Magdalena to the Caribbean, and therefore has no +greater special commercial interest in the building +of a canal than Venezuela, Guiana, or Cuba, but the +Colombians of the continent regarded the possession +of the isolated Isthmian region as their most valuable +national birthright, and believed that this invaluable +strategic position should be used so as to +obtain the utmost possible advantages for the +Bogotá government as well as for the people of +Panama. The revenue from the Panama railway +had been one of the important sources of government +income and the ruling political classes considered +that they were entitled to have this income +largely increased if a canal was built.</p> + +<p>The special congress summoned to consider the +treaty already signed by the executive failed to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471">[Pg 471]</a></span> +ratify the agreement and adjourned, after empowering +the president to try and negotiate a new one +which would give Colombia a larger bonus and +revenue. But the rejection of the treaty was followed +by a declaration of independence on the part +of the people of Panama, who believed that the +United States would pay no larger sum than that +already agreed upon and who saw their own interests +being sacrificed for the sake of a far-distant interior +region with which they had few commercial ties and +whence invasion and coercion need not be feared +because of the lack of practicable routes of communication. +The United States and other powers +promptly recognised the new nation, which at once +made a canal treaty similar to that rejected by the +Bogotá congress.</p> + +<p>At Bogotá the first impression was one of profound +dismay. The executive offered to declare +martial law, suspend the Constitution, and ratify +the rejected treaty in spite of the Senate. General +Reyes, the foremost living Colombian, immediately +departed for Panama as a special envoy to endeavour +to persuade the people there to return to their allegiance, +but his overtures were rejected, and he went +to Washington on the hopeless errand of inducing +the United States Government temporarily to abandon +its policy of forbidding fighting on the Isthmus, +so that Colombia might reduce the people of Panama +to obedience. Meanwhile many Colombians blamed +the Marroquin administration for the irreparable loss +of Panama and ten million badly needed dollars. +Some popular demonstrations occurred, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_472" id="Page_472">[Pg 472]</a></span> +hot-headed demanded that war be declared against +the United States and an army marched across the +Atrato swamps to attack Panama from the land. +But the financial and topographical difficulties were +so evidently insurmountable that the war talk soon +died down, the demonstrations against the Government +ceased, and most elements seem to have +acquiesced in the election of General Reyes to the +presidential term which begins in 1904. It will be +under his able guidance that Colombia will start on +the tedious road leading to internal peace and regeneration, +to financial rehabilitation, and to the reconcilement +of those fierce factions whose wars have +drenched their country's soil with blood for so many +decades.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-a.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_473" id="Page_473">[Pg 473]</a></span></p> + + + +<div class="bbt"> +<h2><a name="PANAMA" id="PANAMA"></a>PANAMA</h2> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474">[Pg 474]</a></span></p> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475">[Pg 475]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-9.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<h2>PANAMA</h2> + +<h3>THE EVENTS LEADING TO INDEPENDENCE</h3> + + +<p>The history of Panama is for the most part +identified with that of Colombia, which is +narrated elsewhere in the present volume. It will, +however, be convenient to review certain movements +and tendencies of the last half-century in order to +obtain a just understanding of the position and +prospects of the new republic.</p> + +<p>All the principles of advanced democratic government +were included in the programme of the party +which ruled Columbia from 1863 to 1883, and the +statute books of the time afford ample proof that +the leaders earnestly tried to put those principles +into practical effect. They dreamed a Utopia, but +practically their efforts only aggravated the anarchical +tendencies bequeathed by the Spaniards and +Bolivar. Colombian liberals still insist that a persistent +enforcement of the Constitution and principles +of 1863 would ultimately transform the +character of the people—that religious bigotry and +priestly influence would gradually disappear; that +the progressive enlightenment of the masses would<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_476" id="Page_476">[Pg 476]</a></span> +make military despotism and revolutions impossible; +and that in process of time the relations of the states +to the federal government would reach a satisfactory +and workable basis. But so far as the experiment +went no progress was made toward unifying the +nation and pacifying the adverse elements. Discontent, +disorders, civil wars increased in violence as +the years went by. Though one-fifth of the federal +revenues were spent on the public school system, +and one-tenth of the children were nominal attendants, +the clergy were permitted to have no share in +their control, and retaliated by excommunicating +the parents. The devotedly pious Creole mothers +and wives, threatened with the closing of the confessionals +and the denial of absolution, threw their +incalculable influence against the atheistic government. +The destruction of the convents and the +confiscation of the vast ecclesiastical estates violently +changed the ownership of two-thirds of the +land in the confederation, but this imposition of +new landlords on the industrious, oppressed, half-enslaved +tenantry did not much modify real agricultural +conditions. No extensive subdivision of +estates resulted, and the Creole aristocracy continued +to pay more attention to political intrigue +than to improving their property.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_477" id="Page_477">[Pg 477]</a></span> +<img src="images/i477.jpg" width="800" height="496" alt="VIEW OF PANAMA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">VIEW OF PANAMA.</span> +</div> + +<p>Not less disappointing in its practical working +was the independence of the states. Not only did +the local bosses constantly abuse autonomy for their +own selfish purposes, but the presidents at Bogotá +often ignored the constitutional rights of the states, +and selected for coercion precisely those states which +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_478" id="Page_478">[Pg 478]</a></span> +were farthest from the capital and most needed +wide autonomous powers. Though Panama's position +was isolated, its population cosmopolitan, its +commercial interests and social structure peculiar, +and though in colonial times its dependence on +Bogotá had been only nominal, the liberal presidents +usually ruled it like a conquered province. +Members of the Andean oligarchy poured in to +batten on its revenues; the autonomy guaranteed +by the Constitution proved illusory, and discontent +led to repeated efforts to achieve absolute +independence.</p> + +<p>Rival ambitions among its own leaders furnished, +however, the immediate cause of the downfall of the +liberal party. A close oligarchy grew up and that +inevitable corollary, a powerful faction of dissident +liberals, while the clericals remained formidable and +irreconcilable even after their bloody overthrow in +1876. Rafael Nuñez, a brilliant writer, a resolute +and ambitious party chief, and a leader in the confiscation +of church property, had been defeated in his +candidacy for the presidency in 1875. The younger +and dissatisfied liberals rallied behind him in his war +against the oligarchy, and in 1880 the old-fashioned +liberals could not prevent his election to the presidency. +He vigorously strengthened the prerogatives +of the federal executive and built up his personal +following, but although the issue of paper money +and the discontinuance of interest on the foreign +debt—a debt which only ten years before had been +scaled down to $10,000,000, one-sixth its original +amount, on a solemn promise that at least this much<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_479" id="Page_479">[Pg 479]</a></span> +would be faithfully paid—placed large funds at his +disposal, the old-line liberals were strong enough to +prevent his re-election in 1882. Their victory was +illusory and temporary. Nuñez controlled both +houses of congress and was able to block President +Zaldua at every turn. Eighty years old and in +feeble health, the latter died after a year of fruitless +struggle.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<img src="images/i479.jpg" width="800" height="555" alt="STEAMERS ON THE MAGDALENA RIVER." title="" /> +<span class="caption">STEAMERS ON THE MAGDALENA RIVER.</span> +</div> + +<p>After a short <i>ad interim</i> administration in which +Nuñez's influence predominated, he was re-elected +to the presidency and installed in 1884. By this +time his centralising tendencies were manifest, and +the measures he adopted unmistakably pointed to +the substitution of a unified republic for the old +loose confederation. Many of his liberal supporters<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_480" id="Page_480">[Pg 480]</a></span> +fell away and he was driven into an alliance with +the conservatives. Appointments of members of +that party to important positions were followed +by the great revolt of 1885. The insurrectionists +delivered their main attack on the Caribbean coast, +whither the importation of arms was easy. Much +of the department of Magdalena fell into their hands, +and they besieged Cartagena in force. But when +one of their expeditions invaded the Isthmus, burning +Colon, and interrupting traffic on the Panama +Railway, the president appealed to the United +States, as previous presidents had done in similar +cases, to carry out the guaranty of free transit contained +in the treaty of 1846. At the same time the +government troops attacked and defeated the isolated +insurrectionists at Colon, and shortly afterwards +the latter's main army suffered a bloody repulse in +an assault on Cartagena. This broke the back of +the movement against Nuñez, and the liberals +abandoned the hopeless struggle.</p> + +<p>The insurrection had been undertaken for the +purpose of defending the 1863 Constitution, and its +defeat meant the destruction of departmental independence. +As the logical and natural result of his +victory, the president proclaimed the abolishment +of the Constitution and summoned a convention to +adopt a new one. Thenceforward until his death +ten years later Rafael Nuñez and his political ideas +were supreme in Colombia, and Panama was held +in the most rigid subjection. The old "United +States of Colombia" was replaced by the "Republic +of Columbia," one and indivisible; the departments<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481">[Pg 481]</a></span> +became mere administrative divisions whose governors +were appointed from Bogotá; the presidential +term was increased to six years; the radical liberal +projects were abandoned; the clergy regained many +of their privileges; and the historical conservatives +continued the dominant party.</p> + +<p>As long as Nuñez lived there were few outbreaks +and no serious civil war, though the ousted liberals +never ceased to plot the government's overthrow. +The centralising system held the departments in a +rigid control from whose inconveniences Panama +suffered far more than the mountain districts. +Practically she was allowed no voice in either her +own or general affairs; the very delegates who +nominally represented her in the constitutional convention +of 1885 were residents of Bogotá appointed +by Nuñez; military rule became a permanent thing +on the Isthmus; all officials were strangers sent from +the Andean plateau; and the million dollars of taxes +wrung each year from the people of Panama were +spent on maintaining the soldiers who kept them in +subjection. In January, 1895, the harassed province +broke out in a rebellion which was suppressed +by an overwhelming force of Colombian troops in +April.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile in Colombia proper the opposition to +the ruling clique grew stronger and stronger. Persecution +united the liberals, and they began organising +for revolt all over the republic. The +conservatives themselves divided into two parties, +one of which opposed the administration. Nuñez +did not live to finish the second term to which he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_482" id="Page_482">[Pg 482]</a></span> +had been elected in 1892, but his successor managed +to suppress the premature revolt of 1895, and in +1898 Sanclemente was elected, the opposition refraining +from going to the polls. The new president +soon found his position very difficult, and, unlike +Nuñez, was unable to dominate his own party and +hold the opposition in check. The French Canal +Company, whose concession, granted in 1878, would +expire in 1904, offered a million dollars for a renewal, +desiring to recoup, by a sale to the United +States, a part of the two hundred millions sunk by +De Lesseps. Sanclemente's government wished to +accept, but the opposition and even the conservative +congress insisted on the forfeiture of the French +rights. The administration rapidly lost prestige, +the discontented elements saw their opportunity, +and the long-brewing storm now broke on the hapless +country. The liberals hurriedly completed their +preparations, and in the fall of 1899 a civil war began—the +most terrible and destructive that has ever +devastated the republic. Before it ended in 1902, +more than two hundred battles and armed encounters +had been fought, and thirty thousand Colombians +slain. The detailed history of the campaigns has +not yet been written, but it is apparent that the insurrectionists +at first gained many successes. The +president declared martial law, suspending the functions +of congress, and the extension desired by the +French Canal Company was granted by executive +decree. But the pecuniary relief thus obtained did +not materially help the floundering administration. +Sanclemente became a mere figurehead for his more +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_483" id="Page_483">[Pg 483]</a></span>resolute ministers, and in July, 1900, the vigorous +vice-president, Marroquin, seized power by a <i>coup +d'état</i>, throwing Sanclemente into a prison, where +he remained until his death. Thereafter the war +against the rebels was prosecuted with more energy, +and the tide turned with the defeat of an army of +Venezuelans, eight thousand strong, which had invaded +the eastern provinces, to co-operate with the +insurrectionists.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<img src="images/i483.jpg" width="800" height="488" alt="NATIVE VILLAGE ON THE PANAMA R. R." title="" /> +<span class="caption">NATIVE VILLAGE ON THE PANAMA R. R.</span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_484" id="Page_484">[Pg 484]</a></span> +</div> + +<p>However, the liberals were still strong in the +west and north. On the Isthmus four insurrections +had broken out from October, 1899, to September, +1901, and though each had been promptly suppressed, +in 1902 the liberals were able to make a +last great effort to establish themselves at Panama. +They had considerable forces near the mouth of the +Magdalena, and gunboats on the Pacific. The secure +possession of the Isthmus would have enabled them +to reinforce this Magdalena army, cut off Marroquin +from the sea, and undertake a campaign against the +interior. At first all went well for them; their gunboats +captured the government's vessels on the +Pacific side; they concentrated a respectable army +there and finally defeated and captured two thousand +of Marroquin's troops at Agua Dulce, near +Panama. But this was their last success. Marroquin +poured reinforcements into Colon, and though +the American admiral at first refused to allow them +to be transported over the railroad to Panama, permission +was granted when it became evident that +there would be no fighting near the line. News +came of the defeat of the liberal army near the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_485" id="Page_485">[Pg 485]</a></span> +Magdalena, and General Herrera, the victor at Agua +Dulce, found himself isolated. In desperation he +sent an expedition in October which surprised and +captured Colon, but French and American marines +were promptly landed to prevent fighting in that +city. The expedition had no alternative but to surrender, +and a few days later General Herrera with +the main body capitulated on the Pacific side.</p> + +<p>The three years of war left Colombia in frightful +demoralisation. The victorious government was +little better off than the defeated liberals. Commerce +and industry had been prostrated; revenues +had dwindled to nothing; the paper currency was +worth less than one per cent. The exhaustion of +its adversaries, not its own strength, enabled Marroquin's +government to continue in power. In such +a situation the administration welcomed the opportunity +which now offered of renewing the building of +the Isthmian canal. The United States government +determined to undertake this great work itself, and +finally decided in favour of Panama as against the +Nicaragua route. Forty million dollars was agreed +upon as a just price for the work already done by +the French Company, and nothing remained but to +obtain Colombia's consent to the transfer. The +civil war helped to delay the negotiation of a satisfactory +treaty, but as soon as it was over the Marroquin +administration lost little time in coming to an +agreement with the United States. Colombia was +to receive a bonus of ten million dollars for consenting +to the transfer and enlarging the terms of the +original concession; her sovereign rights were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_486" id="Page_486">[Pg 486]</a></span> +reserved and guaranteed, although she agreed to +police and sanitary control of the canal strip by the +United States.</p> + +<p>When this treaty was submitted to the Colombian +Senate for ratification, opposition developed which +the administration was not strong or resolute enough +to overcome. Among the politicians at Bogotá, the +opinion was almost universal that the executive +should have demanded more. The Colombian people +have ever regarded the political control of the +Isthmus as their most valuable national heritage, +and cherished extravagant hopes that some day they +would be vastly enriched by the sale or rental of this +strategic bit of ground for its natural use as the greatest +artery of the world's commerce. Many now +insisted, as they had done in 1898, on enforcing a forfeiture +of the French rights, or at least on receiving +a proportion of the $40,000,000 to be paid for them. +It was also said that the Americans could well afford +a larger bonus, and the opponents of the treaty made +the further point that the agreement was unconstitutional +and contained insufficient guaranties of Colombian +sovereignty. Against this storm the feeble +administration probably could do little and certainly +did nothing. The Senate was allowed to adjourn +without ratifying the treaty, and an attempt was +made to negotiate a new one providing for a larger +bonus and more stringent guarantees of Colombian +sovereignty.</p> + +<p>The United States, however, absolutely refused +to consider any other terms than those already +agreed upon, and the civilised world saw the com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_487" id="Page_487">[Pg 487]</a></span>pletion +of an enterprise promising incalculable +benefits to mankind indefinitely postponed by the +opposition of Andean provinces whom the accidents +of war and international politics had given an arbitrary +control over a region with which they had no +natural connection. The situation was particularly +hard for the people of the Isthmus, whose confident +hopes were now disappointed of at last receiving, +by the prosperity which would follow the building +of the canal, some compensation for the oppression +and losses they had suffered during eighty years of +misrule by the Bogotá oligarchies. Hardly had the +treaty been rejected when plotting for a declaration +of independence began. The resident population +was unanimous, and good grounds existed for believing +that even the Colombian garrison would offer +no resistance unless reinforcements should come +from Bogotá. In case of an armed conflict with +Colombia the people of Panama could count on the +sympathy of all America and Europe. The stockholders +of the French Company had a direct pecuniary +interest in their success. If once they could +establish independence and a <i>de facto</i> government, +Colombia could not deliver an effective attack without +violating the neutrality and security of transit +guaranteed to the Isthmus by the United States. +Everything pointed to the success of a well-conducted +movement.</p> + +<p>Though the preparations for the revolt could not +be concealed, the Bogotá government took no +effective measures to forestall it. Warned that +trouble was impending, the United States sent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_488" id="Page_488">[Pg 488]</a></span> +ships to prevent fighting that might interfere with +transit. The new republic was proclaimed at +Panama on the 3rd of November, 1903. The Colombian +authorities made no resistance; the garrison +surrendered without firing a shot; and the entire +population acquiesced in the appointment of a provisional +government, pending the calling of a convention +and the adoption of a Constitution. A +small force of Colombians had been landed at Colon, +but the revolution at Panama found it still on the +Atlantic side. On November 4th the American +naval commander refused to give these troops permission +to use the railroad for warlike purposes. +Because the vital portion of the new republic is +virtually neutral under the treaty of 1846, the provisional +government having established itself in +peaceable possession was safe from external attack. +The useless Colombian troops at Colon either joined +the people of Panama or retired. The inhabitants +of Colon and the outlying districts immediately sent +in their adherence, and the peace of the whole +Isthmian region remained unbroken. On the 13th +of November the United States recognised the new +republic, being followed by France on the 18th, and +then by all other nations as soon as diplomatic formalities +could be complied with. Dr. Manuel Amador +Guerrero was elected first president of the +Republic of Panama, being inaugurated on February +19, 1904. A treaty with the United States for +the building of the canal was framed on substantially +the same lines as the one which had been negotiated +with Colombia. By the end of February it had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_489" id="Page_489">[Pg 489]</a></span> +been ratified and proclaimed, and the United States +at once made preparations for the beginning of the +work.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-c.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_490" id="Page_490">[Pg 490]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="AtEnd" id="AtEnd"></a> +<img src="images/s-490.jpg" width="600" height="786" alt="MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA" title="" /> +<span class="caption">MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA</span> +<p class="center"><a href="images/map-490.jpg">Click here for a larger image</a></p> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_491" id="Page_491">[Pg 491]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-1.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2> + + +<p class="indexquot"> +A<br /> +<br /> +Abascal, General, Viceroy of Peru, <a href="#Page_73">73-78</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a><br /> +<br /> +Abibe Mountains, <a href="#Page_408">408</a><br /> +<br /> +Acha, General, <a href="#Page_276">276</a><br /> +<br /> +Aconcagua River, the, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plain of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Acosta, Juan, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br /> +<br /> +Acosta, President of Colombia, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a><br /> +<br /> +Acre River, the, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br /> +<br /> +"Adelantados," <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a><br /> +<br /> +Agua Dulce, battle of, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Alansi, valley of, <a href="#Page_291">291</a><br /> +<br /> +Alacantra, Francisco, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br /> +<br /> +Alfaro, President of Ecuador, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a><br /> +<br /> +Alfinger, Adelantado of Venezuela, <a href="#Page_349">349</a><br /> +<br /> +Almagro, partner of Pizarro, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at war with Pizarro, <a href="#Page_41">41-43</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">execution of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Almagro the younger, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br /> +<br /> +Alonso, President of Bolivia, <a href="#Page_281">281</a><br /> +<br /> +Alpaca, the, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a><br /> +<br /> +Alvarado, Spanish adventurer, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Governor of Guatemala, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Amar, Viceroy of Bogotá, <a href="#Page_430">430</a><br /> +<br /> +Amat, Don Manuel, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br /> +<br /> +Amazon River, the, discovery of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a><br /> +<br /> +Amazon, forested plains of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a><br /> +<br /> +Andagoya, Pascual de, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br /> +<br /> +Andean plateau, the, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a><br /> +<br /> +Andean valleys, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gold in, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Andes, the, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a> et passim<br /> +<br /> +Andes, army of the, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> +<br /> +Andrade, Creole revolutionist, <a href="#Page_396">396</a><br /> +<br /> +Andueza, Creole revolutionist, <a href="#Page_396">396</a><br /> +<br /> +Angol, besieged, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br /> +<br /> +Angostura (city), <a href="#Page_374">374</a><br /> +<br /> +Anserma, founded, <a href="#Page_409">409</a><br /> +<br /> +Antigua, founded, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a><br /> +<br /> +Antioquia, great mineral province of Colombia, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407-409</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a><br /> +<br /> +Antioquia, state of, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a><br /> +<br /> +Antofogasta, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br /> +<br /> +Apples, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> +<br /> +Apuré River, the, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374-376</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">army of, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Aragua Valley, the, <a href="#Page_350">350</a><br /> +<br /> +Araucania, colonised, <a href="#Page_216">216</a><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_492" id="Page_492">[Pg 492]</a></span><br /> +Araucanians, the, independent spirit of, <a href="#Page_138">138-147</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treaty of, with Spanish, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">missions established among, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at war with Chile, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Arauco, besieged, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br /> +<br /> +Araure, battle of, <a href="#Page_368">368</a><br /> +<br /> +Arce, President of Bolivia, <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br /> +<br /> +Arenales, General, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br /> +<br /> +Arequipa (city), founded, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br /> +<br /> +Arequipa (province), <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br /> +<br /> +Argentina, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">civilised tribes of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolution in, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">civil wars in, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Argentine, army, the, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">navy, the, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pampas, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Argentine Republic, the, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">expansion of, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">boundary treaty of, with Chile, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Arica (city), <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br /> +<br /> +Arica (province), arrangement between Peru and Chile concerning, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br /> +<br /> +Asses, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> +<br /> +Atacama desert, the, <a href="#Page_239">239</a><br /> +<br /> +Atahuallpa, Inca empire divided between Huascar and, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fratricidal war between Huascar and, <a href="#Page_16">16-19</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sends ambassador to Spaniards, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treacherously captured by Pizarro, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">offers ransom, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">murder of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Atrato, River, the, <a href="#Page_403">403-406</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Valley, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Audiencias, royal, established, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a><br /> +<br /> +Auqui Toma, <a href="#Page_294">294</a><br /> +<br /> +Ayachucho, plain of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">battle of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Ayohuma, battle of, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br /> +<br /> +Azuay, nudo of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291-293</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a><br /> +<br /> +Aztecs, the, <a href="#Page_412">412</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +B<br /> +<br /> +Balboa, Nuñez de, discoverer of the Pacific, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a><br /> +<br /> +Balcarce, General, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br /> +<br /> +Ballivian, General, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br /> +<br /> +Balmaceda, Chilean Liberal leader, <a href="#Page_214">214-216</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218-220</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222-225</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death of, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Balta, Colonel, President of Peru, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a><br /> +<br /> +Bambona, battle of, <a href="#Page_444">444</a><br /> +<br /> +Bananas, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a><br /> +<br /> +Baquedano, General, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br /> +<br /> +Barcelona (city), founded, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">captured, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Barcelona (province), <a href="#Page_362">362</a><br /> +<br /> +Barinos (province), <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a><br /> +<br /> +Barley, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a><br /> +<br /> +Barquisimeto, founded, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">destroyed by earthquake, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">captured, <a href="#Page_368">368</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Barreiro, General, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a><br /> +<br /> +Bastida, Rodrigo, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a><br /> +<br /> +Belgrano, General, <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br /> +<br /> +Bello, civil code prepared by, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br /> +<br /> +Belzu, General, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br /> +<br /> +Benalcazar, Sebastian de, conquers Quito, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a><br /> +<br /> +Beni River, the, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br /> +<br /> +Bermudez, Colonel, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a><br /> +<br /> +Biobio River, the, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145-147</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a><br /> +<br /> +Blanco, Guzman, Dictator of Venezuela, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394-396</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Blanco</i>, the, <a href="#Page_119">119-121</a><br /> +<br /> +Bogotá, (city) <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">founded, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">one of the centres of Spanish-American culture, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Archbishop of, banished, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>;</span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_493" id="Page_493">[Pg 493]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolutionary junta in, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">seat of federal government, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">punishment of, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Bogotá (province), <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">vice-royalty of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">jurisdiction of, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">audiencia of, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">presidency of, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">named New Granada, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">declares itself an independent state, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Bolivar, Simon, the "Liberator" of South America, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dictator of Peru, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">military exploits of, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">President of United States of Colombia, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plan of, for South American Confederation, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320-322</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">constitutions, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">undertakes conquest of Quito, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wins battle of Ayachucho, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">welcomed in Bolivia, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">political theories of, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">forced to retire from Peru, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">drives Spanish from Venezuela and New Granada, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433-435</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">interview of, with San Martin, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">life of, devoted to South American independence, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">army of, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">proclamation of, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">overthrow of, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death of, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">character and education of, <a href="#Page_364">364-366</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">native city of, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">apotheosis of, <a href="#Page_455">455</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Bolivar, State of, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a><br /> +<br /> +Bolivia (Upper Peru), <a href="#Page_235">235-281</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">description of <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Inca conquest of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">military roads in, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish conquest of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Inca cities in, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">capital of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">precious metals found in, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238-242</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245-247</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">railroads in, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">audiencia established in, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a> (<i>see also</i> Charcas);</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the battleground of war of independence, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">republic of, created, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bolivar the Father of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">named, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">first president of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268-270</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">constitutions of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, <a href="#Page_101">101-103</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270-273</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">boundary treaty of, with Chile, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at war with Chile, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">secret treaty of, with Peru, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nitrate territory of, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">early civilisation of, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rainfall in, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fertility of, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">character of population of, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish cities in, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cattle-raising in, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish colonial system in, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">taxation in, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">missions established in, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">printing-press, in, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">battles in, <a href="#Page_257">257-260</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264-266</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sturdy spirit of patriots in, <a href="#Page_258">258-262</a>, etc.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commerce of, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">period of civil war and anarchy in, <a href="#Page_272">272 <i>et seq.</i></a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">slavery abolished in, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">greatest silver producing country of the world, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rubber production of, <a href="#Page_278">278-280</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">without seaports, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treaty of, with Brazil, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">international position of, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_494" id="Page_494">[Pg 494]</a></span><br /> +Bonaparte, Joseph, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a><br /> +<br /> +Bonaparte, Napoleon, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a><br /> +<br /> +Borrero, Antonio, President of Ecuador, <a href="#Page_339">339</a><br /> +<br /> +Bourbon dynasty, the, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a><br /> +<br /> +Boves, organises troop of llaneros, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death of, <a href="#Page_370">370</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Boyacá River, the, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">battle of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Boyacá, state of, <a href="#Page_467">467</a><br /> +<br /> +Brazil, treaty of, with Bolivia, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">loyalty of, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Brown, Admiral William, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> +<br /> +Buccaneers, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a><br /> +<br /> +Buenaventura, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> +<br /> +Buenos Aires, viceroyalty of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">smuggling in, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolutionary junta in, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pampas of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">importance of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Bunes, General, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +C<br /> +<br /> +Cabildos, in Bogotá, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Bolivia, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Chile, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Ecuador, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Venezuela, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Cacao, native to South America, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a><br /> +<br /> +Cacao industry in Colombia, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Ecuador, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Venezuela, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Caceres, President of Peru, <a href="#Page_126">126-131</a><br /> +<br /> +Cacha, the last Cara shiri, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a><br /> +<br /> +Caciques, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a><br /> +<br /> +Cadiz, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">monopoly, the, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Cajamarca, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> +<br /> +Calabozo, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a><br /> +<br /> +Caldas, Colombian scientist, <a href="#Page_438">438</a><br /> +<br /> +Calderon, Garcia, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br /> +<br /> +Cali (city), <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a><br /> +<br /> +Cali (province), part of presidency of Quito, <a href="#Page_420">420</a><br /> +<br /> +Calivio, battle of, <a href="#Page_433">433</a><br /> +<br /> +Callao, engulfed by tidal wave, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Peruvian fleet at, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish fleet at, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Callao Castle, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a><br /> +<br /> +Caluchima, <a href="#Page_296">296</a><br /> +<br /> +Camano, José, President of Ecuador, <a href="#Page_339">339</a><br /> +<br /> +Camargo, patriot leader, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a><br /> +<br /> +Campero, Narcisco, President of Bolivia, <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br /> +<br /> +Cañan (province), <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a><br /> +<br /> +Cañaris, the, Indian tribe, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a><br /> +<br /> +Candamo, Señor, President of Peru, <a href="#Page_131">131</a><br /> +<br /> +Cancha-Rayada, battle at, <a href="#Page_176">176-178</a><br /> +<br /> +Cañete (city), founded, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">besieged, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Cañete, Marquis of, the "good viceroy," <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>. <i>See</i> Mendoza<br /> +<br /> +Canizaries, Doña Manuela, <a href="#Page_313">313</a><br /> +<br /> +Canseco, General, President of Peru, <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br /> +<br /> +Canterac, Spanish commander, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br /> +<br /> +Canto, Colonel, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a><br /> +<br /> +Cape Codera, <a href="#Page_351">351</a><br /> +<br /> +Cape Gracias á Dios, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a><br /> +<br /> +Cape Horn, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a><br /> +<br /> +Cape San Roman, <a href="#Page_347">347</a><br /> +<br /> +Captaincies-General, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a><br /> +<br /> +Carabobo, battle of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a><br /> +<br /> +Caracas (city), revolutionary junta in, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">founded, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sacked, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">made a captaincy-general, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">destroyed by earthquake, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bolivar's birthplace, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">under jurisdiction of Bogotá, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolution in, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_495" id="Page_495">[Pg 495]</a></span><br /> +Caracoles, silver mines of, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br /> +<br /> +Cara Indians, the, confederacy of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">invade Ecuador, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conquered by Incas, <a href="#Page_11">11-14</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288-296</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Caranquis, the Indian tribe, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a><br /> +<br /> +Caras, description of, <a href="#Page_286">286-290</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">staple articles of food of, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conquered by Spanish, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Carbojal, Spanish commander, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br /> +<br /> +Caribbean Sea, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a><br /> +<br /> +Carib Indians, the, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a><br /> +<br /> +Carrasco, Captain-General of Chile, <a href="#Page_159">159-161</a><br /> +<br /> +Carrera, José, creole leader, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br /> +<br /> +Carrera, Juan, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br /> +<br /> +Carrera, Luiz, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br /> +<br /> +Carrillo, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br /> +<br /> +Cartagena (city), revolutionary junta in, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bolivar takes service with, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">besieged, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435-437</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">oldest fortress in America, <a href="#Page_406">406-409</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">surrender of, <a href="#Page_443">443</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Cartagena (province), <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a><br /> +<br /> +Cartago (city), <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;<br /> +<br /> +Carujo, Venezuelan revolutionist, <a href="#Page_389">389</a><br /> +<br /> +Casanare (province), <a href="#Page_424">424</a><br /> +<br /> +Casanare River, the, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plains of, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Cassava, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> +<br /> +Castilla, Don Ramon, President of Peru, <a href="#Page_106">106-110</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">character and ability of, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Castilla, Don Ruiz de, President of Quito, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a><br /> +<br /> +Castilla, Marshal, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;<br /> +<br /> +Castro (city), <a href="#Page_151">151</a><br /> +<br /> +Castro, President of Venezuela, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a><br /> +<br /> +Castro, Vala de, Governor of Peru, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a><br /> +<br /> +Cattle, introduced into South America, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a><br /> +<br /> +Cattle-raising in Bolivia, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Colombia, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Venezuela, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Cauca (province), northern division of Quito presidency, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">State of, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Cauca River, the, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a><br /> +<br /> +Caudillos, the, Bolivian, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a><br /> +<br /> +Caupolican, Arauncanian chief, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> +<br /> +Ceballos, José, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a><br /> +<br /> +Central America, Colombia's claim to, <a href="#Page_429">429</a><br /> +<br /> +Cerro de Pasco Mountains, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a><br /> +<br /> +Chacabuco, battle of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a><br /> +<br /> +Chanca Indians, the, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br /> +<br /> +Chancos, battle of, <a href="#Page_467">467</a><br /> +<br /> +Charcas (Sueré), Indian capital of Bolivia, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">audiencia of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolutionary junta in, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish capital of Upper Peru, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">jurisdiction of, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Charles IV. of Spain, <a href="#Page_311">311</a><br /> +<br /> +Charles V., Emperor, authorises conquest of Peru, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appoints governor for Venezuela, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Chaves, Francisco, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br /> +<br /> +Chibcho Indians, the, <a href="#Page_412">412-414</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">civilisation of, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Chile, Inca conquest of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish conquest of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139-149</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">captain-general of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_496" id="Page_496">[Pg 496]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">war of independence in, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">junta established in, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at war with Peru and Bolivia, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">boundary treaty of, with Bolivia, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">boundaries of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeats allies, <a href="#Page_121">121-125</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">captures Lima, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mineral products of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nitrate industry of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gains control of nitrate region, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220-222</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">navy of, <a href="#Page_118">118-121</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183-185</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">characteristics of inhabitants of, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">area of, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rainfall in, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">agricultural conditions in, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">battles in, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143-145</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176-178</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180-182</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223-225</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish cities of, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at war with Araucanians, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the colonial period in, <a href="#Page_148">148-155</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">immigration into, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">growth of commerce in, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">smuggling in, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">taxation in, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prosperity of, <a href="#Page_154">154-156</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">universities in, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the capital of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">seismic disturbances in, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cuyo separates from, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">landed aristocracy of, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">liberal reforms in, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206-208</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214-217</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">slavery abolished in, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish authority re-established in, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">independence of, proclaimed, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">civil wars in, <a href="#Page_189">189 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_200">200-203</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215-226</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">constitutions of, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">strong government established in, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">qualifications for suffrage in, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">becomes dominant power on Pacific coast, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">political conditions in, <a href="#Page_198">198-203</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227-229</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">financial conditions of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211-213</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">religious conditions in, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">adopts civil and criminal codes, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at war with Spain, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">debt of, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">boundary treaty of, with Argentina, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">boundary disputes with Argentina, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">chief exports of, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">paper money issued in, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">under jurisdiction of Buenos Aires, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Chilean (city), <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br /> +<br /> +Chiloë Islands, the, explored, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br /> +<br /> +Chimilas Mountains, <a href="#Page_410">410</a><br /> +<br /> +Chincha Islands, the, seized by Spain, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a><br /> +<br /> +Chinchon, Countess of, cure of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /> +<br /> +Chinese coolies in Peru, <a href="#Page_111">111</a><br /> +<br /> +Chiquitos Indians, the, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a><br /> +<br /> +Chocolate, Europe indebted to Peru for, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ecuador supplies large amount of, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Chorrillos (city), <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br /> +<br /> +Coal mines, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br /> +<br /> +Cochabamba (city), <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br /> +<br /> +Cochrane, Lord Thomas, Admiral, <a href="#Page_79">79-83</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186-188</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Cochrane</i>, the, <a href="#Page_119">119-121</a><br /> +<br /> +Cocoa palm introduced into South America, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> +<br /> +Coffee-raising, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a><br /> +<br /> +Colombia (New Granada), plateau of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish exploration of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403-406</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410-414</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">native tribes of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412-414</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_497" id="Page_497">[Pg 497]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first permanent settlement in, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish conquest of, <a href="#Page_407">407-418</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolutionary spirit in, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430 <i>et seq.</i></a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war of independence in, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430-444</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">formation of United States of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">provinces in confederation of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320-322</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bolivar, President of confederation of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">southern part under jurisdiction of Quito, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Constitution of Cucutá, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">confederation of, breaks up, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at war with Peru, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">civil wars in, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_450">450-458</a>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481-485</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">boundaries of, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gold in, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406-409</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cities founded in, <a href="#Page_404">404-406</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413-416</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">climate of, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rainfall in, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tropical forests of, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fertility of, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indian slavery in, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">negro slaves in, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">early civilisation of, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409-412</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">territorial divisions of, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">royal commissioners sent to, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">erected into a presidency, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">jurisdiction of presidency, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">colonial period of, <a href="#Page_419">419-429</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">names of, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">education in, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">roads built in, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">river transportation in, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">creoles of, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">agricultural products of, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Antioquia, great mineral province of, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commercial conditions in, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">taxation in, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">authors of, celebrated, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mineral products of, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish colonial system in, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">decrease in population of, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">smuggling in, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">religious conditions in, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455-458</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">governors of, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">diseases rife in, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Rebellion of the Communes" in, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">viceroys of, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">exports of, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">claim of, to Central America, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Congress of, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">battles in, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">independence of, recognised, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">financial conditions in, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_463">463-466</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">public debt of, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">credit of, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">liberty of the Press in, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">numerous constitutions of, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>, <a href="#Page_460">460-462</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">political conditions in, <a href="#Page_454">454-462</a>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">right of suffrage in, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>, <a href="#Page_459">459-461</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">steam navigation introduced into, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death penalty abolished, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">campaign of, against Ecuador, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">power of judiciary in, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">receipts from Panama railway, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">franchise of railway extended, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">becomes a consolidated republic, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">name changed to Republic of, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">length of presidential term in, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">paper currency in, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">negotiates treaties with United States, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rejects treaties, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Panama declares her independence of, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">threatens war against United States, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>;</span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_498" id="Page_498">[Pg 498]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">future of, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appeals to United States, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">demands of, in regard to Panama Canal, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>, <a href="#Page_486">486</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Colombian army, the, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a><br /> +<br /> +Colon (city), <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">burned, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">captured, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">adheres to Panama, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Colonia (city), <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br /> +<br /> +Columbus, Bartholomew, <a href="#Page_404">404</a><br /> +<br /> +Columbus, Christopher, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a><br /> +<br /> +Concepcion, founded, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">burned, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">destroyed by tidal wave, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">patriots capture, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">southern capital of Chile, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Concordat signed by Ecuador, <a href="#Page_337">337</a><br /> +<br /> +"Conquistadores," the, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a><br /> +<br /> +Copiapo, valley of, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mines of, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Copper, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a><br /> +<br /> +Copper-pan amalgamation process, <a href="#Page_241">241</a><br /> +<br /> +Coquimbo, founded, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">northern capital of Chile, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Cordero, Luis, President of Ecuador, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a><br /> +<br /> +Cordilleras, the, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a><br /> +<br /> +Cordoba, General, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a><br /> +<br /> +Cordoba, Gonzalo de, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> +<br /> +Coro (city), <a href="#Page_348">348-350</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a><br /> +<br /> +Corregidors, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">abolished, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></span><br /> +<br /> +"Corregimentos," <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br /> +<br /> +Cortes, Hernando, conqueror of Mexico, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a><br /> +<br /> +Cortes, the Spanish, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>,436<br /> +<br /> +Cotopaxi, eruption of, <a href="#Page_298">298</a><br /> +<br /> +Cotton, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a><br /> +<br /> +Council of the Indies, <a href="#Page_304">304</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Covadonga</i>, the, <a href="#Page_119">119</a><br /> +<br /> +Coya (city), <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br /> +<br /> +Creoles, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">growth of revolutionary ideas among, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359-362</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">characteristics of, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">education among, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">new race of, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Crespo, President of Venezuela, <a href="#Page_396">396</a><br /> +<br /> +Croix, General Theodore de, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br /> +<br /> +Cuaspud, battle of, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a><br /> +<br /> +Cuba, captain-general of, <a href="#Page_429">429</a><br /> +<br /> +Cubagua, island of, <a href="#Page_348">348</a><br /> +<br /> +Cucutá (city), <a href="#Page_382">382</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colombian Congress meets at, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Cucutá, constitution of, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a><br /> +<br /> +Cuenca (city), <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br /> +<br /> +Cuenca (province), <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plateau of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Cumaná, oldest city in South America, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a><br /> +<br /> +Cumaná (province), <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">transferred to jurisdiction of Venezuela, <a href="#Page_426">426</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Cundinamarca, State of, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a><br /> +<br /> +Cuyo (province), <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">separation of, from Chile, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Cuzco, plateau of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br /> +<br /> +Cuzco (city), Inca capital, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">military road from, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">possessed by Spanish, <a href="#Page_32">32-36</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +D<br /> +<br /> +Darien, gold-mines of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gulf of, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Daza, General, <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br /> +<br /> +De Lesseps, Ferdinand, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Drake, Sir Francis, <a href="#Page_428">428</a><br /> +<br /> +Ducasse captures Cartagena, <a href="#Page_428">428</a><br /> +<br /> +Duchisela, long reign of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +E<br /> +<br /> +Earthquake, of 1751, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of 1812, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_499" id="Page_499">[Pg 499]</a></span><br /> +Echenique, General, President of Peru, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br /> +<br /> +Ecuador, Cara conquest of, <a href="#Page_11">11-13</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286-288</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Inca conquest of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291-296</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">character of inhabitants of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gold and silver in, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">military roads in, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish conquest of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297 <i>et seq.</i></a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Inca cities in, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war of independence in, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">incorporation of, with Colombia, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320-322</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the founder of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">description of, <a href="#Page_285">285-287</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">climate of, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fertility of, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341-343</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">taxation in, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">area of, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">European grains and fruits introduced into, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cacao industry of, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Catholic Church in, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">education in, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the capital of, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">decrease in population of, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">negro slavery in, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">presidency of Quito erected, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">under jurisdiction of New Granada, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">audiencia established in, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">junta appointed in, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">open cabildo summoned, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">battles in, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">independence of, declared, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">named, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treaty of, with Colombia, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">civil war in, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337-341</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">civil and constitutional government in, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reforms in government of, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">financial conditions of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">second South American republic recognised by Spain, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prosperity of, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">numerous constitutions of, <a href="#Page_333">333-335</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">railways of, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">manual industries of, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">future of, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">under jurisdiction of Bogotá, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colombian campaign against, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Eldorado, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a><br /> +<br /> +Elephantiasis, <a href="#Page_426">426</a><br /> +<br /> +Elias, Campo, patriot leader, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a><br /> +<br /> +Emeralds, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a><br /> +<br /> +Encalada, Blanco, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> +<br /> +Encomiendas, system of agricultural, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">abolished, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a></span><br /> +<br /> +England, granted privilege of exporting negroes to South America, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war between Spain and, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fleet of, destroys Venezuelan navy, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">recognises independence of Colombia, <a href="#Page_446">446</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Errazuriz, President of Chile, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Esmeralda</i>, the, capture of, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sale of, to Japan, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></span><br /> +<br /> +España, creole leader, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a><br /> +<br /> +Estremadura (province), <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +F<br /> +<br /> +Falcon, General, <a href="#Page_391">391-394</a><br /> +<br /> +Federmann, explorer, <a href="#Page_414">414</a><br /> +<br /> +Ferdinand VII. of Spain, deposition and imprisonment of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">restoration of, <a href="#Page_435">435</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Fernandez, conspiracy of, <a href="#Page_276">276</a><br /> +<br /> +Flores, Antonio, President of Ecuador, <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br /> +<br /> +Flores, General, the founder of Ecuador, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326-329</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a><br /> +<br /> +France, war between Spain and, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">recognises republic of Panama, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Franciscans, the, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_500" id="Page_500">[Pg 500]</a></span><br /> +Freire, General, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191-194</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br /> +<br /> +French scientists in Quito, <a href="#Page_309">309</a><br /> +<br /> +Fruits introduced into South America, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +G<br /> +<br /> +Gallo heads insurrection, <a href="#Page_202">202</a><br /> +<br /> +Gamarra, General, Dictator of Peru, <a href="#Page_101">101-105</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a><br /> +<br /> +Garrapata, battle of, <a href="#Page_467">467</a><br /> +<br /> +Gasca, Pedro de la, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a><br /> +<br /> +Gatajo, battle of, <a href="#Page_341">341</a><br /> +<br /> +Gauchos, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a><br /> +<br /> +Gavilan, battle of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br /> +<br /> +Goajira, peninsula of, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a><br /> +<br /> +Goats, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> +<br /> +Gold, Spain's desire for, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Bolivia, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Chile, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Colombia, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406-409</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Ecuador, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Peru, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Venezuela, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Goyeneche, General, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a><br /> +<br /> +Grains introduced into South America, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a><br /> +<br /> +Grapes, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cultivation of, forbidden, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Grau, Miguel, Admiral, <a href="#Page_119">119-121</a><br /> +<br /> +Great Britain, action of foreign office in regard to Bolivia, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">threatened rupture between United States and, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">abandons Isthmian colony, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> England.</span><br /> +<br /> +Gröningen, victory of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br /> +<br /> +Guaicaipuro, Indian chief, <a href="#Page_350">350</a><br /> +<br /> +Gual, creole leader, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a><br /> +<br /> +Gual, Pedro, <a href="#Page_391">391</a><br /> +<br /> +Guamanga, founded, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">battle at, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Guano deposits, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a><br /> +<br /> +Guarany, Indians, the, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">language, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Guatamala, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a><br /> +<br /> +Guayaquil (city), founded, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">best port on Pacific coast of South America, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population and wealth of, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Guayaquil (province), <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cultivation of cacao and sugar-cane in, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Guayaquil, Gulf of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a><br /> +<br /> +Guiana (province), under jurisdiction of Bogotá, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">transferred to jurisdiction of Venezuela, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Guiana, British, <a href="#Page_398">398</a><br /> +<br /> +Guipuzcoa Company, the, <a href="#Page_354">354-356</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a><br /> +<br /> +Gutierrez brothers, the, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a><br /> +<br /> +Gutierrez, President of Colombia, <a href="#Page_465">465</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +H<br /> +<br /> +Hague international tribunal, the, <a href="#Page_399">399</a><br /> +<br /> +Hayti, Bolivar flees to, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gold placers of, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Heath, explorer, <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br /> +<br /> +Heredia founds Cartagena, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a><br /> +<br /> +Herran, General, President of New Granada, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a><br /> +<br /> +Herrera, General, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Hides, exportation of, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a><br /> +<br /> +Honda (city), <a href="#Page_420">420</a><br /> +<br /> +Honduras, <a href="#Page_403">403</a><br /> +<br /> +Horses, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br /> +<br /> +Huacho, San Martin lands at, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br /> +<br /> +Huaina Capac, Inca emperor, campaign of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conquest of Quito by, <a href="#Page_12">12-14</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292-294</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Hualcopo, Cara shiri, <a href="#Page_290">290-292</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a><br /> +<br /> +Huanacabamba (province), <a href="#Page_288">288</a><br /> +<br /> +Huanca, Auqui, <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br /> +<br /> +Huanchaca, mines of, <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br /> +<br /> +Huaqui, battle of, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_501" id="Page_501">[Pg 501]</a></span><br /> +Huascar, Inca empire divided between Atahuallpa and, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fratricidal war between Atahuallpa and, <a href="#Page_16">16-19</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">execution of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Huascar</i>, the, <a href="#Page_119">119-121</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a><br /> +<br /> +Humachiri, battle of, <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br /> +<br /> +"Husares de la Muerte," cavalry corps, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +I<br /> +<br /> +Ibague (city), <a href="#Page_416">416</a><br /> +<br /> +Ibarra, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a><br /> +<br /> +Iglesias, President of Chile, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a><br /> +<br /> +Immigrants, into Peru, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">into Chile, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">into Ecuador, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Imperial (city), founded, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">besieged, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Inca Indians, the, home of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">civilisation of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">migration of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Incas, language of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">religion of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">social and industrial organisation of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">capital of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32-35</a>, etc.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">emperors of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8-10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28-32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34-38</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death of last emperor of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conquests of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8-19</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288 <i>et seq.</i></a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">irrigation system of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">empire of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292-294</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">military roads built by, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">armies of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, etc., <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish conquest of, <a href="#Page_20">20-40</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reduced to slavery, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, etc., <a href="#Page_242">242-244</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cities built by, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Independencia</i>, the, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a><br /> +<br /> +Indians of South America, the, early civilisation of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">various tribes of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8-14</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286-289</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">language of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">characteristics of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conquered by Spanish, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27-40</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">oppression and slavery of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63-65</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242-244</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425-428</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rebellions of, <a href="#Page_38">38-40</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish legislation in behalf of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">impressment of, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">missions established among, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Indigo, <a href="#Page_303">303</a><br /> +<br /> +Inquisition established, in Peru, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Colombia, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Ipecacuanha, Europe indebted to Peru for, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> +<br /> +Iquique, Peruvian port, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br /> +<br /> +Iquitos (city), <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br /> +<br /> +Irish mercenaries in Bolivar's army, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a><br /> +<br /> +Irrigation in South America, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +J<br /> +<br /> +Jauja (city), <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92-94</a><br /> +<br /> +Jauja, valley of the, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> +<br /> +Jemappes, battle of, <a href="#Page_359">359</a><br /> +<br /> +Jesuits, in Bolivia, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Colombia, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Ecuador, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Peru, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Jiron, Governor of New Granada, <a href="#Page_425">425</a><br /> +<br /> +Jubones, plateau of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a><br /> +<br /> +Juncal, battle of, <a href="#Page_372">372</a><br /> +<br /> +Junin, battle of, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a><br /> +<br /> +Jurisprudence, Spanish system of, in South America, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_502" id="Page_502">[Pg 502]</a></span><br /> +<br /> +K<br /> +<br /> +Koerner, Colonel, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +L<br /> +<br /> +La Donjuana, battle of, <a href="#Page_467">467</a><br /> +<br /> +La Fuente, Dictator of Peru, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br /> +<br /> +La Guaira, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a><br /> +<br /> +La Mar, General, President of Peru, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a><br /> +<br /> +La Palma, battle of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br /> +<br /> +La Paz, founded, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">spirit of independence in, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></span><br /> +<br /> +La Puerta, decisive battles of, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a><br /> +<br /> +Lara, General, deported, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br /> +<br /> +Las Casas, famous book of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br /> +<br /> +La Serna, General, Viceroy of Peru, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">army of, <a href="#Page_93">93-95</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Las Heras, patriot commander, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br /> +<br /> +Lastra, General, <a href="#Page_194">194</a><br /> +<br /> +Las Trincheiras, <a href="#Page_368">368</a><br /> +<br /> +Latacunga, valley of, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a><br /> +<br /> +La Torre, General, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a><br /> +<br /> +Lautaro, Araucanian chief, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br /> +<br /> +Leiva founded, <a href="#Page_420">420</a><br /> +<br /> +Leon, creole leader, <a href="#Page_355">355</a><br /> +<br /> +Leprosy, <a href="#Page_426">426</a><br /> +<br /> +Lima (city), founded by Pizarro, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Incas attempt to take, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pizarro in, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">political, social, and commercial centre of South America, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">viceroyalty of Peru established at, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">jurisdiction of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">earthquakes in, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolutionary spirit in, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81-84</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">evacuated by the Spaniards, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bolivar at, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">insurrections in, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chilian army captures, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">public library of, destroyed, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Linares, Doctor, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a><br /> +<br /> +Linnæus names chinchona, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /> +<br /> +Lircay, victory at, <a href="#Page_194">194</a><br /> +<br /> +Llamas, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a><br /> +<br /> +Llaneros, the, origin of, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cavalry troops of, organised, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">valour of, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371-374</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376-378</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Llanos, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a><br /> +<br /> +Loja (city), built by Spaniards, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br /> +<br /> +Loja (province), <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a><br /> +<br /> +Loncomilla, battle of, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br /> +<br /> +Lopez, General, President of Colombia, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a><br /> +<br /> +Lopez, tyrant of Paraguay, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a><br /> +<br /> +Los Andes, <a href="#Page_396">396</a><br /> +<br /> +Louis XIV. and war of Spanish Succession, <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br /> +<br /> +Loyola, founder of Jesuit order, <a href="#Page_245">245</a><br /> +<br /> +Lugo, adelantado, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a><br /> +<br /> +Luque, partner of Pizarro, <a href="#Page_23">23</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +M<br /> +<br /> +MacGregor captures Barcelona, <a href="#Page_372">372</a><br /> +<br /> +Madeira Falls, the, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br /> +<br /> +Madeira River, the, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278-281</a><br /> +<br /> +Madrid, Pizarro goes to, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">legislation at, in behalf of Indians, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commissions from, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revenue sent to, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">government, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French king on throne of, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Madrid, Dictator of Colombia, <a href="#Page_437">437</a><br /> +<br /> +Magdalena River, the, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408-410</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412-414</a> <i>et passim</i>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">named, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Valley, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_503" id="Page_503">[Pg 503]</a></span><br /> +Magdalena, State of, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Magellan, Straits of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br /> +<br /> +Maipo, battle of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179-182</a><br /> +<br /> +Maize, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Europe indebted to Peru for, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Mallarino, President of New Granada, <a href="#Page_458">458</a><br /> +<br /> +Manabi, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a><br /> +<br /> +Manaos, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br /> +<br /> +Manco Capac, first Inca sovereign, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br /> +<br /> +Manco Capac, brother of Huascar, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38-41</a><br /> +<br /> +Manso, Governor, <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br /> +<br /> +Maracaibo Bay, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a><br /> +<br /> +Maracaibo (city), sack of, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">refused to bend delegates to Caracas, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Maracaibo, Gulf of, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a><br /> +<br /> +Maracaibo, Lake, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a><br /> +<br /> +Maracaibo (province), under jurisdiction of Bogotá, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">transferred to jurisdiction of Venezuela, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolt in, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">separated from Caracas, <a href="#Page_392">392</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Marco, General, <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br /> +<br /> +Margarita, Island of, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a><br /> +<br /> +Margarita (province), <a href="#Page_362">362</a><br /> +<br /> +Mariño, Dictator of Venezuela, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a><br /> +<br /> +Marquez, President of New Granada, <a href="#Page_454">454</a><br /> +<br /> +Marroquin, President of Colombia, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a><br /> +<br /> +Martin, Alonso, <a href="#Page_405">405</a><br /> +<br /> +Maturin captured, <a href="#Page_367">367</a><br /> +<br /> +Maule River, the, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a><br /> +<br /> +Medina Celi joins patriots, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br /> +<br /> +Melgarejo, Dictator of Bolivia, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br /> +<br /> +Mello, Geronimo, explores Magdalena River, <a href="#Page_414">414</a><br /> +<br /> +Melo, General, <a href="#Page_458">458</a><br /> +<br /> +Mendoza, Andre Hurtado de, Marquis of Cañete, "the good viceroy," <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Mendoza, Garcia de, campaign of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">founds Cañete, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Mendoza (province), <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br /> +<br /> +Menendez, President of Peru, <a href="#Page_107">107</a><br /> +<br /> +Mercury, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br /> +<br /> +Merida (city), founded, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">destroyed by earthquake, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Merida (province), <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a><br /> +<br /> +Meta River, the, <a href="#Page_377">377</a><br /> +<br /> +Meuqueta, zipa of, <a href="#Page_412">412</a><br /> +<br /> +Mexico, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a><br /> +<br /> +Miranda, Francisco, patriot leader, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a><br /> +<br /> +Mississippi River, the, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br /> +<br /> +"Mitta," <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br /> +<br /> +Mocha, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a><br /> +<br /> +Mochica language, the, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> +<br /> +Mojos Indians, the, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a><br /> +<br /> +Molina, Governor of Ecuador, <a href="#Page_315">315</a><br /> +<br /> +Mollendo railroad, the, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br /> +<br /> +Monagas, President of Venezuela, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a><br /> +<br /> +Monteagudo, Dr., <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br /> +<br /> +Montes, General, <a href="#Page_316">316</a><br /> +<br /> +Monteverde, General, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a><br /> +<br /> +Montilla, General, <a href="#Page_381">381</a><br /> +<br /> +Montt, Jorge, President of Chile, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a><br /> +<br /> +Montt, Manuel, President of Chile, <a href="#Page_199">199-201</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">proclaims martial law, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Montt, Pedro, <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br /> +<br /> +Montufar, Carlos, <a href="#Page_314">314</a><br /> +<br /> +Montufar, Juan, <a href="#Page_313">313</a><br /> +<br /> +Moquegua, <a href="#Page_124">124</a><br /> +<br /> +Morales, General, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a><br /> +<br /> +Moreno, Garcia, President of Ecuador, long administration of, <a href="#Page_335">335-339</a>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">character of, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_504" id="Page_504">[Pg 504]</a></span><br /> +Morgan, sacked Maracaibo, <a href="#Page_354">354</a><br /> +<br /> +Morillo, Marshal, in Venezuela, <a href="#Page_370">370-372</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436-439</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">report of, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">resigns, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Mosquera, Tomas, President of Columbia, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>, <a href="#Page_460">460-464</a><br /> +<br /> +Mosquito Coast, the, <a href="#Page_419">419</a><br /> +<br /> +Munecas, priest, <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br /> +<br /> +Murillo, President of Colombia, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +N<br /> +<br /> +Napo River, the, <a href="#Page_300">300</a><br /> +<br /> +Napoleon. <i>See</i> Bonaparte<br /> +<br /> +Nariño, Dictator of Colombia, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a><br /> +<br /> +Narvarte, Doctor, <a href="#Page_390">390</a><br /> +<br /> +Naxichi, battle at, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br /> +<br /> +Negroes, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a><br /> +<br /> +Neiva (city), <a href="#Page_416">416</a><br /> +<br /> +Neiva, President of New Granada, <a href="#Page_420">420</a><br /> +<br /> +New Granada, captain-general of, subject to viceroy of Peru, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">viceroyalty of, created, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">jurisdiction of, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolutionary junta installed in, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war of independence in, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">provinces in Colombian confederation, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opposition to Bolivar's government in, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">recognises independence of Venezuela and Ecuador, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">name of, extended to presidency of Bogotá, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence of first president of, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">army of, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">constitution of 1832, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">name of, changed, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> Colombia.</span><br /> +<br /> +"New Laws," the, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br /> +<br /> +Nicaragua, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Canal, <a href="#Page_485">485</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Nicuesa, Diego de, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a><br /> +<br /> +Nieto, Dictator of Peru, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br /> +<br /> +Nitrates, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">extent of region, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">taxed, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Noboa, Diego, <a href="#Page_334">334</a><br /> +<br /> +Nombre de Dios founded, <a href="#Page_405">405</a><br /> +<br /> +"Nudos," <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a><br /> +<br /> +Nuñez, Rafael, President of Colombia, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">political ideas of, <a href="#Page_478">478-480</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death of, <a href="#Page_481">481</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +O<br /> +<br /> +Oats, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> +<br /> +Obando, General, President of New Granada, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a><br /> +<br /> +Ocana (city), captured, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">national assembly held at, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">founded, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">battle near, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Ocumare, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a><br /> +<br /> +O'Higgins, Ambrose, career of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br /> +<br /> +O'Higgins, Bernardo, gallantry of, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">saves Santiago, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeated, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dictator, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">resignation of, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Ojeda, Alonso de, explorations of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">names Venezuela, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Olañeta, renegade Argentine, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death of, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263-265</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Olives, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a><br /> +<br /> +Opon River, the, <a href="#Page_410">410</a><br /> +<br /> +Oranges, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> +<br /> +Oratorio, battle of, <a href="#Page_460">460</a><br /> +<br /> +Orbegoso, Dictator of Peru, <a href="#Page_102">102-105</a><br /> +<br /> +Ordoñez, General, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br /> +<br /> +O'Reilly, General, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br /> +<br /> +Orellana, discoverer of the Amazon, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">refounds Guayaquil, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Orinoco, River, the, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plains, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">valley, <a href="#Page_442">442</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Orton River, the, <a href="#Page_279">279</a><br /> +<br /> +Oruro, silver mines of, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_505" id="Page_505">[Pg 505]</a></span><br /> +Osorio, General, re-establishes Spanish authority in Chile, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeated by San Martin, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176-181</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Osorno, founded, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>; besieged, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> +<br /> +Ospina, President of New Granada, <a href="#Page_459">459-461</a><br /> +<br /> +Otavalo, capture of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +P<br /> +<br /> +Pacamdré Indians, the, <a href="#Page_293">293</a><br /> +<br /> +Pachacutec, <i>See</i> Yupanqui.<br /> +<br /> +Pacheco, President of Bolivia, <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br /> +<br /> +Pacific Ocean, the, discovery of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a><br /> +<br /> +Padilla, patriot leader, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a><br /> +<br /> +Paez, José Antonio, patriot leader, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dictator and President of Venezuela, <a href="#Page_389">389-391</a>, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Paillamachu, Araucanian chief, <a href="#Page_144">144-146</a><br /> +<br /> +Paita (city), <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br /> +<br /> +Paita (province), <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a><br /> +<br /> +Pampas, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br /> +<br /> +Pampas River, the, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br /> +<br /> +Pamplona, revolutionary junta in, <a href="#Page_431">431</a><br /> +<br /> +Pamplona (province), <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a><br /> +<br /> +Panama (city), founded, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23-25</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pizarro sends to, for aid, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pan-American Congress at, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Panama Canal, the, <a href="#Page_470">470-472</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485-489</a><br /> +<br /> +Panama, Gulf of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br /> +<br /> +Panama hats, manufacture of, <a href="#Page_342">342</a><br /> +<br /> +Panama, Isthmus of (province), <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a><br /> +<br /> +Panama (province), audiencia of, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">joins Colombian confederation, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rebels against Colombia, <a href="#Page_454">454</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Panama railway, the, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">receipts from, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Panama, State of, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>,466, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colombian misrule in, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">declares independence, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">republic of, recognised, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">neutrality and free transit guaranteed to, by treaty of 1846, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">insurrections in, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">provisional government in, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">canal treaty with United States, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Pando, José Manuel, President of Bolivia, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br /> +<br /> +Paraguay, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a><br /> +<br /> +Paraguay River, the, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br /> +<br /> +Paraná River, the, <a href="#Page_249">249</a><br /> +<br /> +Pardo, Don Manuel, first civilian President of Peru, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">aristocratic party founded by, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Parra, President of Colombia, <a href="#Page_466">466</a><br /> +<br /> +Pasco, <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br /> +<br /> +Pasto (city) founded, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a><br /> +<br /> +Pasto (province), <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">part of presidency of Quito, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">high tableland of, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">loyal to Spain, <a href="#Page_432">432-434</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rebellion in, <a href="#Page_451">451</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Paul, Rojas, <a href="#Page_396">396</a><br /> +<br /> +Paya Pass, the, <a href="#Page_377">377</a><br /> +<br /> +Peaches, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> +<br /> +Pearl fisheries, <a href="#Page_348">348</a><br /> +<br /> +"Pelucones," <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br /> +<br /> +Peons, impressment of, <a href="#Page_394">394-396</a><br /> +<br /> +Perez, President of Chile, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a><br /> +<br /> +Perez, Santiago, President of Colombia, <a href="#Page_466">466</a><br /> +<br /> +Peru, early inhabitants of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">antiquity of civilisation in, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fertility of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">climate of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Inca empire established in, <a href="#Page_5">5-20</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">system of irrigation in, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_506" id="Page_506">[Pg 506]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">copper mines of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">military roads in, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">battles in, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Inca cities of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish conquest of, <a href="#Page_20">20-40</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mineral wealth of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">extent of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish cities in, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indian rebellions in, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">governors of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">viceroyalty of, <i>see</i> Lima;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">viceroys of, <a href="#Page_50">50-52</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60-63</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78-80</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">slavery prohibited in, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">industrial development of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127-129</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revenue to Spain from, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64-66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">civil wars in, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99-103</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106-108</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish colonial system established in, <a href="#Page_61">61-66</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">taxation in, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">university in, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish language in, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">religious conditions in, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">discovery of virtues of quinine, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">earthquakes in, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jesuits expelled from, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">creoles of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolutionary spirit in, <a href="#Page_72">72-76</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">navy of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war of independence in, <a href="#Page_80">80-97</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spaniards evacuate capital of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">proclaimed a republic, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">financial conditions in, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">congress of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bolivar, Dictator of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bolivarian constitution imposed on, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolts from Bolivar's government, <a href="#Page_99">99-101</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">state of anarchy in, <a href="#Page_101">101-103</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">further constitutions of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at war with Chile, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119-125</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">capital of, captured by Chileans, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at war with Bolivia, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treaty of peace with Bolivia, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commerce in, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">railways in, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">debt of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">insurrections in, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130-132</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">immigration into, encouraged, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treaty of alliance with Chile, against Spain, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">naval battles of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119-121</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at war with Spain, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revenue from nitrates, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">first civilian president of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">guano deposits of, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">currency of, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treaty of alliance with Bolivia, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nitrate region owned by, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">loses nitrate province, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">losses of, in Chilean war, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mediation of United States between Chile and, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treaty of peace with Chile, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reorganisation of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">British creditors of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rubber industry in, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">political conditions in, <a href="#Page_130">130-132</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hopeful signs of the times for, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cause of revolutions in, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Upper, formed into republic of Bolivia, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266-268</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">re-establishes independent existence, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at war with Colombia, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">surrenders southern provinces, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Peru-Bolivian Confederation, the, <a href="#Page_101">101-103</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270-273</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a><br /> +<br /> +Peruvian bonds, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a><br /> +<br /> +Peruvian Corporation, the, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a><br /> +<br /> +Pezet, President of Peru, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_507" id="Page_507">[Pg 507]</a></span><br /> +Pezuela, General, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a><br /> +<br /> +Philip II. of Spain, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br /> +<br /> +Piar, negro chief, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a><br /> +<br /> +Pichincha, battle of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a><br /> +<br /> +Pierola, General, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">President of Peru, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Pigeons, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> +<br /> +Pigs, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> +<br /> +Pinto, Anibal, President of Chile, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a><br /> +<br /> +Pinto, General, President of Chile, <a href="#Page_193">193</a><br /> +<br /> +"Pipiolas," <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br /> +<br /> +Pisagua captured, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br /> +<br /> +Pisco, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br /> +<br /> +Piura (city) founded, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a><br /> +<br /> +Piura (province), <a href="#Page_288">288</a><br /> +<br /> +Piura, valley of, <a href="#Page_291">291</a><br /> +<br /> +Pizarro, Francisco, the conqueror of Peru, early life of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with Ojeda and Balboa, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">partners of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">failure of first exploring expedition, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">second expedition of, <a href="#Page_23">23-25</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">authorised by Charles V. to conquer Peru, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">third expedition of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reinforced by de Soto, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">lands in northern Peru, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">meets Inca emperor, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treachery of, <a href="#Page_28">28-34</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">establishes Spanish government, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">founds cities, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">territory awarded to, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">crushes Indian rebellion, <a href="#Page_38">38-40</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Almagro quarrels with, <a href="#Page_41">41-43</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treachery of, towards Almagro, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">extends Spanish conquest throughout Inca empire, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conspiracy against, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">murder of, <a href="#Page_47">47-50</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">character of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Pizarro, Gonzalo, valour of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at siege of Cuzco, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">capture of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Governor of Quito, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299-301</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Governor of Peru, <a href="#Page_50">50-53</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeat and death of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Pizarro, Hernando, joins expedition to conquer Peru, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">capture and release of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">capture and death of Almagro by, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">develops mining industry of Bolivia, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">establishes feudal lordships, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Pizarro, Juan, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> +<br /> +Plantain introduced into Ecuador, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a><br /> +<br /> +Plate provinces, the, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> +<br /> +Plate River, the, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Valley, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Platinum, <a href="#Page_424">424</a><br /> +<br /> +Plaza, Leonidas, President of Ecuador, <a href="#Page_341">341</a><br /> +<br /> +Poll-taxes, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a><br /> +<br /> +Popayán (city) founded, <a href="#Page_409">409</a><br /> +<br /> +Popayán (province), <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">part of presidency of Quito, <a href="#Page_324">324-327</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">lost to Ecuador, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Portales, Chilean statesman, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death of, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Porto Bello captured, <a href="#Page_429">429</a><br /> +<br /> +Portuguese, the, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a><br /> +<br /> +Potatoes, native to South America, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">introduced into Europe, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Potosí, silver mines of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">yield of silver from, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Poultry introduced into South America, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a><br /> +<br /> +Prado, General, President of Peru, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a><br /> +<br /> +Presidencies, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a><br /> +<br /> +Preston, Amyas, <a href="#Page_351">351</a><br /> +<br /> +Prieto, General, President of Chile, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196-198</a><br /> +<br /> +Printing-press, the, <a href="#Page_245">245</a><br /> +<br /> +Promancians, the, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br /> +<br /> +Puerreyedon, Argentine dictator, <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br /> +<br /> +Puerto Cabello, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">British attacks on, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">captured by patriots, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_508" id="Page_508">[Pg 508]</a></span><br /> +Pumacagua, Indian leader, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br /> +<br /> +Puna, bleak plateau of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a><br /> +<br /> +Puna, island of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a><br /> +<br /> +Puno, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br /> +<br /> +Purus River, the, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br /> +<br /> +Puzuela, General, Viceroy of Peru, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Q<br /> +<br /> +Quartz mining in Bolivia, <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br /> +<br /> +Quesada, Jimenez de, conquest of, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412-414</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">founds Bogotá, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">exiled, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">names New Granada, <a href="#Page_419">419</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Quiapo, Spanish victory at, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> +<br /> +Quichua language, official medium of Inca empire, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reduced to a written language, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Quicksilver, discovery of, in Peru, <a href="#Page_241">241</a><br /> +<br /> +Quillin, treaty of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a><br /> +<br /> +Quillota, <a href="#Page_224">224</a><br /> +<br /> +Quindio mountain range, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a><br /> +<br /> +Quinine, Europe indebted to Peru for, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">discovery of virtue of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">origin of name, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Quinoa grain, the, native to South America, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a><br /> +<br /> +Quintana, Dictator of Chile, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a><br /> +<br /> +Quinua, village of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br /> +<br /> +Quito (city), the Cara capital, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Incas possess, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish occupation of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolutionary spirit in, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">city of convents, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French scientific monuments in, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Quito (province), Cara kingdom of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286-288</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the shiri of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Inca conquest of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish conquest of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">erected into a presidency, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">under jurisdiction of New Granada (Bogotá), <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">audiencia of, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">declared independent, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">provinces attached to presidency of, <a href="#Page_420">420</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Quizquiz, Indian general, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeats Huascar, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeated by Pizarro, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +R<br /> +<br /> +Rada, Juan de la, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> +<br /> +Railroads in Bolivia, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Chile, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Peru, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Ramirez, Spanish general, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> +<br /> +Rancagua, battle of, <a href="#Page_167">167-170</a><br /> +<br /> +Reyes, General, President of Colombia, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a><br /> +<br /> +Reyes, Lake of, <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br /> +<br /> +Rice, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a><br /> +<br /> +Riesco, German, President of Chile, <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br /> +<br /> +Rimac, valley of the, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br /> +<br /> +Riobamba, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a><br /> +<br /> +Rio Negro, battle at, <a href="#Page_457">457</a><br /> +<br /> +Riva Aguëro, President of Peru, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a><br /> +<br /> +Rivas, patriot commander, <a href="#Page_370">370</a><br /> +<br /> +Riveralta, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br /> +<br /> +Robledo, Jorge, <a href="#Page_408">408</a><br /> +<br /> +Robles, Colonel, <a href="#Page_221">221</a><br /> +<br /> +Robles, President of Ecuador, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a><br /> +<br /> +Roca, Ramon, President of Ecuador, <a href="#Page_333">333</a><br /> +<br /> +Rocafuerte, Vicente, President of Ecuador, <a href="#Page_328">328-330</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wise administration of, <a href="#Page_330">330-332</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Romana, President of Peru, <a href="#Page_131">131</a><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_509" id="Page_509">[Pg 509]</a></span><br /> +Rosas, Doctor, Governor of Chile, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">title of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">founds university, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">establishes radical junta, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Rubber, forests, exploitation of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bolivia furnishes large per cent. of, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +S<br /> +<br /> +Saenz, Manoela, <a href="#Page_450">450</a><br /> +<br /> +Sagamoso, valley of, <a href="#Page_377">377</a><br /> +<br /> +St. Vincent, battle of, <a href="#Page_311">311</a><br /> +<br /> +Salabarrieta, Policarpo ("La Pola"), fate of, <a href="#Page_439">439</a><br /> +<br /> +Salaverry, Dictator of Peru, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br /> +<br /> +Salgar, President of Colombia, <a href="#Page_465">465</a><br /> +<br /> +Salt, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a><br /> +<br /> +Salta, gauchos of, <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br /> +<br /> +Samano, General, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439-441</a><br /> +<br /> +Sanclemente, President of Colombia, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +San Felipe, university of, founded, <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br /> +<br /> +San Felix, battle of, <a href="#Page_374">374</a><br /> +<br /> +San Fernando, fortress of, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a><br /> +<br /> +San Francisco hill, battle at, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br /> +<br /> +San Francisco, mining camp at, <a href="#Page_350">350</a><br /> +<br /> +San Juan, valley of, <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br /> +<br /> +San Luiz, valley of, <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br /> +<br /> +San Martin, General, equips "Army of the Andes," wins battle of Chacabuco, and liberates Chile, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168-171</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">creates a fleet, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172-174</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">raises armies for conquest of Peru, <a href="#Page_80">80-82</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171-174</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">proclaims independence of Peru, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">President of Peru, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">resigns presidency, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">famous interview of, with Bolivar, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">declines governorship of Chile, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeat of, <a href="#Page_176">176-173</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wins battle of Maipo, <a href="#Page_179">179-181</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">one of the greatest of South American patriots, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></span><br /> +<br /> +San Miguel founded by Spanish, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a><br /> +<br /> +San Roman, General, President of, Peru, <a href="#Page_111">111</a><br /> +<br /> +Santa Cruz (city), <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a><br /> +<br /> +Santa Cruz, General, commands Peruvian army, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeat of, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dictator of Bolivia, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">President of Peru-Bolivian Confederation, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">overthrow of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Santa Maria, President of Chile, <a href="#Page_213">213</a><br /> +<br /> +Santa Marta (city), <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a><br /> +<br /> +Santa Marta Mountains, <a href="#Page_403">403</a><br /> +<br /> +Santander, <a href="#Page_442">442-444</a>, <a href="#Page_446">446-448</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">first legal President of Colombia (New Granada), <a href="#Page_450">450</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">title of, <a href="#Page_454">454</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Santander (city), "Rebellion of the Communes" in, <a href="#Page_427">427</a><br /> +<br /> +Santander, State of, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a><br /> +<br /> +Santiago (city), <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223-225</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolutionary junta installed in, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">founded, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">discovery of gold near, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">universities established in, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">social centre of Chile, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Sarsaparilla, <a href="#Page_303">303</a><br /> +<br /> +Sayri Tupac, Inca emperor, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br /> +<br /> +Sebastian founded, <a href="#Page_404">404</a><br /> +<br /> +Segoria, battle of, <a href="#Page_460">460</a><br /> +<br /> +Seville junta, the, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a><br /> +<br /> +Sheep introduced into South America, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a><br /> +<br /> +Shiris, the, of Quito, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287-296</a><br /> +<br /> +Silver, in Bolivia, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239-242</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Chile, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Colombia, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Ecuador, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Peru, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_510" id="Page_510">[Pg 510]</a></span><br /> +Sinu River, the, <a href="#Page_408">408</a><br /> +<br /> +Slavery, Indian, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242-244</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">negro, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Smallpox, ravages of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a><br /> +<br /> +Smuggling, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a><br /> +<br /> +Socorro (city), revolutionary junta in, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a><br /> +<br /> +Socorro, plateau province of, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a><br /> +<br /> +Solar, Vice-President of Peru, <a href="#Page_130">130</a><br /> +<br /> +Sorata (city), the rival of Potosí, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">destroyed, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></span><br /> +<br /> +de Soto, Hernando, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br /> +<br /> +Soublette, General, <a href="#Page_390">390</a><br /> +<br /> +South America, animals native to, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tribes of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, etc.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">productions of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish law in, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">animals introduced into, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">benefits to, from Spanish occupation, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commerce except with Spain forbidden to, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69-71</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lima the political, commercial, and social centre of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">negroes imported into, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">spread of revolutionary ideas in, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, etc.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">character of revolution in, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plan for constitutional monarchy in, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">success of wars of independence in, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Argentine preponderance among republics of, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">description of Andean plateau of, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">theatre of the war of independence in, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolution in, saved from extinction, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plan for one great confederacy in, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">countries of, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">harbours of, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">oldest city of, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">first independent republic in, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">oldest fortress in, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">manner of founding Spanish cities in, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></span><br /> +<br /> +South Sea, the, <a href="#Page_405">405</a><br /> +<br /> +Spain, conquest of South America by, <i>see</i> Peru, Chile, etc.;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">royal commissioners sent from, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">colonial system of, <a href="#Page_62">62 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351-356</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">colonial government of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commercial monopoly of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69-71</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352-356</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war of succession in, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at war with France, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolution in, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at war with Peru and Chile, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reforms in system of colonial government of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at war with England, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Spanish, adventurers <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">armies in South America, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258-261</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315-318</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">constitution, the, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">constitutional law, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Spanish crown, revenue of, from Peru, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64-66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">from South America, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Spanish fleet, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">seizes Chincha Islands, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Callao, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Valparaiso, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeated, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Cartagena, <a href="#Page_436">436</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Sucré (Charcas), <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br /> +<br /> +Sucré, General, Bolivar's great lieutenant, destroys Spanish army, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">takes Colombian army to Peru, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wins battle of Ayachucho, <a href="#Page_93">93-97</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_511" id="Page_511">[Pg 511]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">numbers and quality of army of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">first President of Bolivia, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">administration of, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">overthrow of, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wins battle of Pichincho, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">murder of, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Sugar-cane, introduced into South America, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cultivation of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Sugar Loaf, the battle of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a><br /> +<br /> +Suipacha, battle of, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a><br /> +<br /> +Sun-god, worship of the, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +T<br /> +<br /> +Tacna (city), revolutionary expedition to, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">result of campaign, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Tacna (province), <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">yielded to Chile, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Talca (city), captured, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">independence of Chile proclaimed at, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Talcahuano (city), <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a><br /> +<br /> +Tambo, battle of, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a><br /> +<br /> +Tarapacá, province of Peru, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nitrate deposits of, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Tarija (city), <a href="#Page_249">249</a><br /> +<br /> +Tarqui, decisive battle of, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a><br /> +<br /> +Taxation, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a><br /> +<br /> +Teques Indians, the, <a href="#Page_350">350</a><br /> +<br /> +Tiocajas nudo, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">battles of, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Titicaca, Lake, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">placer gold around, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jesuit mission at, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">basin, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plateau, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">copper and silver mines of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Titu Yupanqui, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br /> +<br /> +Toa, Cara Princess, <a href="#Page_288">288</a><br /> +<br /> +Tobacco, Europe indebted to Peru for, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Chile, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Colombia, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Venezuela, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Tocaima (city), <a href="#Page_416">416</a><br /> +<br /> +Tocuyo founded, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a><br /> +<br /> +Toledo, Don Francisco de, founder of Spanish colonial system, <a href="#Page_62">62-67</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">arrives at Lima, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">puts to death last Inca emperor, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Libro de Tasas</i> of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Tolima, plateau of, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a><br /> +<br /> +Tolima, State of, <a href="#Page_467">467</a><br /> +<br /> +Tolu founded, <a href="#Page_408">408</a><br /> +<br /> +"Toquis," <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a><br /> +<br /> +Torata (city), <a href="#Page_124">124</a><br /> +<br /> +Torico, General, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br /> +<br /> +Toro, Captain-General, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br /> +<br /> +Torres, Camilo, Dictator, <a href="#Page_437">437</a><br /> +<br /> +Trafalgar, battle of, <a href="#Page_311">311</a><br /> +<br /> +Treaties, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485-489</a><br /> +<br /> +Trinidad, Island of, captured by British, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a><br /> +<br /> +Trujillo, birthplace of Pizarro, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> +<br /> +Trujillo (city) founded by Pizarro, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a><br /> +<br /> +Trujillo, province of Venezuela, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a><br /> +<br /> +Trujillo, President of Colombia, <a href="#Page_468">468</a><br /> +<br /> +Tucuman (province), subject to viceroyalty of Lima, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attached to viceroyalty of Buenos Aires, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">thinly populated, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cattle-raising in, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">subject to audiencia of Charcas, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">battle of, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Tumbez (city), <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spaniards land at, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Tumibamba, Huascar captured at, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br /> +<br /> +Tumusla, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br /> +<br /> +Tundama, plateau of, <a href="#Page_413">413</a><br /> +<br /> +Tunjá (city), founded, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">captured by Bolivar, <a href="#Page_378">378</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Tunjá (province), <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_512" id="Page_512">[Pg 512]</a></span><br /> +Tupac Amaru, last Inca emperor, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Tupac Amaru, lineal descendant of Inca emperors, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">heads Indian rebellion, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cruel death of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Tupac Yupanqui, Inca emperor, conquests of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289-292</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +U<br /> +<br /> +Uira Cocha, Inca emperor, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br /> +<br /> +Ulloa, ——, <a href="#Page_308">308</a><br /> +<br /> +"Ulmens," <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a><br /> +<br /> +Umachiri, battle of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Union</i>, the, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a><br /> +<br /> +United States, the, threatened rupture between Great Britain and, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">recognises independence of Colombia, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">undertakes Panama Canal, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">negotiations of, with Colombia, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appealed to by Colombia, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">neutrality and free transit guaranteed to Panama by, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colombia rejects treaty with, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">recognises republic of Panama, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treaty of, with Panama ratified, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a></span><br /> +<br /> +United States of Colombia, the, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Colombia.</span><br /> +<br /> +Universities, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a><br /> +<br /> +Urbina, General, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a><br /> +<br /> +Urco, Inca emperor, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br /> +<br /> +Urdaneta, General, <a href="#Page_452">452</a><br /> +<br /> +Uruguay in possession of Portuguese, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +V<br /> +<br /> +Valdez, General, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a><br /> +<br /> +Valdivia (city), besieged, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">taken by Dutch, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">size of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">strength of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">possessed by Spanish, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">captured by patriots, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Valdivia, Pedro de, conqueror of Chile, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137-139</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cities founded by, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">capture and death of, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Valencia, founded, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">loyal to Spain, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">patriots in, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Valmy, battle of, <a href="#Page_359">359</a><br /> +<br /> +Valparaiso (city), <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">size of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bombarded, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">battle at, <a href="#Page_223">223-225</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Valparaiso Bay, <a href="#Page_220">220</a><br /> +<br /> +Valverde, Friar, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> +<br /> +Varas, Chilean Minister, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a><br /> +<br /> +Vargas, Doctor, President of Venezuela, <a href="#Page_389">389</a><br /> +<br /> +Veintemilla, General, President of Ecuador, <a href="#Page_339">339</a><br /> +<br /> +Vela, Blasco Nuñez de, Viceroy of Peru, <a href="#Page_50">50-53</a><br /> +<br /> +Velez (city) founded, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a><br /> +<br /> +Venezuela, sighted by Columbus <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">named, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cities founded in, <a href="#Page_348">348-350</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">colonisation of, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">governors of, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fertility of, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">granted to Welser family, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">settlement of, <a href="#Page_349">349-351</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">savage tribes of, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">subject to viceroyalty of Lima, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">under jurisdiction of Bogotá and Caracas, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolutionary spirit in, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358-361</a>, etc.;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolts against Bolivar, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war of independence in, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366-370</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378-383</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Colombian confederation, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bolivarian constitution of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">separates from confederation, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cattle-raising in, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">topography of, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">negro labour in, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_513" id="Page_513">[Pg 513]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">agricultural products of, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">exports from, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commercial conditions of, <a href="#Page_352">352-358</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390-392</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gold placers of, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">taxation in, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">education in, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">trading posts in, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">made a captaincy-general, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">captains-general of, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">boundaries of, fixed, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">characteristics of population of, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bonaparte claims allegiance of, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">first independent republic of South America, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">constitution of 1811, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">financial conditions in, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394-396</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">earthquake in, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">important battles of war of independence in, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381-383</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">impoverished by wars, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">constitution of 1831, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">civil wars in, <a href="#Page_387">387-392</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396-398</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">political conditions in, <a href="#Page_389">389-392</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">roads built in, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bank established in, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">slavery abolished, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">liberty of the press permitted, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">religious conditions in, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">smuggling in, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">stable currency of, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">railroads built in, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">debt of, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">boundary dispute with British Guiana, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">foreign relations of, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">navy of, destroyed, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">progress of, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">provinces under jurisdiction of, <a href="#Page_426">426</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Vernon, Admiral, <a href="#Page_428">428</a><br /> +<br /> +Viceroyalties, of Bogotá, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Buenos Aires, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Lima, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Quito, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Vicuña, Claudio, President of Chile, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a><br /> +<br /> +Vicuñas, <a href="#Page_238">238</a><br /> +<br /> +Vidal, Dictator of Peru, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br /> +<br /> +Vilcabamba, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br /> +<br /> +Vilcañota nudo, the, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br /> +<br /> +Villapugio, battle of, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br /> +<br /> +Villarica, gold-mines of, <a href="#Page_144">144-146</a><br /> +<br /> +Viluma, battle of, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a><br /> +<br /> +Vista Florida, Dictator of Peru, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br /> +<br /> +Vivanco, Peruvian general, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +W<br /> +<br /> +Welser family, the, Venezuela granted to, <a href="#Page_349">349</a><br /> +<br /> +Wheat introduced into South America, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a><br /> +<br /> +Wheelwright, William, establishes first Pacific steamship line, <a href="#Page_198">198</a><br /> +<br /> +Windward Islands, the, <a href="#Page_347">347</a><br /> +<br /> +Wool, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Y<br /> +<br /> +Yahuarcocha Lake, <a href="#Page_294">294</a><br /> +<br /> +Yahuar Huaccac, Inca emperor, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br /> +<br /> +Yngavi, decisive battle of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a><br /> +<br /> +Yucay, valley of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br /> +<br /> +Yungay, battle of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a><br /> +<br /> +Yupanqui, Inca emperor, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Z<br /> +<br /> +Zaldua, President of Colombia, <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Zaruma, plateau of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a><br /> +<br /> +Zenufana (Antioquia), <a href="#Page_407">407</a><br /> +</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_514" id="Page_514">[Pg 514]</a></span></p> + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-6.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<div class="bblockquot"> +<h3>The Story of the Nations.</h3> + + +<p>In the story form the current of each National life +is distinctly indicated, and its picturesque and noteworthy +periods and episodes are presented for the +reader in their philosophical relation to each other +as well as to universal history.</p> + +<p>It is the plan of the writers of the different volumes +to enter into the real life of the peoples, and to bring +them before the reader as they actually lived, labored, +and struggled—as they studied and wrote, and as +they amused themselves. In carrying out this plan, +the myths, with which the history of all lands begins, +will not be overlooked, though these will be carefully +distinguished from the actual history, so far as the +labors of the accepted historical authorities have +resulted in definite conclusions.</p> + +<p>The subjects of the different volumes have been +planned to cover connecting and, as far as possible, +consecutive epochs or periods, so that the set when +completed will present in a comprehensive narrative +the chief events in the great <span class="smcap">Story of the Nations</span>; +but it is, of course, not always practicable to issue +the several volumes in their chronological order.</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='left'>Nos. 1-61, each</td><td align='right'>$1.50 </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Half leather</td><td align='right'>1.75 </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Nos. 62 and following Nos., each (by mail,</td><td align='right'>1.50)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>net 1.35 </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Half leather (by mail, $1.75)</td><td align='right'>net 1.60 </td></tr> +</table></div> +<p class="center"><i>For list of volumes see next page.</i></p> + + + +<h4>THE STORY OF THE NATIONS.</h4> + +<p class="sblockquot"> +GREECE. Prof. Jas. A. Harrison.<br /> +ROME. Arthur Gilman.<br /> +THE JEWS. Prof. James K. Hosmer.<br /> +CHALDEA. Z. A. Ragozin.<br /> +GERMANY. S. Baring-Gould.<br /> +NORWAY. Hjalmar H. Boyesen.<br /> +SPAIN. Rev. E. E. and Susan Hale.<br /> +HUNGARY. Prof. A. Vámbéry.<br /> +CARTHAGE. Prof. Alfred J. Church.<br /> +THE SARACENS. Arthur Gilman.<br /> +THE MOORS IN SPAIN. Stanley Lane-Poole.<br /> +THE NORMANS. Sarah Orne Jewett.<br /> +PERSIA. S. G. W. Benjamin.<br /> +ANCIENT EGYPT. Prof. Geo. Rawlinson.<br /> +ALEXANDER'S EMPIRE. Prof. J. P. Mahaffy.<br /> + +ASSYRIA. Z. A. Ragozin.<br /> + +THE GOTHS. Henry Bradley.<br /> + +IRELAND. Hon. Emily Lawless.<br /> + +TURKEY. Stanley Lane-Poole.<br /> + +MEDIA, BABYLON, AND PERSIA. Z. A. Ragozin.<br /> + +MEDIÆVAL FRANCE. Prof. Gustave Masson.<br /> + +HOLLAND. Prof. J. Thorold Rogers.<br /> + +MEXICO. Susan Hale.<br /> + +PHŒNICIA. George Rawlinson.<br /> + +THE HANSA TOWNS. Helen Zimmern.<br /> + +EARLY BRITAIN. Prof. Alfred J. Church.<br /> + +THE BARBARY CORSAIRS. Stanley Lane-Poole.<br /> + +RUSSIA. W. R. Morfill.<br /> + +THE JEWS UNDER ROME. W. D. Morrison.<br /> + +SCOTLAND. John Mackintosh.<br /> + +SWITZERLAND. R. Stead and Mrs. A. Hug.<br /> + +PORTUGAL. H. Morse-Stephens.<br /> + +THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE. C. W. C. Oman.<br /> + +SICILY. E. A. Freeman.<br /> + +THE TUSCAN REPUBLICS. Bella Duffy.<br /> + +POLAND. W. R. Morfill.<br /> + +PARTHIA. Geo. Rawlinson.<br /> + +JAPAN. David Murray.<br /> + +THE CHRISTIAN RECOVERY OF SPAIN. H. E. Watts.<br /> + +AUSTRALASIA. Greville Tregarthen.<br /> + +SOUTHERN AFRICA. Geo. M. Theal.<br /> + +VENICE. Alethea Wiel.<br /> + +THE CRUSADES. T. S. Archer and C. L. Kingsford.<br /> + +VEDIC INDIA. Z. A. Ragozin.<br /> + +BOHEMIA. C. E. Maurice.<br /> + +CANADA. J. G. Bourinot.<br /> + +THE BALKAN STATES. William Miller.<br /> + +BRITISH RULE IN INDIA. R. W. Frazer.<br /> + +MODERN FRANCE. André Le Bon.<br /> + +THE BRITISH EMPIRE. Alfred T. Story. Two vols.<br /> + +THE FRANKS. Lewis Sergeant.<br /> + +THE WEST INDIES. Amos K. Fiske.<br /> + +THE PEOPLE OF ENGLAND. Justin McCarthy, M.P. Two vols.<br /> + +AUSTRIA. Sidney Whitman.<br /> + +CHINA. Robt. K. Douglass.<br /> + +MODERN SPAIN. Major Martin A. S. Hume.<br /> + +MODERN ITALY. Pietro Orsi.<br /> + +THE THIRTEEN COLONIES. Helen A. Smith. Two vols.<br /> + +WALES AND CORNWALL. Owen M. Edwards. Net $1.35.<br /> + +MEDIÆVAL ROME. Wm. Miller.<br /> + +THE PAPAL MONARCHY. Wm. Barry.<br /> + +MEDIÆVAL INDIA. Stanley Lane-Poole.<br /> + +BUDDHIST INDIA. T. W. Rhys-Davids.<br /> + +THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Thomas C. Dawson. Two vols.<br /> + +PARLIAMENTARY ENGLAND. Edward Jenks.<br /> +</p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 15%;" /> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-1.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<div class="bblockquot"> +<h3>Heroes of the Nations.</h3> + + +<p>A series of biographical studies of the lives and +work of a number of representative historical characters +about whom have gathered the great traditions +of the Nations to which they belonged, and who have +been accepted, in many instances, as types of the +several National ideals. With the life of each +typical character will be presented a picture of the +National conditions surrounding him during his +career.</p> + +<p>The narratives are the work of writers who are +recognized authorities on their several subjects, and, +while thoroughly trustworthy as history, will present +picturesque and dramatic "stories" of the Men and +of the events connected with them.</p> + +<p>To the Life of each "Hero" will be given one duodecimo +volume, handsomely printed in large type, +provided with maps and adequately illustrated according +to the special requirements of the several +subjects.</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='left'>Nos. 1-32, each</td><td align='right'>$1.50 </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Half leather</td><td align='right'>1.75 </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>No. 33 and following Nos., each</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right' colspan='2'>(by mail $1.50, net 1.35)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Half leather (by mail, $1.75)</td><td align='right'>net 1.60 </td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="center"><i>For full list of volumes see next page.</i></p> + + +<h4>HEROES OF THE NATIONS.</h4> + +<p class="sblockquot"> +NELSON. By W. Clark Russell.<br /> +GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. By C. R. L. Fletcher.<br /> +PERICLES. By Evelyn Abbott.<br /> +THEODORIC THE GOTH. By Thomas Hodgkin.<br /> +SIR PHILIP SIDNEY. By H. R. Fox-Bourne.<br /> +JULIUS CÆSAR. By W. Warde Fowler.<br /> +WYCLIF. By Lewis Sergeant.<br /> +NAPOLEON. By W. O'Connor Morris.<br /> +HENRY OF NAVARRE. By P. F. Willert.<br /> +CICERO. By J. L. Strachan-Davidson.<br /> +ABRAHAM LINCOLN. By Noah Brooks.<br /> +PRINCE HENRY (OF PORTUGAL) THE NAVIGATOR. By C. R. Beazley.<br /> +JULIAN THE PHILOSOPHER. By Alice Gardner.<br /> +LOUIS XIV. By Arthur Hassall.<br /> +CHARLES XII. By R. Nisbet Bain.<br /> +LORENZO DE' MEDICI. By Edward Armstrong.<br /> +JEANNE D'ARC. By Mrs. Oliphant.<br /> +CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. By Washington Irving.<br /> +ROBERT THE BRUCE. By Sir Herbert Maxwell.<br /> +HANNIBAL. By W. O'Connor Morris.<br /> +ULYSSES S. GRANT. By William Conant Church.<br /> +ROBERT E. LEE. By Henry Alexander White.<br /> +THE CID CAMPEADOR. By H. Butler Clarke.<br /> +SALADIN. By Stanley Lane-Poole.<br /> +BISMARCK. By J. W. Headlam.<br /> +ALEXANDER THE GREAT. By Benjamin I. Wheeler.<br /> +CHARLEMAGNE. By H. W. C. Davis.<br /> +OLIVER CROMWELL. By Charles Firth.<br /> +RICHELIEU. By James B. Perkins.<br /> +DANIEL O'CONNELL. By Robert Dunlop.<br /> +SAINT LOUIS (Louis IX. of France). By Frederick Perry.<br /> +LORD CHATHAM. By Walford Davis Green.<br /> +OWEN GLYNDWR. By Arthur G. Bradley. $1.35 net.<br /> +HENRY V. By Charles L. Kingsford. $1.35 net.<br /> +EDWARD I. By Edward Jenks. $1.35 net.<br /> +AUGUSTUS CÆSAR. By J. B. Firth. $1.35 net.<br /> +FREDERICK THE GREAT. By W. F. Reddaway.<br /> +WELLINGTON. By W. O'Connor Morris<br /> +</p> + +<p class="center">Other volumes in preparation are:</p> + +<p class="sblockquot"> +CONSTANTINE. By J. B. Firth.<br /> +MOLTKE. By Spencer Wilkinson.<br /> +JUDAS MACCABÆUS. By Israel Abrahams.<br /> +SOBIESKI. By F. A. Pollard.<br /> +ALFRED THE TRUTHTELLER. By Frederick Perry.<br /> +FREDERICK II. By A. L. Smith.<br /> +MARLBOROUGH. By C. W. C. Oman.<br /> +RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED By T. A. Archer.<br /> +WILLIAM THE SILENT. By Ruth Putnam.<br /> +CHARLES THE BOLD. By Ruth Putnam.<br /> +GREGORY VII. By F. Urquhart.<br /> +MAHOMET. By D. S. Margoliouth.<br /> +</p></div> + +<hr style="width: 15%;" /> +<h4> +G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS, <span class="smcap">Publishers</span>,<br /> +<span class="smcap">New York</span>, + <span class="smcap">London</span>.<br /> +</h4> + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<div class="notebox"> +<h3>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:</h3> + +<p>1. Images have been moved from the middle of a paragraph to the closest +paragraph break.</p> + +<p>2. The punctuation in the idex was made consistent.</p> + +<p>3. The following misprints have been corrected:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"> + "COLUMBIA" corrected to "COLOMBIA" (page x)<br /> + "slaughterd" corrected to "slaughtered" (page 43)<br /> + "agressive" corrected to "aggressive" (page 286)<br /> + "recalcitant" corrected to "recalcitrant" (page 296)<br /> + "stategist" corrected to "strategist" (page 375)<br /> + "familes" corrected to "families" (page 422)<br /> + "succeded" corrected to "succeeded" (page 460)<br /> + "surborned" corrected to "suborned" (page 464)<br /> + "Gautemala" corrected to "Guatemala" (page 491)<br /> + "Bogatá" corrected to "Bogotá" (page 508) +</p></div> + +<p>4. Other than the corrections listed above, printer's inconsistencies +in spelling, punctuation, hyphenation, and ligature usage have been +retained.</p> +</div> + +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<hr class="full" /> +<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS, PART II (OF 2)***</p> +<p>******* This file should be named 37950-h.txt or 37950-h.zip *******</p> +<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/3/7/9/5/37950">http://www.gutenberg.org/3/7/9/5/37950</a></p> +<p>Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed.</p> + +<p>Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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