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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The South American Republics, Part II (of 2),
+by Thomas C. Dawson
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The South American Republics, Part II (of 2)
+
+
+Author: Thomas C. Dawson
+
+
+
+Release Date: November 7, 2011  [eBook #37950]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS, PART
+II (OF 2)***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Adrian Mastronardi, Jana Srna, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images
+generously made available by Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries
+(http://www.archive.org/details/toronto)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
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+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/37950/37950-h.zip)
+
+
+      Project Gutenberg has Part I of this work. See
+      http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/37920
+
+
+      Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries. See
+      http://www.archive.org/details/p2southamericanr00dawsuoft
+
+
+
+
+
+THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+  Story of the Nations
+
+      A Series of Historical Studies intended to present
+      in graphic narratives the stories of the different
+      nations that have attained prominence in history.
+
+  In the story form the current of each national life is distinctly
+  indicated, and its picturesque and noteworthy periods and episodes
+  are presented for the reader in their philosophical relations to
+  each other as well as to universal history.
+
+  12º, Illustrated, cloth, each              $1.50
+  Half Leather, each                         $1.75
+  No. 62 and following Nos.              net $1.35
+      Each                         (By mail) $1.50
+  Half leather, gilt top, each,          net $1.60
+                                   (By mail) $1.75
+
+  FOR FULL LIST SEE END OF THIS VOLUME.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: CHURCH OF SAN FRANCISCO IN LIMA.]
+
+
+The Story of the Nations
+
+THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS
+
+by
+
+THOMAS C. DAWSON
+
+American Minister to Santo Domingo
+
+In Two Parts
+
+PART II
+PERU, CHILE, BOLIVIA, ECUADOR, VENEZUELA, COLOMBIA, PANAMA
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+G. P. Putnam's Sons
+New York and London
+The Knickerbocker Press
+1904
+
+Copyright, 1904
+by Thomas C. Dawson
+
+Published, September, 1904
+
+The Knickerbocker Press, New York
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+This history begins when Pizarro and Almagro, Valdivia and Benalcazar,
+led their desperadoes across the Isthmus to the conquest, massacre, and
+enslavement of the prosperous and civilised millions who inhabited the
+Pacific coast of South America. It ends with the United States opening a
+way through that same Isthmus for the ships, the trade, the capital of
+all the world; with American engineers laying railroad iron on the
+imperial highway of the Incas; with British bondholders forgiving
+stricken Peru's national debt; with their debtor bravely facing the fact
+of bankruptcy, and turning over to them all its railways.
+
+The American people, alert, practical, keen, possessing in their press
+and congress admirable organisations for the collection and
+dissemination of exact knowledge, already fully appreciate the
+advantages that will accrue to the United States itself from the
+building of the Panama canal. Hardly less thoroughly do they understand
+the probable effect upon eastern Asia and the great commercial nations
+of western Europe. Few, however, have yet reflected upon the canal's
+vital importance to the peoples of the Pacific coast of South
+America--to four at least of the six countries whose stories I have
+tried to tell in this volume.
+
+Cut off from all practicable communication with the rest of the
+continent by those yawning ravines which lead down the inner declivities
+of the Andes, gullied by gigantic torrents, and choked by impenetrable
+forests, the narrow strip of territory stretching along the mountain
+tops and shore plain from Quito to Central Chile, connects with the
+outside world solely through ports on the Pacific Ocean. Throughout
+colonial times the stream of greedy Spanish office-holders flowed down
+the coast from the Isthmus, and a scanty trickle of trade followed the
+same channel. For three centuries Panama was the _entrepôt_ and Lima the
+metropolis of all Spanish South America except Venezuela and eastern New
+Granada. Magellan's famous discovery did not divert these currents
+because the stormy straits that bear his name are practically useless
+for sailing ships, and even Schouten's rounding of the Horn only blazed
+a path which proved too perilous for the vessels of the seventeenth and
+eighteenth centuries. But with the nineteenth century improvements in
+navigation and especially with the use of steam and the freighter built
+of iron, all was changed. Valparaiso became nearer to London or New York
+than Guayaquil, and during the last seventy-five years the ports of
+Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, and Pacific Colombia have been little more than
+remote and unimportant stations on a trade route that stretches its
+interminable length from the commercial emporiums in the North Atlantic
+through Pernambuco, Rio, Buenos Aires, and around the southern end of
+the continent. For centuries Spanish tyranny denied the world access to
+those countries, and hardly had they shaken off the political system
+that strangled their development, when geographical considerations and
+the invention of iron steamships placed them at a disadvantage compared
+with their competitors. Their commercial, and therefore their industrial
+and political progress, has been ten-fold slower than it should have
+been.
+
+The moment the first vessel floats through from the Caribbean to the
+Pacific the course of commerce will reverse its direction. Buenaventura,
+Esmeraldas, Guayaquil, Callao, Mollendo, Iquique, and even Valparaiso
+and Talcahuano will send their ships by the short route of Panama
+instead of around the continent and through the Straits of Magellan.
+Western Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Chile herself will be tied
+by rapidly strengthening bonds of mutual interest and intercourse to
+each other and to the great commercial nations; and a transformation
+will begin whose extent no man can foresee. Every patriotic American
+must hope that his own countrymen will devote the money, energy, and
+attention essential to secure that share of influence and trade justly
+due the United States' geographical proximity and political sympathy;
+that French literature, language, and ideas, British capital, and German
+commerce now so dominant in all South America, will be supplemented by
+American schools, money, and commercial enterprise; and that such
+influences will spread from Panama through Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and
+Bolivia down the coast to prosperous Chile and across into the fertile
+plains of Argentina and southern Brazil.
+
+The author wishes to acknowledge his especial indebtedness to Sir
+Clement Markham's scholarly _History of Peru_, one of the very few
+complete and intelligent histories of a South American country available
+in the English language. The reader who commands Spanish will be
+interested in Torrente's _Revolucion Sud Americana_, Mackenna's
+_Historiade la Independencia_, Paz Soldan's _Narracion Historica_,
+Mitre's _San Martin_, and Bulnes's _Expedicion Libertadora_.
+
+For Chile excellent books in both Spanish and English abound, among
+which are worth special mention, Barros Arana's _Historia General_,
+Mitre's _San Martin_, Bañados's _Balmaceda_, Hancock's _History of
+Chile_, and Hervey's _Dark Days in Chile_.
+
+Few authorities exist for Bolivia. Valdes's _Estudio Historico_ is
+admirable for the period which it attempts to cover. Sanjines's
+_Historia_, Mitre's _San Martin_ and _Belgrano_, Torrente's
+_Revolucion_, and D'Ursel's _Séjours et Voyages_, as well as Fernandez's
+recent _Campaña del Acre_ have been found valuable.
+
+Wolf's _Geografia del Ecuador_ is more than a geography, and no one
+interested in that country can afford not to study this work carefully.
+Suarez's _Historia General_, and Cevallos's _Compendio_ give a good
+account of military and political affairs but do not bring them down to
+recent years.
+
+For Venezuela Tejera's _Manual de Historia_ has been of much use, as
+also Scruggs's _Colombian and Venezuelan Republics_, Jenny Tallenay's
+_Souvenirs_, and in the war of independence Mitre's great work on the
+life of _San Martin_.
+
+Perez's wonderfully condensed book, _Geografia Politica_, has been the
+main reliance for Colombia, but Mitre's _San Martin_, Torrente's
+_Revolucion_, Holton's _New Granada_, and Scruggs's _Republics_, have
+supplied much information on points not covered by Senor Perez's work.
+
+Intelligible details about comparatively recent times are proverbially
+the hardest to obtain, and the author feels that whatever of accuracy
+these pages may boast is due principally to his friends among present
+South American diplomats--men who understand South American history
+because they have been a part of it. Salvador de Mendonça, Joaquin
+Godoy, Oliviera Lima, Claudio Pinilla, Estanislao Zeballos, Manoel
+Gorostiaga, and Carlos Tobar have kindly tried to help him thread his
+way through the tangled mazes of Latin-American politics, and his
+principal reluctance at giving these pages to the public now is that he
+has not had the good fortune as yet to know and converse with men of
+like ability from Colombia and Venezuela.
+
+                                                              T. C. D.
+
+PETROPOLIS, BRAZIL, March 29, 1904.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER                                                         PAGE
+
+  _PERU_
+    I.  THE INCA EMPIRE                                              3
+   II.  THE SPANISH CONQUEST                                        20
+  III.  CIVIL WARS AMONG THE CONQUERORS                             41
+   IV.  THE COLONIAL PERIOD                                         58
+    V.  THE WARS OF INDEPENDENCE                                    74
+   VI.  FROM INDEPENDENCE TO CHILEAN WAR                            98
+  VII.  THE CHILEAN WAR AND LATTER-DAY PERU                        117
+
+  _CHILE_
+    I.  THE SPANISH CONQUEST                                       135
+   II.  THE COLONIAL PERIOD                                        148
+  III.  THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE                                    156
+   IV.  THE FORMATIVE PERIOD                                       189
+    V.  CHILE'S GREATNESS AND THE CIVIL WAR                        211
+
+  _BOLIVIA_
+    I.  THE CONQUEST AND THE MINES                                 235
+   II.  THE COLONIAL SYSTEM AND TUPAC'S REVOLT                     248
+  III.  THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE                                    255
+   IV.  BOLIVIA INDEPENDENT                                        266
+
+  _ECUADOR_
+    I.  THE CARAS                                                  285
+   II.  THE SPANISH CONQUEST                                       297
+  III.  THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE                                    311
+   IV.  THE FORMATION OF ECUADOR                                   320
+    V.  MODERN ECUADOR                                             330
+
+  _VENEZUELA_
+    I.  CONQUEST, SETTLEMENT, AND COLONIAL DAYS                    347
+   II.  THE REVOLT                                                 357
+  III.  MODERN VENEZUELA                                           384
+
+  _COLOMBIA_
+    I.  CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT                                    403
+   II.  COLONIAL TIMES                                             419
+  III.  THE WAR AGAINST SPAIN                                      430
+   IV.  MODERN COLOMBIA                                            446
+
+  _PANAMA_
+        THE EVENTS LEADING TO INDEPENDENCE                         475
+
+  INDEX                                                            491
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+  CHURCH OF SAN FRANCISCO, LIMA                         _Frontispiece_
+
+  ANCIENT PERUVIAN MONUMENT                                          7
+
+  CHURCH OF THE JESUITS IN CUZCO ON THE SITE OF THE
+  PALACE OF HUAYNA CAPAC                                            15
+
+  OBSEQUIES OF ATAHUALLPA                                           33
+    _From a painting by the Peruvian artist Monteros._
+
+  STONE BRIDGE OVER THE RIMAC RIVER, LIMA, PERU                     37
+
+  RUE MERCADERES, PROCESSION DAY, LIMA                              45
+
+  LITTLE "INFERNILLO" BRIDGE ON THE OROYA RAILWAY.
+  ALTITUDE 10,924 FEET                                              55
+
+  PROMENADE OF THE ALAMEDA, LIMA                                    62
+
+  GENERAL VIEW OF LIMA, SHOWING THE CATHEDRAL                       68
+
+  BAKER ON HORSEBACK, LIMA                                          75
+
+  THE MOLE AND HARBOUR OF CALLAO                                    83
+
+  CHURCH OF SAN FRANCISCO LIMA                                      87
+
+  MILK-WOMAN OF LIMA ON HORSEBACK                                   91
+
+  VILLAGE OF CHICLAY ON THE OROYA RAILWAY, 12,200 FEET ABOVE
+  THE SEA                                                          100
+
+  DON RAMON CASTILLA                                               107
+
+  STATUE OF BOLIVAR, LIMA, PERU                                    115
+
+  GENERAL DON ANDRES A. CACERES                                    129
+
+  MAP OF PERU                                             _Facing_ 132
+
+  BRIDGE ON THE ROAD BETWEEN SANTIAGO AND MENDOZA                  137
+
+  INDIAN ENCAMPMENT                                                146
+
+  HOUSE OF CONGRESS, SANTIAGO                                      153
+
+  PLAZA DEL ARMAS, SANTIAGO                                        157
+
+  BERNARDO O'HIGGINS                                               165
+
+  RAILROAD BRIDGE BETWEEN SANTIAGO AND VALPARAISO                  169
+
+  TALCAHUANO                                                       175
+
+  NATIVE COSTUMES IN CHILE ABOUT 1840                              179
+
+  VIEW OF SANTIAGO, CHILE, ABOUT 1835                              195
+
+  VIEW OF VALPARAISO                                               205
+
+  JOSE MANUEL BALMACEDA                                            221
+
+  THE PLAZA, VICTORIA, VALPARAISO                                  229
+
+  MONOLITHIC DOORWAY AT TRAHUANACO                                 237
+
+  BALSAS ON LAKE TITICACA                                          259
+
+  LOADED LLAMAS                                                    279
+
+  ECUADOR INDIANS                                                  302
+
+  CHURCH OF SANTO DOMINGO AT GUAYAQUIL                             305
+
+  GUAYAQUIL, ECUADOR                                               325
+
+  COSTUMES OF NATIVES NEAR QUITO                                   327
+
+  ECUADOR PEON'S HOUSE                                             332
+
+  PRINCIPAL STREET IN GUAYAQUIL                                    340
+
+  ANCIENT INDIAN ROCK FOR GRINDING MAIZE                           358
+
+  THE PASS OF ANGOSTURA, BOLIVAR CITY                              373
+
+  ROAD NEAR MACUTO                                                 379
+
+  ENTRANCE OF PUERTO CABELLO IN 1870                               386
+
+  VENEZUELAN SOLDIER OF 1870                                       393
+
+  VENEZUELAN GUERILLAS                                             397
+
+  MAP OF ECUADOR, COLOMBIA, AND VENEZUELA                 _Facing_ 398
+
+  OLDEST FORTRESS IN AMERICA, AT CARTHAGENA                        407
+
+  TRAVELLERS DESCENDING A MOUNTAIN ROAD                            411
+
+  NATIVE BOATS, MAGDALENA RIVER                                    415
+
+  THE NATURAL BRIDGE AT GUARANDA                                   421
+
+  FALLS OF TEQUENDAMA                                              423
+
+  NATIVE HOUSES IN COLOMBIA                                        427
+
+  ROPE BRIDGE OVER THE MAGDALENA RIVER                             434
+
+  THE HOME OF BOLIVAR                                              440
+
+  PANAMA FROM THE BAY                                              445
+
+  SCENE IN THE ANDES, EN ROUTE TO BOGOTÁ                           449
+
+  CATHEDRAL, PANAMA                                                453
+
+  CROSSING THE MOUNTAINS IN 1850                                   456
+
+  TYPES OF COLOMBIAN NATIVES                                       459
+
+  POST-OFFICE AT BOGOTÁ                                            463
+
+  RAFAEL NUÑEZ, PRESIDENT OF COLOMBIA IN 1879-1883, 1885-1891      467
+
+  VIEW OF PANAMA                                                   477
+
+  STEAMERS ON THE MAGDALENA RIVER                                  479
+
+  NATIVE VILLAGE ON THE PANAMA RAILWAY                             483
+
+  MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA SHOWING PROGRESS OF THE MOVEMENT FOR
+  INDEPENDENCE                                                _At End_
+
+
+
+
+PERU
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE INCA EMPIRE
+
+
+For many centuries before the Spanish conquest and before the rise of
+the Incas a succession of great empires existed in Peru. Ruined edifices
+of unknown date prove that at some remote period advanced civilisations
+and powerful nations were developed in the coast valleys and on the
+Andean plateau. In tombs which vastly antedate even these megalithic
+palaces and fortresses, cotton twine, woven cloth, and cobs of maize
+have been found. The domestication and breeding to perfection of the
+llama as a beast of burden, and the alpaca as a fleece-bearer, the
+development of potatoes, maize, and the quinoa grain, must have consumed
+untold cycles of time. There is no doubt of the remote antiquity of the
+civilisation of the Indians who inhabit the Andean plateau south of the
+equator, nor that their culture was wholly self-developed, owing nothing
+to outside influences.
+
+About the year 1000 the Incas were merely one of several tribes living
+on the high, beautiful, and fertile plateau of Cuzco, which lies on the
+eastern edge of the gigantic uplift of the Andes. Down the precipitous
+gorges into the steaming and impenetrable forests of the Amazon plain
+the civilised Indians never cared to go. The maize, quinoa, and potatoes
+upon which they depended for food could not flourish in the intense heat
+and heavy rainfall of those regions. Neither themselves nor their llamas
+and alpacas could thrive in the montaña or forested plain. Their natural
+habitat was the rough plateau, broken by numerous valleys, which lies
+between the Eastern and the Central Cordilleras, and extends from the
+Vilcañota "nudo," shutting it off from the Titicaca basin, to the
+transverse range of the "Cerro de Pasco," in the North. The ocean lies
+two hundred and fifty miles south-west, beyond the Central and Maritime
+Cordilleras and the bleak plateau which lies between them.
+
+This great central section, on whose eastern edge near its southern
+border we first find the Incas, is the heart of Peru. Although the
+climate of a few of its gorges is almost tropical, the valleys have the
+temperature of Italy or Spain; higher up the crops of northern Europe
+flourish; then are pasture lands, and above all bleak wilds and peaks
+covered with perpetual snow. At the dawn of authentic Peruvian history
+this favored region was thickly inhabited by many independent tribes;
+probably all speaking dialects of the same language, and certainly very
+similar in their industrial life and social customs.
+
+Tradition recounts that the Incas had migrated to Cuzco from unknown
+ancestral seats--by some conjectured to have been the shores of the
+prehistoric fresh-water sea of the Amazon plain--under the leadership
+of Manco Capac, the first of an unbroken line of sovereigns who claimed
+descent from the Sun-god and ruled the Incas until the Spanish conquest.
+The Incas developed a religion whose elaborate and rigid ritual, which
+regulated every act of their lives, finds its best parallel among the
+Hebrews. Each family had its household god; each sept worshipped an
+imaginary ancestor; the whole nation adored the sun as the progenitor of
+the reigning family, and the monarch's person was revered as divine. So
+profound was the religious feeling of this people that they finally rose
+to the conception of a supreme deity--a creator of the universe. His
+temple filled one side of the great square at Cuzco.
+
+Even more remarkable than their religious system was the social and
+industrial organisation of the Incas. Private property in land did not
+exist. It belonged to the septs and was from time to time allotted to
+the heads of families. Every person was obliged to work, all males being
+divided into classes according to age and strength, and suitable labour
+assigned to each. The produce, whether crops or livestock, was divided
+between the government, the priesthood, and the communes. Scarcity in
+one section was made up from the plenty in others; public officers
+annually revised the allotments, and turns at the irrigation works were
+taken in accordance with fixed rules. Not a spot of cultivable land was
+left unused. Habitations were built on rocky hills; deserts or the sides
+of barren cliffs were used for cemeteries; whole mountain sides were
+terraced up thousands of feet, and land was literally created by years
+of patient labour employed in bringing earth in baskets and laying it on
+the bare rocks. By no people has irrigation been more extensively and
+successfully applied, and in spite of their ignorance of iron and steam,
+of labour-saving appliances and instruments of precision, the Incas
+constructed a system which in real effectiveness has never been
+surpassed. Many of their canals, reservoirs, and terraces were allowed
+to crumble by the Spanish conquerors, but modern Peru still lives upon
+the half-ruined fragments of the mighty works of the Incas.
+
+Secured from want by this intelligent socialism, their lives and rights
+safe under laws administered with inflexible severity, bound closely by
+family and governmental ties, trained from childhood in industry and
+obedience, the Incas seemed destined to dominate and absorb the more
+loosely organised tribes with whom they came in contact, provided that
+they did not become inert, stationary, and unwarlike, and cease to
+produce individuals possessing initiative. The dynamic elements
+indispensable to expansion were furnished by the ruling clan and by
+fanaticism. The offspring of Manco Capac partook of his divinity and
+each emperor left numerous sons, whose descendants constituted a
+privileged class. In the process of time there gathered around the
+emperor thousands of men of his own kindred, devoted from their birth to
+warfare and statecraft.
+
+  [Illustration: ANCIENT PERUVIAN MONUMENT.]
+
+Under the fourth emperor the Incas were successful in a life and death
+struggle against a tribe with whom they had hitherto shared the valley
+that surrounds Cuzco. Under the two succeeding emperors they extended
+their dominions south to the transverse range of mountains which
+separates the Peruvian from the Titicacan plateau. Yahuar Huaccac, the
+seventh sovereign, conquered the tribes on the eastern slopes, and by
+the beginning of the fourteenth century the Inca domain included the
+southern third of the great valley of Peru--an area of fifteen thousand
+square miles, containing probably two millions of people. Uira Cocha,
+the eighth emperor, began that wonderful series of conquests which
+within a century and a half extended over half of South America. On the
+other side of the Vilcañota "nudo" lay the vast basin which takes its
+name from Lake Titicaca. Too high and too cold for cereals, the plateau
+was inhabited by tribes of shepherds, who made no prolonged resistance
+when attacked by the armies of the Inca. Their rapid and complete
+incorporation into the Inca system followed. Colonies swarmed from the
+over-populated provinces of old Peru into the newly acquired
+territories. The Titicacan copper mines furnished the material for
+weapons and tools, and a great commerce in exchanging the wool,
+potatoes, and livestock of the higher regions for the maize and cotton
+of the lower added to the prosperity of the whole empire. This conquest
+doubled the extent of the Inca domain and opened up a vast field for
+colonising expansion within their own territory. Once achieved, the
+nation turned its attention to the conquest of the North. Beyond the
+gorge of the Apurimac--the Inca boundary in that direction--lay the
+rival nation of the Chancas, a vigorous and expanding people who were at
+the head of a great confederation of tribes which covered the northern
+two-thirds of the central plateau of Peru, and probably also included
+the Quichua-speaking tribes of the coast.
+
+The Chancas defeated Urco, Uira Cocha's oldest son and successor, and
+their army advanced toward Cuzco, subjugating the northern allies of the
+Incas. The victors came within sight of the capital, where meanwhile the
+energetic Yupanqui, Urco's younger brother, had gathered the whole force
+of the empire. The battle which decided the fate of Peru was fought on
+the heights above Cuzco; the Chancas were defeated, and fell back only
+to be pursued and overwhelmed by Yupanqui. He returned in triumph and
+was installed as emperor in place of his incompetent brother, assuming
+the title of Pachacutec, or "Reformer of the World." The Incas pressed
+their advantage relentlessly; all the tribes of the Chanca confederacy
+were subjugated; and Pachacutec's generals even extended their conquests
+north of Cerro de Pasco. The Incas had now conquered a practicable route
+to the Pacific, and the coast tribes about Lima soon also fell under
+their control. Pachacutec built a great military road from Cuzco north
+along the fertile plateau, through the smiling valley of Jauja, and down
+the short descent to the neighbourhood of Lima. Colonies were
+established at strategic points, and the new territory became so
+rapidly welded to the Inca system that, when the Spaniards arrived a
+hundred and fifty years later, they found the whole of central and
+southern Peru occupied by a homogeneous people, perfectly loyal to the
+Inca dynasty.
+
+Pachacutec's successor, Tupac Yupanqui, proved even more successful than
+his father. The five hundred miles of rainless coast from Lima to the
+Ecuador border was inhabited by a mysterious race, in civilisation and
+origin entirely distinct from the Quichua-speaking mountain tribes to
+which the Incas belonged. Short rivers, rushing down from the Andes,
+each irrigated a portion of the desert, which only requires water to
+become extremely fertile. The irrigation works of this people were on a
+gigantic scale, one of their reservoirs having its lower end guarded by
+a dam eighty feet thick at the base. The valleys were cultivated to the
+highest degree of perfection, and filled with a swarming and industrious
+population housed in cities whose ruins still survive to attest the
+skill of their builders. Enervated by centuries of peace, the
+inhabitants had long confined their warlike operations to building
+defensive fortresses. Nevertheless, when Tupac advanced up the coast he
+met a desperate and prolonged resistance, until one after another the
+fortresses fell. The capital of the confederacy was laid in ruins and
+great numbers of the people were transported to distant provinces.
+Garrisons and Inca colonies were established and a military road was
+constructed along the coast. However, the country was really held only
+by force, and even in Spanish times Quichua had not displaced the
+Mochica tongue in half the northern coast valleys.
+
+Tupac next turned his attention to enlarging the southern limits of his
+empire. From Titicaca his armies advanced over hundreds of miles of
+bleak plateaux and barren deserts and down the steep Andean slopes into
+the fertile valleys of central Chile. His conquests extended as far
+south as the river Maule,--three hundred miles beyond Santiago,--but the
+tribes retained their autonomy and became rather allies than subjects.
+On the eastern side of the Andes he obtained the allegiance of the
+peoples living in the mountain valleys of north-western Argentine, and
+he completed the incorporation of the vast and fertile plateau which
+extends from the Titicacan basin to the present Argentine border.
+
+Returning to the northern frontier, he reduced the peoples who lived in
+the confused tangle of mountains and gorges which lies between the two
+Cordilleras north of Cerro de Pasco, thus extending his boundaries
+nearly to the present Ecuador line. The rest of northern Peru and all of
+southern Ecuador belonged to tribes who were loosely attached members of
+the confederacy headed by the Caras of Quito. They opposed only a short
+resistance to the arms and diplomacy of Tupac, and he made their
+territory the base for the great war which he proposed to undertake
+against the ancient kingdom of Quito. About the year 1455 he advanced
+with a great army, largely recruited from the tribes recently wrested
+from the Quito monarch, and defeated the Caras in a great battle. The
+whole plateau as far north as Riobamba submitted, reducing the Shiri's
+domain to the neighbourhood of Quito itself and a small region north of
+that city. However, all of Tupac's efforts to force the last barrier
+which interposed between him and the Cara capital failed, and he was
+compelled to content himself with extending his conquests on the coast
+as far as the Gulf of Guayaquil. In 1460 he returned to Cuzco, where
+three years later he was enraged to hear that the Shiri was making a
+desperate and partly successful effort to recover the lost provinces.
+Tupac's preparations for a final campaign to wipe the Quito kingdom out
+of existence were interrupted by his own death.
+
+Huaina Capac succeeded to the throne and continued his father's
+preparations. Bad news, however, from the far southern provinces
+compelled him first to undertake a campaign into Chile, in which he was
+victorious. He then proceeded north and devoted the rest of his life to
+conquering and incorporating the Cara empire. He first constructed a
+military road from the northern Peruvian coast to the plateau in
+southern Ecuador; then he exterminated or reduced to obedience the
+tribes on the Gulf of Guayaquil, and the coast beyond, nearly as far as
+the equator. Returning south, he defeated the wild savages of the
+regions where the Amazon leaves the mountains. Having thus secured
+himself against an interruption of his line of communications, he
+advanced against Quito in overwhelming force. The Caras and their allies
+among the brave tribes of northern Ecuador made a desperate resistance,
+but were overthrown in battle after battle, and Huaina Capac entered
+Quito in triumph. All the tribes of the confederacy submitted except the
+Caranquis, a warlike people who lived north of Quito. These achieved
+some minor successes, but were finally overwhelmed and exterminated.
+
+The Inca empire, now at its greatest extent, included all the
+inhabitable portions of Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, three-fourths of
+Chile, and a large part of the Argentine, stretching two thousand two
+hundred miles north and south, and from the Pacific to the eastern foot
+of the Andes. Except for the plateaux of Colombia practically the whole
+Andean region had been united under one government. The rest of South
+America was occupied by savage peoples, divided into small bands, who
+picked up a precarious existence along the streams; and the Inca empire
+was safe from any serious attack on its continental boundaries. But the
+later conquests of Tupac and Huaina Capac had incorporated peoples in
+civilisation and warlikeness hardly inferior to the Incas themselves.
+Indeed, in the light of subsequent events, it is clear that the later
+campaigns weakened the real military power and homogeneity of the
+empire. While the older parts, southern Peru and Bolivia--the heart of
+the Inca domain--formed a homogeneous and thoroughly loyal centre whose
+inhabitants all spoke the same language and where socialism and the
+worship of the sun according to the Inca rites prevailed, from the
+latitude of Lima north the country had been too recently subdued to be
+counted upon. The northern coast still required to be kept down by
+permanent garrisons; the mountain tribes of northern Peru retained a
+certain measure of autonomy; and the vast territories where the Shiri of
+Quito had held sway for so many centuries were very loosely attached.
+Tupac, the first conqueror, found it advisable to remain there almost
+continuously during the last half of his reign, and Huaina Capac, his
+heir, was born in Ecuador, and devoted his whole life to that region. He
+married the daughter and heiress of the defeated Shiri, and was regarded
+rather as the legitimate successor of the ancient dynasty than as an
+alien conqueror.
+
+In 1525 Huaina Capac died at Quito, leaving a will by which he
+bequeathed the northern kingdom to Atahuallpa, a son born to him by the
+Shiri's daughter. Peru, with the southern provinces, fell to Huascar,
+his son by a princess of Inca blood. As the eldest and the legitimate
+heir according to the rules of succession which governed in the Inca
+dynasty, the latter was to be paramount, thus retaining a semblance of
+unity. Huascar and the Inca nobles who surrounded him at the old
+Peruvian capital were unwilling to acquiesce in this virtual division of
+the empire. The chief of the Cañaris, a tribe always hostile to Quito,
+sent a messenger to Cuzco offering to swear allegiance to Huascar. As
+soon as Atahuallpa heard of this derogation of his authority he ordered
+an army to march and unseat the recalcitrant prince, and despatched an
+ambassador to his brother with a conciliatory message, at the same time
+unequivocally asserting his claim to the lordship of all the ancient
+domain of the Shiris. Huascar insisted that southern Ecuador, a region
+which had been wrested from the Caras by their grandfather, and whose
+tribes had only been allies of Quito, should not be included. His bitter
+feeling against his brother was increased by reports that Atahuallpa had
+assumed Incarial insignia which only a legitimate emperor was entitled
+to use. He returned a harsh answer, demanding immediate and
+unconditional obedience. Seeing nothing was to be hoped for from
+Huascar, Atahuallpa began gathering the forces of the Quito kingdom.
+
+  [Illustration: CHURCH OF THE JESUITS IN CUZCO, ON THE SITE OF THE
+  PALACE OF HUAYNA CAPAC.]
+
+Huascar was delayed by insurrections which broke out among the tribes of
+northern Peru, and at first could only send a few troops to the
+assistance of the Cañaris. The latter managed to hold Atahuallpa's
+generals in check until Huascar's main army advanced. Atahuallpa retired
+slowly up the plateau to within fifty miles of his capital, pursued by
+the Inca army. It seemed certain that he would quickly be defeated, and
+either slain or brought to his brother's feet to receive a rebel's
+sentence. But against this invasion, inspired by the ruling oligarchy of
+Cuzco, the warlike people of northern Ecuador stood nobly by the
+grandson of the last of their ancient line of monarchs. Though the
+southerners were victorious in the first encounter, Atahuallpa in person
+rallied his army and drew it up in an advantageous position at Naxichi.
+The Incas attacked confidently, but this time they were hopelessly
+routed and the chief generals slain with thousands of the common
+soldiery. The remnant fled in disorder to the territory of the Cañaris.
+Atahuallpa could not immediately follow up his advantage, and by the
+time he had organised his forces for an offensive campaign, Huascar had
+sent another great army to the rescue under the command of his younger
+brother, Huanca Auqui. When Atahuallpa crossed the transverse barrier of
+Azuay and descended into the fertile plateau north of Cuenca, a terrific
+battle ensued which lasted two days. Both sides suffered severely, but
+the final advantage lay with the Northerners, and Huanca Auqui sullenly
+retreated, abandoning Ecuador to Atahuallpa. A fearful vengeance was
+taken on the Cañaris, while the other tribes joined the victor.
+
+Next year Atahuallpa sent a great force under the command of Quizquiz,
+the ablest Indian general of the time, into northern Peru. Huanca Auqui
+was again defeated, and abandoned the disputed territory, while
+Atahuallpa's troops poured into the northern coast provinces. Having met
+with no serious resistance there, they ascended the Cordillera to the
+neighbourhood of Cajamarca, where they met the reinforced Inca army.
+Again they were victorious and Huascar's forces retreated south of the
+Cerro de Pasco, followed by Quizquiz, whose army grew like a rolling
+snowball by enlistments among the warlike and half-independent tribes of
+northern Peru.
+
+Huascar's resources were, however, by no means exhausted by the crushing
+defeats he had suffered during the last four years. The great plateaux
+of Peru and Bolivia, the most populous and richest portion of the
+empire, remained faithful; the ruling classes regarded Atahuallpa's
+revolt not only as an impious rebellion against the legitimate emperor,
+but as a menace to their own continued supremacy in the state. Tens of
+thousands poured up from the southern provinces to reinforce the army
+which lay in the valleys south of the Cerro de Pasco in daily
+expectation of attack. But Tupac's and Huaina Capac's conquests had
+created a Frankenstein monster. When the ruder nations of the North were
+first attacked by the Inca armies they did not know how to organise and
+were easily reduced in detail. Three-quarters of a century of Inca rule
+had taught them what they lacked without destroying the spirit of
+individual initiative nourished by local autonomy. The older parts of
+the empire had been frozen by rigid socialism and ritual, and the
+people's energies sapped by long centuries of tutelage. The northern
+tribes who followed Atahuallpa's banner were superior in military
+prowess to the Incas who fought for Huascar, uniformly beating the
+latter with numbers constantly inferior. The balance of power had passed
+from Cuzco and the centre to Quito and the north.
+
+Quizquiz's forces finally crossed the Cerro de Pasco and poured down
+into the beautiful and populous valley of Jauja. Again they were
+victorious, and the Incas fled along the road leading toward Cuzco.
+Huascar and his partisans determined to make their last stand at the
+capital itself. Reinforcements were hurried up not only from Bolivia,
+but from Chile, and the Argentine, and an army which is said to have
+numbered seventy thousand, the largest ever seen in South America,
+assembled at Cuzco. Meanwhile Quizquiz was relentlessly advancing along
+the plateau, and his main body reached the neighbourhood of the city
+intact. After some manoeuvres for position in which the able and
+experienced northern generals obtained a decisive advantage, Huascar's
+camp was surprised at early dawn. His soldiers could not form and a
+frightful carnage ensued, in the midst of which he himself was made
+prisoner. As soon as the capture became known his followers fled in all
+directions. Quizquiz advanced his camp to the heights overlooking the
+capital; all idea of further resistance was abandoned; the city
+submitted, and the principal partisans of Huascar perished in a cruel
+massacre.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE SPANISH CONQUEST
+
+
+During the long campaigns by which his general, Quizquiz, had conquered
+Peru, Atahuallpa had never left the North. He received the news of the
+crowning victory and the capture of Huascar, in his palace at Tumibamba
+on the Cuencan plain, and started at once for Cajamarca, the first great
+town on the plateau south of the Ecuador border, accompanied by only a
+small army. While waiting near Cajamarca, Atahuallpa heard the wonderful
+news that two hundred strangers had landed on the coast at Tumbez--a
+port on the southern side of the Gulf of Guayaquil. They were white and
+their faces were covered with hair; they had garments and arms different
+from any his informants had seen; and most extraordinary of all they
+were accompanied by outlandish gigantic beasts who carried them over the
+ground with a terrifying speed.
+
+The effect of this intelligence upon Atahuallpa and his advisers can
+only be conjectured. It was remembered that four years before a ship
+carrying a score or more of these same foreigners had sailed along the
+coast of Ecuador and northern Peru, landing at various places to beg
+provisions and ask questions. Two had been left behind, and were taken
+to the interior, where their fate is unknown. It is, however, probable
+that these unfortunate Spaniards had given to Atahuallpa's officers much
+information about the resources and intentions of their countrymen. The
+Inca emperor seems to have realised that the importance and power of the
+foreigners was out of all proportion to their numbers. The newcomers
+protested that their purposes were amicable, and sent friendly messages
+to Atahuallpa, who resolved to act cautiously and avoid offending them
+unnecessarily. He despatched his own brother as an ambassador with
+assurances of good-will and a polite inquiry as to their wishes and
+intentions. But unfortunately for himself and his country the Inca was
+dealing with a man whose profound and deceitful diplomacy was as much
+superior to his as a musket is to a cross-bow. The Spanish leader
+returned word that he appreciated the kind expressions of the emperor
+and would at once proceed to Cajamarca to pay his respects in person.
+
+This was Francisco Pizarro, one of the greatest practical geniuses whom
+modern Europe has produced. Born out of wedlock at Trujillo, a town in
+Estremadura, the province which during centuries was the great fighting
+ground of Castilian and Moor, he passed his youth as a swine-herd in the
+most abject poverty and illiteracy. Enlisting as a private soldier, he
+spent his young manhood in fighting under Gonzalo de Cordoba, in those
+campaigns which carried the renown of the Spanish infantry to the
+farthest confines of Europe. An admirable soldier, conscious that he
+possessed powers of the highest order, hopelessly handicapped in old
+Europe by his base birth and illiteracy, the discovery of the New World
+opened up a field for his talents. He eagerly embraced the opportunity,
+embarking in 1509 with Alonso de Ojeda for the Darien gold mines. Four
+years later he accompanied Balboa in that memorable journey across the
+Isthmus which resulted in the discovery of the Pacific Ocean. To the
+city of Panama, looking out over the mysterious sea, adventurers flocked
+like a pack of wolves eager for a share in the spoils of its unknown
+shores, and Pizarro was among them. The news of Cortes's conquest of
+Mexico brought to America a horde of soldiers of fortune. Recklessly
+brave, experienced in the most scientific warfare of the time,
+arrogantly proud of their nationality, utterly careless of odds, ready
+to risk their lives on the chance of sudden fortune, a set of men better
+qualified for the work which fate threw in their way could not be
+conceived.
+
+Panama had hardly been founded when rumours of the existence of a
+wealthy and civilised empire lying far to the south reached the ears of
+the Spaniards. In 1522, Pascual de Andagoya, a gentleman of
+distinguished family who occupied a high office at Panama, made an
+expedition for a short distance along the coast and obtained valuable
+confirmation of the vague reports. Obliged to abandon the enterprise by
+his own illness, he turned it over to a partnership formed for the
+purpose by Pizarro, Almagro, and a priest named Luque. The first enjoyed
+a great reputation for good judgment and fertility of resource, gained
+in expeditions along the Caribbean coast, and by mere force of his
+talents had come to be regarded as one of the ablest and luckiest
+captains on the Isthmus. The active command was to be his, while
+Almagro, a soldier of more advanced age and hardly inferior reputation,
+backed him up and sent supplies and reinforcements. Luque was the
+moneyed man of the concern. They bought a small vessel at Panama which
+Balboa himself had built eight years before, and in 1524 Pizarro started
+down the coast. But his supply of provisions was inadequate, it was
+impossible to obtain more from the savage natives of the forested shores
+of Colombia, and the first effort ended in failure.
+
+Nothing discouraged, Pizarro and his partners persevered. They had great
+difficulty in raising money to fit out properly the next expedition, but
+happily they succeeded in interesting the mayor of Panama. Eighteen
+months later Pizarro sailed once more with a better equipment and one
+hundred and sixty men. For five hundred miles he found nothing except
+the hot and swampy seashore of Colombia, inhabited by miserable naked
+tribes, and his companions had begun to believe that the empire they
+were seeking was a myth, when the pilot who had been sent on ahead came
+back with word that he had penetrated south of the equator, and there
+had met a sort of large sea-going raft coming from the south manned by
+a clothed and civilised crew and laden with cloth, silver work, metal
+mirrors, vases, and various other goods.
+
+These Indians said they came from Tumbez, a city in a fertile valley on
+a dry and penetrable coast which lay not more than two hundred miles
+farther south. They were traders bringing up a stock to sell to the
+shore peoples of Ecuador--tribes who had long been compelled to
+acknowledge the suzerainty of the Incas, but who still lived in virtual
+independence under their own chiefs. The men on the raft told the
+Spaniards that the whole interior and the southern coast were inhabited
+by civilised peoples, subjects of an emperor whose capital was a great
+city in the mountains hundreds of leagues to the south. Having received
+this confirmation of their most extravagant hopes, Pizarro and his men
+pushed on until they nearly reached the northern boundary of Ecuador,
+not far from the limits of the Inca empire. It was clear, however, that
+their small force would never be able to cope with the armies of such a
+power. Almagro went back to Panama for reinforcements, while the
+indomitable Pizarro landed his already disheartened adventurers on a
+swampy island where their clothes rotted in the steaming, tropical heat
+and never-ceasing rain; fevers decimated them, mosquitoes tortured them,
+and eatable provisions were impossible to obtain. When Almagro reached
+Panama, the governor flew into a rage on hearing that Pizarro was
+holding his men against their will, and sent a ship to bring back all
+who wished. Nine-tenths of the band deserted Pizarro, but he was
+indomitable and thirteen heroes stood by him in his determination to
+reach Peru or perish. For weary months he waited for provisions, but the
+moment they arrived he set off for the south. Within twenty days he and
+his little band of adventurers reached the Gulf of Guayaquil, four
+hundred miles farther on, and immediately landed at Tumbez. With their
+own eyes they saw full confirmation of what the Indians of the raft had
+told them. Irrigated fields, green with beautiful crops, lined the river
+bank; eighty thousand people, all comfortably housed, lived in the
+valley; commerce was flourishing; large temples profusely ornamented
+with gold and silver testified to wealth and culture; the government was
+well-ordered and stable; and the people received the visitors with
+open-handed hospitality.
+
+After refreshing his followers, Pizarro continued his explorations down
+the coast for a couple of hundred miles, finding a succession of fertile
+valleys interrupting the monotonous desert, each filled with villages
+and farms and a thriving, civilised, and prosperous population. In the
+fall of 1527 he returned to Panama, full of the idea of leading an
+expedition to conquer the great empire about which he had obtained such
+minute and exact information. He wisely resolved himself to go to Spain
+and secure the direct patronage and countenance of the government at
+Madrid. Taking with him natives brought from Tumbez and specimens of
+products, he set off, and on his arrival was granted an audience by
+Charles V. The Emperor was greatly impressed by the story which the
+adventurer told. Naturally of a noble and commanding presence, the
+conscious dignity of Pizarro's manners corresponded to the high
+ambitions which filled his mind. In the doing of great things he had
+dropped all evidences of his base origin, and contact with men and the
+habit of command had given him an ease of address and clearness of
+thought which made his hearers forget the deficiencies of his early
+education. The concession he prayed for was granted. He himself was
+legitimatised and ennobled and received the title of "adelantado," while
+the gallant followers who had refused to abandon him on the Colombian
+island were made gentlemen of coat-armour. Pizarro and his partners were
+formally authorised to conquer and settle Peru in the name of the
+Castilian sovereign and received a grant of money for the purchase of
+arms, agreeing to remit to the royal treasury one-fifth of all the gold
+that they should find.
+
+Pizarro knew just the kind of men needed to assist in this hazardous
+enterprise, and he took every precaution to select only those of whose
+valour and capacity he was well assured. His mother had bred up a family
+of lions in the little old Estremadura town, and his four brothers were
+hardly his inferiors in valour and audacity. Hernando, the oldest and
+only legitimate son of Francisco's father, agreed to go. So did Juan and
+Gonzalo, two illegitimate brothers who were younger, and also Francisco
+Alcantara, a half-brother on the mother's side. Hernando Cortes, the
+noble conqueror of Mexico, exerted himself to help Pizarro fill up his
+ranks with soldiers of the most approved courage, and the latter
+finally sailed for the Isthmus with a small body picked from the very
+flower of the fighting men of the Peninsula.
+
+Pizarro believed that a few hundreds of good men, well provided with
+artillery and horses, would be as effective as thousands in striking
+terror to masses of Indians armed only with spears and swords. Arrived
+at Panama, it was arranged that he should proceed to Peru at once, while
+Almagro would follow later with reinforcements recruited among the
+unemployed adventurers in Nicaragua. All sorts of good fortune favoured
+the daring enterprise. For once the fitful winds which usually baffle
+sailing ships in the Gulf of Panama were kind, and Pizarro's clumsy,
+little caravels traversed in thirteen days the seven hundred miles of
+inhospitable coast which lay between the Isthmus and the first Inca
+provinces. Landing among the half-civilised tribes of Ecuador, he had
+the good luck to find a store of gold and emeralds. This he sent back,
+as an encouragement to Almagro, and marching down the Ecuador coast, he
+reached the Gulf of Guayaquil, on whose southern shore began the
+populous and civilised portions of the empire. He crossed to the island
+of Puna, overcame its fierce inhabitants with great slaughter, and there
+was joined by a large and welcome reinforcement of men and horses under
+the command of Hernando de Soto, afterwards so famous as the discoverer
+of the Mississippi, who had come on his own motion to get his share in
+the spoils.
+
+So far, Pizarro's operations had been among outlying provinces owning
+only nominal allegiance to the Incas, but he now felt strong enough to
+cross over to Tumbez and establish a footing in their real domain. From
+Tumbez he marched south to Paita, where he determined to establish his
+base. The quick eye of the master general appreciated the strategical
+advantages of this valley. At this point the great military road coming
+down from the plateau of Ecuador debouched on the coast plain.
+Communication to the south was easy by a road which connected all the
+coast valleys with branches climbing to the plateaux. An anchorage at
+the valley's mouth afforded a sure means of keeping open that
+communication with Panama which was so essential to success;
+reinforcements could reach him in whatever part of Peru he might
+venture, and a garrison left at Paita would command the main route
+connecting Quito and Cuzco, cutting the Peruvian empire in two.
+
+On receiving Pizarro's answer to his friendly message, Atahuallpa
+resolved to await the promised visit, apparently suspecting no evil. The
+audacious Spaniard had, however, conceived the design of capturing the
+victorious claimant of the throne of the Incas, well knowing that in its
+actual distracted condition the country would be left without a centre
+about which it could rally. Open war, no matter how overwhelming his
+first victory might be, could hardly be ultimately successful.
+Atahuallpa once safe at Cuzco or Quito and surrounded by the disciplined
+soldiers who had overthrown Huascar, a defensive campaign might be
+undertaken in which Pizarro would find every step toward either capital
+bitterly disputed. Hundreds of thousands of Peruvians pouring up from
+the numberless provinces of the empire would be thrown in a
+never-ceasing succession of armies against his little band of Spaniards,
+and the latter would infallibly be driven back to the coast by
+starvation and fatigue if not by defeat in the field.
+
+Apparently foolhardy, in fact Pizarro's plan offered the only chance of
+success. Never dreaming that such a step was in contemplation,
+Atahuallpa took no precautions. Leaving fifty-five men at the little
+post of San Miguel in the Paita valley to secure his retreat, Pizarro
+marched south with one hundred and two foot soldiers, sixty-two horses,
+and two small cannon two hundred miles along the coast plain to a point
+opposite Cajamarca, and ascended along an Inca military road, meeting a
+friendly reception from the wondering natives, and being supplied with
+provisions by Atahuallpa's orders.
+
+On the 15th of November, 1532, Pizarro entered Cajamarca. He found an
+open square in the middle of the town surrounded by walls and solid
+stone buildings, which he received permission to occupy as quarters.
+From his camp outside, Atahuallpa sent word that the following day he
+would enter the town in state and receive the Spaniards. Marvellous good
+fortune favoured Pizarro's treacherous designs. The Indians had
+furnished a trap already made, and now Atahuallpa deliberately walked
+into it. On the morning of the 16th the Indian army broke camp and
+marched to Cajamarca, followed by the Emperor, who was borne in a litter
+and surrounded by his personal attendants, the great chiefs, and the
+nobles belonging to his own lineage. At sunset he entered the square,
+accompanied only by these unarmed attendants, and found Pizarro and a
+few Spaniards awaiting him. The rest were hidden in the houses around
+the square with their horses saddled, their breast-plates on, and
+musketry and cannon ready charged.
+
+From among the group which surrounded Pizarro stepped forward Friar
+Valverde and approached the Inca monarch, who, reclining in a litter
+raised high above the crowd on the shoulders of his attendants, waited
+with dignity to hear what those strangers had to say. The priest
+advanced with a cross in one hand and a Bible in the other and began a
+harangue which, clumsily translated by an Indian boy, the Inca hardly
+understood. But in a few moments he realised that this uncouth jargon
+was meant to convey an arrogant demand that he acknowledge himself a
+vassal of Charles V. and submit to baptism. With haughty surprise he
+threw down the book which Valverde tried to force into his hand--the
+priest shouted, "Fall on, Castilians--I absolve you," and into the
+helpless crowd burst a murderous fire from the doors of the houses all
+around. Aghast and bewildered by this display of powers which to them
+seemed necromantic, the survivors nevertheless manfully stood to the
+attack of the mail-clad horsemen who rode into the huddled mass
+ferociously slashing and slaughtering. The Indians strove desperately to
+drag the Spaniards from the horses with their naked hands, and
+interposed a living wall of human flesh between the murderers and their
+beloved sovereign. At length Pizarro's own hands snatched Atahuallpa
+from the litter. The Indian soldiers outside, hearing the firearms and
+the noise of the struggle, tried to force their way into the square, but
+the Spanish musketry and cannon mowed them down by hundreds, and they
+fled before the charges of the cavalry, dispersing in the twilight.
+
+Pizarro took every precaution to prevent the escape or rescue of his
+prisoner, and for the first few weeks treated him kindly. The Spaniard
+was playing a profound diplomatic game. He well knew that Atahuallpa's
+generals would fear to endanger the latter's life by undertaking any
+aggressive measures, and that Huascar's partisans would take advantage
+of this providential opportunity to reorganise their forces. He
+conversed much with the captive emperor and at length began to hint to
+him the advisability of arbitration with Huascar. But the Inca took
+alarm and secretly sent off orders for his brother's execution. Seeing
+that the Indian was not to be cajoled, the Spaniard adopted a sterner
+attitude, pretended the greatest indignation at the fratricide, and soon
+had Atahuallpa willing to offer anything for his release. Shrewdly
+guessing that for gold the Spaniards would run any risk, the Inca
+negotiated for his ransom, saying: "I will fill this room with gold as
+high as I can reach if only you will liberate me." Pizarro agreed,
+insisting, however, that the ransom be delivered in advance at
+Cajamarca. A formal contract was drawn up and executed before a notary,
+and the deluded emperor ordered all preparations for war on the
+Spaniards to be interrupted and that the temples be stripped of their
+gold ornaments to supply the enormous amount he had promised. Under
+protection of this truce Pizarro sent out expeditions to explore the
+country and to expedite the process of gathering the treasure, and while
+this was going on Almagro arrived with reinforcements which doubled the
+Spanish forces. Finally the agreed sum was all in Cajamarca. It amounted
+to four million five hundred sterling in modern money. One-fifth was
+sent to the royal treasury and the remainder divided, making even the
+private soldiers rich for life.
+
+Nevertheless, Atahuallpa was not released. Large bodies of his troops
+were known to be on their way from Cuzco, and Pizarro realised that,
+once at the head of his forces, the Inca would wage an unrelenting
+warfare to expel the last Spaniard from Peru. If kept a prisoner his
+partisans would no longer hesitate to fight to release him, appreciating
+now the uselessness of relying on Spanish promises. He must be got rid
+of, and so after a mock trial in which he was charged with Huascar's
+murder and with conspiring against the Spaniards, the Inca emperor was
+strangled to death in the public square at Cajamarca. Pizarro knew
+better than to allow the Indians time to settle the disputed succession.
+With masterful sagacity he resolved to strike at Cuzco during the
+confusion. He suddenly evacuated Cajamarca and rapidly marched along the
+northern plateau, and over the Cerro de Pasco into the fertile valley
+of Jauja. From this point a short road led down the Cordillera to the
+sea, making it an admirable base for a campaign against Cuzco.
+
+  [Illustration: OBSEQUIES OF ATAHUALLPA.
+  [From a painting by the Peruvian artist, Monteros.]]
+
+Leaving a garrison to protect his retreat to the ocean, Pizarro advanced
+by forced marches along the great central plateau toward Cuzco. Quizquiz
+and the army, which had defeated and captured Huascar two years before,
+tried to oppose his progress, but all the calculations of the Indian
+general were overthrown by the incredible speed of the Spanish cavalry.
+The horsemen reached the neighbourhood of Cuzco without encountering any
+considerable force of the enemy. Here the advance guard was surprised,
+lost a fourth of its number, and was on the point of being overwhelmed,
+when the opportune arrival of the main body dispersed the Indians.
+Though only a small part of Quizquiz's army had taken part, this defeat
+badly demoralised his soldiers; it seemed impossible to make any headway
+against these strangers clothed in steel, mounted on great beasts, and
+armed with weapons which slew their opponents before the latter could
+got in a blow. Moreover, Quizquiz was in a hostile country, where
+sympathies were all with the Huascar party and where the executioners of
+Atahuallpa were regarded as deliverers.
+
+Manco Capac, Huascar's brother and legitimate successor, went in person
+to the Spanish camp to propose a formal alliance and a joint war of
+extermination against the Atahuallpa faction, Pizarro received him with
+every mark of honour and respect and renewed his assurances that the
+sole object of his march from Cajamarca was to crush the enemies of the
+rightful emperor. Quizquiz tried hard to get his forces into shape for
+resistance, but his position near Cuzco was untenable, and after a
+slight skirmish he was obliged to leave the way open to the capital.
+Just a year from the day he had reached Cajamarca, Pizarro entered Cuzco
+by the side of the legitimate emperor amid the acclamations of the
+people. Manco's inauguration was splendidly celebrated with all the
+ancient rites, but among the procession of rejoicing Incas rode an
+ominous cavalcade--the Spanish soldiers, who now numbered nearly five
+hundred.
+
+The new emperor gathered an army, and, assisted by some Spaniards, set
+off in pursuit of Quizquiz, whom he defeated a short distance north of
+Cuzco. The old northern general, still indefatigable, made a rapid march
+on Jauja to surprise the Spanish garrison, but was repulsed in this
+well-considered effort to cut Pizarro's communications with the coast,
+and had to make his way, the best he could, back towards Quito. The
+central portion of the empire would now have been content to settle back
+into quiet allegiance to Manco. But the latter soon found that his
+allies regarded the country as their own. Under the pressure of
+necessity for help against Quizquiz he had acknowledged, as a matter of
+form, the titular supremacy of the Spanish king, and he was now required
+to carry out his obligation to the letter. A municipal council, framed
+on the Spanish model, was installed as the governing body of the ancient
+capital; the great temples were turned into churches and monasteries;
+other public edifices were seized to be used as residences or barracks
+for the Spaniards; tombs, temples, and private residences were searched
+for gold; and the authorities were required to furnish troops and
+carriers for the expeditions which their oppressors planned against the
+remoter parts of the empire. With the resignation characteristic of the
+race, the Indians submitted to these exactions, and Manco hesitated long
+before deciding to put himself at the head of a revolt.
+
+The transcendant military and diplomatic qualities Pizarro had displayed
+were equalled by the energy and foresight which he now showed as an
+administrator. Realising that his capital should be on the coast in
+order to secure direct communication with Panama, he made a careful
+examination of routes and possible sites and selected the valley of the
+Rimac, just below Jauja, where he founded Lima. From this point the
+military road by which the Incas had kept up communication from Cuzco
+with the coast and the northern provinces ascended to the plateau. Lima
+and Jauja were the strategical keys to central and southern Peru; San
+Miguel gave easy access to Quito, and Pizarro insured the region
+extending from Cerro de Pasco to the Ecuador border by establishing the
+city of Trujillo half-way up the coast.
+
+Their original agreement provided that Pizarro should have the northern
+half of the countries they might conquer, and Almagro the southern.
+Accordingly, about two years after Cuzco was occupied, Almagro started
+for Bolivia and Chile, accompanied by five hundred Spaniards and two
+brothers of the Inca emperor, leading a large native army. In Bolivia,
+where the Inca power had been established for centuries, he encountered
+no opposition, and crossed the bleak plateaux of the Puna, descended the
+Andes, and finally reached the fertile valleys of northern Chile. But so
+little gold was found that Almagro determined to return and set up a
+claim to Cuzco.
+
+  [Illustration: STONE BRIDGE OVER THE RIMAC RIVER, LIMA, PERU.]
+
+In the meantime the Incas of central Peru had awakened from the dream of
+a continuance of the ancient dynasty under Spanish protection. Pizarro
+himself seems to have been guilty of few acts of wanton cruelty, but he
+neither wished nor tried to restrain his followers from reducing the
+Indians to vassalage. The natives were fast crowded to the wall, and the
+Spaniards divided the fairest parts of the country into estates,
+treating the Indians as tenants from whom tribute was due. The
+sovereignty of the emperor soon became a mere fiction. In 1536 Manco
+escaped from Cuzco and raised the standard of rebellion. The moment
+appeared favourable. The Spanish forces were scattered; Pizarro was at
+Lima, and Almagro in the wilds of Chile, but as a matter of fact the
+Incas laboured under almost hopeless disadvantages. Their cities,
+fortresses, and roads were all in the hands of the Spaniards, and the
+kingdom of Quito, the most warlike part of the empire, had meanwhile
+been reduced by a Spanish expedition from San Miguel.
+
+The rebellion was confined at first to the tribes who lived in the
+neighbourhood of Cuzco. These rose _en masse_ and besieged the two
+hundred Spaniards, who, under the command of Hernando Pizarro and his
+two younger brothers, Juan and Gonzalo, occupied the capital. The
+Indians captured the citadel overlooking the town, and poured an
+incessant rain of stones and burning darts on their enemies. The
+Spaniards soon ran out of provisions, and were forced to try to
+recapture the citadel or perish miserably by fire and starvation. Juan
+Pizarro led a desperate assault, ably assisted by Hernando and Gonzalo,
+and all three proved themselves worthy of the name they bore. Juan fell
+mortally wounded in the moment of victory, but the Incas fled in
+confusion, giving the surviving Spaniards an opportunity to procure
+supplies of maize from the neighbouring farms. This defeat disheartened
+the Indians. Numbers and bravery seemed useless against the horses and
+firearms of these strangers, whose reckless courage was only equalled by
+their cruelty. The Incas kept up the siege for several months, but
+without artillery their swords and spears could make little headway
+against men provided with firearms and protected behind solid stone
+walls. While the Spaniards in Cuzco were thus fighting for their lives,
+the Incas near Jauja rose and descended on Lima, but Francisco Pizarro
+with his dreaded cavalry waited for them in ambush, and the Indians were
+surprised and cut to pieces.
+
+In spite of this success the governor's position remained most grave. He
+sent for help to Panama, Guatemala, and Mexico, but meanwhile had no
+means of relieving Cuzco. Its fall meant not only the death of his
+beloved brothers, but would almost certainly be followed by a general
+insurrection and the loss of all the advantages gained in three years of
+fighting and scheming. He hurried forward two hundred and fifty
+men,--all he could possibly spare,--but had little prospect of success
+until news came that Almagro and his five hundred followers had arrived
+at Arequipa on their way back from Chile. From Arequipa there is a pass
+to the north end of Lake Titicaca, and thence to Cuzco the way was easy.
+Manco would be caught between Pizarro's army coming up from Lima and
+Almagro's descending from the south. The Inca gave up hope and with a
+few devoted followers retired into the wild region of Vilcabamba, lying
+north of Cuzco near the Amazonian plain. In those rugged and forested
+defiles he was safe from Spanish pursuit, but his retirement ended all
+hope of organised and general resistance. The Inca empire had fallen
+never to rise again. With stoical resignation the Indians made the best
+of their sad situation, while the conquerors were left free to fight
+among themselves over the division of the magnificent spoils which had
+so miraculously fallen into their hands.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+CIVIL WARS AMONG THE CONQUERORS
+
+
+The edict of Charles V. conceded to Pizarro the territory for two
+hundred and seventy leagues south of the river on the Ecuador coast
+where the conquest had begun, and to Almagro the next two hundred
+leagues. In his heart Almagro was dissatisfied with this award, and,
+even if he accepted the division, there was wide room for
+misunderstandings and disputes. No one knew the exact latitude of the
+river whence the measurement was to be made, nor had any one surveyed
+the distances along the winding roads. Almagro contended that Cuzco and
+Arequipa lay within his province, but this Pizarro vigorously and, as it
+turned out, correctly denied.
+
+Almagro's personal followers were disgusted with the rude poverty they
+had found in Chile, and saw little chance of valuable spoil unless their
+leader should secure the fertile plateaux of Titicaca, Cuzco, and
+Arequipa. They urged him to seize by force what he believed to belong to
+him. After the flight of Manco his army reached Cuzco before the force
+which Pizarro was sending up had penetrated nearer than a hundred miles.
+Hernando Pizarro had two hundred men at Cuzco, but they were exhausted
+with long months of fighting against the Indian besiegers and could
+offer no effective resistance to the night attack by which Almagro
+surprised them. Hernando and his brother Gonzalo were captured and
+imprisoned, and Almagro advanced against the army from Lima and defeated
+it. "This," exclaimed Pizarro, when he heard the news, "is Almagro's
+return to me, after losing a beloved and gallant brother, and spending
+all I possess in pacifying the country. I mourn for the danger of my
+brothers, but still more that two friends in their old age should plunge
+into a civil war to the injury alike of the King's service and of Peru."
+From this moment all the powers of his great mind and the resources of
+his profound cunning were devoted to securing his brothers' safety
+first, and afterwards revenge upon Almagro. Willing to agree to anything
+rather than leave them in the hands of enemies whom he knew to be as
+coldly cruel as himself and far more bloodthirsty, he sent ambassadors
+to treat for the liberation of Hernando and Gonzalo. But Almagro thought
+he held the whip hand, and marched his victorious army across the
+Cordillera opposite Cuzco and up the coast nearly to Lima, declaring his
+intention of founding a capital for his government in the valley of
+Chincha, and announcing that he would be satisfied with nothing less
+than the cession of all Peru from Lima south. To obtain Hernando's
+release the governor was forced to consent that Almagro should remain
+in possession of the disputed territory pending the decision of the
+King, but Hernando was no sooner safe at Lima than Pizarro repudiated
+his promise. He declared war; his army, under the leadership of Hernando
+and Valdivia--afterwards famous as the conqueror of Chile--advanced down
+the coast. Futilely raging at Pizarro's treachery, the old man
+retreated, making his way toward Cuzco over one of the southern passes.
+His pursuers by a rapid march over a difficult and little used pass
+reached the neighbourhood of the Inca capital without resistance.
+Almagro was compelled to accept battle, or to shut himself up in Cuzco
+and let his enemies bring up artillery and batter him out at their
+leisure. His men outnumbered Pizarro's, and were assisted by a large
+contingent of natives, though inferior in discipline and arms. He chose
+the speedier alternative, but the flank attacks of his native
+auxiliaries made no impression on Hernando's carefully disposed infantry
+and his Spaniards fell into confusion when the main bodies met in the
+shock of battle. With a flank cavalry charge the rout became general;
+Hernando Pizarro dashed in, conspicuous with white plume and
+orange-coloured doublet; the most desperate partisans were slaughtered,
+bravely fighting, and the old man fled. He was soon captured and brought
+back to the very prison where he had so long confined Hernando. After
+languishing for a few months, orders were given that he be strangled.
+Francisco made no sign to save the life of his old comrade, and the
+sentence was inflicted.
+
+For the second time Pizarro entered Cuzco in triumph, wearing now an
+ermine robe presented to him by Hernando Cortes, and once more he
+devoted himself to organising his vast dominions and extending the
+Spanish power over the distant provinces. Gonzalo Pizarro went to Quito
+to make that expedition into the Amazon country in search of the
+Eldorado which so miserably failed in its immediate object, but resulted
+in Orellana's discovery of the great river. Hernando Pizarro proceeded
+to Bolivia to develop the mining industry--a labour soon to be rewarded
+by the finding of Potosí. Valdivia undertook the conquest of Chile, and
+Alvarado that of the mountains of northern Peru. The governor travelled
+himself over most of his dominions, founding cities at strategic points
+in the more populous and fertile valleys. He visited Charcas--now
+Sucré--the old Indian capital of southern Bolivia; he founded one city
+at Arequipa, commanding the greatest valley of the southern coast, and
+another at Guamanga in a fertile plateau half-way between Jauja and
+Cuzco. The better parts of the country were divided into great feudal
+estates and distributed among his favourites and faithful followers,
+while the partisans of Almagro made their way as best they could out of
+Peru or hung around in helpless poverty, gnashing their teeth as they
+saw their luckier comrades rapidly enriching themselves by Indian
+tribute and mining.
+
+  [Illustration: RUE MERCADERES, PROCESSION DAY, LIMA.]
+
+Almagro's friends quickly carried the news of his illegal execution to
+Spain, crying for justice against the Pizarros. The Spanish government
+was not unwilling to secure a selfish advantage from the disputes
+among the original conquerors, and sent out Vaca de Castro to
+investigate and report.
+
+When the royal commissioner arrived at Panama early in 1541, the latest
+news from Peru was tranquillising. Pizarro was busily engaged in
+enlarging and beautifying Lima, in regulating the revenue and the
+administration, in distributing "encomiendas," and in restraining the
+rapacity of his Spaniards. However, Lima was full of the "men of
+Chile"--as Almagro's adherents were called--all bitter enemies of the
+governor. They passed him in the street without saluting, and their
+attitude was so menacing that Pizarro received repeated warnings and was
+urged to banish them. Absolutely incapable of personal fear, magnanimous
+when his passions had not been aroused, he only replied, "Poor fellows;
+they have had trouble enough. We will not molest them." He even sent for
+Juan de la Rada, the guide, counsellor, and guardian of the young
+half-breed who was Almagro's heir, and condescended to try to argue him
+into a better frame of mind, saying at parting, "Ask me frankly what you
+desire." But the iron had entered too deeply into Rada's soul; he had
+already organised a conspiracy to assassinate Pizarro.
+
+At noon on Sunday, the 26th of June, 1541, Pizarro was sitting at dinner
+in his house with twenty gentlemen, among them his half-brother,
+Francisco Alcantara, and several of the most illustrious knights who had
+taken part in the conquest. The great door into the public square was
+lying wide open. The conspirators, to the number of a score, had
+assembled in a house opposite. All of a sudden they rushed into the
+square fully armed and carrying their swords naked in their hands. A
+young page standing in front of the governor's house saw them and ran
+back shouting: "To arms! all the men of Chile are coming to kill the
+Marquis, our lord." The guests rose in alarm from the table and all but
+half a dozen fled to the windows and dropped into the garden. Pizarro
+threw off his gown and snatched up a sword, while the valiant Francisco
+Chaves stepped forward through the ante-room to dispute the passage at
+the staircase. The ferocious crowd of murderers rushed up and laid him
+dead on the stairs. Alcantara checked them for a few moments with his
+single sword, but was soon forced back into the dining-room and fell
+pierced with many thrusts. The old lion shouted from the inside, "What
+shameful thing is this! why do you wish to kill me?" and with a cloak
+wrapped round one arm and his sword grasped in the other hand, he rushed
+forward to meet his assassins and strike a blow to avenge his brother
+before he himself should fall. Only two faithful young pages remained at
+his side. Though over seventy years of age, his practised sword laid two
+of the crowd dead before he was surrounded. The two boys were butchered
+and in the mêlée Pizarro received a mortal wound in the throat, and
+falling to the floor, made the sign of the cross on the boards and
+kissed it. One of the ruffians had snatched up an earthen water jar and
+with this pounded out the old man's brains as he lay prostrate,
+disdaining to ask for mercy and murmuring "Jesus" just as the fatal blow
+fell.
+
+Thus perished by the sword this great man of blood. The measure he had
+meted out to Atahuallpa and Almagro was measured to him again. He who
+had shamelessly broken his oath times without number to gain his own
+high ends was slain by treacherous, cowardly assault. But his great
+vices should not blind us to his greater virtues. Courageous,
+indomitable, far-sighted, patriotic, large-minded, public-spirited,
+possessing a God-given instinct for seeing straight to the centre of a
+problem and the energy to strike at the psychological moment, he was
+equally great as an explorer, a soldier, a general, a diplomatist, and
+an administrator. Even his shocking moral delinquencies lose something
+of their turpitude when we consider the greatness of his aims and the
+baseness of his origin. A bastard, a common soldier, a penniless
+adventurer, a man who had to fight his way up by his own wits, courage
+and parts, in the worst of schools, it was not to be expected that he
+would be scrupulous. But that his real nature was magnanimous, generous,
+and truthful is proven by the many instances in which he forgave his
+enemies and kept his word to his serious loss, and that his ambition was
+not sordid is shown by his self-sacrificing devotion to the public good
+during the later years of his life. Formed in nature's grandest mould,
+circumstances and environment had much deformed his character, but the
+original lineaments are plain.
+
+The news of the murder threw Peru into confusion. In Lima the
+governor's friends hid themselves or fled; a hundred sympathisers joined
+the assassins; the rudders and sails of the ships in port were taken
+away so that no word could be sent to Panama; and all the treasure in
+the city was plundered. Young Almagro assumed the title of governor of
+Peru, but he and Rada soon realised that the vast majority at Lima
+regarded them with execration, while threatening messages came from the
+commanders in other towns. Rada and the boy usurper started up the road
+for Jauja and Cuzco. At the former place Rada died, but his protégé,
+though only twenty-two years old, now showed unexpected ability and
+resource. Suppressing with bloody severity a quarrel among his captains,
+he took the road to Cuzco, where his father's party was strongest.
+
+In the meantime the royal commissioner, now become legal governor of
+Peru, had sailed from Panama. Shipwrecked off the coast of southern
+Colombia, he resolved to proceed by land, and disembarking at
+Buenaventura, made his way with infinite difficulty through the tangled
+forests and steep defiles of the Maritime Cordillera to the valley of
+the Cauca River. Thence to Quito over the highlands of Popayán and Pasto
+was easier. As soon as the news of Pizarro's murder reached him he
+hastened south, receiving many offers of help from the friends of the
+dead governor. At Jauja he found a considerable army ready to his
+orders, so he proceeded promptly to Guamanga, to which point Almagro was
+advancing from Cuzco. The soldiers of the young half-breed knew that
+they were fighting with halters round their necks, and the battle was
+the bloodiest since the Spaniards had landed in Peru. Of the twelve
+hundred white men who went into the fight only five hundred escaped
+unwounded. The rebels were practically annihilated. Two days after the
+battle Pizarro's murderers were executed in the great square at
+Guamanga. Young Almagro managed to escape to Cuzco, but he was quickly
+captured and relentlessly put to death.
+
+Upon the death of Francisco Pizarro the right to nominate a governor
+reverted to the Spanish Crown. Though some disappointment was felt that
+Gonzalo Pizarro had not been appointed, Vaca de Castro succeeded without
+opposition. Gonzalo's selection would not have suited the new policy of
+the Spanish government. Las Casas had written his famous book exposing
+the unspeakable iniquities of the earlier conquerors toward the West
+Indian natives. It produced a tremendous effect on public opinion, and
+the authorities at Madrid decided to root up Indian slavery, and
+gradually abolish the existing "encomiendas." Manifestly, such a step
+would excite bitter dissatisfaction among the adventurers in Peru, and
+it seemed best to name a viceroy, who would be _ipso facto_ vested with
+absolute power, and not subject to the influence of the
+"conquistadores."
+
+This dangerous post was entrusted to Blasco Nuñez de Vela, an old
+bureaucrat of the Escurial, whose integrity, piety, and rigid obedience
+to orders had pushed him into high positions. Arriving in Peru early in
+1544, he was received with outward courtesy and respect, thinly veiling
+real alarm and distrust. The "New Laws" abolished personal service by
+Indians; the grandees of estates must hereafter be content with a
+moderate tribute from their tenants; encomiendas might not be sold nor
+even descend by inheritance; and--worst of all--public officials and all
+Spaniards who had taken part in the wars between Almagro and Pizarro
+were to be deprived. The provisions were drastic and rumour exaggerated
+them. In his journey down the coast the viceroy had sternly ordered that
+no Indian be forced to carry a burden against his will. To the Spaniards
+this seemed an outrageous violation of the natural order of things. The
+whole fabric of their fortunes rested upon forced Indian labour. Without
+it they could not work their mines, farm their estates, or transport
+their goods, and these "New Laws" enforced by a conscientious and
+stubborn old bureaucrat, would virtually rob them of all that their
+swords had won.
+
+Dismayed "encomienderos" wrote to Gonzalo Pizarro, urging him to espouse
+their cause; his own vast estates would infallibly be wrenched away by
+the viceroy, and he was told that his head was to be cut off as soon as
+Nuñez Vela could lay hands on him. With the Pizarro instinct of running
+to meet a danger, he hastened from southern Bolivia to Cuzco, where he
+was proclaimed "procurator general" of Peru; soldiers flocked to his
+camp; he seized the artillery and stores at Cuzco, and soon was at the
+head of four hundred desperate men, well armed and provided. Many,
+however, shrank from open rebellion against the representative of the
+Castilian king, and the Pizarros had enemies. The result was still
+doubtful, when the viceroy himself turned the scale by his own violent
+measures. He imprisoned Vaca de Castro on suspicion of favouring the
+revolt; quarrelled with the judges of the royal court; and finally in an
+altercation with the popular factor of Lima, stabbed his opponent with
+his own hand, and then attempted to conceal the murder. Frightened at
+the burst of public indignation, he fled to Trujillo, while the royal
+judges took the direction of affairs into their own hands. They ordered
+the arrest and deportation of the viceroy, and sent a conciliatory
+message to Gonzalo. But he knew better than to rely upon the
+unauthorised promises of the judges. His answer was to send a detachment
+to Lima, which seized three deserters and hanged them on trees outside
+the town. The judges having no troops upon whom they could rely, were
+forced to recognise Pizarro as governor. A few days later he made his
+triumphal entry, riding at the head of twelve hundred men. There was no
+mistaking the sincerity of the acclamations with which the Spaniards
+welcomed the devoted champion of their privileges. Nevertheless in the
+minds of most there lurked an uneasy consciousness that all this was in
+fact flat treason against the lawful sovereign, and that no government
+could in the long run prevail without recognition from Madrid.
+
+The sea-captains to whose custody the blundering old viceroy had been
+entrusted did not know what to do with their embarrassing prisoner, and
+set him ashore at Tumbez, whence he proceeded to Quito to get help from
+the anti-Pizarro faction. The governor of southern Colombia joined him
+and he soon had five hundred men under his orders. Gonzalo flew to the
+point of danger; the viceroy retreated to Popayán, but being joined by
+more recruits, rashly returned to the neighbourhood of Quito to offer
+battle. He was defeated and killed; Pizarro went back to Lima, while his
+lieutenant, Carbajal, hunted down and put to death every loyalist who
+remained under arms in southern Peru.
+
+Gonzalo's administration lasted three years' and they were golden ones
+for the Spanish adventurers. The marvellous silver mines of Potosí and
+the gold washings of southern Ecuador were discovered. Encomiendas were
+lavishly granted; the Indians went back to their fields; the mining
+industry began that marvellous development which soon made Peru the
+treasure box of the world and Potosí a synonym for limitless wealth. But
+the dazzling sunlight of prosperity was dimmed by the shadow of
+Pizarro's scaffold slowly creeping across the Atlantic and down the
+coast. His chief lieutenants, knowing they had sinned past forgiveness,
+urged him to declare himself king of Peru, but he was at once too proud
+and too patriotic to fling away his right to die a loyal Spaniard.
+
+Philip, the leaden-eyed, close-mouthed despot, was regent of Spain.
+Bitterly chagrined that the stream of Peruvian gold had ceased to flow
+into the royal treasury, his vindictive heart held no mercy for the
+gallant soldier whose sword had helped win the riches now temporarily
+diverted. He selected a man after his own heart--Pedro de la Gasca, an
+ugly, deformed little priest, hypocritically humble, though astute and
+untiring, whose success as an inquisitor was a guarantee that he would
+be as pitilessly cruel as even Philip could wish. Gasca landed at Panama
+in the character of a modest ecclesiastic, a humble man of peace who had
+been commissioned to investigate the sad situation of Peru and
+re-establish peace. He said he would recommend the repeal of the
+obnoxious New Laws, and had authority to suspend them. Gonzalo refused
+to put his head into the noose and demanded substantial assurances. But
+many Peruvians were more easily beguiled, and welcomed the excuse to
+renew their allegiance to lawful authority. While Gasca remained at
+Panama, gathering troops from the neighbouring provinces, Pizarro's
+fleet deserted, leaving the coast open to attack. An advance guard came
+sailing down the coast, sending letters ashore at every port promising
+amnesty and rewards. Desertions were so numerous that Gonzalo was forced
+to give up the hope of defending Lima and retreated toward Arequipa.
+Gasca ascended to Jauja, while Pizarro's old enemies in the Titicacan
+region rose, gathered a thousand men, and sent word to Gasca that they
+could overwhelm without help the five hundred soldiers who remained
+faithful. But a Pizarro never waited to be attacked. By forced marches
+he crossed the dizzy pass where the Mollendo and Puno Railway now runs,
+and fell upon his enemies near the southern end of Lake Titicaca. Though
+outnumbered two to one, the superior discipline of his men, his
+admirable dispositions, Carbajal's skilful handling of the artillery,
+and his own cool and intrepid leadership of the cavalry charges, gave
+him a decisive though dearly bought victory.
+
+  [Illustration: LITTLE "INFERNILLO" BRIDGE ON THE OROYA RAILWAY.
+  ALTITUDE 10,924 FEET.]
+
+Meanwhile Gasca was coming up the road from Jauja to Cuzco, his army
+increasing by accessions from every direction until it numbered over two
+thousand. The wisest of Gonzalo's counsellors advised him to retire to
+southern Bolivia and make a defensive campaign in that remote region,
+but he preferred bold methods. For once, however, he could not inspire
+his men with his own confidence. They followed with heavy hearts his
+eager march against Gasca's overwhelming army. He drew them up for the
+attack and the battle was about to begin when, to his despair, he saw
+several captains desert to the enemy and his soldiers surrendering
+without a blow. Knowing that all was over, he turned to Juan Acosta, who
+rode at his side, saying, "What shall we do, brother Juan?" "Sir, let us
+charge them and die like Romans." "Better to die like Christians,"
+replied Pizarro, and he rode across the plain and gave himself up. The
+exulting priest grossly insulted the fallen warrior, and called a
+court-martial to condemn him and his captains to immediate execution.
+Though only forty-one years old when he went to the scaffold, Gonzalo
+had for sixteen years taken a leading part in nearly every one of the
+battles and expeditions of Peru, and is justly regarded as the best
+fighting man among the "conquistadores."
+
+The property of Pizarro's friends was confiscated; the prisons filled
+with wretched victims; many were put to death; many more mutilated or
+flogged; even the staunchest loyalists were not safe. Gasca evaded and
+delayed as long as possible the distribution of land-grants among those
+who had earned and been promised such rewards, and when he had to
+announce the list he sneaked to Lima by an unfrequented route in
+cowardly fear of his miserable life. He never dared to try to put the
+New Laws into effect, and when a peremptory order came from Spain that
+enforced Indian labour must cease, he kept it secret until he could
+resign the government to the royal judges, leaving instructions that it
+should be published immediately he was at sea.
+
+Peru was left in confusion. The prohibition of Indian slavery added to
+the dissatisfaction felt over Gasca's awards. The _ad interim_
+governments could make little progress in securing its enforcement.
+Rebellion after rebellion broke out, and civil war continued to desolate
+Peru, with a few intervals of quiescence during which the government
+allowed the proprietors to do as they pleased, until the arrival of the
+Marquis of Cañete, the "good viceroy," on the 29th of June, 1556.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE COLONIAL PERIOD
+
+
+The Spanish occupation of Peru was a conquest, not a colonisation. The
+narrow plateau from Colombia to Chile and the adjacent dry valleys on
+the Pacific and in north-western Argentina had been found fully
+populated by civilised races. The work of subjugating them was
+practically accomplished within eight or ten years after Pizarro landed
+in Ecuador, and this marvellous result was achieved by private
+adventurers who, though they held commissions from Madrid, really acted
+on their own responsibility. A very few appreciated the advisability of
+well treating the Indians and thereby preserving the effective
+industrial organisation, but the vast majority concerned themselves only
+with immediate profit. For eighteen years the original conquerors and
+the adventurers who followed in their track fought over the spoils. When
+the Marquis of Cañete was appointed viceroy he found eight thousand
+Spaniards in Peru alone, four hundred and eighty-nine of whom had grants
+of lands and Indians.
+
+We can never know the sufferings of the Indians during these civil
+wars. The chronicles tell us minutely the stories of the battles,
+marches, sieges, surprises, assassinations, and deeds of military
+prowess, but little of the destruction and abandonment of the irrigating
+canals and terraces, the ruin of the magnificent roads, the breaking up
+of the ancient socialistic system, the impressment of natives into the
+rebel bands, the death by exhaustion of thousands dragging artillery
+over the steep mountain paths, the starvation of whole villages robbed
+of their crops. But the sturdy physique of the Andean Indians and their
+perfect adaptation to the climatic conditions saved them from
+extermination. In the midst of the devil's dance of Spanish carnage, the
+Inca officers reported minutely the crops stolen or destroyed, and the
+deficiencies were made up as far as possible from the villages which had
+escaped for the time being.
+
+Naturally the Spanish government was anxious to put an end to such a
+state of affairs. Considerations of self-interest reinforced the
+eloquent indignation of Las Casas, but the New Laws could not be put
+into effect, notwithstanding the sentiment of fidelity to the Castilian
+king and the growth of considerable cities in which Spanish law and
+custom were dominant. The only real cities which the Incas had built
+were Cuzco in central Peru, Quito in Ecuador, and Charcas in Bolivia,
+and after the conquest they continued a village-dwelling people, but the
+Spaniards, true to the instinct inherited from Roman times, preferred to
+live in cities. Within a few years they had established municipalities
+not only at the three Inca capitals, but at Piura, Lima, Trujillo, Loja,
+La Paz, Guamanga, Jauja, and numerous other places.
+
+The enlightened advisers of Charles V. came to the conclusion that Peru
+could never become a loyal and profitable appanage of the Crown until
+freedom of action was granted to its government. Don Andres Hurtado de
+Mendoza, Marquis of Cañete, accepted the difficult post of viceroy. He
+was a scion of the noblest House of Spain, distinguished alike in arms
+and letters, capable and resolute, of mature years and wide experience.
+His salary was fixed at the then fabulous sum of forty thousand ducats
+in order to enable him to maintain regal state, and, accompanied by his
+vice-queen and an imposing retinue, he assumed power with ceremonial
+splendour. He prohibited further immigration from Spain and ordered that
+no Spaniard in Peru should leave his district without permission. Though
+the encomienderos were left in possession of their estates, they were
+made to understand that they must cease the more outrageous forms of
+oppressing the natives. He sent for the most notorious disturbers, and
+they came joyfully expecting to receive grants, but were summarily
+disarmed and banished. He employed the more adventurous in expeditions
+to the interior and in completing the conquest of Chile. All the
+artillery in the country was gathered under his eye, and the corregidors
+were required to dismiss most of their soldiery. Finally, the viceroy
+continued Pizarro's policy of founding cities into which were gathered
+the Spaniards who remained scattered over the country.
+
+He did much to alleviate the lot of the natives, though he dared not
+venture on giving them all the rights guaranteed by Spanish law. No
+efforts were spared to Hispaniolise the Inca nobles, and native chiefs
+who could prove their right by descent were formally allowed to exercise
+jurisdiction as magistrates. Even the rightful emperor, Sayri Tupac, who
+had maintained his independence in the wilds of Vilcabamba, was induced
+to swear allegiance and accept a pension and estates in the valley of
+Yucay. When the Inca had attested the documents by which he renounced
+his sovereignty, he lifted up the gilded fringe of the table-cloth,
+saying: "All this cloth and its fringe were mine, and now they give me a
+thread of it for my sustenance and that of all my house." Retiring to
+Yucay, he sank into a deep melancholy and died within two years.
+
+In the meantime Charles V. had been succeeded by Philip II. The Marquis
+of Cañete's liberal and enlightened policy did not wring money from the
+unhappy country fast enough to suit the greedy despot. He listened to
+the slanders against the "good viceroy" brought home by disappointed
+Spaniards, and Cañete's reward for five years of brilliant service was a
+recall. Only his death saved him from hearing with his own ears the
+reproaches of his ungrateful sovereign.
+
+Several years elapsed before Philip found a man who possessed the
+courage, capacity, mercilessness, and obstinacy to devise and apply a
+system which would make Peru a mere machine to produce gold and silver
+for the Spanish Crown. Such a one was Don Francisco de Toledo, a member
+of the same ancient house to which the Duke of Alva belonged. To him
+belongs the distinction of founding the infamous colonial system--the
+origin of the misery and disorder from which Spanish South America has
+suffered ever since, and a potent if not the principal cause of the
+decline of Spain herself and the loss of her magnificent colonial
+empire. Toledo reached Lima 1569, leaving Spain just after the news had
+been received that William the Silent and his Hollanders had risen in
+revolt against the cruelties of Alva and gained the victory of
+Gröningen.
+
+  [Illustration: PROMENADE OF THE ALAMEDA, LIMA.]
+
+The new viceroy first devoted himself to the destruction of the native
+dynasty. Sayri Tupac's younger brothers, Titu Yupanqui and Tupac Amaru,
+still roamed free in the forests of Vilcabamba. The Spaniards had
+hitherto not interfered with the Indians' celebrating their national
+festivals with the ancient solemnities, and Toledo came to Cuzco to be
+present at one which he had determined should be the last. As soon as it
+was over he sent for Titu to come in and take the oath of allegiance.
+Titu died of an illness, but the chiefs swore fealty to the boy Tupac
+Amaru, and refused to put him in the power of the Spaniards. The
+exasperated viceroy sent a force which captured the young emperor.
+Brought to Cuzco, Toledo ordered him to be decapitated, and the head was
+stuck upon a pike and set up beside the scaffold. One moonlight night a
+Spaniard went to the window of his bed-chamber, which overlooked the
+great square, and saw the whole vast space packed with a crowd of
+kneeling, silent people, their faces all turned to the Inca's grisly
+head; it was the Indians devoutly worshipping the last relic of their
+beloved and unfortunate sovereign. But there was no spirit left in them
+for rebellion--and no centre for them to rally around. Toledo's
+executions exterminated the leading Incas and half-castes; the
+celebration of Indian rites was forbidden, and everything which might
+remind the people of the fallen _régime_ destroyed or removed.
+
+Toledo's "Libro de Tasas," or code of regulations, is the basis of the
+system under which the Spanish colonies were governed for more than two
+centuries. The Spaniards were practically recognised as belonging to a
+privileged and governing caste. The country was divided into about
+fifty districts, called "corregimentos," each under the rule of a
+corregidor. This official was substantially absolute so far as the
+Indians were concerned, although an effort was made to keep up parts of
+the ancient Inca organisation, and in practice the hereditary village
+chiefs administered justice and exercised considerable power.
+
+Every male Indian between the ages of eighteen and fifty was compelled
+to pay a certain tribute or poll-tax, for whose collection their chiefs
+were responsible. About one-sixth of the Indians belonged to estates
+already granted, and these paid their tribute to the proprietors, the
+Crown deducting one-fifth. The other five-sixths paid directly to the
+representatives of the government. In consideration of this tribute,
+general and indiscriminate personal service was declared to be
+abolished, but the commutation was not in full. One-seventh of the
+Indians were required to work for their masters, and the wretched
+victims of this "mitta" were sent by their caciques to the nearest
+Spanish town, where they could be engaged by any one who required their
+services. But these were not all the burdens. The natives of the
+provinces near the mines were compelled to furnish the labour necessary
+to work them, and the poor creatures to whose lot it fell to go might
+never hope to return. Oppressive as was the letter of these laws, their
+practical application was made infinitely worse by evasions practised
+with the connivance of the corregidors. Hundreds of Indians were hunted
+down and carried away to work on farms and in factories under the
+pretext that the "mitta" returns had not been honestly made, and though
+the population decreased, the survivors were required to furnish the
+same number of victims every year.
+
+In spite of the slaughter during the civil wars, the Peruvian Indians
+numbered eight millions in 1575. Including the outlying provinces, the
+population of the Inca empire must have reached twenty millions in the
+heyday of its prosperity. Horrible as had been the decrease of the first
+forty years of Spanish domination, it was a trifle to that which
+followed the establishment of Toledo's system. In 1573 the impressment
+for the Potosí mines produced eleven thousand labourers; one hundred
+years later only sixteen hundred could be found. In the non-mining
+provinces the destruction was not so stupendous, but some encomiendas,
+originally containing a thousand adults, were reduced to a hundred
+within a century, and the miserable survivors were compelled to pay the
+same sum as had been assessed to their ancestors. The total population
+of Peru proper had fallen to less than a million and a half within two
+centuries and that of the whole empire to not more than four millions.
+So great had been the mortality among the feebler inhabitants of the
+warm coast valleys that they had practically died out, and their places
+were taken by negro slaves whose importation began shortly after the
+conquest.
+
+The Indians were the worst but not the only sufferers. The Creole
+descendants of the early Spanish settlers, though they nominally enjoyed
+the same rights as the later arrivals, in reality had small chance to
+participate in the offices and fat concessions. Each new viceroy brought
+a new swarm of needy noblemen, who regarded the Creoles with lofty
+disdain. Commerce except with Spain was forbidden, and even that was
+burdened with almost intolerable burdens. As time went on new taxes were
+devised until it seemed the deliberate purpose of the Spanish government
+to transfer all the gold and silver in Peru's mountains to the royal
+treasury. Not only were both imports and exports taxed, but also every
+pound of provisions sold in the markets and shops. One-fifth of the
+products of the mines and one-tenth of the crops went directly to the
+Crown. All kinds of businesses had to pay licences; quicksilver and
+tobacco were monopolies; and offices were regularly sold to the highest
+bidder.
+
+Nevertheless the Spanish occupation brought many incontestable benefits
+to South America. To say nothing of the civilised system of
+jurisprudence, the letters and the religion which have made the peoples
+of the continent members of the great western European family, the
+introduction of new and valuable animals, grains, and fruits raised the
+level of average well-being among the surviving inhabitants. Horses,
+asses, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, chickens, pigeons, wheat, barley,
+oats, rice, olives, grapes, oranges, sugar-cane, apples, peaches and
+related fruits, and even the banana and the cocoa palm were introduced
+by the Spaniards. In return Europe owes to Peru maize, potatoes,
+chocolate, tobacco, cassava, ipecacuanha, and quinine.
+
+Toledo had put his colonial system in full operation by 1580, and from
+that time to near the close of the Spanish epoch the story of Peru
+offers little of interest. Expansion ceased; the colonists made no
+effort to spread over the Amazon plain, or to prevent the Portuguese on
+the Atlantic coast from occupying the interior of the continent almost
+to the foot of the Andes. On the seacoast of Venezuela and the plains of
+the lower Plate the Spanish race still showed a scanty fraction of that
+vigour and enterprise which had enabled the early conquerors to spread
+over half the continent in a few short years, but in Peru, Ecuador, and
+Bolivia the country slowly decayed. Though the viceroys who followed
+each other in rapid succession were selected from among the greatest
+grandees of Spain, they were held to an increasingly rigid account, and
+the smallest concession to commerce or a failure to send home the utmost
+farthing which could be wrung from the people was severely and
+peremptorily punished. Their jurisdiction extended over all Spanish
+South America; the captains-general of New Granada, Venezuela, and
+Chile, the royal audience of Bolivia, the president of Ecuador, and the
+governors of Tucuman, Paraguay, and Buenos Aires being all nominally
+subject to their orders. But in practice these widely separated
+divisions of the continent were largely independent. Lima was, however,
+the political, commercial, and social centre of South America. To its
+port came from Panama the goods destined for Peru, Chile, Bolivia, and
+even Paraguay and Buenos Aires. Many of the viceroys were lovers of
+letters, and the university produced scholars and authors not unworthy
+comparison with those of the Old World. The continual influx of
+Spaniards of distinguished Castilian ancestry and gentle training made
+the language of even the common people singularly pure, and the sonorous
+elegance of the Spanish tongue as spoken during the classical period has
+been best preserved in the comparative isolation of Peru. The influence
+of the bishops and priests, the Jesuits and the Franciscans, was hardly
+inferior to that of the officials. The clergy controlled education;
+every village had its parish priest who compelled the Indians to go to
+mass and made them pay heavily for the privilege; the Inquisition was
+early introduced and performed its dreadful functions without let or
+hindrance.
+
+  [Illustration: GENERAL VIEW OF LIMA, SHOWING THE CATHEDRAL.]
+
+The regulations which attempted to confine the oppression of the Indians
+within bearable limits were persistently violated, not only by private
+individuals, but by the corregidors themselves. Kidnapping was reduced
+to a system, and often all the male adults of a village were dragged off
+to work in the mines, leaving only the women and children to till the
+fields. The corregidors went into partnership with merchants, and the
+poor Indians were compelled to purchase articles for which they had no
+use, and thrown into slavery to work out the debt if they failed to pay.
+The wiser viceroys did not waste their energies in vain efforts to
+mitigate the profitable abuses. They devoted their attention rather to
+the exaction of the last penny of taxes, to be spent in maintaining the
+horde of office-holders, or to be remitted to Spain. So rigidly was
+taxation enforced and so successful were the Spaniards in finding rich
+mines of silver, gold, and mercury, that early in the seventeenth
+century the revenue had reached the sum--enormous in those days of low
+prices--of nearly five hundred thousand pounds, of which about half was
+regularly sent to Madrid. Foreign nations could not effectively
+interfere with Spain's commercial and fiscal monopoly. The Isthmus was
+in her hands, and the voyage through Magellan's Straits or around Cape
+Horn was too stormy and uncertain for the slow, clumsy ships of that
+age, and only a few English and Dutch expeditions, half-trading,
+half-piratical, ravaged the coast towns in the seventeenth century.
+
+The most memorable event of Peru's history during the seventeenth
+century was the revelation of the sovereign virtues of quinine. The Lima
+physicians were unable to cure the Countess of Chinchon, the viceroy's
+wife, of a stubborn attack of malarial fever, but the rector of the
+Jesuit college had received some fragments of an unknown bark from a
+Jesuit missionary to whom they had been given by an Indian in the
+mountain wilds of southern Ecuador. Doses of this quickly restored the
+vice-queen, and when Linnæus named the world's plants in scientific
+order, he called the genus to which the tree belongs chinchona, from the
+viceroy, through whom its virtues had come to notice.
+
+The succession of the Bourbons to the Spanish Crown, at the beginning of
+the eighteenth century, brought about a considerable change of colonial
+policy. To England was conceded the privilege of exporting negroes to
+South America, and French vessels were permitted to come round the Horn
+and trade at Peruvian ports. The latter concession was soon revoked and
+the commerce of the Pacific coast again became a monopoly for the ring
+of merchants at Cadiz. The Atlantic, however, by this time swarmed with
+ships of all the European maritime Powers, and it was impossible to
+prevent smuggling at the Caribbean and Argentine ports. The Madrid
+government reluctantly came to the conclusion that it was impossible to
+administer effectually from Lima the provinces which were commercially
+tributary to the Caribbean Sea. In 1740 Bogotá, on the populous plateau
+of eastern New Granada, was made the capital of a new viceroyalty, under
+whose jurisdiction were placed the captaincy-general of Venezuela and
+the presidency of Quito. Buenos Aires was a resort for contraband
+traders under non-Spanish flags, and smuggling through that port so
+increased that goods coming from Spain by the Panama route were
+undersold in the markets of Argentina, Paraguay, Chile, Bolivia, and
+even Peru itself. In 1776 the southern Atlantic region was detached from
+Lima, and to the new viceroyalty of Buenos Aires were attached not only
+the Plate provinces--Buenos Aires and Paraguay--but also that part of
+Chile which lay east of the Andes, as well as Tucuman and the audiencia
+of Charcas as far north as Lake Titicaca. By these changes Peru was
+reduced to its present dimensions, except that Chile remained attached
+as a semi-independent captaincy-general.
+
+Three times since its foundation had Lima been nearly destroyed by
+earthquakes, but none of them was to be compared with the convulsion
+which in 1746 reduced the whole city to a shapeless mass of ruins. More
+than a thousand people perished; a great wave engulfed Callao, drowning
+half the population and carrying great ships far inland.
+
+The expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767 was effected without difficulty. In
+the neighbourhood of Lima alone they owned five thousand negro slaves
+and property to the value of two million dollars, and every penny of
+their immense accumulations was confiscated by the government.
+
+The great Indian rebellion which had so long been expected broke out in
+1780 under the leadership of Tupac Amaru, the lineal descendant of the
+last of the reigning Inca emperors. In Peru proper it did not spread
+beyond the southern frontier provinces and the story of its suppression
+belongs to Bolivia. The authorities were so alarmed that the reforms, to
+procure which Tupac had risked and lost his life, were shortly after
+voluntarily adopted. The vitality and fighting qualities of the
+half-breeds now stood revealed, and the Creoles, jealous of imported
+officials and dissatisfied at their exclusion from places of honour and
+profit, realised that a weapon lay ready to their hand when they should
+determine upon revolution.
+
+General Theodore de Croix, a Fleming, was entrusted with the
+reorganisation and reform made necessary by the Indian rebellion. The
+corregidors, petty tyrants over whom no effective control could be
+maintained, were abolished; the country was divided into a few great
+provinces, each ruled by an intendente to whom were responsible the
+subdelgados who had charge of local affairs, and measures were taken for
+the enforcement of the laws intended to protect the Indians.
+
+By the year 1790 these valuable reforms had been put into effect, but
+they came too late. Ideas of liberty had begun to infiltrate into the
+educated classes, and among the Creoles the abstract right of Peru to
+autonomous government became the subject of secret though widespread
+discussion. A succession of able and liberal viceroys, however, averted
+the danger for the time, and the outbreak of the revolution in the rest
+of South America found Peru ruled by Abascal, whose energy, foresight,
+and determination not only prevented an insurrection at Lima, but nearly
+saved all South America to Spain.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE WARS OF INDEPENDENCE
+
+
+The storm soon to burst over South America was gathering when Viceroy
+Abascal assumed the reins of power in 1806. He made no pretensions to
+statesmanship, but it did not escape his shrewd soldier's eye and common
+sense that French revolutionary ideas would soon make trouble. Her very
+existence threatened in the titan conflict then devastating Europe,
+Spain could not be relied upon to spare any of her soldiers to guard her
+colonies. He must take care of himself. Wasting no time in seeking to
+propitiate the revolutionary elements, he quietly set to work to
+organise and arm an efficient army while vigilantly watching the course
+of events.
+
+  [Illustration: BAKER ON HORSEBACK, LIMA.]
+
+Although less infected than any other province, being the one where the
+Spanish bureaucracy was most numerous and powerful, even in Peru Creole
+society was honeycombed with revolutionary sentiment. The plots to
+secure autonomy came to Abascal's notice, and with the first overt act
+he pounced upon the plotters. Two republican visionaries, named Ubaldo
+and Aguilar, were the first martyrs for liberty. A few learned and
+respected professors in Lima dared to speculate on the future of America
+as affected by recent events in Europe, but the viceroy summoned them to
+his presence and his stern warnings silenced them. Two young lawyers
+held evening parties where politics were discussed by the rising youth
+of the capital. One of the ringleaders was condemned to ten years'
+imprisonment and the other sent to Spain, while several more were
+shipped off to southern Chile. Although the liberals continued to meet
+and conspire, and the priests were particularly active, for the present
+nothing definite came of all this.
+
+Even the news of the deposition of the Spanish authorities at Quito, La
+Paz, and Charcas, in 1809, met with no response from the liberals at
+Lima. Abascal banished Riva Aguëro, their leader; his expeditions
+quickly suppressed the insurrections in Bolivia and Ecuador; and he
+redoubled his exertions to strengthen his army, recruiting among the
+Indians and half-breeds, and casting cannon. That his apprehensions were
+justified was proved by the events of the following year. In rapid
+succession Buenos Aires, northern New Granada, Caracas, and Santiago
+installed revolutionary juntas in place of the Spanish governors. The
+flames of revolution spread rapidly from these centres. Soon the Spanish
+officials were overthrown throughout Argentina, Chile, New Granada, and
+Venezuela; Bolivia and Ecuador were divided; and only Peru remained
+steady. But Abascal, resolute and unshaken, sent his armies against the
+triumphant revolutionists. The story of these campaigns is elsewhere
+told in connection with the countries where they were conducted. Though
+the patriots won some important victories, the loyal arms steadily
+advanced.
+
+The redemption of Ecuador, Chile, and Bolivia had been mainly achieved
+with the resources which Abascal had picked up in South America. Until
+1813 the people of the Peninsula were fighting desperately for national
+independence against the armies of the great Napoleon. No money or men
+could be spared for South America, and Abascal even managed to remit two
+million dollars to Spain in a single year--that of 1811. The armies with
+which his generals won their early victories were recruited almost
+entirely from the native population of Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador. In
+this struggle between Spaniard and Creole, the sturdy Indian of the
+plateau, who was dragged reluctant from his home, took no great
+interest, but any sympathy he felt was anti-Spanish. Nevertheless, so
+ingrained was the habit of obedience that when drilled and commanded by
+Spanish officers the half-breeds and Indians made excellent soldiers.
+During these six years, only one insurrection touched the territory of
+Peru proper. In 1814 the Indians of the Cuzco region rose under the
+leadership of one of their own caciques. The whole population of this,
+the most southern province of Peru, seems to have sympathised with the
+insurrection, and the same feeling extended over the Bolivian border.
+When Pumacagua, the Indian leader, advanced into Bolivia the people
+about La Paz joined him. But his army was an undisciplined, unarmed mob,
+only eight hundred of the twenty thousand who followed him possessing
+muskets. The Spanish general, Ramirez, hastened up from southern
+Bolivia; the Indians retreated over the Cordillera to Arequipa, where
+they were followed by the Spaniards. When Ramirez approached they again
+retired to the Bolivian plateau and the game of hide-and-seek ended with
+the horrible slaughter of Umachiri near Lake Titicaca.
+
+In 1816 Abascal thought that his work was virtually completed and that
+he had earned the right to retire. Resistance was confined to Buenos
+Aires, to the thinly populated provinces of Tucuman and Cuyo, and to the
+banks of the Orinoco. The Argentine revolutionists were fighting among
+themselves, and that they must succumb before an advance in force from
+the Bolivian plateau appeared certain. The last act of his
+administration was to send out a fleet that compelled four Argentine
+ships which Admiral William Brown had brought around the Horn to
+withdraw to the Atlantic. He was succeeded by General Pezuela, a
+strategist of no mean abilities, who had borne a brilliant part in the
+Bolivian campaigns. The new viceroy straightway set about final
+preparations for a decisive advance across the pampas to Buenos Aires,
+but like a thunderbolt from a clear sky came the news that San Martin
+had made a sudden descent on Chile and won the battle of Chacabuco,
+annihilating the Spanish forces in that country. Pezuela saw himself
+obliged to begin a war to reduce Chile to obedience--an undertaking sure
+to be long and arduous, and in which he must encounter a general whose
+technical mastery of the profession had enabled him to create an army
+equal in discipline and effectiveness to any the viceroy might hope to
+throw against him. Pezuela abandoned the idea of an immediate Argentine
+campaign, and contented himself with maintaining a defensive attitude
+on the Bolivian frontier. He managed to repulse the armies which the
+Buenos Aireans sent against Bolivia, but it was in vain that he poured
+into Chile all the troops he could possibly spare. They were overthrown
+and annihilated in the decisive battle of Maipo. The viceroy sent for
+help to Spain and New Granada, but Venezuela had risen in insurrection
+under Bolivar and Paez; and it was impossible to spare any considerable
+number of troops from the Caribbean.
+
+So long, however, as Spanish ships commanded the Pacific, Peru itself
+was safe from attack and the viceroy could securely await the arrival of
+reinforcements, and then attack Chile where he chose. Happily for the
+cause of South American independence, the war-ship of the beginning of
+the nineteenth century was not the expensive, complicated, slow-built
+machine it has since become. San Martin subordinated everything to the
+creation of a fleet. He forced the Argentine and Chilean governments to
+furnish him money, and his agents hastened to Europe and North America
+to buy ships and engage British and American captains. The Spaniards had
+four frigates and thirteen smaller ships, mounting in all three hundred
+and thirty guns, while San Martin was able to improvise only three
+frigates and as many brigs, mounting about one hundred and eighty
+cannon. This disparity of force was more than made up by the superior
+skill and experience of the foreign seamen. His admiral was Lord
+Cochrane, a Scotchman of noble family, but radical principles and
+adventurous disposition. A daring and reckless fighter, inventive and
+fertile in resource, he excelled in leading cutting-out expeditions and
+surprises. His marvellous activity and the capture by Blanco Encalada of
+their largest frigate dismayed the Spanish captains. When Cochrane
+sailed up the coast he found the Spaniards huddled under the guns of
+Callao castle. Returning to Valparaiso, he reported to San Martin that
+he could guarantee the unmolested transport of an army to any point on
+the Peruvian coast, and again sailed away for Callao. Though his attempt
+to destroy the Spaniards with fire-ships and rockets was unsuccessful,
+he captured and sacked several towns and terrorised the Spanish
+authorities all along the coast. San Martin after many disappointments
+and interruptions succeeded in preparing an army of invasion. For ten
+years war had desolated every other part of Spanish South America, while
+Peru had remained untouched. At length the conflict was to be
+transferred to the very centre of Spanish power.
+
+On September 7, 1820, Lord Cochrane's fleet dropped anchor in a bay near
+Pisco, one hundred and fifty miles south of Lima. San Martin's army,
+numbering four thousand five hundred Argentines and Chileans,
+disembarked without opposition and occupied the fertile, vine-covered
+valleys. To undertake a campaign for the conquest of Peru with such a
+force seemed absurd. The viceroy's troops were five times as numerous;
+at Lima alone he had nearly nine thousand men; as many more were
+quartered at Cuzco, Jauja, and Arequipa, besides the six thousand
+veterans who guarded the Bolivian frontier against an invasion from
+Buenos Aires. The contest was, however, really not so unequal as it
+appeared. The Spanish armies were made up of native Peruvians and
+Bolivians, with some Venezuelans; sympathisers with the patriot cause
+swarmed in their ranks; many were waiting an opportunity to desert; the
+viceroy had little control over his generals, and the arrival of the
+Argentine army stimulated the activity of the patriot societies in the
+Peruvian cities.
+
+From Pisco San Martin detached a force of twelve hundred men under the
+command of General Arenales, which ascended the Cordillera, roused the
+population of the plateaux immediately back of Lima, and defeated a
+detachment under General O'Reilly near Cerro de Pasco. The Indians rose,
+but when the Spaniards came up in force Arenales retired to the coast,
+leaving his allies to be mercilessly slaughtered. Meanwhile San Martin
+with the main body had taken ship at Pisco and, sailing north, landed at
+Huacho, seventy miles beyond the capital. His three thousand men could
+not hope to succeed in a direct attack on the city, defended by thrice
+that number of disciplined troops. On the other hand, the Spanish army
+was shut off from the sea; its base was now far back in the interior;
+its line of communication might be cut at any moment by other
+expeditions like that of Arenales. Lima and the coast towns were
+decidedly disaffected. San Martin's plan was to wait patiently until a
+rising should compel the Spaniards to retire to the interior, and then
+to organise the country and gather an army for the final campaign on the
+plateau. He kept, therefore, at a safe distance from the Spaniards; sent
+out detachments which scoured the country up to the walls of Lima; and
+entered into communication with the conspirators in the city. Crowds of
+young enthusiasts hastened out to join him; Cochrane daringly cut out
+the frigate _Esmeralda_ under the very guns of Callao castle; an
+expedition sent to Tacna, on the extreme southern coast, was
+enthusiastically received; and numerous desertions from the Spanish army
+culminated in a battalion of Venezuelans coming over in a body. The
+viceroy was sorely puzzled. He hesitated to send his army to attack San
+Martin, fearing an insurrection or surprise during his absence, and
+knowing that defeat meant irretrievable ruin. Really only two courses of
+action lay open to the Spaniards--they must either fight San Martin, and
+the sooner the better, for he was becoming stronger every day--or they
+must abandon Lima and concentrate on their base in the mountains. The
+viceroy could not make up his mind to abandon the ancient capital, and
+he was reluctant to expose his family to the hardships of a guerilla
+warfare in the mountains.
+
+  [Illustration: THE MOLE AND HARBOUR OF CALLAO.]
+
+San Martin drew closer and closer, the attitude of the Lima liberals
+became more and more threatening, and still Pezuela made no move. News
+came of the revolution in Spain and of the overthrow of absolutism, and
+all the principal commanders united in demanding his resignation. He had
+no alternative, and retired to Spain, while the generals selected one
+of their number, La Serna, to succeed him. The new viceroy entered into
+negotiations looking toward an amicable accommodation of the whole
+question at issue between Spain and her colonies. The Argentine was
+nothing loath, well knowing that every month strengthened the patriot
+feeling among the coast Peruvians and brought him nearer his goal. San
+Martin proposed that South America become a constitutional monarchy and
+accept a Bourbon prince as its king in return for a recognition of its
+independence--a concession which even the revolutionary Spanish
+government could not confirm. The suggestion reflects little credit upon
+the political acumen of the great Argentine general. San Martin, in
+fact, seems never to have appreciated the motives and instincts which
+had pushed the Creoles into rebellion. The revolutionary movement in
+South America was in its essence separatist and republican; no monarch,
+whether the scion of a European House, or a Bolivar trying to play the
+rôle of a Napoleon, could ever have kept the Spanish colonies together.
+
+The first six months of 1821 were consumed in these fruitless
+negotiations, and by this time the position of the Spaniards at Lima had
+become untenable. It was necessary for them to retire to the plateau,
+where the sturdy natives furnished a supply of excellent recruits and
+the mines, fields, and pastures would maintain an army. On July 6, 1821,
+La Serna evacuated the capital and retired to Jauja, leaving a
+well-provisioned garrison at Callao against the hoped-for arrival of a
+fleet from Spain. Even then a dozen well-fought frigates might have
+undone all San Martin's work and changed the fate of South America.
+Three days later the Argentine general entered the city, and on the 28th
+of July, 1821, Peru was proclaimed an independent republic, with San
+Martin as temporary dictator under the title of Protector. During the
+rest of the year he was occupied with trying to secure the adhesion of
+the whole coast, and made no effort to undertake the redemption of the
+interior. When the Frenchman Canterac, the most enterprising of the
+Spanish commanders, made a descent on Lima, San Martin merely maintained
+the defence, being well assured that the enemy must soon retire on
+account of want of provisions. But he found himself hampered in
+consolidating coast Peru by the fact that he was a foreigner. The
+Peruvians were jealous and suspicious, and he feared that troops
+recruited among them might turn their arms against him, while his
+Argentine officers regarded the country as their own property, and
+monopolised the positions of honour and profit to which the Peruvians
+thought themselves more justly entitled.
+
+Matters remained virtually at a standstill until the summer of 1822. San
+Martin had been unable to make his position stable enough to justify his
+devoting himself to military operations, nor had he succeeded in
+gathering and equipping an army with which he was willing to undertake a
+decisive campaign. Canterac even took the offensive, although he made no
+effort to re-occupy permanently the coast plain. Outside help was
+necessary, and San Martin, despairing of obtaining it from Chile or the
+Argentine, turned his eyes to the north. Bolivar's battles of Boyacá and
+Carabobo had redeemed northern Granada and Venezuela in 1819 and 1821,
+and he was now advancing toward Quito to complete the expulsion of the
+Spaniards from that viceroyalty. With a force of Colombians Sucré went
+to Guayaquil by sea and climbed to the Ecuador plateau. Defeated and
+driven back on his first attempt, he was reinforced by a division sent
+by San Martin, and renewed the effort with better success. Although
+Bolivar had in the meantime been checked in his southward march on Quito
+by the loyalists of southern Colombia, Sucré alone destroyed the Spanish
+army which had held Ecuador for so many years. The battle of Pichincha,
+fought in May, 1822, left Bolivar and Sucré free to employ their
+numerous and well-disciplined troops in completing the liberation of
+Peru and Bolivia.
+
+  [Illustration: CHURCH OF SAN FRANCISCO IN LIMA.]
+
+Bolivar joined his victorious lieutenant at Quito, incorporated Ecuador
+with his new republic of Colombia, and proceeded overland to Guayaquil,
+where San Martin lost no time in going to meet him for a conference. The
+Argentine expected to find as unselfish a patriot as himself, but the
+"liberator" was not single-minded. He had formed plans for his own glory
+and aggrandisement to the accomplishment of which San Martin might be an
+obstacle. When the latter broached the subject of a joint campaign
+against the Spaniards in Peru and Bolivia, Bolivar gave him no
+satisfaction, and evaded the Argentine's noble offer to serve in a
+subordinate capacity. The silent soldier made no protest and uttered
+no reproaches. Confiding not even in his closest friends, he calmly
+considered his plight on his way back to Lima. His situation in Peru,
+bad already, would be made ten times worse by Bolivar's intrigues.
+Seeing that he could be of no further service to the cause of South
+American independence, he formally resigned his authority to a national
+congress, deliberately sacrificing his own future for the cause he
+loved, but leaving behind him a name untarnished by any suspicion of
+self-seeking or personal ambition.
+
+Bolivar waited in vain for the expected invitation to come with his
+veterans. The leaders in Peru did not propose to jeopard their own
+supremacy. They thought they were strong enough to whip the Spaniards by
+themselves, and made great efforts to drill and equip an efficient army.
+By the end of the year four thousand men under the command of Alvarado
+were sent to the southern coast to make an attempt to reach Lake
+Titicaca and thereby get between the Spanish armies. It failed before
+the astonishing energy of the Spanish general, Valdez, who by forced
+marches reached the pass which the Peruvians were trying to climb, and
+taking up a strong position, beat them back with great slaughter.
+Alvarado retreated, but was caught by Valdez and completely routed;
+hardly a third of the army escaped to the seashore. The news of this
+defeat brought about a change of government at Lima. A revolution,
+headed by the principal officers, made Riva Aguëro, the leader of the
+Peruvian liberals, president, while General Santa Cruz, a Bolivian,
+received chief command of the forces, in place of Arenales. Word was
+sent to Bolivar that his offer of help would be accepted; and another
+Peruvian army was recruited. Before the six thousand men promised by
+Bolivar had arrived, the Peruvians had regained confidence. With the aid
+of a London loan, the patriots got seven thousand soldiers ready for
+service, and in May, 1823, five thousand men under the command of Santa
+Cruz sailed from Callao for southern Peru. This time they advanced so
+promptly that the Spanish generals could not get to the passes in time
+to dispute the way. Santa Cruz entered La Paz and defeated the first
+army which came against him. But the two main Spanish bodies hastened up
+from Cuzco and Charcas, outmanoeuvred Santa Cruz, united their forces,
+and routed his army in a panic, not a fourth ever reaching the seaboard.
+
+Shortly after Santa Cruz's departure on this ill-fated expedition, Sucré
+arrived at Lima with the first instalment of the promised Colombian
+auxiliaries. The Spanish general, Canterac, had concentrated a large
+army at Jauja and descended on the capital; Lima was denuded of Peruvian
+troops; the government helpless against the Spaniards or Sucré. The
+Colombian was made commander-in-chief, and retiring to the
+fortifications of Callao before Canterac's overwhelming numbers,
+procured Riva Aguëro's deposition and the nomination of one of his own
+tools as nominal president, while he sent off an urgent message to
+Bolivar to come in person. Canterac, after holding Lima for a few weeks,
+went back to the mountains, and Bolivar himself landed at Callao on the
+1st of September, almost at the very moment when Santa Cruz's army was
+getting involved in that snarl out of which it never extricated itself.
+The news of its destruction left Bolivar undisputed master of the
+situation, and in February the submissive rump of the Peruvian
+parliament conferred upon him an absolute dictatorship. He now devoted
+all the wonderful energy with which nature had endowed him to
+preparation for a campaign which he meant to be final; and united ten
+thousand men under his command, two-thirds of whom were Colombian
+veterans and the rest Peruvians, Argentines, and Chileans who fought for
+the sheer love of fighting. His officers were the pick of South America,
+men who had proven their bravery and skill on all the hundred
+battle-fields from Venezuela to Chile. With such a force he did not
+hesitate to attack the Spaniards, although the latter were nearly twice
+as numerous.
+
+Suddenly, however, his plans were seriously disturbed by a revolt of the
+garrison in Callao castle--Argentines and Chileans who had not received
+their pay. The mutineers hoisted the Spanish flag and sent word to
+Canterac that he might come in and take possession. This event produced
+a great sensation at Lima. Many citizens who distrusted Bolivar or were
+fearful of the final result vacillated in their allegiance. Even men who
+had been prominent liberals went over to the royalists. Bolivar
+abandoned the capital and removed his base of operations to Trujillo,
+three hundred miles north. But discouragement gave place to confident
+enthusiasm when news came that the Spanish generals were fighting among
+themselves. Olañeta, the renegade Argentine, who commanded in Bolivia,
+had quarrelled with La Serna, whom he regarded as a pestilent liberal
+and an enemy of the absolute pretensions of the Spanish king. The
+viceroy sent Valdez against him, and some hard fighting had taken place,
+when this fratricidal war was interrupted by the news of Bolivar's
+preparations.
+
+  [Illustration: MILK-WOMAN OF LIMA ON HORSEBACK.]
+
+Though just recovering from a dangerous illness, Bolivar lost no time in
+taking advantage of Olañeta's revolt. His army numbered nine thousand
+men; it was well supplied with cavalry, and the troops received their
+liberal pay punctually. The patriots advanced rapidly and unopposed over
+the Maritime Cordillera, covered by a cloud of Peruvian guerillas, under
+whose protection Sucré marked out the daily route and brought in
+provisions. The city of Pasco, just south of that transverse range which
+forms the northern limit of the great Peruvian plateau, was reached and
+Bolivar's army hastened south along the western shore of the lake of
+Reyes to the marshy plain of Junin at its southern end, where he met
+Canterac hurrying up from Jauja with a slightly inferior force.
+
+When Bolivar caught sight of the royalist army he held his infantry back
+in a defensible position, and sent his cavalry toward the enemy.
+Canterac rashly charged in person at the head of all his cavalry, but
+instead of the easy victory he expected, his squadrons were thrown into
+some disorder when they encountered the patriot lancers. The latter,
+however, were compelled to retreat, and fled into a defile, followed by
+the royalists. The royalists did not notice that a Peruvian squadron had
+been drawn aside, and scarcely were they in the defile than they were
+charged from the rear. The fugitive patriots in front rallied, and the
+disordered and huddled royalists, caught between two fires, could make
+no effective resistance. They were quickly cut to pieces and driven from
+the field. The whole affair had not lasted three-quarters of an hour;
+the numbers engaged did not much exceed two thousand; the royalist loss
+was only two hundred and fifty, yet this battle of Junin produced almost
+decisive results. As the fugitive cavalry rode up to the protection of
+the muskets of the infantry, the latter retreated. Though Canterac was
+not pursued, he did not stop in his precipitate flight until he had
+nearly reached Cuzco, five hundred miles away, losing two thousand men
+by desertion on the road.
+
+Leaving Sucré in command of the army, which now threatened Cuzco itself,
+Bolivar returned to Lima to look after his political interests, collect
+money, and urge the sending of reinforcements from Colombia. La Serna
+called in all his outlying divisions, while Sucré confidently scattered
+his forces. He underestimated the strength of the royalists, for to his
+consternation La Serna suddenly broke out of Cuzco at the head of ten
+thousand men, and before Sucré could concentrate, his opponent was
+threatening his rear and manoeuvring to cut him off from his base.
+Happily, the royalists were compelled to march in a semicircle, and
+Sucré, by desperate exertions, united his forces and cut along the
+radius, coming in sight of La Serna just as the latter had succeeded in
+getting between him and the road to Jauja. Sucré's position was
+desperate. The valleys to the north were rising in favour of the
+royalists; a patriot column advancing from that direction to reinforce
+him was driven back; his provisions and ammunition were beginning to
+fail. Sucré's army was La Serna's real objective. Even if he could
+shake off the pursuit, another march to Lima would be as barren of
+results as Canterac's last descent, and to leave the Colombian army at
+Guamanga would expose Cuzco and Bolivia to invasion. During three days
+the opposing armies marched and counter-marched among the ravines on the
+west bank of the Pampas River, and finally Sucré took the desperate
+resolution of crossing the deep gorge in which the river runs in order
+to reach the high grounds on the other side. He managed to get his main
+body over safely, but the Spaniards fell upon his rearguard, killing
+four hundred men and capturing one of his two cannon. The two armies
+were now opposite each other on the high, narrow, and broken plateau
+which lies between the Eastern and Central Cordilleras, separated only
+by the gorge of the Pampas. They marched in plain sight of each other,
+the royalists along the slopes of the Central Cordillera, while the
+patriots skirted the foothills of the Eastern. Sucré hoped to outrun the
+enemy and reach the main road to Jauja, but La Serna again outflanked
+him; he offered battle, but the viceroy had determined to engage under
+conditions where not a patriot could escape, and by skilful manoeuvres
+the royal army succeeded in getting into the protection of the eastern
+range at a point north of Sucré. Irretrievably cut off from the Jauja
+road, convinced by his previous failures that he could not better his
+position by any further manoeuvres, the Colombian general resolved again
+to offer battle, although this time upon a field chosen by La Serna. He
+ceased marching and allowed the enemy to dispose their forces at will.
+
+On the 8th of September, 1824, La Serna's army, numbering eight thousand
+five hundred men--of whom only five hundred were Spaniards--encamped on
+the high grounds overlooking the little plain of Ayacucho, which sloped
+gently eastward to the little village of Quinua. To the left the level
+ground was bounded by a deep and precipitate ravine, and on the right by
+a valley which, though less difficult, was impracticable for fighting.
+Sucré's army lay at the eastern extremity of the plain, at the edge of
+the slope which rises from Quinua. Behind was no cover to re-form in if
+defeated. His forces were a little less than six thousand, and he had
+only one cannon against the enemy's eleven, but three-fourths of his men
+were the pick of the Colombian veterans and the rest Peruvians of the
+highest spirit. Tired of interminable marching through the mountains,
+isolated in a hostile region, starvation staring them in the face,
+confident of their superiority, man for man, to the royalists, and led
+by fiery young generals,--Sucré was only thirty-one and his chief
+lieutenant twenty-five,--they welcomed the opportunity to fight it out
+once for all, face to face and man to man.
+
+The morning sun of the 9th rose radiant behind the mountains where the
+Spaniards lay encamped. Sucré deployed his army in the open plain,
+riding down the line exclaiming, "Soldiers, on your deeds this day
+depends the fate of South America," while the Spanish columns descended
+in perfect order from the heights. La Serna realised that his men would
+not fight with the same spirit as the patriots and that defeat might be
+followed by wholesale desertion, but he counted on his artillery and the
+reserve he had left on the high ground as a sure refuge in case of a
+reverse.
+
+The story of the battle is soon told. The patriots advanced to meet the
+Spanish attack; musketry volleys on both sides did terrific execution,
+and the two armies met bayonet in hand. On the left the Spanish columns
+were unable to make any impression on the Colombian infantry, and while
+the conflict was still undecided the royalist cavalry rashly charged,
+hoping to strike a deciding blow. But they were met by a counter-charge
+of the patriot squadrons and rolled back in defeat. The whole left of
+the royalist army dispersed, and such was the confusion that the
+impetuously pursuing Colombians reached the Spanish camp and spiked the
+artillery, defeating on their way the enemy's centre. In the meantime
+the Spanish right under Valdez had outflanked the Peruvians who held
+that part of the line and driven them back, but before he could reach
+the patriot centre the battle had been decided. Attacked by the
+victorious cavalry, Valdez's men were cut to pieces, and by one o'clock
+in the after noon the Spanish army, except the reserve under Canterac,
+had ceased to exist as an organised body. Of the royalists fourteen
+hundred were dead and seven hundred wounded, while the patriots had lost
+six hundred wounded and three hundred dead. The viceroy was wounded and
+a prisoner, his men deserting and dispersing by hundreds. Canterac sued
+for terms, and that afternoon fourteen generals, five hundred and
+sixty-eight officers, and three thousand two hundred privates became
+prisoners of war. Never was a victory more complete and decisive than
+Ayacucho. The war for independence was over. Only under Olañeta in far
+southern Bolivia and at Callao castle did a Spaniard remain under arms.
+Sucré marched to Cuzco, where he rested and refitted and then went on to
+Puno and La Paz. Olañeta's troops deserted as the Colombian approached,
+and the last of the Spanish generals fell at the hands of his own men as
+he was bravely trying to suppress a mutiny. Callao castle held out for
+thirteen months, and with its surrender was hauled down the last Spanish
+ensign which floated on the South American mainland.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+FROM INDEPENDENCE TO THE CHILEAN WAR
+
+
+If ever country began an independent existence without any basis for a
+strong, ordered, and stable government, that country was the Peru of
+1826. The interior inhabited by Indians long held in abject subjection
+by the Spanish generals, the long strip of coast divided by local and
+factional jealousies, the nation had already miserably failed to unite
+in face of defeats suffered from the Spaniards, or of the military
+preponderance first of the Argentines and then of the Colombians.
+
+In 1825 all thought of open resistance to Bolivar was manifest folly.
+Peru was his to do with as he pleased. He went through the farce of
+summoning a congress and offering to resign his dictatorship, but with
+thousands of Colombian troops encamped at Lima, it was natural that he
+should be begged to retain the direction of affairs on his own terms.
+The "liberator" devoted all his energies to laying the foundations for a
+great military confederation with himself as its life head. Venezuela,
+New Granada, and Ecuador were already united under the name of the
+United States of Colombia, of which he was president. He hoped to make
+his tenure permanent by imposing an aristocratic and centralising
+constitution providing for a life president. The submissive Peruvian
+congress agreed to adopt his system, and the dictator set out on a
+triumphal tour to put it in application in upper Peru. Travelling along
+the coast to Arequipa, he crossed the Cordillera to La Paz, and thence
+proceeded over the Titicacan plateau to Charcas and Potosí. There he
+created a new nation which, in his honour, was named Bolivia; wrote its
+Constitution with his own hand; and, having installed Sucré as life
+president, returned to Lima at the beginning of 1826.
+
+Apparently Bolivar's system was dominant from the Caribbean to the
+Argentine pampas, and he regarded himself as certain soon to be virtual
+emperor of all South America. But the instinct of local pride was
+growing; the signs of Peru's wish to be rid of him could not be ignored,
+and the new congress he had summoned was abruptly dismissed. In
+September the news of disturbances in Venezuela, which foreshadowed the
+breaking up of Colombia, made it necessary for Bolivar to hasten north.
+He left General Lara at Lima, but that officer failed to keep the unruly
+mercenaries upon whom his power depended in good humour. A mutiny broke
+out; Lara was arrested and deported, and the mutineers entered into
+negotiations with the Peruvian leaders. The money demanded was soon
+raised and the Colombian soldiers shortly embarked, leaving the field
+free for the local chiefs to fight among themselves for supreme power.
+General Santa Cruz, though by birth a Bolivian, had great influence
+anions the few Peruvian troops, and tried to forestall his competitors
+by seizing the direction of affairs and summoning a congress, but
+General La Mar, himself born at Cuenca in Ecuador, was stronger. The
+latter secured the selection of his friends, and when congress met he
+had a two-thirds majority and became president. So long as Sucré
+remained in control of Bolivia there could, however, be no certainty
+that Colombian rule might not be re-established, but he was already in
+trouble on account of the mutinous disposition of his troops. When the
+Peruvians sent against him a hastily gathered force he was compelled to
+withdraw, the Bolivarian Constitution was abolished, and Santa Cruz made
+himself supreme in Bolivia.
+
+  [Illustration: VILLAGE OF CHICLAY ON THE OROYA RAILWAY, 12,200 FEET
+  ABOVE THE SEA.]
+
+Encouraged by this success, La Mar determined to wrest Guayaquil and
+Cuenca from Colombia. Bolivar, already furious over the defection of
+Peru and Bolivia, made a formal declaration of war, although he was too
+much occupied with his own troubles in New Granada and Venezuela to go
+in person to the frontier. General Flores, whom he had put in charge of
+Ecuador, made preparations to resist La Mar, Sucré came to direct the
+operations, a Peruvian naval expedition captured Guayaquil, and La Mar's
+main army of four thousand men occupied the province of Loja and
+penetrated within forty miles of Cuenca, only to be defeated. The
+Peruvian president signed a treaty giving up his conquests, but he was
+no sooner safe in his own country than he repudiated it and refused to
+surrender Guayaquil. His defeat had, however, cost him his prestige at
+home, and one of his generals, Gamarra, revolted and declared himself
+dictator.
+
+Gamarra had been chief of staff at Ayacucho; he was a good soldier, but,
+like most of his companions, had no conception of constitutional
+government, and thought the men whose bravery had redeemed Peru from the
+Spaniards' _ipso facto_ entitled to govern. Force was the only method he
+knew to secure obedience, and under his administration taxes were
+arbitrarily increased, citizens exiled without trial, and the country
+virtually governed by martial law. Until the last year of his
+administration Gamarra held the country fairly quiet, but as the end of
+his legal term in 1833 approached, the question of the succession
+plunged Peru into an indescribable anarchy. Gamarra's enemies got
+control of the assembly called to frame a permanent Constitution and
+illegally named a president, while Gamarra proclaimed one of his own
+partisans. Every military chief who could command the support of a few
+soldiers acted on his own responsibility. Dictators and _soi-disant_
+presidents were put up and pulled down one after another in a
+bewildering succession. Orbegoso, La Fuente, Vista Florida, Nieto, San
+Roman, Vidal, Gamarra, and Salaverry were each proclaimed supreme within
+the next year. Combinations of the different chiefs formed, dissolved,
+and re-formed with perplexing rapidity. Two bands would fight a bloody
+battle one day and the next would fall into each other's arms and swear
+eternal friendship.
+
+Salaverry, a chief only thirty years old and remarkable for his dash and
+energy, succeeded in establishing himself pretty firmly at Lima, while
+Gamarra held Cuzco. Orbegoso, who had received a majority of votes in
+congress, entered into negotiations with Santa Cruz, the strong dictator
+of Bolivia, agreeing to everything to get help against Salaverry and
+Gamarra. The wily Bolivian had planned to divide Peru and unite the
+fragments with Bolivia into a confederation. At the head of five
+thousand men he advanced on Cuzco and wiped out Gamarra. The fiery
+Salaverry did not wait to be trapped at Lima, but left the capital with
+his whole force and hastened south. Not daring to attack Santa Cruz's
+vastly superior army, he slipped around to Arequipa, laying that unhappy
+town under contribution and impressing its citizens into his army. The
+Bolivians followed; he evacuated Arequipa, and evaded them for a time,
+but they finally caught him as he was making a daring attempt to cut
+their line of communication. His army was dispersed and destroyed and he
+and his principal officers were taken prisoners and mercilessly shot.
+
+It seemed as if Peru might now, under the strong rule of Santa Cruz,
+enjoy the peace and order with which he had blessed Bolivia. The country
+was partitioned, Orbegoso becoming sub-president of North Peru, which
+included Lima, and General Herrera of South Peru. Santa Cruz was
+proclaimed protector of the Peru-Bolivian confederation and the new
+government formally inaugurated in the fall of 1836. He was an able and
+laborious administrator, zealous for economy and purity in public
+affairs, a friend of orderly government, a ruler who knew how to
+organise an efficient army while maintaining it in due subordination.
+But from the beginning it was evident that he held supremacy by a very
+uncertain tenure. The Peruvian military classes, so long and so
+absolutely dominant, were unanimously against him and his methods. The
+mercantile, professional, and moneyed classes were bound by a hundred
+ties to the officers, and the agricultural peasantry, composed of
+Indians and negroes, took no part in public affairs. Sooner or later he
+must have come again into conflict with men of the Gamarra-Salaverry
+type, but the immediate peril was from Chile, whose power and
+energy--great even then, but so far unknown and underestimated--were
+thrown into the balance against him. The civil war of 1831 had resulted
+in the defeat of the Chilean liberals, and Freire, their leader, had
+fled to Peru and there received aid and comfort. The Chilean
+remonstrances remained unnoticed, and Santa Cruz's commercial policy was
+adverse. The defeated Peruvian generals swarmed into Chile and promised
+to aid an invasion.
+
+The Chilean aristocracy could not resist this temptation to make their
+country the dominant power on the Pacific coast, and without any warning
+their ships sailed up from Valparaiso and captured the Peruvian fleet at
+Callao. This left the way clear to land troops on the Bolivian or
+Peruvian coasts. The first expedition went against the province of
+Arequipa. It landed without resistance and climbed to the city, while
+Santa Cruz's army maintained a defensive attitude. Lack of provisions
+soon compelled the Chilean general to promise that the war should not be
+renewed if he were allowed to depart. His government refused to ratify
+this agreement, and sent another expedition to the neighbourhood of
+Lima, which was accompanied by Gamarra and a large number of Peruvian
+exiles. Orbegoso declared his independence of Santa Cruz and gave
+battle to the Chileans on his own responsibility, but was defeated and
+fled to Guayaquil.
+
+A year elapsed before Santa Cruz could march an adequate army to the
+neighbourhood of Lima. As he approached, Gamarra and the Chileans
+evacuated the capital, retiring up the coast, whither the Bolivians
+followed. Repulsed in an attack on the rearguard of the fleeing allies,
+and feeling that he could not rely upon the Peruvians in his army, he
+took the defensive and posted his forces near the town of Yungay,
+occupying a hill called the Sugar Loaf. The allies stormed this hill by
+a brilliant assault in which they suffered greatly, but their unexpected
+success completely demoralised Santa Cruz's army. His men scattered in
+all directions, and though he escaped with his life, his prestige was
+destroyed. Gamarra became president of Peru, Bolivia revolted, and Santa
+Cruz made his way to a European exile.
+
+During two years Gamarra kept his turbulent rivals in check, but he then
+rashly undertook a campaign against Bolivia, giving as a pretext the
+refusal of its government to expel the old adherents of Santa Cruz. The
+Peruvian army advanced into Bolivian territory, only to be overthrown in
+the bloody battle of Yngavi. Gamarra was killed and his best officers
+taken prisoners. The Bolivians made a counter-invasion, but a treaty of
+peace was soon signed. The removal of the common danger was the starting
+signal for a race to power among the Peruvian generals. Each of them had
+raised troops on his own account and now proposed to use them for his
+own benefit. They ignored the claims of Gamarra's constitutional
+successor. La Fuente, Vivanco, and Vidal formed an alliance and
+proclaimed the latter dictator; Torico seized Lima and declared himself
+supreme chief; Vidal hastened down from Guamanga and defeated him; then
+Vivanco rebelled against Vidal and in his turn descended on the capital.
+
+Twenty years of independence had brought Peru no nearer a stable
+government. Anarchy and civil war had been her lot, and the situation
+seemed to grow more desperate year by year. The country's only hope was
+a man in whom military talent would be combined with such strength of
+will and pertinacity of purpose that he would crush out lesser despots
+and restore and maintain order by the strong hand.
+
+  [Illustration: DON RAMON CASTILLA]
+
+The Porfirio Diaz of Peru was at hand, a little, quiet, rough, and
+unpretentious soldier, who for twenty years had been modestly doing his
+duty, observing events and slowly maturing in character. All Peruvians
+knew him as one of the heroes of Ayacucho, but none appreciated his
+latent possibilities, and he had been passed by while his more showy
+companions of that historic day had pushed themselves to the front.
+Ramon Castilla had been a colonel on Gamarra's staff at Ayacucho,
+and was rewarded by being appointed prefect of his native
+province--Tarapaca, the most southern part of Peru. About 1830 he began
+to take part in the civil wars, but he never started a revolution on his
+own account, and always seems to have chosen the side that best promised
+stability and respect for the Constitution. To Orbegoso. Castilla was
+long faithful but abandoned him when he made alliance with the
+Bolivians. He went into exile when Santa Cruz was victorious, and
+returned with Gamarra and the Chileans. At the battle of Yungay he
+commanded the Peruvian contingent of the allied cavalry, and when
+Gamarra became president gave him his adhesion; but was taken prisoner
+at the fatal battle of Yngavi, where his chief was killed. Returning
+from captivity he found Peru torn to pieces by the armed rivalry of
+contending generals, and Menendez, the legal president, a fugitive.
+Unhesitatingly he threw himself into the conflict against those whose
+claims rested on their own pronunciamentos. Landing at Arica with only
+five men, his cool audacity saved his life in the first attack; his
+little band increased; Vivanco's partisans were confounded by the
+rapidity of his movements; their opponents hastened to join him.
+Castilla obtained control of Arequipa and Cuzco, and finally, in July,
+1844, completely overthrew Vivanco's army, putting an end to the civil
+war. The first use he made of his victory was to declare a general
+amnesty; the second to restore Menendez to the position of acting
+president. The latter called a convention, and ten months later Castilla
+was elected president of Peru without opposition.
+
+The country realised at once that it was in the hands of a master--a man
+strong enough to be generous, but with whom it was not safe to trifle.
+Almost instantaneously commerce felt the impulse which assured peace
+always gives. The turbulent military leaders found their occupation
+slipping away, while the orderly elements of the community grew in
+power. At heart the vast majority of the people were law-abiding, and
+the class which promoted revolutions was numerically an insignificant
+element of the population. But it was not alone Castilla's personal
+force of character, his shrewdness as a politician, his prestige as a
+general, his popularity so nobly won by generosity and moderation, which
+made his position secure. At the moment he assumed supreme power
+bountiful Providence placed in his hands riches untold. Holding the
+strings of a purse into which poured the millions from the guano and
+nitrate deposits, he could reward his friends, keep his troops contented
+by regular pay, relieve agriculture of taxation, place the disordered
+finances on a sound footing, and promote general prosperity by works of
+public utility. Europe suddenly realised the value of the bird manure
+found on the desert islands of the Peruvian coast, and soon hundreds of
+ships were coming annually to load the precious fertiliser.
+
+Instead of squandering this fairy gift on the enrichment of his
+creatures, or on the creation of a vast, useless, and wasteful swarm of
+office-holders,--the hardest of all temptations for a South American
+politician to resist,--Castilla paid interest on the foreign debt which
+Peru had incurred during the war of independence, and refunded it, with
+the accrued interest, that already amounted to more than the principal.
+The internal debt was also consolidated, care being taken to admit no
+fictitious claims; telegraphs and railways were constructed; steam
+vessels added to the navy; and all legitimate branches of the
+administration adequately provided for. But the moment Castilla's strong
+hand was removed, extravagance and corruption grew to alarming
+proportions. Under General Echenique, his successor, public offices and
+pensions were multiplied; concessions were granted not to promote
+honestly new industries, but to favourites to be sold for what they
+would bring; and finally a measure was rushed through congress to extend
+the time fixed by Castilla for presenting claims to be funded in the
+internal debt. It was openly charged that the ministerial ring had
+arranged to put themselves on the roll of national creditors. Public
+opinion was scandalised, and the discontent and jealousy soon showed
+itself in open revolt. The first insurrection was suppressed, but in the
+beginning of 1854 Castilla decided to put himself at the head of the
+movement against Echenique. Though the government regulars were better
+armed and provided than the militia which rallied around Castilla, the
+latter advanced from one position to another and finally overthrew the
+president in the decisive battle of La Palma. Echenique fled the country
+and Castilla assumed the reins of power once more, not to lay them down
+until 1862, when he voluntarily retired to private life. His second
+administration was as orderly as his first except for a local
+insurrection at Arequipa. He was not, however, so successful in
+restraining the predatory disposition of the Peruvian politicians and
+was unable to restore the administration to its old economical basis.
+The eighteen years of almost uninterrupted peace which elapsed between
+the beginning of Castilla's first administration and his retirement
+changed the face of Peru. A generation had grown up to whom the early
+years of independence were only a tradition. War, age, banishment,
+discouragement had thinned the ranks of the Ayacucho veterans, and the
+days were gone when one of them had merely to issue a pronunciamento to
+be forthwith hailed as president, dictator, supreme chief, protector,
+regenerator, by a turbulent soldiery and a fickle, ambitious Creole
+aristocracy. Peru's subsequent troubles have been financial, not
+military.
+
+In 1860 the Constitution which still governs the country was adopted.
+Framed under Castilla's influence it retains the centralised system of
+provincial government through prefects appointed from Lima, and gives
+the executive preponderant powers, although it is liberal and humane in
+its guaranties to the citizen. Slavery and Indian tribute, which
+continued to exist until 1855, are forbidden; forced recruiting, the
+scourge of old revolutionary days, is a crime; all Peruvians who can
+read and write, who own property or pay taxes, are entitled to vote.
+
+Castilla was succeeded by his old friend and companion in arms, General
+San Roman, a straightforward soldier who resembled his chief in his
+unquestioning obedience to lawful authority, but whose unfortunate death
+six months after his inauguration prevented him from demonstrating
+whether he possessed the same statesmanlike qualities. Vice-President
+Pezet peacefully took his place. Castilla had encouraged foreign
+immigration into the coast valleys, so admirably adapted to cotton and
+sugar, but where labour was scarce. Chinese coolies had come in large
+numbers, and the flattering offers had also attracted some Europeans.
+Among the latter were seventy Basque families, who shortly claimed that
+they were badly treated. Making a protest against a breach of contract
+committed by the proprietor of the estate on which they were working,
+they were attacked and some of them killed. The criminals escaped
+punishment, and the Spanish government made an international question of
+the affair, finally demanding an apology and three millions of dollars
+as indemnity. This being refused Spain broke off diplomatic relations
+and sent a powerful fleet, which seized the Chincha guano islands. Too
+weak alone to bid defiance to the Spanish ships, Pezet temporised,
+meanwhile asking Chile for help, and hoping for the early arrival of
+war-ships ordered in Europe. But the Spaniards pressed him so hard that
+he thought himself forced to yield to their demands. He concluded an
+agreement derogatory to the national honour, and a terrific outburst of
+public indignation followed. Prado, prefect of Arequipa, made
+preparations to march on Lima and depose the pusillanimous president;
+the Chileans, who had meantime determined to join in resistance to
+Spanish aggression, supported the insurrection; the terrible old
+Castilla went himself to the presidential mansion and gave Pezet a sound
+rating. The latter gave in and offered his resignation. Prado became
+supreme chief, issued a declaration of war against Spain, and signed a
+treaty of alliance with Chile. During the absence of the Spanish fleet
+the batteries at Callao were heavily reinforced, and an immense force of
+volunteers flocked to man the guns. When the Spanish ships appeared and,
+gallantly running into range, opened fire on the 2d of May, 1866, they
+were met by a determined resistance. Though the Peruvians suffered most
+severely--two thousand being killed and wounded--their opponents were
+unable to effect a landing or obtain the slightest concession, and their
+ships were so badly damaged that they abandoned further hostilities.
+
+Prado now found that the unconstitutional character of his position had
+only temporarily been ignored when he attempted to hold the power
+against General Canseco, second vice-president, who was Pezet's lawful
+successor. Castilla, now over seventy years old, landed in his native
+province, determined to unseat him. But the enfeebled frame of the aged
+warrior was unable to withstand fatigues and he died of exposure on the
+march. Canseco, however, roused Arequipa. Prado failed to take the place
+by assault, and gave up further opposition. Meanwhile Colonel Balta had
+headed a formidable insurrection in the north, and though Canseco was
+allowed to fill out his legal term, Balta's friends controlled the
+electoral college, and he was inaugurated president in August, 1868.
+
+With his accession Peru entered definitely upon a new era. The race for
+fortune absorbed the energies of the ruling class; cane and cotton
+planting, nitrate mining, railroad building under foreign direction,
+opened up vistas of profit without labour; social and civil intrigue
+replaced fighting and pronunciamentos. Castilla's liberal refunding of
+the old debt, the scrupulous regularity with which international
+obligations had been met, and the immense and increasing revenue from
+nitrate and guano, gave Peru credit in the money markets of Europe.
+Balta and his advisers were full of schemes for the material progress of
+the country and their own enrichment. A great railway system was
+projected and more than two thousand miles constructed at a cost of near
+forty million pounds. Enormous sums were spent on port works; expensive
+moles and piers built in the wave-lashed roadsteads which are Peru's
+only harbours; for the first time serious efforts were made to explore
+and develop the forested plain east of the Andes; the city of Iquitos
+was built at the head of deep-water navigation on the Amazon;
+office-holders multiplied; and new parks and public buildings
+embellished the cities. English capitalists eagerly took the bonds which
+the Peruvian government recklessly issued, and the foreign debt
+increased from five millions sterling to forty-nine millions before the
+end of Balta's term--a sum upon which two-thirds of the gross revenue
+would hardly suffice to pay interest. Such a debt was truly stupendous
+for a country most of whose population of scant two millions and a half
+was poor, non-commercial, non-industrial, and without other resources
+than a rude agriculture. Leaving out the proceeds of the guano monopoly
+and the nitrate royalties, the total revenues could not pay the
+interest.
+
+  [Illustration: STATUE OF BOLIVAR--LIMA, PERU]
+
+Don Manuel Pardo, Peru's first civilian president, had already been
+constitutionally selected as Balta's successor, and the latter was
+within a few days of the end of his term, when a terrible catastrophe
+happened. Among the poor relations whom the luckless president had
+preferred to positions in the army were four brothers named
+Gutierrez--the sons of a muleteer near Arequipa. Suddenly one brother
+appeared at the head of his battalion and took possession of the great
+square in the centre of the capital, while another forced his way into
+the president's study, revolver in hand, arrested the chief of state,
+and locked him up. Warned in time the president-elect escaped on board a
+man-of-war, and the eldest Gutierrez was proclaimed supreme chief. The
+people of Lima soon recovered from their stupefaction and a scene of
+terrific street-fighting followed. One of the conspirators was shot by
+the mob as he went to the railway station on his way to Callao. His
+brothers retaliated by murdering the captive president, but they soon
+fell before the rifles of the populace. Their bodies were hung up in the
+cathedral by the infuriated people, while the president-elect returned
+and assumed his functions.
+
+Pardo's four years were one continual struggle against impending
+bankruptcy. Though he brought some order into public accounts, it was
+only by all sorts of expedients that he managed to keep up interest
+payments. He easily suppressed an insurrection led by Pierola in 1874;
+his intellectual and moral force united about him the educated and
+property-holding classes in a party which survives to this day; and he
+left the reputation of having been the best president who ever ruled
+Peru. However, no efforts could avail more than merely to put off the
+evil day of reckoning. The rapid exhaustion of the guano deposits
+precipitated the disaster. Payment of interest was suspended in 1876 and
+the same year Pardo turned over the government to General Prado with the
+currency at fifty-per-cent. discount and Peruvian bonds selling in
+London at twelve.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE CHILEAN WAR AND LATTER-DAY PERU
+
+
+The nitrate region extends along the narrow desert coast of the Pacific
+for three hundred and fifty miles. Peru owned the northern one hundred
+and fifty, and prior to 1866 Bolivia claimed the remainder. After the
+discovery of the precious mineral the industrious and energetic Chileans
+crowded up the coast, while the Bolivians were shut in behind their high
+Andes. Chile insisted that her true boundary lay as far north as the 23d
+degree, and took vigorous measures to safeguard the interests of the
+Chilean nitrate companies. In 1866 Bolivia reluctantly made a treaty by
+which the 24th degree was agreed upon as the formal boundary, although
+the Chilean miners were allowed to continue their operations in the
+productive regions north of that line and their taxes were not to be
+increased without their government's consent. This treaty gave rise to
+constant disputes, and as the nitrate, silver, and copper business of
+the neutral zone became more profitable, the Bolivian government pressed
+harder for a larger revenue. The Peruvian government had planned to
+secure a control of the output by the state purchase and operation of
+nitrate properties, and such a trust would prove ineffective unless the
+Bolivian government had a free hand with the Chilean companies. In 1872
+Peru and Bolivia made a secret treaty of alliance. Its provisions soon
+became public, and Chile not unreasonably believed it to be aimed
+especially at her miners' operating on Bolivian soil. She promptly began
+purchasing iron-clads. It was a favourite saying of old Marshal Castilla
+that when Chile bought a battle-ship Peru should buy two, but the Lima
+government was too poor to follow the good advice, and the fatal year of
+1879 found her naval force inferior to that of her rival.
+
+At this juncture the Bolivian congress voted not to ratify a treaty
+negotiated with Chile four years before, and passed a law imposing heavy
+taxes on the nitrate business. The Chilean companies protested and
+resisted; their government backed them up, and sent a fleet to protect
+their interests. Enraged at the seizure of her ports, Bolivia declared
+war in March, 1879. Peru could not be expected to remain quiet. Not only
+was she bound by the solemn agreement of the treaty of alliance, but she
+had an imperative selfish interest in preventing the disputed nitrate
+territory from falling into Chile's hands. She began to gather an army
+on the southern frontier, but she was illy prepared for war and Chile
+knew it. Her offers of arbitration were promptly rejected; the Chilean
+government had determined to strike both allies at the same time, and
+presented an ultimatum, demanding that Peru abrogate the secret treaty,
+cease warlike preparations, and remain neutral in the war with Bolivia.
+Failing immediate and categorical compliance war was declared in April.
+
+What had proven true in the time of Pizarro, San Martin, and Santa Cruz,
+was still true--the successful invasion or defence of Peru depended on
+the control of the Pacific. Whichever power should obtain a naval
+preponderance would surely get the nitrate territory--a rainless,
+cropless region where an army must be sustained by supplies brought by
+sea--and then could attack the other at its capital. Chile had two new
+iron-clads, the _Cochrane_ and the _Blanco_, besides two good cruisers
+and several gunboats. The two Peruvian iron-clads, the _Huascar_ and the
+_Independencia_, were older, though their speed was superior. The
+Chileans opened the war on the ocean by blockading the Peruvian ports in
+the extreme south, but Miguel Grau, the able seaman and intrepid fighter
+who commanded the Peruvian fleet, at once attacked the Chilean cruisers
+which were lying off Iquique. The _Huascar_ rammed and sank the
+_Esmeralda_, but while his other iron-clad was pursuing the _Covadonga_,
+she ran upon the rocks and was lost. This was in reality a deathblow to
+Peru, but the gallant Grau devotedly determined to see what his single
+ship, rapidly manoeuvred, could do to make unsafe the embarkation of a
+Chilean army. For four months he terrorised the coast from Antofagasta
+to Valparaiso. Chile could not take a step until she had disposed of
+Grau and his dreaded _Huascar_. The blockade of Iquique was abandoned
+as useless; the iron-clads ordered back to Valparaiso to be cleaned and
+repaired so that they might match the _Huascar_ in speed; new officers
+were put in command; and on October the first the Chilean fleet set sail
+from Valparaiso on a systematic chase for the Peruvian iron-clad. On
+reaching Antofagasta it was divided into two squadrons, the _Cochrane_
+leading one and the _Blanco_ the other, and they immediately began
+patrolling the coast.
+
+The _Huascar_, accompanied by a consort, the _Union_, was cruising in
+the neighbourhood, and at daylight on the 8th of October the first
+Chilean division sighted her. Grau fled, and was gradually drawing away
+from his pursuers when, to his horror, three columns of smoke appeared
+on the horizon directly forward. He was caught between the two Chilean
+squadrons. The _Union_ had speed enough to slip by the enemy, but the
+_Huascar_ was too slow. Grau's only chance was to close with the
+_Cochrane_ before the _Blanco_ could come up astern, and he went
+straight for the former. At half past nine the _Huascar_ fired the first
+shot, the distance being about three thousand yards. It fell short and
+only the fourth shot took effect. The _Cochrane_ then replied, and
+though the practice on both sides was wild, the two ships soon came so
+close that the machine guns were brought into effective play. A shot
+disabled the _Huascar's_ turret, and in desperation Grau tried
+repeatedly to ram, but was foiled by the quick turns which the
+_Cochrane's_ twin screws enabled her to make. Just half an hour after
+the action began a shell struck his conning-tower, blowing the heroic
+Peruvian into atoms. A few minutes later the _Blanco_ came up and added
+her missiles to the storm of shots which the _Cochrane_ and the smaller
+consorts were pouring upon the doomed _Huascar_. Nevertheless no one
+thought of striking. Hardly had Grau been blown to pieces than the
+executive officer had his head taken clean off by a shell from the
+_Blanco_, and the officer next in seniority was severely wounded. A few
+moments later the lieutenant who succeeded to the command was killed,
+and his successor, in turn, was wounded before the end of the action.
+When the ship finally struck, an hour and a half after the first shot
+was fired, one of the juniors was in command, and sixty-four of the
+complement of one hundred and ninety-three officers and men lay killed
+or wounded on the deck.
+
+The Chileans were now in absolute control of the sea, and could land an
+army when and where they pleased. The Bolivian sea-coast, inhabited
+almost exclusively by Chilean miners, and inaccessible overland from
+Bolivia proper, had fallen into Chile's hands at the opening of the war,
+but Grau's success in immobilising the Chilean navy had been taken
+advantage of by the Peruvians to ship nine thousand troops to their own
+nitrate province, where they could conveniently attack the Chileans who
+occupied the Bolivian territory to their south, or defend their own most
+valuable piece of property. But although this army was in Peruvian
+territory the naval victory of the Chileans isolated it almost
+completely. A hundred miles of rough, rainless desert, intercepted by
+deep ravines transverse to the coast, separated it from Tacna, where
+fertile valleys begin and communication with the rest of Peru becomes
+possible.
+
+By the end of October the Chilean army embarked at Antofagasta ten
+thousand strong and well provided with cavalry and the most modern
+artillery. Of Iquique and Pisagua, the two principal ports of the
+Peruvian nitrate country, the latter, which lies forty miles north of
+the former, was chosen as the less likely to be defended in force. Only
+a thousand men were found, who, in spite of a gallant resistance from
+their two small batteries and their rifle pits, were unable to prevent
+the landing of the Chileans protected by a tremendous fire from the
+fleet. Driven from the town the Peruvians could not even hold the top of
+the precipitous bluff until the arrival of reinforcements from Iquique.
+The Chileans relentlessly pushed their advantage and soon were in
+possession of the railroad for fifty miles into the interior and had six
+thousand men entrenched on a hill called San Francisco. Abundantly
+supplied with provisions and water they could afford to wait, while the
+allies, cut off from communications, must either attack at once or
+abandon the province. The Peruvian general chose the former alternative,
+but his troops arrived in front of San Francisco exhausted and thirsty
+after a twenty-miles' march across the dry desert. Only a small part of
+the army took part in the assault, and it was easily repulsed.
+Disheartened the allies fell back to the foot of the giant range which
+inexorably barred their way to the east, and after a few days of
+suffering from hunger and thirst, took their way north among the barren
+foothills. The enemy sent a detachment to harass their march, but they
+turned on their pursuers and defeated them, and reached Tacna province
+hungry, ragged, half-armed, and generally demoralised.
+
+Not only was the great nitrate province, the treasury of Peru,
+irretrievably lost, but every point on the coast, including Lima itself,
+laid open to attack. President Prado left the army at Tacna, went to
+Lima, and thence sailed for Europe, announcing that he was going to buy
+iron-clads. Hardly was he on board ship when a revolution broke out in
+the capital, and the restless Pierola, who had headed the latest
+attempts at insurrection, declared himself supreme chief. The Bolivians
+also deposed their unsuccessful president. Peru's revolutionary
+government, rushed into power on a wave of wounded national pride,
+embodied the more than Spanish haughtiness of the Creole aristocracy,
+and refused all concessions. The allies still had a large army at Tacna,
+not too demoralised to make a creditable resistance, although it was cut
+off from easy communication with the rest of Peru and Bolivia, and stood
+badly in need of arms, clothing, and ammunition. The Chilean ships
+blockaded Arica, the Tacna port, but the fast _Union_ again showed her
+heels to the enemy's whole fleet, ran the blockade, and landed stores
+which put the allied army on a fighting footing.
+
+Late in February, 1880, the Chileans disembarked a fine army of
+fourteen thousand men at a seaport sixty miles north of the allies' main
+position, and lost no time in occupying the interior as far as Moquegua
+at the foot of the Andes. Their first object was to cut the allied
+armies off from any communication with their respective countries. A
+small Peruvian force made an attempt to hold Torata, a point
+strategically important because it commanded the entrance into the Andes
+from Bolivia and Peru, but was unsuccessful. The allied armies were now
+bottled up in a little valley where provisions would surely shortly
+fail. The Chileans advanced south across the desert upon Tacna, and the
+allies took a strong defensive position on a ridge, flanked by steep
+ravines, with a sloping glacis in front. Vastly superior in artillery,
+though only slightly outnumbering the allies, the Chileans thought
+themselves justified in assaulting the position. They opened the battle
+by a cannonade in which their magnificent Krupp guns did terrific
+execution, and under cover of the fire the infantry advanced in four
+columns of twenty-four hundred men each. Approaching the trenches they
+were met by a storm of rifle bullets through which they charged bayonet
+in hand.
+
+Meanwhile the allies on the crest of the sand-hills suffered terribly
+from the plunging artillery fire. The Bolivians, holding the weakest
+part of the line, bore the brunt of the attack. Once the Chileans
+wavered, but a supporting cavalry charge quickly drove back the
+advancing enemy, and after two hours of desperate fighting the sturdy
+Bolivian Indians gave way, their position was carried, and the allied
+army fled all along the line. Though the Chileans had lost over two
+thousand, the losses of the allies were greater. No way of retreat lay
+open; they scattered in confusion; and their army virtually ceased to
+exist. A couple of thousand Peruvians held out in Arica for a month,
+deliberately devoting themselves to certain death, but the place was
+carried by an assault in which quarter was neither given nor asked.
+
+Peru now lay helpless at the mercy of the Chilean armies and fleet. The
+ports were blockaded and bombarded, while expeditions ravaged the
+fertile coast valleys. Nevertheless the Peruvians would not yield. The
+United States offered her mediation, and plenipotentiaries met to see if
+terms of peace could be arranged. Chile demanded the formal cession of
+the nitrate territory and an indemnity. The Peruvians refused such hard
+terms, hoping against hope for foreign intervention. This passive
+obstinacy enraged the Chilean government, and after a delay of several
+months it was determined to capture the capital and dictate terms at
+Lima. Late in December, 1880, a splendidly equipped army of twenty-six
+thousand men landed a short distance south of Lima and marched on the
+city. Only a few fragments of the Peruvian regular army had survived the
+defeats in the south, but the population rallied _en masse_ to resist
+the invaders. At Chorrillos, a few miles south of Lima, the militia
+waited behind a hastily constructed line of defence. The assault of the
+Chilean regulars was irresistible; four thousand Peruvians perished, and
+as many more were taken prisoners. The survivors fell back on a second
+line of defence, only six miles from Lima, and were there defeated in a
+second battle in which two thousand were killed and wounded. The Chilean
+losses in the two fights reached five thousand. On the following day the
+mayor of Lima formally surrendered the city, and on the 17th of January
+the Chilean army took possession. The helpless citizens were required to
+make up a contribution of a million dollars a month; the customs duties
+were confiscated, and the Chileans violated all the rules of civilised
+warfare by wantonly destroying the great and valuable public
+library--the best in South America.
+
+Pierola escaped to Guamanga, but succeeded in rallying no forces. He
+gave it up and went to Europe. It became necessary to organise a
+government which could treat for peace. The citizens of Lima, with the
+consent of Chile, made Garcia Calderon provisional president, but when
+the discussion of terms began the Chileans repeated their demand for the
+unconditional cession of the nitrate territory, and Calderon did not
+dare assent. The enemy sent him prisoner to Santiago, while Iglesias in
+the northern departments, Caceres in the centre, and Carrillo in the
+south each kept up an independent resistance with a few militia. The
+Chileans made no serious attempt to conquer the interior, contenting
+themselves with pocketing the Peruvian customs revenues. This situation
+lasted two years and a half, until Iglesias came to the conclusion that
+peace could only be obtained by complete submission. Caceres was,
+however, resolved upon further resistance and quarrelling with Iglesias,
+advanced into the latter's territory. He was intercepted by a Chilean
+expedition and his forces destroyed. This left Iglesias a clear field;
+he declared himself president and entered into negotiations with the
+Chileans, arranging a treaty of peace which was signed on the 20th of
+October, 1883. Five days later the Peruvian flag was once more hoisted
+in the capital. Sporadic risings against Iglesias were easily suppressed
+by Chilean bayonets; four thousand men remained to see that the treaty
+was ratified, and a convention finally ratified it in March. Its
+provisions differed little from the demands made by Chile three years
+before. The money indemnity was waived and half the guano proceeds were
+left to Peru's creditors. On the other hand, the provinces of Tacna and
+Arica were to be held by Chile for ten years, and at the end of that
+time a popular vote would decide who should retain them, the losing
+country receiving ten million dollars from the other. Better far for the
+interests of permanent peace had the fate of the provinces been
+definitely determined. Chile and Peru have never been able to agree upon
+the terms under which the plebiscite should be conducted; the former
+still retains the provinces and the latter still agitates for their
+recovery.
+
+No sooner had the Chilean army left than Caceres began a civil war to
+oust Iglesias. For eighteen months the fighting continued with varying
+fortunes, but in December, 1885, Caceres surprised Lima when undefended;
+Iglesias resigned; a general amnesty was proclaimed, and peace was
+restored to the distracted country. A junta assumed power and in the
+election which followed Caceres was chosen president, and in the middle
+of 1886 he entered upon the dreary task of re-organising Peru. The
+treasury was empty, the population had been decimated by a horribly
+destructive war during four years, the flourishing coast valleys with
+their cotton and sugar plantations had been laid under contribution, the
+mines had ceased to be worked, the guano and nitrate revenue was gone,
+the country was weighed down with a debt which could never be paid, and
+foreign creditors pressed for a settlement utterly beyond the abilities
+of the impoverished country. Rigid economies were enforced in all
+departments of the administration, but the most that could be hoped was
+to meet ordinary expenditure.
+
+Peru had nothing to offer towards the immense foreign debt except her
+railways, and the British creditors finally agreed to the Grace
+contract, by which she was released from all responsibility for a sum
+amounting to over fifty millions sterling, in return for the cession of
+the state railways, the payment of eighty thousand pounds annually, and
+certain rights to the guano deposits, mines, and public lands. British
+pressure induced Chile to give up a large proportion of the guano
+proceeds, and in 1890 the contract was ratified and the "Peruvian
+Corporation" took over the vast properties conceded. Though disputes
+have arisen from time to time, the corporation has made some progress in
+extending lines to open up the mineral wealth on the plateau, and a
+successful beginning has been made toward the exploitation of the rubber
+forests of the Amazon plain. It cannot be doubted that the industrial
+development of Peru must be greatly aided by the existence of this
+gigantic private enterprise which will apply the energy and economy
+characteristic of individual enterprise to undertakings governmental in
+magnitude.
+
+  [Illustration: GENERAL DON ANDRES A. CACERES]
+
+Caceres made no change in the centralised system of government by
+prefects,--and the administrative fabric survived, substantially
+untouched, the horrors of the Chilean war and the fighting between rival
+chiefs. Liberal tendencies were shown in efforts to place the Indians on
+an equal political footing with the Peruvians of Spanish descent,
+although naturally the Creole aristocracy still dominates by reason of
+its intelligence. Considerable dissatisfaction was felt with Caceres'
+management of finances, but in 1890 he was succeeded by his friend,
+Colonel Bermudez, who continued his policy. Unfortunately for the peace
+of the country the latter died in 1893. His legal successor was Solar,
+first vice-president, but an intrigue in the cabinet prevented the
+latter's peaceable recognition. Caceres' influence was dominant in the
+administration, and a semblance of an election recalled him to power.
+General Pierola, who had led two unsuccessful insurrections--those of
+1874 and 1878--and who had got power in 1880, only to lose it after the
+fall of Lima, saw his opportunity. Solar joined forces with him and
+revolt broke out against Caceres. The latter had completely lost the
+popularity won as the most determined champion of the national rights
+against Chilean aggression; his administration was bad; the public
+employees were unpaid; the meagre resources of the country were wasted
+on his favourites. Though his troops were at first successful against
+Pierola's and Solar's hasty levies, the revolution recovered from each
+defeat until finally the insurrectionists entered Lima itself. The
+enemies of Caceres within the town arose and for two days its streets
+were the scene of bloody barricade fighting. Rarely does a civilised
+city pass through such a frightful experience as Lima on the 18th of
+July, 1895. There had been no time to extinguish the street lamps, and
+all night long the bands of revolutionists advanced, fighting by the
+lights which brightly illumined the carnage except where extinguished by
+rifle balls. Though his forces were gradually driven back, Caceres
+stubbornly refused to resign, and at last only yielded to the urgent
+representations of the foreign ministers, leaving power in the hands of
+a junta.
+
+With his withdrawal peace was restored, except for the resistance which
+his partisans kept up for a short time in Arequipa, and this peace has
+never since been disturbed. The junta served until an election could be
+held, in which Pierola was chosen president by an overwhelming and
+really popular majority. In 1899 he was succeeded by Romana, an engineer
+who had been a member of the outgoing ministry, and he, in his turn, had
+as successor, Señor Candamo, who took his seat in 1903. Historically the
+new president represents the old aristocratic party founded by Pardo--a
+party which had been pushed to one side in the financial confusion which
+preceded and the civil disorders which succeeded the terrible Chilean
+war by the more radical and democratic elements known as Pierolistas and
+constitutionalists. The return to a participation in affairs of elements
+which include so large a proportion of the intelligence, self-respect,
+and wealth of the nation is one of the most hopeful signs of the times.
+The Peruvian aristocracy has learned its lesson in the hard school of
+adversity, and vies with the commercial classes in sober, serious
+attention to industrial and governmental matters. Each division of the
+people seems to wish to bear its share in the financial, political, and
+moral regeneration of their country.
+
+Peruvian politics are conducted _en famille_. Economic and social
+questions are discussed and settled amicably among the ruling coteries
+and do not as in Europe and North America form the basis for the
+organisation of political parties. Though the country is steadfastly
+Catholic, clericalism is not, as in Ecuador, Colombia, and Bolivia,
+regarded as a menace by those who hold liberal views, and the provinces
+have never made any insistent demand for a larger share of autonomy, as
+in Argentina and Colombia. As a rule the elections are free and
+translate the popular will. Peru has long since passed the stage of
+pronunciamentos and military government; since Castilla's time the
+successful revolutions have been few, and have always been undertaken
+for the maintenance of the regular constitutional order--not its
+overthrow--or have been inspired by national feeling when the fatherland
+was in danger.
+
+  [Illustration: PERU]
+
+
+
+
+CHILE
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE SPANISH CONQUEST
+
+
+About a century before Pizarro landed, Tupac Yupanqui, the greatest of
+the Inca conquerors, crossed the rough mountains, bleak plateaux, and
+waterless deserts which lie between the habitable part of Bolivia and
+the irrigable valleys of northern Chile, and rapidly overran the coast
+for six hundred miles. As one goes south the plain broadens, the short
+rivers flowing from the mountains grow larger, the rainfall and the area
+available for cultivation increase, and from Santiago a wide valley, the
+heart of Chile, stretches between the Andes and the coast range,
+sustaining a dense population. As far south as the river Maule, the
+limit of Tupac's conquests, irrigation is necessary for crops. In all
+these valleys dwelt various tribes whose system of agriculture and
+civilisation was similar to that of the Incas. Only the southern peoples
+inhabiting the rainy and forested regions beyond the Maule refused to
+submit. Huaina Capac, Tupac's son, was once obliged to undertake a
+campaign to consolidate the Inca power, but Chile north of the Maule
+became thoroughly attached to the Cuzco dynasty.
+
+Little resistance was encountered when Almagro invaded this country just
+after Pizarro's entry into the Peruvian capital. He advanced as far as
+the Maule, finding everywhere a population probably as dense as that of
+the present day. Agriculture was highly developed; the people were
+clothed in substantial stuffs of their own manufacture; they mined
+copper, tin, and lead, and possessed excellent arms and tools. The
+tribes all spoke the same language, but each enjoyed a degree of
+autonomy under its own chiefs. Their habits were democratic; they loved
+freedom and independence; the Inca socialistic system did not prevail;
+and each farmer owned his own field and could transmit it to his
+children. The race was large and vigorous, the selected survivors from
+among immigrants who had been greatly improved by countless generations
+of struggle in the more rigorous climate. As one approached the cold and
+rainy mountains of southern Chile their characteristics became more
+pronounced and south of the Maule warlike, half-savage tribes proudly
+maintained their independence. Almagro's sole pre-occupation was gold,
+but he vainly searched the valleys as far as the southern boundary of
+the Inca empire. Here he encountered serious resistance from the
+independent tribes, and though victorious in his fights, concluded that
+it was not worth while remaining in such a cold and goldless country. He
+abandoned Chile and returned to Peru, there to meet his death at
+Pizarro's hands.
+
+  [Illustration: BRIDGE ON THE ROAD BETWEEN SANTIAGO AND MENDOZA.]
+
+Pizarro soon took measures to extend the Spanish conquests to all parts
+of the Inca empire, and for Chile he selected his quartermaster, Pedro
+de Valdivia, an active and experienced soldier. Late in 1540--the summer
+season in those latitudes--Valdivia, with two hundred Spaniards and a
+large number of Indian auxiliaries, crossed the Andes and arrived at
+Copiapo, the northernmost inhabited valley. Like Almagro he met no
+opposition as he pushed his way south for four hundred and fifty miles.
+Arriving at the great valley of Chile, in that favoured region he
+founded the city of Santiago, which has ever since remained the capital
+and most important place in the country. The people of the neighbourhood
+attacked the settlement and burned half the houses, but they were soon
+decisively defeated. Nevertheless, the invaders position was critical;
+many of them wished to return; a mutiny was on the point of breaking
+out; but at this juncture the fortunate discovery of valuable gold mines
+near Santiago hushed all talk of abandoning the country.
+
+Firmly established at Santiago, Valdivia next turned his attention to
+the northern provinces, and founded a city at Coquimbo, about two
+hundred and fifty miles north of the capital, which became the centre of
+Spanish power in that region. In 1545 he advanced into the country south
+of Santiago, where the Promaucians welcomed him as an ally against their
+hereditary foes, the Araucanians, a fierce and powerful confederacy
+dwelling beyond the river Biobio, which flows into the Pacific in
+latitude 37°. By the following year Spanish influence was dominant north
+of that river. Valdivia, with many of his men, temporarily returned to
+Peru to aid in the suppression of Gonzalo's revolt, but as soon as civil
+war was over he came back to Chile with his title of governor confirmed
+by viceregal authority. He had found Lima swarming with hungry
+adventurers who eagerly followed him, hoping for grants of lands and
+Indian slaves, or to make their fortunes in mining. With their help the
+conquest and settlement of all Chile as far south as the Maule was
+effectually completed. The land was apportioned among the cavaliers,
+each becoming a sort of feudal baron, and in effect creating a landed
+aristocracy which has continued to rule the country to the present day.
+
+The process of incorporation did not stop at the Maule, but included the
+Promaucians and most of the other tribes between that river and the
+Biobio. Beyond the latter stretched the Araucanian territory for two
+hundred miles, and Valdivia now undertook the conquest of the southern
+forests where the Inca arms had never been able to penetrate. His first
+step was to found Concepcion near the mouth of the Biobio. The
+neighbouring territory belonged to allies of the confederacy, and the
+Araucanians felt great alarm at such an aggression. The grand council
+was summoned, composed of the head-chiefs of the four nations, and the
+chiefs--called ulmens--of the provinces and tribes into which these
+nations were divided and subdivided. In accordance with immemorial
+custom, the deliberations lasted three days, and the humblest warrior
+was permitted to give his opinion before war was voted. Once the
+determination reached and a general, or "toqui," elected, each soldier
+put on his leather cuirass, picked up his heavy war club, and, four
+thousand strong, the tribesmen sallied forth to attack the Spaniards.
+Musketry volley and cavalry charge compelled the Araucanians to retreat,
+after a hotly contested combat which lasted several hours. These
+Indians, strong and sturdy dwellers in an invigorating climate, were
+more formidable foes than the Spaniards had yet encountered in South
+America. Though amazed at the deadly effect of the strange weapons which
+the invaders used, they were not demoralised. Like the Saracens they
+believed that death in battle was a passport to paradise, war was their
+principal business, and the youth were trained up to the trade of arms.
+At close quarters they were almost irresistible; their clubs and
+spears, wielded with reckless bravery, matched the swords of the
+Spaniards, and as soon as they learned how to take advantage of cover in
+approaching an enemy provided with firearms, the result of a battle
+between them and the Castilians became doubtful.
+
+During the year 1551 Valdivia occupied himself in fortifying Concepcion
+and making preparations for an invasion of Araucania. Heavy
+reinforcements came and he advanced encountering at first no serious
+opposition. He founded the city of Imperial, one hundred and fifty miles
+south of Concepcion, and thence pushed a hundred miles farther on, where
+he established a seaport, calling it by his own name. Returning north in
+1553, on his way he built several forts in the Araucanian territory, and
+at Santiago found a fresh body of troops, and, what was even more
+important, a supply of horses. Two hundred men were despatched across
+the Andes to begin the conquest of what is now known as the province of
+Mendoza in the Argentine Republic. Fancying that he had practically
+completed the subjection of Chile, Valdivia sent a messenger to Spain to
+sue for the title of Marquis and a perpetual governorship, and fitted
+out an exploring expedition to the Straits of Magellan in the vain hope
+of opening up direct sea communication with the mother country.
+
+The Araucanians had, however, not relaxed their determination to rid
+themselves of the white invaders. News came that the confederacy had put
+an army of ten thousand men in the field, and that the outlying forts
+had been stormed. Valdivia at once advanced from Concepcion at the head
+of his forces, numbering two hundred Spaniards and five thousand Indian
+auxiliaries. A hundred miles south of the city he came in sight of the
+Araucanian army. For some time the Indian commander manoeuvred
+cautiously, endeavouring to draw the Spaniards into a position where he
+could charge without suffering too much from the dreaded artillery.
+Finally battle was joined, and despite the destructive fire the Indians
+managed to come to close quarters. As soon as these fierce warriors
+reached the enemy's line all was up with the invaders. The Spanish army
+was literally annihilated. Valdivia himself fled, but was pursued and
+quickly captured. Brought before the Indian general he begged for his
+life, agreeing to quit Chile with all the Spaniards, but his
+protestations were cut short by the war club of an old chief standing
+near.
+
+The Spanish settlers south of Concepcion fled for refuge to the ports of
+Imperial and Valdivia, abandoning the other towns and forts. A young
+chief named Lautaro, who had been captured and baptised years before by
+Valdivia, but who had escaped to his own people, led a considerable army
+to the Biobio, destroyed an expedition sent against him, and drove the
+enemy out of Concepcion. If the Indians had understood the art of
+besieging fortified places, Imperial and Valdivia and probably Santiago
+itself would now have fallen, and the Spaniards would have been expelled
+from the southern and better half of Chile. Lautaro led north two
+thousand Araucanians, ravaged the lands of the Promaucians beyond the
+Maule, and penetrated to the neighbourhood of the capital. Repeated
+expeditions sent against him were defeated; the dismayed Spaniards
+urgently called for help from Peru and recalled the adventurers from
+Argentina. Happily the civilised tribes of northern and central Chile
+remained faithful, and the bulk of the Araucanian forces was occupied
+besieging Valdivia and Imperial,--a fruitless undertaking so long as
+provisions could be thrown in by sea. Worst of all for the Indians
+smallpox broke out among them. At last the Spaniards surprised Lautaro's
+encampment near Santiago; the Araucanian leader fell dead, pierced by a
+dart; and his companions fought like wild beasts until every man was
+slain. This victory secured the safety of Santiago, and the Araucanians
+retired behind the Biobio.
+
+Meanwhile Mendoza, the great pacificator and organiser, had come out to
+Lima and assumed the viceroyalty. Turbulent adventurers swarmed into
+Peru whom he thought could be better employed elsewhere. Southern Chile
+seemed just the place for these reckless, needy cavaliers, who were so
+anxious to carve out fiefs for themselves. Early in 1557, Garcia de
+Mendoza, son of the viceroy, was appointed captain-general and enjoined
+to reduce the Araucanians to obedience. He came accompanied by ten ships
+and a considerable force of Spaniards. Still larger forces were on their
+way overland from Peru. Cautiously landing troops and artillery at the
+deserted city of Concepcion, he had finished his defences before the
+confederacy could mobilise its army. Though the Araucanians attacked
+with desperate fury, their charges were beaten back by the artillery
+fire. Re-forming on the other side of the Biobio, the Indians waited
+until Mendoza, who had meanwhile received a large reinforcement of
+cavalry, advanced. In the battle which followed they were defeated, but
+they had learned a lesson of prudence and they fought in front of
+forests into whose depths the Spanish cavalry could not pursue.
+Retreating slowly, they again gave battle, and, though again defeated,
+inflicted great losses on the Spanish infantry. Mendoza hanged his
+prisoners, and once more advanced, this time to the place where Valdivia
+had met his death. Here he founded a fortified town, naming it Cañete,
+after the hereditary title of his family. Leaving it heavily garrisoned,
+he went on to Imperial for provisions. In his absence the Indians
+unsuccessfully tried to carry Cañete by assault, and seeing the
+hopelessness of aggressive movements, they withdrew to the wooded
+districts and mountains, abandoning the open country and the sea-coast
+to the Spaniards. Mendoza pushed on beyond the southern limits of the
+Araucanian territory and discovered and explored the populous
+archipelago of Chiloë. On his way back he founded, on the mainland a
+hundred miles south of Valdivia, the city of Osorno.
+
+The Araucanians were now shut in between the Andes and a semicircle of
+towns and forts; it seemed as if their final subjection would only be a
+question of time. Mendoza returned to Santiago, leaving a lieutenant to
+undertake a campaign of raids and surprises. A few of the Araucanians
+remained in the field, and it was not until their veteran chief,
+Caupolican, was betrayed and pitilessly shot to death with arrows, that
+the whole confederacy again flew to arms under the command of his son.
+Marching on Concepcion, the Indians cut to pieces first one Spanish
+force of five hundred men and then another; and blockaded the city from
+the land side. The Spaniards, holding the sea, had no difficulty in
+pouring in reinforcements from Peru and Valparaiso, and the Indian army
+finally retreated. At Quiapo, between Concepcion and Cañete, it was
+defeated and nearly annihilated, its most celebrated chiefs and heroes
+perishing in the slaughter. Once more the Araucanians retired to their
+forests and mountains while the Spaniards rebuilt and improved the line
+of fortifications and took possession of the valuable gold mines of
+Villarica. But they could make no further impression on these
+indomitable Indians. For forty years the war continued, sometimes
+active, sometimes desultory, and with constantly varying fortunes. Year
+after year the Spaniards poured in reinforcements, and their expeditions
+more than once ravaged the remotest parts of the Araucanian territory.
+But as soon as the armies retired the unflagging Indians would return to
+the attack, cutting off isolated bands of settlers and surprising forts
+and towns.
+
+About 1593, the able chieftain Paillamachu was toqui of the confederacy.
+The incessant wars against the Araucanians had made the province such a
+continual drain on the Peruvian treasury, that Mendoza, who had been
+promoted to the viceregal throne, determined to end this impossible
+situation in one way or another. A general was sent to Chile with full
+powers either to treat or fight, but the haughty and intractable Indians
+rejected with scorn his overtures for peace. He then fortified the line
+of the Biobio and erected new fortresses to serve as bases for a
+campaign of extermination to be undertaken as soon as reinforcements
+arrived. These came slowly and the Indians themselves took the
+offensive, considerable bands invading the Spanish settlements, storming
+some forts and blockading others. The Spanish general exerted himself to
+concentrate his scattered forces, but while making a hasty journey,
+accompanied only by a small escort, from Imperial toward Concepcion, he
+was surprised and killed by a band of Indians. Forty-eight hours later
+not only the whole of Araucania, but also the provinces south of
+Valdivia, rose in arms. All the Spanish towns south of the
+Biobio--Osorno, Valdivia, Villarica, Imperial, Cañete, Angol, Coya, and
+Arauco--were simultaneously besieged. Paillamachu crossed the river and
+burned first Concepcion and then Chillan, a town a hundred miles north
+of the Araucanian boundary, ravaging the country to the river Maule.
+Alarmed for the safety of Santiago, the Lima viceroy sent a new governor
+with a well-equipped army, but it was as much as he could do to force
+the Indians back into their own territory. The Indian general suddenly
+assaulted the city of Valdivia, carried it by storm, slaughtered or
+captured the inhabitants, and seized two millions of booty with many
+arms and cannon. Villarica and Imperial managed to hold out for three
+years but finally they, with Osorno, were reduced by starvation. When
+Paillamachu died in 1603 the Spaniards had no foothold on the mainland
+south of the Biobio except the Valdivia citadel.
+
+  [Illustration: INDIAN ENCAMPMENT.]
+
+Two or three years later the government made a last effort to reduce the
+Araucanians. An army of three thousand Spaniards besides a large
+contingent of natives advanced across the Biobio. To such an
+overwhelming force the Araucanians dared not offer open battle, but they
+hung on its flanks, skirmishing and harassing, and the host was
+compelled to return without having accomplished anything decisive. From
+the protection of the forts on the Biobio, the Spanish general sent
+expeditions to lay waste the Indian country, but these smaller bodies
+were roughly handled and the first period of Araucanian wars closed with
+the nearly complete destruction of the Spanish forces operating in
+southern Chile. The authorities at Lima and Madrid gave it up as a bad
+job. Thenceforward the Biobio remained the southern boundary of the
+Spanish possessions. An army of two thousand men and a line of forts
+guarded the frontier, and though hostilities were frequent, for
+centuries no real progress was made toward depriving the Araucanians of
+their independence. In the progress of time the slow infiltration of
+Spanish blood and Spanish customs modified their characteristics, but it
+was not until 1882 that they became real subjects of the Chilean
+government.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE COLONIAL PERIOD
+
+
+The Araucanian wars made Chile a school of arms for all South America.
+The appointment to its captaincy-general was eagerly sought by ambitious
+soldiers, and the place, especially after the seventeenth century, was a
+stepping-stone to the magnificent and lucrative position of viceroy at
+Lima. Preoccupied with the southern wars, passing most of their time on
+the frontiers, the governors paid little attention to central and
+northern Chile. The Indians peacefully cultivated the great estates of
+their feudal masters; and although the mining industry was considerable
+it never threatened the extinction of the neighbouring population. The
+few towns were mere villages, built of one-story, thatch-covered houses,
+commerce was insignificant, portable wealth small, money almost unknown.
+However, the landed proprietors of Chile mostly lived upon their
+estates, and came into more intimate contact with their Indian tenants
+than in the richer and more tropical provinces, a circumstance which
+has had a profound effect upon the character and racial composition of
+the modern Chilean.
+
+Although unsuccessful in Araucania, the governors prospered in their
+efforts to extend the Spanish dominion east of the Andes and before the
+end of the sixteenth century the fertile valleys of the province of
+Cuyo--Mendoza, San Juan, and San Luiz--as far as the central desert
+which separates them from the grass-covered pampas of Buenos Aires, were
+incorporated with Chile. At the same time the green and populous island
+of Chiloë--the Ireland of the Pacific--was added to the
+captaincy-general.
+
+The first comers were adventurous soldiers looking for sudden riches,
+but Chile furnished these gentlemen small returns for hard knocks. The
+reasons which led the Spanish government to discourage emigration to
+Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador, did not apply to Chile, and when, early in
+the seventeenth century, the Madrid authorities abandoned the useless
+and expensive effort to conquer Araucania, they permitted a considerable
+number of real colonists. A heavy immigration followed--composed mostly
+of Basques and Aragonese--hardy and industrious settlers who made
+thrifty farmers and merchants. These people were no mere army of
+occupation--a privileged class living parasitically upon the Indians;
+they set about developing the real resources of the country, and their
+blood, mixing into the fine and strong aboriginal strain, vastly
+improved it. The lower classes in Chile are industrious, enduring, and
+brave, and though at times they show a touch of that primitive ferocity
+characteristic of young peoples, their innate energy and great physical
+strength have been of incalculable value to the nation.
+
+Little worth detailing is recorded in the annals of Chile during the
+seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. For many years the Araucanians
+refused to make any treaty with the Spaniards. The chronicles are filled
+with accounts of the incursions made by the Indians into Spanish
+territory--often successful, more often repulsed, with sieges,
+ambushes--tales of reckless valour and unspeakable cruelty. Sometimes
+the Europeans carried the war over the Biobio, and during the ten years
+prior to 1640 they were so successful in carrying fire, slaughter, and
+pillage to the homes of the Araucanians, that the latter finally
+consented to an armistice and a formal treaty of peace. The Spanish
+governor went to the plain of Quillin, escorted by more than ten
+thousand persons, and the Araucanian general appeared in state at the
+head of all the toquis, ulmens, and chief warriors of the confederacy.
+Into the open space between the high contracting parties was led a llama
+for sacrifice, whose sprinkled blood remained a pledge that the historic
+Biobio would henceforth be respected by both nations as the boundary,
+and that the Araucanians would never permit colonists of third nations
+upon their shores, or aid the English and Dutch buccaneers. The Indians
+faithfully adhered to this pact of friendship and refused to furnish the
+Dutch with provisions when the latter took possession of Valdivia in
+1643. But in 1655 the cupidity of Spanish officers caused trouble, and
+war devastated both sides of the border for the next ten years. In 1665
+a new treaty, identical in terms, was negotiated, which continued in
+force until 1722. However, Spanish priests pushed their evangelising
+among the Indians, and officers, called "Capitanos de los amigos,"
+appointed to guard the interests of the missionaries, assumed authority
+highly offensive to the Araucanians. The great council was summoned, a
+general selected, and the missionaries expelled. When the Spanish
+governor marched to the frontier with five thousand men the Indians
+offered battle which the Spaniards dared not accept. The former
+continued firm in their demands, and peace was only re-established by
+abolishing the obnoxious officials.
+
+Meanwhile nothing of moment had disturbed the slow and even current of
+colonial progress in northern and central Chile. The country was poor,
+its exports small and its imports smaller. Great fortunes were not
+accumulated as in other South American countries, though the national
+life rested on a broader, surer basis. The wheat and cattle, the fruits
+and poultry introduced by the Spaniards raised the standard of
+alimentation and the vitality of the people, while the continual
+admixture of Spanish blood augmented individual initiative and
+intelligence. The towns at first grew very slowly. Santiago itself had
+only eight thousand inhabitants at the end of the seventeenth century,
+while the other so-called cities, Coquimbo, Castro, Valparaiso, Chillan,
+Concepcion, and Valdivia, were in fact little more than villages. The
+rural districts were populous, for the soil was fertile, the climate
+healthful, and the means of a simple subsistence abounded. Imported
+vices and diseases, and the oppressions suffered at the hands of the
+first Spanish proprietors, had somewhat thinned out the native
+population, but these losses were largely made up by a rapid increase of
+the element which boasted white descent, and in the latter part of the
+eighteenth century Spanish Chile was more densely populated than the
+Atlantic seaboard of North America.
+
+  [Illustration: HOUSE OF CONGRESS, SANTIAGO.]
+
+Spanish legislation gave a monopoly of South American commerce to a
+favoured ring of merchants at Cadiz, forbidding any communication with
+Chile except by the circuitous Isthmian route. Freights were enormous,
+profits and taxes exorbitant, and in spite of the repressive measures of
+the Spanish authorities, smuggling was carried on by way of the route
+over the Andes to Buenos Aires and Colonia. The war of the Spanish
+Succession, following the death of the last of the descendants of
+Charles V., disorganised Spanish administration, and during the
+confusion of the first few years of the eighteenth century illicit
+trading increased apace. The triumph of Louis XIV., and the seating of a
+French prince on the throne of Madrid, resulted in a temporary
+permission to French ships to trade with South America. For a time
+French manufactures were brought directly to Chile by way of Cape Horn.
+The customs receipts--hitherto merely nominal--rapidly increased, and
+although the license was soon revoked at the demand of the Cadiz
+monopolists, a permanent impetus had been given to commerce. Improving
+conditions gave a fresh start to immigration, and the comparatively
+rational policy of the Bourbon dynasty removed many of the more crying
+abuses of colonial administration. A little before the middle of the
+eighteenth century Governor Manso, with the approval of Madrid, founded
+a dozen cities scattered through all the provinces as far south as the
+Biobio, and settlements spread to the frontier of Araucania. Manso's
+successor, Rosas, was even more diligent in establishing new towns and
+received the title of "Conde de Poblaciones." He founded the University
+of San Felipe at Santiago, and stimulated commerce by opening a mint. In
+his administration occurred the great earthquake of 1751, which engulfed
+and destroyed Concepcion by a tremendous wave from the sea, and
+inflicted great damage upon Santiago and many other towns. These
+convulsions are very frequent in Chile and in early times people
+supposed that it was not safe to build houses of more than one story. It
+has since been ascertained that two-story edifices are as secure as
+lower ones and Chilean cities contain many handsome buildings.
+
+Rosas' successor was Don Manuel Amat. Under his administration the
+erection of new cities continued, and he is remembered as the
+captain-general who helped suppress the robbers and bandits who had
+infested the country. Vigilance committees were organised, volunteer
+patrols guarded the city streets and country roads, and a coast militia
+fought the pirates who infested the seashore. Chile in the middle of
+the eighteenth century presents the characteristics of a frontier
+country--rapid founding of towns, disorders and lawlessness effectively
+suppressed by lynch law, and a childish display of newly acquired
+wealth.
+
+The encroachments upon the Araucanians finally grew irksome to those
+indomitable and intractable savages. What the Spanish armies and priests
+had failed in, the settlers who poured into the fertile plains and
+valleys of southern Chile seemed about to achieve. The next
+captain-general even tried to incorporate the independent tribes into
+the Spanish system, but when he attempted to gather them into towns the
+spirit which had animated their forefathers proved too strong. A war
+broke out which lasted several years and ended only when the Spanish
+government renewed the treaties guaranteeing them practical
+independence, and allowing them to keep an ambassador at Santiago. Just
+about this time the trans-Andean province of Cuyo was separated from
+Chile and transferred to the newly created Buenos Aires viceroyalty.
+Taken purely for reasons of administrative convenience, this measure
+resulted in shutting off Chile from expansion over the vast plains of
+the Plate Valley, confining her between the Andes and the sea, and
+ultimately securing to the Argentine a territorial and numerical
+preponderance among Spanish-American republics.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE
+
+
+The last years of Spanish rule were the most prosperous Chile had known.
+A brisk coasting trade sprang into being; a small merchant marine grew
+up; the removal of the prohibition against free commerce with the rest
+of Spanish South America raised prices. The opening of Buenos Aires
+reacted upon her western neighbour, and Chile ceased to depend on the
+Isthmus route. A spirit of enterprise was awakened by a freer
+intercourse with the outside world and by the immigration of hardy
+adventurers who came through Buenos Aires, the great South American
+rendezvous of that day.
+
+  [Illustration: PLAZA DEL ARMAS, SANTIAGO.]
+
+Among these immigrants was the famous Ambrose O'Higgins, a poor Irish
+lad, who landed at Buenos Aires, made his way to Chile, started as a
+peddler, became an army contractor, made a fortune, got a commission in
+the army, distinguished himself in an expedition against the
+Araucanians, ingratiated himself with everybody by his wit, courage, and
+good-natured shrewdness, and finally was selected as captain-general.
+He ruled the country wisely and well until promoted to be viceroy at
+Lima. His successors were mostly able and honest men, and under their
+government the natural causes making for the prosperity of Chile had
+free scope. Wealth increased, and with it love of display, honours, and
+letters. Santiago became a real capital, the favourite residence of the
+landed aristocracy and a social centre where fashions were prescribed.
+The English war into which France pushed Spain in 1796 much damaged
+Chilean commerce, but not sufficiently to stop the impulse already
+received. The old ignorant content with Spanish rule gave place to a
+growing demand for the removal of all restrictions, and the appetite for
+commercial freedom grew with what it fed on.
+
+Chile was still comparatively poor and backward. The rude population
+were engaged in a harsh struggle with fierce savages and in laying the
+foundations of material prosperity. Most of these people were the
+descendants of Indians accustomed for centuries to implicit obedience to
+a rustic, unlettered aristocracy. The genius of the race was rather
+practical than ideal, and the long, careless government by men
+invariably chosen for their military abilities rather than their
+qualities as civil administrators had not tended to make Chile a fertile
+soil for the development of revolutionary ideas. Chilean society was
+less favourably constituted for sudden changes than that of Buenos
+Aires--the boom town of the time, with its active commerce, its restless
+recently arrived population,--or that of the northern viceroyalties,
+controlled by professional and office-holding classes and parish
+priests.
+
+Two or three hundred families held most of the lands of Chile, and the
+power of this aristocracy was especially predominant in the provinces
+around Santiago. In the southern provinces long wars had thinned the
+native population and dispossessed the original grantees. Estates were
+more widely distributed and opinion more radical, but in the rest of the
+country the newer immigrants had been forced to accept the system, and
+the comparatively few families who owned the land and thereby controlled
+the means of subsistence of the whole people, enjoyed unquestioned
+ascendancy. But conservative as this aristocracy was, among its members
+there rankled a profound jealousy of the Spanish officials who wrung
+excessive taxes from their reluctant fingers; who enforced the Spanish
+regulations forbidding the culture of grapes, olives, and tobacco; who
+until recently had closed the ports, cutting off the profitable sale of
+crops, and compelling the payment of extravagant prices for manufactured
+goods; and most irritating of all, who still monopolised the lucrative
+offices.
+
+The news of Ferdinand's imprisonment and the invasion of Spain by
+Napoleon's armies reached Chile in the late summer of 1809, creating
+great excitement among the Spanish office-holders and the Creole
+aristocracy. Sentiment was universal against submission to the French
+usurpation and discussion at once began of how the government should be
+carried on during the King's captivity. Carrasco, the captain-general,
+hesitated and vacillated between the conflicting suggestions.
+
+In preparation for an emergency, whose exact nature no one could
+foresee, the city authorities gathered arms, drilled troops, and levied
+extra taxes. The property-owning and governing classes divided into two
+currents of opinion. The government officials, with their friends and
+hangers-on, saw that their interests would best be served by the
+recognition of the revolutionary juntas which had assumed the _ad
+interim_ direction of affairs in Spain. The leading Creole families
+proposed the establishment of an independent junta, pending Ferdinand's
+return, or the definite defeat of the national cause in Spain. Although
+the latter party warmly protested their faithfulness to the
+mother-country, at bottom they designed to secure for Chile and Chileans
+virtual independence while Spain's troubles lasted, and the Spanish
+officials did not hesitate to characterise their opponents as rebels.
+Feeling rapidly grew intense, and in May, 1810, the captain-general
+ordered the arrest of several prominent Creoles. This arbitrary measure
+aroused such a fierce clamour that Carrasco lost his nerve, and
+consented to the release of the prisoners. This indication of weakness
+encouraged the agitators, and when news came across the Andes that the
+people of Buenos Aires had deposed their viceroy, Santiago broke into
+revolution.
+
+The captain-general had summoned an open cabildo to enjoin obedience to
+certain orders received from Spain, but this assembly tumultuously
+demanded his resignation. Helpless against the popular outcry and the
+hostile attitude of the city government, he turned over his authority to
+Toro, a wealthy nobleman, whose venerable age and pacific disposition
+seemed likely to preserve the peace. Nevertheless, the Creoles persisted
+in their demand for an independent Chilean junta. Another meeting of all
+the qualified electors was called; the arrival of a representative of
+the new junta at Buenos Aires, who strongly urged Chile to follow
+Argentina's example, had its influence; and on the 18th of September,
+the date observed as the anniversary of Chilean independence, Toro
+resigned his authority to the cabildo. The office of captain-general was
+abolished and power passed to a junta of seven. Chile's ports were
+opened to all nations, quadrupling the customs receipts in a single
+year, and the country began a virtually separate existence, although the
+acts of the junta ran in the name of the Spanish King.
+
+However, the junta's power rested upon a basis too narrow for stability.
+Representing only the Santiago aristocracy, there was no certainty that
+its orders would be respected in the provinces, or that independent
+juntas would not be set up in other cities. To remedy this difficulty a
+national congress was summoned, but the junta allotted to Santiago
+almost as many members as to all the other municipalities together. The
+elections took place in April, 1811, and while they were going on the
+Spanish officer in command of a detachment at Santiago revolted. A
+member of the junta, José Carrera by name, an active and ambitious
+young man, who belonged to one of the most influential Creole families,
+distinguished himself by attacking and defeating the Spaniard with an
+improvised force of armed patriots. When congress met it voted many
+reforms; abolishing slavery, reorganising the judiciary, freeing
+commerce of vexatious restrictions, decreeing the payment of the clergy
+out of the public treasury instead of by tithes, and conferring on the
+elective bodies of the municipalities the right to elect their own city
+officers. However, divisions soon arose among the members. The
+representatives of the outside provinces bitterly complained of the
+unfairness of the apportionment; the radicals wished to reorganise
+everything, while the conservatives insisted on preserving many of the
+old institutions. The Santiago representatives, chosen from the landed
+aristocracy, were mostly conservative, while the members from the South
+were largely radical. Under the leadership of Doctor Rosas, the latter
+withdrew. The Santiago conservatives, left in undisputed control of
+congress, displaced the old junta, but Carrera and his two brothers had
+made themselves all powerful in the army by cleverly seizing its Spanish
+officers. He determined to ally himself with the radicals and assume
+supreme power. Marching to the hall of congress at the head of his
+troops, he compelled the selection of a new junta with himself as chief,
+and expelled the members upon whom he could not rely. Rosas had
+meanwhile established a radical junta at Concepcion, and Carrera offered
+to associate him in the government. Rosas declined, and the Santiago
+leader, now frankly a military dictator, advanced with an army to reduce
+the South to obedience. But the news that the Spanish party had gained
+the ascendancy in Valdivia and Chiloë intimidated him, and he made peace
+with Rosas, retiring to Santiago. His emissaries nevertheless continued
+to intrigue in Concepcion and finally stirred up a riot which resulted
+in Rosas' expulsion.
+
+For nearly two years Carrera and his brothers remained in power,
+governing by military force, confiscating the property of their enemies,
+allowing their friends to loot the public funds, and committing many
+enormities. Conspiracy after conspiracy was formed against them, only to
+be detected and suppressed, while the patriots divided into hostile
+factions each selfishly ambitious for control. Meanwhile Abascal, the
+able and resolute viceroy at Lima, had succeeded in keeping Peru
+submissive, in crushing out the revolution in Ecuador and Bolivia, and
+in repelling the northward march of the Argentine patriots. He now
+prepared to send an army to re-establish royal authority in Chile. Early
+in 1813 a large force landed at Talcahuano and, advancing to Concepcion,
+was joined by the garrison of that place. Reinforcements came up from
+Valdivia and Chiloë, and the Spanish general took the road for Santiago
+at the head of four thousand men. In the face of this imminent danger
+the bickerings of the patriots were hushed. Carrera advanced to the
+South in command of twelve thousand men, poorly armed and disciplined.
+On the Spanish side the officers were, however, suspicious, and had
+little confidence in their raw levies. A sudden and successful attack on
+an outpost near the river Maule was followed by a panic among the
+royalists, and they retreated in disorder, but with no great loss, to
+the fortifications of Chillan, only fifty miles from Concepcion.
+Detachments of patriots pushed on to Concepcion and captured that place
+and Talcahuano. The Spanish army was completely isolated in Chillan, but
+had found there an abundant supply of provisions, and successfully
+resisted Carrera's efforts to take the place. His hastily gathered
+levies, without means of sheltering themselves from the rain and cold,
+melted away by desertion. Finally he retired toward Concepcion followed
+by the Spaniards and the remnants of his army were only saved from total
+rout by the gallantry and steadiness of Bernardo O'Higgins. This
+military chief, a natural son of the old Irish captain-general, and heir
+to his Chilean estates, had made common cause with the patriots at the
+beginning of the revolution, and attached himself to the fortunes of
+Rosas, the leader of the Concepcion radicals. When the latter was
+banished by Carrera, O'Higgins retired from the army. The Spanish
+invasion had roused him; he offered his sword to Carrera, and his
+dashing military talents sent him quickly to the front.
+
+  [Illustration: BERNARDO O'HIGGINS.]
+
+Carrera's failure at Chillan cost him his prestige, his rivals at
+Santiago took advantage of his absence to expel him from the junta, his
+violent measures at Concepcion exasperated its people to revolt, and his
+own troops became mutinous. The new Santiago junta formally nominated
+O'Higgins to the chief command and Carrera was compelled to withdraw.
+The new general inspired some vigour into the patriot operations, but
+the arrival of reinforcements from Lima gave the royalists an
+overwhelming preponderance in cavalry and artillery. The junta had
+recalled a large part of his forces to defend Santiago, when an
+unexpected movement by one of the Spanish divisions resulted in the
+capture of the important city of Talca, half-way between the capital and
+Concepcion. Though O'Higgins and the troops left in the South managed to
+repulse an attack of the main Spanish army, an army sent from Santiago
+failed to retake Talca and its destruction left the capital unprotected.
+O'Higgins by forced marches succeeded in beating the Spaniards to the
+Maule, saving the city for the moment. Meanwhile, a revolution had
+overthrown the junta responsible for the fatal Talca expedition and the
+new dictator entered into negotiations with the Spanish commander. The
+latter, confronted by O'Higgins' army, and anticipating a desperate
+resistance, thought it best not to press his advantage too far. He
+agreed to an armistice, and Chile offered to acknowledge allegiance to
+Spain, send members to the Cortes shortly to assemble, and accept any
+Constitution which might be promulgated by that body, if the viceroy
+would recognise _ad interim_ the present Santiago government and
+withdraw the Spanish army within two months.
+
+One result of the armistice was the liberation of the Carreras from the
+Spanish prison in which they had been confined since their deposition
+the year before. They hastened to Santiago and started an intrigue for
+the overthrow of Lastra and O'Higgins. Such was their popularity with
+the troops in Santiago and the extent of their family influence that
+they got possession of the city and were preparing to dispute the
+supreme control of Chile with O'Higgins by force of arms when news
+arrived that the viceroy refused to sanction the compromise, and that an
+army of peninsular veterans was on its way. Though Carrera and O'Higgins
+pretended a reconciliation, each distrusted the other, and took the
+field virtually independent. Under such conditions Chilean success was
+impossible. O'Higgins' division was annihilated at Rancagua, Carrera
+abandoned the capital, and fled with a few hundred followers over the
+Andes, where he was joined by O'Higgins and the more determined
+patriots. This influx of the pick of the fighting men of Chile was a
+valuable reinforcement for the army which San Martin was already
+organising behind the shelter of the eastern foothills. Between the
+rival Chilean leaders, Carrera and O'Higgins, he chose the latter, gave
+him his confidence, and made him his chief lieutenant, while Carrera,
+finding no place in San Martin's entourage, went on to Buenos Aires,
+never again to return to his native country.
+
+Both aristocracy and people in Chile were tired of the military misrule
+which they had suffered during the dominance of the patriot chiefs. A
+deputation of the most prominent citizens went to welcome General Osorio
+as he advanced to Santiago after the battle of Rancagua. Within a month
+the Spanish power was securely re-established throughout the country.
+The leading revolutionists who remained in Chile were executed or
+banished, more than a hundred being exiled to the desolate island of
+Juan Fernandez. During two years and a half--from 1814 to 1817--Osorio
+and his successor, Marco del Ponte, ruled Chile with a rod of iron. So
+far as possible everything was restored as it had been before 1810. The
+Spanish judges were reinstated, elective municipal councils abolished,
+the newspapers suppressed, and all the liberal reforms revoked.
+
+Meanwhile San Martin, behind the screen of the Andes, and only a hundred
+and fifty miles from Santiago, was forging a thunderbolt destined to
+shatter into fragments the edifice which Abascal had been so skilfully
+constructing through seven laborious years. The story of how the silent
+Argentine gathered and equipped the "Army of the Andes" has already been
+told. In the chapter devoted to Argentina the reader will find a meagre
+description of his marvellous march over the cloud-high passes, the
+descent into the plain of Aconcagua made so suddenly that the Spanish
+forces could not hurry up to bar his way, the prompt advance over the
+low transverse range which forms the northern boundary of the plain
+where Santiago stands, and the overwhelming victory in the gorge of
+Chacabuco against the pick of the Spanish veterans, who confidently
+stood to the attack, never dreaming until San Martin was right upon them
+that his main body had had time to reach the spot. The Spanish
+authorities at Madrid and Lima had made the irretrievable mistake of
+underestimating the efficiency of his army. They thought the troops in
+Chile amply able to take care of any four thousand men the patriots
+could get together, but San Martin's army was differently provided and
+organised than the undisciplined masses which had been routed at Huaqui,
+Villapugio, and Rancagua. The Spanish generals were not so much
+surprised at his crossing the Andes as at finding the troops which
+reached the Chilean plains to be well furnished with artillery, cavalry,
+and ammunition, perfectly ready for an aggressive campaign, and a match
+man for man for any force that could be brought against them.
+
+  [Illustration: RAILROAD BRIDGE BETWEEN SANTIAGO AND VALPARAISO.]
+
+The royalists lost twelve hundred of their best men at Chacabuco; only a
+thousand escaped from the field to fly in disorder toward Santiago. On
+the way they met the Spanish cavalry riding to join them, but
+Captain-General Marco, instead of rallying the three thousand men who
+remained under his orders, hurried out of town toward Valparaiso,
+anxious for his personal safety. San Martin had expected to be obliged
+to fight another battle and kept his army together, instead of pursuing
+and annihilating the dismayed Spaniards. More than half the latter
+managed to escape to Valparaiso, where they embarked for Peru. Santiago
+received the conqueror with no great enthusiasm. The moneyed classes
+feared another prolonged civil war with its attendant confiscations,
+forced contributions, and general disorder; the common people cared
+little whether a Spaniard or an Argentine occupied the governmental
+palace. However, no one dreamed of resistance; the partisans of the
+proscribed patriots and the votaries of independence and liberalism were
+delighted; San Martin with his host of hardy gauchos and Chilean exiles
+assumed full control of the capital. He summoned an assembly of notables
+who promptly and unanimously elected him "Governor of Chile with plenary
+powers." But this was not what the far-sighted and patriotic soldier
+wanted. He realised that Chile could never give that unquestioning
+support so vital to the success of his cherished campaign against Peru
+so long as any stranger, even himself, governed by force. San Martin
+peremptorily declined the honour, but intimated that he would be glad to
+see his staunch friend, O'Higgins, selected dictator, and accordingly
+the enemy of the Carreras was placed at the head of the new Chilean
+government.
+
+With eyes fixed on a Peruvian campaign it was only natural that San
+Martin should leave immediate details in Chile to others. Though all
+central Chile submitted with good grace, the South remained a stronghold
+of the Spanish sympathisers. Among its warlike people the royalist
+armies had been recruited, and there lay the two strongest
+fortresses--Talcahuano and Valdivia--both of them still in possession of
+the Spaniards. After two months' delay, Las Heras, with a thousand men,
+was despatched, but his force was inadequate and his advance slow.
+Before he arrived near Concepcion, an able Spanish general, Ordoñez, who
+had fought side by side with San Martin in Spain, had organised a
+division equal in numbers, with which he retired to Concepcion and there
+was joined by the sixteen hundred troops who had escaped after the rout
+at Chacabuco, and who had been ordered back to Chile the moment they
+made their appearance at Callao. The Spanish general now thought himself
+strong enough to annihilate Las Heras, but the sortie which he led was
+beaten back in the battle of Gavilan. However, this victory was in no
+way decisive, and the patriots were not able to make any impression on
+the fortifications at Talcahuano or to advance south of the Biobio.
+Southern Chile remained hostile and Talcahuano and Valdivia were open
+doors through which the Spaniards could send reinforcements and supplies
+as long as they held command of the sea.
+
+San Martin remained in Santiago only a short time after Chacabuco.
+Prepossessed with the idea that Chile could never be safe or Peru won
+until he had organised a fleet to wrest control of the Pacific from the
+Spaniards, he hastened across the Andes to arrange with his friends in
+the Argentine government for the necessary money. The Chilean campaign
+had saved Buenos Aires from impending invasion; the Argentine patriots
+would certainly be crushed if Chile should fall back into Spanish hands;
+they could never feel secure so long as Peru and Bolivia remained
+royalist. The promises which he asked were readily given, on his
+agreeing that Chile should contribute three hundred thousand dollars
+toward the purchase of a squadron on the Pacific, and forty thousand for
+the support of the Argentine army on the Bolivian frontier, besides
+taking the responsibility of the pay and maintenance of the Army of the
+Andes. Argentina was to aid in purchasing the fleet and hold back the
+Spaniards on the Bolivian border.
+
+San Martin returned to Chile, where he was shortly followed by an
+official representative of the Argentine government and the alliance
+created by Chacabuco received formal sanction. He found Chilean affairs
+in a very unsatisfactory condition. O'Higgins was hated by the powerful
+partisans of the Carreras, and distrusted by Chileans generally as too
+much under Argentine influence. His power really rested upon Argentine
+bayonets; his appointment of Quintana, an Argentine and San Martin's
+aide-de-camp, as acting dictator at Santiago was bitterly resented. San
+Martin's presence did something to allay the feeling, but as a matter of
+fact he had little sympathy for the Chilean people, being a man who
+despised the arts by which popularity is gained, and who made few
+friends. Meanwhile the three Carreras were actively plotting from their
+exile at Buenos Aires for the overthrow of O'Higgins and San Martin.
+Their friends and agents swarmed in Chile and preparations were made for
+a rising as soon as they should set foot in the country. The two younger
+brothers attempted to cross the Andes in disguise, but were detected and
+arrested at Mendoza. Quintana ordered the imprisonment of many persons
+suspected of being Carrera partisans, but his severe measures raised
+national feeling to such a height that it was thought safest to carry
+out San Martin's suggestion and appoint a Chilean as acting dictator in
+his stead.
+
+In the Argentine the position of the patriot government was even worse.
+With civil war actively raging in the one country and only held in check
+by foreign bayonets in the other, and with both governments struggling
+against financial difficulties, it is no wonder that the war-ships which
+were expected to sweep the Spanish frigates from the Pacific did not
+arrive. The delay cost the patriots dear. In January, 1818, four Spanish
+ships, mounting two hundred and thirty cannon sailed into Talcahuano,
+and landed three thousand four hundred well-equipped soldiers, most of
+them peninsular veterans. San Martin, a master of the art of recruiting,
+had raised a second army composed principally of Chileans and nearly
+equal in numbers to the original Army of the Andes, so that his total
+force amounted to nine thousand men, while the Spanish troops did not
+exceed five thousand. The Argentine general was in the dark as to where
+the enemy would land, and had already issued orders for O'Higgins, who
+was in command near Concepcion, to retreat, resolved on concentrating
+his forces near Valparaiso. Even after the Spanish army had disembarked
+at Talcahuano, San Martin was in doubt whether Osorio would not
+re-embark and strike at some unexpected harbour near Santiago. But the
+latter came up steadily by the land route, encountering no opposition
+though somewhat hampered by broken bridges and the bareness of the
+country of horses and supplies, for the retreating O'Higgins had left
+his track a desert. The farther the Spaniards penetrated toward
+Santiago the more difficult became the feeding of their army and the
+more certainly disastrous a retreat in case of reverse.
+
+  [Illustration: TALCAHUANO.]
+
+O'Higgins stopped at Talca to await orders, and there, on the 20th of
+January, 1818, he defiantly made proclamation of Chile's absolute
+independence of Spain. Three weeks later the approach of Osorio's army
+forced him to abandon the place and he retired to form a junction with
+San Martin. The latter completed his concentration and advanced with an
+army of over seven thousand men, superior in all arms and especially in
+cavalry and artillery. About a hundred miles south of Santiago he met
+the Spaniards and won some cavalry skirmishes. The enemy retired toward
+Talca, unwilling with inferior forces to bring on a general action where
+defeat meant annihilation, and even contemplating a retreat to
+Talcahuano. But behind them lay the deep river Maule, and San Martin
+made a dash to reach it first. The two armies marched rapidly on
+parallel lines with the patriot cavalry harassing the Spanish rear. On
+the afternoon of the 19th of March the Spaniards wheeled into line in
+excellent position just outside the city of Talca, with their west flank
+protected by a stretch of broken ground called the Cancha-Rayada. San
+Martin was following close, but the partial attack which be immediately
+made was interrupted by darkness before any decisive results were
+obtained. Hastily going into camp too near the enemy's lines and all
+unprepared for battle, the patriots were surprised at about nine o'clock
+in the evening by the assault of the whole Spanish army. The alarm was
+given by the cavalry pickets, but only a few had time to get into line
+of battle before the enemy was upon them. San Martin over on the extreme
+right heard a few volleys and then the noise of confused flight,
+scattering shots, and the thundering hoof-beats of the pursuing cavalry.
+O'Higgins had been wounded while trying to get his men into order, and
+from that moment the patriots in his neighbourhood thought of nothing
+but escape through the darkness. The centre and left, including the
+cavalry, dispersed in the wildest confusion, abandoning the artillery.
+The right wing, composed of three thousand five hundred infantry, was
+not attacked and waited in stupefaction for two or three hours not
+clearly understanding what had happened. Its officers held a council,
+put Las Heras in command, and by daybreak the division was sixteen miles
+from the field of battle. In the meantime San Martin and O'Higgins had
+found each other, and soon were busily engaged in collecting the
+scattered cavalry. The patriot loss in killed and wounded had been
+small, but a third of their number had deserted and many of the
+remainder searched in vain for their regiments. However, the royalist
+army had been nearly as badly dispersed in making this night attack as
+the patriots in receiving it. No effective pursuit could be made, and
+San Martin retreated on Santiago practically unmolested. The first news
+of the disaster was carried to the capital by fugitive officers. They
+reported that San Martin was killed and O'Higgins mortally wounded, and
+everything lost. Shouts of "Viva el rey" resounded through the streets;
+leading citizens opened communication with Osorio, and the republicans
+prepared for flight to Mendoza or Valparaiso. But the next day word came
+that San Martin himself was safe; and the day following a despatch
+saying he had four thousand men under his orders. With O'Higgins's
+arrival in the city the revolutionary disorders were suppressed, and
+soon San Martin rode into the city. Though half dead through loss of
+sleep, as he drew rein at his house he made the one speech of his life,
+laconically assuring the people that he expected to win the next battle,
+and that right soon.
+
+  [Illustration: NATIVE COSTUMES IN CHILE ABOUT 1840.]
+
+Not forgetting precautions which ensured a safe retreat to the northern
+provinces or the Argentine, he devoted himself to re-organising the
+army, and within ten days after its dispersal had five thousand men
+together, well provided and resolute to give a good account of
+themselves. He took a position on a low line of chalk hills seven miles
+south-west of Santiago, and waited for the enemy, whose numbers were now
+slightly superior to his own. Meanwhile the Spanish officers were
+greatly disappointed at the negative results of Cancha-Rayada; mutual
+reproaches flew back and forth in their council of war; many advocated
+maintaining the defensive and even retreating to the south to be nearer
+their base. Their indecision gave San Martin the needed opportunity to
+gather his dispersed forces and to inspire them with his own confidence.
+Finally, however, Osorio advanced cautiously on Santiago, hoping that
+the Argentine would not risk another battle for the defence of the
+capital, and manoeuvring to the west so as to get between the city and
+the sea. In front of San Martin's position lay another line of chalk
+hills, separated from the first by a narrow stretch of low ground. At
+their western end ran the road from Santiago to Valparaiso. Like the
+Union position at Gettysburg this line of hills was admirably adapted
+for a defensive battle, and Osorio resolved to occupy it, especially as
+he thought his left wing extended far enough west to command the
+Valparaiso road, thereby securing him a communication with a new and
+more convenient base on the coast and giving him a line of retreat in
+case of a reverse. But San Martin's quick eye saw that this opinion was
+mistaken; and that his opponent might easily be cut off.
+
+San Martin's tactical dispositions were admirably made on the momentous
+morning of April 5, 1818. He divided his army into two divisions and a
+reserve, stationing the latter on the extreme east of his line. Under
+cover of a heavy artillery fire the west division rushed down the slope,
+across the bottom, and up the hills commanding the Valparaiso road. The
+counter-charge of the Spanish horsemen was repulsed by the superior
+patriot cavalry, and the Spanish west wing was isolated from the rest of
+the army. Meanwhile the patriots' east division, composed of the bulk of
+their infantry, had charged straight across the narrow part of the
+bottom and reached the high ground opposite without seeing an enemy, but
+there was met by a terrific charge from the royalist infantry, and
+rolled in confusion back down the hill. Regardless of the artillery
+fire, the Spaniards were pursuing triumphantly over the low ground, when
+suddenly their eastern flank received the charge of the patriot reserve,
+which had advanced obliquely from its original position on the extreme
+east. This movement decided the battle. The Spanish infantry could not
+re-form to meet it, and were rolled up in helpless confusion. The flying
+patriot infantry rallied and returned to the attack; their cavalry,
+already victorious at the other end of the line, turned and charged the
+west flank of the Spaniards, who, simultaneously taken at both ends and
+in front, were cut down by hundreds. A few managed to keep their
+formation and fell back to the farm of Espejo, behind whose extensive
+buildings and garden walls they entrenched themselves, determined to
+sell their lives as dearly as possible. Joined by their left wing,
+which, unable to reach the centre where the hard fighting had taken
+place, had suffered little loss, they withstood the attack of the
+victorious patriot army. But the artillery was brought up, the walls
+knocked to pieces, and the position carried in the midst of the most
+frightful carnage. The infuriated patriots gave no quarter until General
+Las Heras rode among them and begged them to desist from the inhuman
+slaughter.
+
+Maipo was the hardest fought battle in all the wars of South American
+independence. Of five thousand royalists, twelve hundred were killed,
+eight hundred wounded, and two thousand two hundred made prisoners. Only
+eight hundred escaped, flying south toward safety at Talcahuano, of whom
+less than a hundred held together until they reached the Spanish
+fortifications. Of the patriots more than a fifth were killed and
+wounded--the greatest sufferers being the freed negroes whom San Martin
+had recruited in the Argentine. Half of these brave fellows were left on
+the field.
+
+Juan and Luiz Carrera, imprisoned at Mendoza, had been an embarrassment
+and menace to San Martin and O'Higgins. The latter hated them too much
+to be willing to make terms, and yet he feared that their execution
+would cause an insurrection by their family and party friends in Chile.
+A criminal prosecution had been trumped up against them and proceedings
+delayed on various pretexts. The news of the disaster at Cancha-Rayada
+was their death sentence. Dr. Monteagudo, O'Higgins's representative,
+acting as judge, sentenced them to death at three o'clock one afternoon
+and sent them to the shooting bench at five. Every Chilean who did not
+belong to the O'Higgins faction was profoundly shocked at this murder.
+Though the victims were agitators and revolutionists they belonged to
+one of the most respected families in Chile; with their older brother
+they had been the leaders in the first war against Spain; their devotion
+to the cause of independence was unquestioned, and they embodied the
+national sentiment which opposed the Argentine army's remaining on
+Chilean soil.
+
+Pursuit of the Spaniards flying from the field of Maipo was hardly over
+when open opposition to O'Higgins and his policy broke out. A cavalry
+corps--the "Husares de la Muerte"--composed of Carrera partisans had
+volunteered after the rout at Cancha-Rayada and rendered valuable
+service at Maipo. O'Higgins ordered it to disband. An open cabildo met
+which voted the dictator's deposition, but his soldiers arrested the
+Carrera leader, shot him in cold blood, and the citizens had no
+alternative but to disperse and submit. O'Higgins undertook to crush the
+opposition by ferociously persecuting his republican enemies and
+rapaciously confiscating the property of the royalists. This so occupied
+him that he was unable to pay much attention to the Spaniards in the
+south. Osorio gathered a small force at Talcahuano, easily beat off some
+desultory expeditions which the patriots sent against him, and from May
+until September held the whole country south of the Maule. But after the
+slaughter at Maipo the viceroy had all he could do defending Peru and
+Bolivia. Late in the year Osorio withdrew with most of his troops,
+leaving only meagre garrisons in the fortresses of southern Chile.
+
+San Martin had remained only a few days in Santiago, hurrying back to
+Buenos Aires to try to induce the Argentine government to carry out its
+promises of the year before and aid in the purchase of a fleet. Just
+before his departure an East Indiaman, carrying forty-four guns, had
+arrived at Valparaiso and the Chilean treasury was emptied to pay for
+her. When he reached Buenos Aires his friend Puerreyedon, the Argentine
+dictator, agreed to raise a loan of five hundred thousand dollars and
+send around two ships of the Argentine navy. San Martin immediately took
+the road for Chile, but at Mendoza a letter came forbidding him to draw
+on the Argentine treasury. He resigned, but the Argentine authorities,
+dismayed at the consequences of his withdrawal, finally gave him two
+hundred thousand dollars.
+
+The winter storms make the Andean passes impracticable, and it was
+October before the general reached Santiago, where to his delight he
+found that O'Higgins had already got together a considerable squadron.
+The East Indiaman, bought just before Maipo, and manned by British and
+North American officers, had succeeded in capturing a Spanish brig. Two
+American privateers were shortly afterwards bought by the Chilean
+government, and their arrival was followed by that of an English vessel
+purchased by San Martin's agent in London. Others were on their way from
+the United States and two Argentine ships were reported to be coming
+around Cape Horn. A few days prior to San Martin's return to Santiago,
+Chile's two frigates with two smaller consorts had sailed south from
+Valparaiso in the hope of intercepting a fleet of transports, carrying
+two thousand troops and a great quantity of arms, which the Spanish
+government had sent around the Horn from Cadiz convoyed by a fifty-gun
+frigate. Stormy weather had, however, scattered the royalist fleet and
+more than half the transports gave up the attempt to weather the
+formidable promontory, though the frigate and the others succeeded. The
+transports evaded the Chileans and reached Callao in safety, but the
+frigate was caught lying at anchor in Talcahuano, and proved an
+important addition to the patriot navy.
+
+The object for which San Martin had been planning and working during two
+years was achieved. His naval force, manned by professional sailors
+picked from among the best sea-fighting people of the world, was too
+formidable for the enemy to dare to attack. Chile was safe from invasion
+and Peru lay open to a descent. San Martin's first care was to wrest
+southern Chile from the Spaniards. To leave them in control of a fertile
+and populous territory where they could recruit troops, collect
+provisions, and menace Santiago was not safe. Toward the end of 1818 he
+sent his lieutenant, Balcarce, an Argentine, against them at the head of
+thirty-five hundred men. Such a force was irresistible; Chillan,
+Concepcion, and Talcahuano were abandoned and the Spanish commander shut
+himself up in the fortress of Valdivia.
+
+But when San Martin came to face the question of organising and
+equipping an army adequate for the invasion of Peru he found the
+Chileans cold and indifferent. The success of their fleet had insured
+them against assault, and they appeared to be chiefly interested in
+getting rid of the Argentine army of occupation. The soldiers had not
+received their pay, and though O'Higgins issued a proclamation
+announcing an expedition to Peru, San Martin waited around for months
+without receiving the promised aid. Finally he presented his resignation
+as general-in-chief of the proposed Peruvian expedition, and withdrew
+the Army of the Andes from Santiago, leading a part over the Andes to
+Mendoza and leaving the rest on the Chilean side near the entrance to
+the pass. This measure quickly brought the governments of both Chile and
+Argentina to terms. His presence east of the Andes intimidated the
+rebels against the authorities at Buenos Aires, leaving the latter's
+hands free to aid him, while the O'Higgins party in Chile realised that
+it could not maintain itself without his support. He required five
+hundred thousand dollars for the equipment of an army six thousand
+strong. Chile agreed to furnish three hundred thousand and Argentina
+the remainder, and he returned to Santiago in the middle of 1819 to
+complete his arrangements. While actively engaged in preparations word
+came that civil war had again broken out in the Argentine. San Martin
+was compelled to make his choice between deferring to an indefinite
+future his cherished expedition against Peru, or abandoning his native
+country to probable disintegration. He remained in Chile and though the
+Argentine government, under whose commission he was acting, had ceased
+to exist, he did not shrink from the responsibility of disposing of the
+Army of the Andes. His men cheerfully agreed to follow him, but months
+went by with little accomplished, and it was not until late in 1820 that
+he was able to sail for Peru, and then with only four thousand men
+instead of the six he had counted on. With his departure his influence
+on the affairs of Chile ceased.
+
+Lord Thomas Cochrane, a very able but very erratic British naval
+officer, who had gone into politics and got into trouble in his native
+country, arrived in November, 1818, to take command of the patriot navy.
+Under his dashing and restless leadership no time was lost in pushing
+naval operations. The year 1819 was spent in expeditions to the Peruvian
+and Ecuadorian coast; Callao was repeatedly bombarded, and the Spanish
+fleet took refuge under the guns of the fortresses, leaving the sea free
+to the patriots. Failing in a desperate attempt to cut out the Spanish
+ships from under the very guns of the Callao batteries, Cochrane sent
+all his vessels except his flag-ship to Valparaiso, and sailed with her
+for Valdivia, the last port held by the Spaniards on the Chilean
+mainland. The place was a very Gibraltar of natural strength, and had
+been well fortified. Nine forts and batteries disposed on both sides of
+the narrow estuary were garrisoned by over a thousand men; nevertheless
+Cochrane prepared to capture them by assault with his single ship.
+Stopping at Talcahuano he took on board two hundred and fifty Chilean
+soldiers, and was fortunate in finding two smaller ships. His flag-ship
+stranded; he transferred the marines to the other ships and went on;
+reaching the Valdivia bar, he landed without giving the Spaniards a
+moment's time to bring up reinforcements, and at the head of his
+soldiers and marines he attacked the outermost fort. Though defended by
+three hundred and sixty men its resistance was short. While Cochrane's
+main body advanced up a narrow path drawing the garrison's fire, a
+detachment found a neglected entrance in the rear through which they
+poured a volley on the defenders. Panic-stricken, the Spaniards fled to
+the next fort, but the patriots followed so close that no stand could be
+made. One after another all the forts on the south side of the estuary
+were rushed. Next day Cochrane's two smaller ships sailed into the
+harbour under the fire of the northern forts, and soon after the
+half-disabled flag-ship made her appearance. Seeing the long-boats
+filling with men and the cannons of the ships ready to open fire, the
+Spaniards fled to the city and surrendered the following day. This
+capture deprived the royalists of their last base of operations in
+Chile, and only the Chiloë Islands and a few scattered guerilla bands
+among the Indians of Araucania remained faithful.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE FORMATIVE PERIOD
+
+
+The long struggle against Spain accustoming Chileans to military service
+and uprooting the system under which the country had been ruled for
+centuries, necessarily placed the control of government in the hands of
+the generals. Like all other Spanish-American countries Chile had to
+pass through a period of irresponsible pretorian rule and the
+sterilising horrors of wars in which one ambitious chief tried to
+displace another. But anarchy lasted only a short time; the civil
+element was powerful even at the beginning; and Chileans never acquired
+the revolution habit. Her government has been stable longest and her
+political history the least checkered of any Spanish-American country.
+To this result, so happy for the internal prosperity and external power
+of the nation, several causes have co-operated. First of all has been
+the existence of a powerful landed aristocracy whose interests lay
+rather in cultivating their estates in the security of peace and order
+than in trying to make fortunes by taxes wrung from a poverty-stricken,
+reluctant proletariat. The people are by climate and inheritance
+industrious, naturally inclined toward industrial progress, agricultural
+rather than pastoral, prolific and colonising, and though pugnacious,
+they are not, like the inert Indians of the Andean and Central American
+countries, to be bullied into following the first revolutionary chief
+who comes along. Further the country is geographically compact--a narrow
+strip of plain with easy communication between its provinces, and,
+unlike the Argentine and Colombia, not divided into widely distant
+districts, each with its isolated capital, its local chiefs, its
+ambition for hegemony and autonomy.
+
+In the throes of the first war for independence Carrera was hardly able
+to maintain himself, and a civil revolution had as much to do with his
+overthrow as his military misfortunes. O'Higgins, even while supported
+by San Martin's army of Argentine veterans, held control by a very
+precarious grip. During 1819 and 1820 there were no serious troubles
+because attention was absorbed by the war against Peru and over
+Cochrane's naval victories, but no sooner had San Martin left, than
+symptoms of discontent again appeared on the surface. Complaints against
+the arbitrary and corrupt practices of O'Higgins's ministers were loud
+and unrestrainable; the aristocracy opposed his measures, and the very
+senate he had appointed to assist in the government openly obstructed
+him. Theoretically a radical, he called a national congress to establish
+the new nation on a democratic basis. However, even his own nominees
+moved slowly, while Coquimbo, the northern, and Concepcion, the
+southern capital, were hotbeds of opposition. In the latter part of 1822
+General Freire, the hero of the campaign which had redeemed southern
+Chile, took the initiative at Concepcion. The southern provinces
+declared against O'Higgins; Freire prepared to advance on Santiago.
+Coquimbo followed--an old Carrera partisan assuming the governorship.
+The northern revolutionists invaded the centre, while news came that
+Freire was rapidly coming up from the south. In January, 1823, O'Higgins
+handed his resignation to a committee of Santiago citizens, who
+appointed a temporary junta and summoned a congress. A few days later
+General Freire landed at Valparaiso with sixteen hundred soldiers, and
+on his advancing to the neighbourhood of the capital, congress very
+prudently offered him the dictatorship. The aristocracy and the people
+soon found that they had gained nothing in this exchange of masters.
+After a short spasm of reform, the public finances fell into horrible
+disorder, while the ruling clique enriched itself at the expense of the
+treasury.
+
+Freire permitted congress to promulgate a Constitution which in effect
+recognised the aristocracy as the dominant political element, but at
+heart he was a radical and an absolutist, and the document soon proved
+to be only so much waste paper. He showed his anti-clerical tendencies
+by refusing to come to any agreement with the Pope's representative, who
+arrived in 1824 charged with the reorganisation of the Chilean
+hierarchy. He summarily banished the Bishop of Santiago because of his
+royalist leanings, and issued decrees confiscating Church property. In
+1825 he dissolved congress and for some months ruled frankly as a
+dictator. When he issued writs for a new national assembly he solemnly
+promised not to interfere in the elections, but so little confidence was
+felt that, outside of Santiago, no one participated and from there only
+a few members were returned. Freire soon quarreled with this rump
+parliament, and its dissolution was followed by political confusion in
+which parties became daily more sharply defined and acrimonious. There
+were "federalists," who advocated provincial assemblies; "pipiolas," who
+followed the strong liberal chief, General Pinto; "o'higginistas," who
+favoured the return of the former dictator; and finally the
+conservatives, nicknamed "pelucones" from the perukes--pelucas in
+Spanish--which old-fashioned Chilean gentlemen wore. Only the military
+power and prestige of Freire, coupled with his real abilities and
+resolution, prevented attempts at forcibly displacing him.
+
+Early in 1826 the Spaniards who until then had held out on the island of
+Chiloë, surrendered, and this signal service to the country somewhat
+strengthened the dictator. In July of that year a congress met, composed
+of men favourable to Freire, and a majority of the members were
+federalists, who divided Chile into eight autonomous provinces. But it
+soon became evident that such a system must encounter strong opposition.
+The provincial assemblies would pass laws at variance with the measures
+of the central government, and in the next moment adopt resolutions
+instructing their delegates in the national congress to oppose the
+permanent establishment of a federated republic, declaring emphatically
+in favour of national unity. Nevertheless, the liberals persisted in
+their efforts to impose on the reluctant country a brand new form of
+government. Doctrinaires and soldiers were still in the saddle, and only
+close observation of the signs of the times revealed the fact that
+discussion was becoming broader and the military elements in danger of
+losing their preponderance. By the beginning of 1827 Freire had sunk to
+be little more than the doubtful leader of a fraction of a party. His
+administration was in horrible financial straits, the expenditures were
+twice the income, and in May he resigned in favour of the
+vice-president, General Pinto. The latter was an eminent lawyer as well
+as a brave soldier, who held very radical views. Continuing the policy
+of his predecessor he summoned a congress which swept away the old
+Constitution and framed one that was frankly federalistic, and during
+1828 and 1829 he and his party struggled to put it into application. But
+the sullen resistance of the aristocrats and the rivalries among the
+jealous liberal leaders were too much for him. Party passion became so
+acute and politicians so irritated and aggressive that it became
+impossible to carry on any regular government. In November Pinto
+resigned and Vicuña, president of the senate, tried his hand at holding
+the liberals together and suppressing the now confident and aggressive
+conservatives.
+
+Not only political but also social anarchy obtained throughout the
+country. Disorders were prevalent, robberies occurred daily, life was
+unsafe, foreigners were fleeing to Valparaiso. General Prieto,
+commanding the army on the Araucanian frontier, revolted and began a
+march on the capital. Vicuña hurried to the northern provinces to try to
+hold them quiet, while General Lastra went against Prieto. Under the
+leadership of Portales, the ablest statesman Chile has ever produced,
+the conservatives at Santiago organised a junta and bade open defiance
+to the liberals. When Lastra and Prieto met there was no fighting. The
+two generals held a conference and arranged a compromise by which Freire
+was to be recalled. But affairs at Santiago were in more resolute hands
+than theirs. Portales absolutely refused to agree, and back of him stood
+the conservative party, well organised and knowing clearly what it
+wanted. The conservatives had the land, the wealth, the prestige of
+social position, the ardent support of the clergy; their influence
+ramified everywhere; they had been welded together during the long
+dominance of the liberals; and, best of all, they followed a strong
+leader. The army could not be united in unquestioning support of any one
+general. Prieto decided to cast his lot with the conservatives, and
+occupied Santiago. The congress which was hastily elected naturally
+proved frankly and aggressively conservative. The liberals flew to arms,
+calling on Freire to lead them, and two thousand Chileans perished in
+battle before the final and decisive conservative victory at Lircay
+(April 17, 1830). Freire fled to Peru, Prieto was elected provisional
+president, and Portales became vice-president.
+
+  [Illustration: VIEW OF SANTIAGO, CHILE, ABOUT 1835.]
+
+Though he owed his elevation to his military successes the new president
+did not attempt to rule as a dictator, and co-operated cordially with
+the vice-president in organising a parliamentary civil government on an
+enduring basis. Prieto played not illy the rôle of a Washington to
+Portales' Hamilton. Militarism, radicalism, and federalism had been
+tried and found wanting and the great conservative statesman took care
+that the new order should be tainted with none of them. Two years were
+spent in careful experiment and deliberation, and the Constitution
+framed in 1833 has remained, with a few amendments, the fundamental law
+of Chile to this day. The most aristocratic and centralised of American
+Constitutions, it has given Chile the strongest and stablest government
+in Spanish America. The foundation of political power is the
+property-holding class. No man may vote unless he possesses land,
+invested capital, or an equivalent income from his trade or profession,
+and congress may fix the amount of the qualification as high as it
+pleases. Political power originated in the oligarchy, and its exercise
+was delegated to a president whose functions are even more extensive
+than those of the chief magistrate of the United States. _Ipso facto_
+commander-in-chief of the armed forces, free to select his cabinet and
+the chief functionaries of state without the confirmation of a senate,
+not subject to impeachment, possessing an effective control over the
+judiciary, given a practically absolute veto, with the intendentes of
+the provinces and the governors of the departments receiving from him
+their commissions and acting as his agents, it would seem that the
+president of Chile is little less than an absolute and irresponsible
+ruler. But from the beginning the executive was in practice dependent
+upon the oligarchy as represented in congress. The instances in which a
+president has tried to rule in defiance of the wishes of the aristocracy
+have been rare, and never successful.
+
+When Prieto's first term expired in 1836, many of the conservatives
+pressed Portales to accept the presidency, but he was satisfied with his
+place as chief minister. Under his vigorous and intelligent direction
+the courts and clergy had been reformed, the police organised, a
+national guard created, the budgets balanced, the executive and congress
+worked harmoniously together, peace and order had replaced confusion.
+Chile's feet had been placed on the path of social and industrial
+progress.
+
+The exiled Freire meanwhile was receiving aid from Santa Cruz who had
+recently created the Peru-Bolivian Confederation with himself as its
+chief, and whose ambitious designs included the installation of a
+government in Chile which would be his complaisant and obliged friend.
+With arms obtained in Peru, General Freire made a descent upon the
+island of Chiloë, but the rebellion was quickly suppressed, war declared
+against Santa Cruz, and the Peruvian fleet surprised and seized. While
+the army of invasion was waiting for the order to embark a few companies
+engaged in a mutiny which brought about a horrible tragedy. Portales had
+come to the camp to watch the preparations. The mutineers seized him as
+hostage, and fleeing to the interior carried him along locked in a
+closed carriage. In the middle of the winter night they encountered a
+detachment of government troops, and with the first volley the guards
+stopped the carriage. A man got out, walked unflinchingly to the side of
+the road, a half dozen shots rang out in the still air, and he fell.
+When the first light of dawn illumined the field, the victorious
+national guards found a body lying pierced by four bullets--it was
+Portales. But his work had been too thoroughly done for even his own
+death to affect it. He had found his country feeble and divided, torn by
+feud and faction; he left her prosperous, united, possessing surplus
+vitality for a successful foreign war. Prieto and the conservatives were
+not shaken; the expedition to Peru proceeded, and though the first
+failed, the second won the battle of Yungay, overthrew Santa Cruz, and
+made Chile the dominant power on the Pacific coast.
+
+At the end of his two terms of five years each, Prieto was succeeded by
+General Bulnes, the hero of the war. Foreign commerce was increasing by
+leaps and bounds; the growth of the customs revenues put government
+finances on a sound footing; the expenses of the war against Santa Cruz
+had been provided for out of current income. William Wheelwright had
+established the first steamship line on the Pacific. The political
+policy of Bulnes was as repressive toward the liberals as his
+predecessor's. However, education and literary activity were encouraged;
+a new university was inaugurated at Santiago in 1843. The opera and the
+drama flourished, and society took on a more intellectual and
+cosmopolitan tone. Even religious doctrine and the relations of Church
+and State were discussed with considerable freedom and warmth, and
+everywhere were signs of an awakening--a flowering out of the
+industrial, commercial, and intellectual life of the nation. German
+colonists were induced to settle in the forested valleys and mountains
+of the South, and that part of Chile became and has remained more
+Teutonic than Latin. The discovery of gold in California opened a market
+for Chilean wheat and gave a fresh impetus to commerce and agriculture,
+while the mines of Copiapo began to yield their inexhaustible wealth.
+
+Bulnes was re-elected without opposition in 1846, but a new Chile had
+grown up in the fifteen years of peaceful order. Though the old liberals
+had disappeared, a new party had arisen all the more formidable because
+its principles were moderate and it sought not dictatorships, military
+government, or federalism, but only administrative reforms, such as
+restraining the clergy and widening the suffrage. By 1849 the liberals
+had a majority in congress and an agitated session ensued. The
+conservative president was pushed into an attitude of uncompromising
+resistance to the liberal demands. Manuel Montt, the intellectual leader
+of the conservatives, a strong and ambitious man, who was known to have
+the courage and firmness to maintain himself against odds, was selected
+as Bulnes' successor. His elevation in the spring of 1851 was followed
+by an armed outbreak, which the government troops suppressed, but in
+September the revolution flamed forth with redoubled fury.
+
+From Concepcion, the liberal headquarters, marched an army which gained
+several victories and even threatened the capital. But the conservatives
+rallied and in December the issue was decided by the bloody battle of
+Loncomilla. In Chile, a narrow plain shut in between the Andes and the
+sea, losers cannot hide; a single encounter in force is enough; civil
+wars cannot be prolonged in remote provinces or by the flight of the
+defeated to inaccessible deserts. Though the destruction of life and
+property had been frightful--four thousand Chileans perishing and
+commerce and industry being paralysed for the moment--peace was
+immediately re-established and the nation rapidly recovered. A general
+amnesty buried the doings of the insurgents in oblivion, and former
+liberals were welcomed as members of the party which Montt and Varas,
+his able minister, organised. Though their faces were set against
+political innovations they adopted many important administrative
+reforms. The admirable civil code prepared by Bello was given to the
+country, replacing the complicated and confusing mass of old Spanish
+laws by clear and systematic legislation. The tariff was lowered and
+differential duties as between foreign countries were abolished.
+Commercial courts were installed, decimal coinage adopted, church tithes
+converted into a moderate fixed tax, treaties of commerce and amity
+negotiated with the great commercial nations, missions established
+among the Araucanians, and public libraries and schools were multiplied.
+
+On the other hand, Montt and Varas relentlessly pursued a policy of
+centralisation, subjecting even the affairs of the municipalities to the
+control of the Santiago bureaucracy. Re-elected as a matter of course in
+1856, Montt's second term was even more intransigent than his first.
+Many leading liberals were driven from the country, and minor
+insurrections broke out more than once, only to be sternly suppressed.
+The landed aristocracy had, however, ceased to be unanimous against
+concessions; its more progressive members belonged now to the liberal
+party; and the "montt-varistas" in congress were compelled to ally
+themselves now with the clericals, now with the liberals, in order to
+secure a working majority. In 1858 Montt came to an open rupture with
+congress because it insisted on passing a law permitting the return of
+his banished political enemies. Meanwhile he had alienated the clergy by
+compelling the ecclesiastical authorities to submit to the decisions of
+the civil tribunals, and some conservatives united with the liberals
+against him in the elections in the fall of 1858. His measures became
+arbitrary and oppressive. Newspapers were suppressed, meetings
+dispersed, and agitators imprisoned. At the end of the year a great
+meeting was called at the capital to promote a reform of the
+Constitution. The government forbade it as a menace to public order, and
+the dissatisfaction was so wide-spread that Montt proclaimed martial
+law.
+
+The liberals in the southern and northern provinces simultaneously rose
+in rebellion and for four months civil war raged furiously. Gallo, a
+young, rich, and powerful leader, was at the head of the insurrection in
+the North and at first he defeated the government forces and occupied
+Coquimbo. But his hopes were crushed by the news that the southern
+liberals advancing from Concepcion had been repulsed at Chillan,
+enabling Montt to concentrate the whole army against him. Four thousand
+regulars routed the two thousand men who followed Gallo, and the
+remnants fled across the Argentine border. Defeated and banished, the
+liberals in reality had won. The seriousness of the rebellion had
+convinced the aristocracy that concessions must be made or a renewal of
+the conflict would be inevitable. Montt did not seek a re-election, and
+it was necessary to unite on some man of high personal prestige, and of
+distinguished family, who had remained neutral in the recent struggle.
+Such a one was found in Perez, who accordingly received the unanimous
+vote of the electoral college and was inaugurated in 1861. That the new
+president's policy would be one of reconciliation and compromise was
+soon made evident by his procuring the passage of a law granting amnesty
+for political offences. A coalition of moderate liberals and
+conservatives threw Montt and Varas with their party of "nationalists"
+into opposition along with the radicals or "reds" under the leadership
+of Gallo. The curious spectacle was presented of two sets of men, united
+in an alliance against the administration, who only two years before had
+been fighting in the field, and who now professed the most radically
+divergent political opinions. Fierce parliamentary struggles ensued, but
+they were confined to the floor of congress and to changes in the
+ministry.
+
+The country had now recovered from the commercial panic of the fifties
+and from the devastations of the brief civil war, and proceeded again on
+the even tenor of its prosperous commercial way. The railroad from
+Valparaiso to Santiago was completed in 1863; lines were extended up and
+down the great central valleys; the telegraph system was enlarged;
+Chilean capitalists began to push up the desert northern coast to engage
+in the guano business; the German immigration to southern Chile
+continued and European colonisation was fostered. Indeed, no South
+American country has incorporated such a large proportion of North
+European blood; and British, German, and French names are common not
+only in commerce and industry, but also in the political, naval, and
+military services--witness Mackenna, O'Higgins, Beauchef, Godoy, Montt,
+Walker, Edwards, MacIver, Tupper, Prat, Larrain, MacClure, Koenig,
+Mathieu, Stuven, Ross, Marchant, Cumming, Day, Stephan, and a hundred
+others.
+
+In 1865 a war with Spain interrupted domestic progress, political as
+well as commercial. Engaged in a dispute with Peru, the Spanish
+government had sent an overwhelming fleet to enforce its demands, and
+seized the Chincha Islands. The Spanish admiral was reported to have
+justified this high-handed act upon the ground that Peru was still
+subject to Spain. If this was true of the one country it was of the
+other, and the Chileans believed their territorial integrity and even
+their independence menaced. Government and people manifested an active
+sympathy with Peru; Peruvian vessels were allowed to coal; newspapers
+were filled with abuse of Spain; and a riot occurred in front of the
+Spanish legation. In September, 1865, the Spanish fleet sailed into
+Valparaiso Bay and its admiral presented an ultimatum. Four days were
+given for a satisfactory explanation, an apology, and a salute to the
+Spanish flag. Failing this he would blockade the coast and procure
+indemnification by force. The Chilean government rejected the
+humiliating proposition; the blockade was established, and the
+administration, backed by the enthusiastic approval of the whole
+country, refused to make any concessions, though Chile's fleet consisted
+of one small vessel and her ports were at the enemy's mercy. The single
+Chilean steamer succeeded in capturing a Spanish gunboat, which so
+humiliated the admiral that he committed suicide, and when, in March,
+1866, Chile refused even to disclaim an intention of insulting Spain, or
+to exchange salutes, the Spaniards proceeded to bombard Valparaiso. The
+town was totally without defences and open to cannon fire; ten millions
+of property were destroyed in the three hours and a half that the
+cannonading lasted, nine-tenths of it being on the water-front and
+belonging to foreign merchants. The Spanish fleet then withdrew,
+although the original question remained exactly as at the outset.
+
+  [Illustration: VIEW OF VALPARAISO.]
+
+An indirect result of the common danger of the Pacific nations was an
+agreement in 1866 between Chile and Bolivia as to their boundary on the
+coast. The line was fixed at the 24th degree, but Chileans were allowed
+to continue to exploit guano and nitrate as far north as the 23d--an
+arrangement which gave their country substantial claims in a region
+which shortly proved a marvellous producer of ready money. The German
+colonisation in the South continued on an increasing scale during the
+late sixties; free land was given to immigrants and their passage paid.
+The Araucanians, resenting the influx of whites so near their own
+territory, began to make trouble, and a war went on through 1868, 1869,
+and 1870, which finally resulted in their suing for peace. A line of
+forts kept them in order and they ceased to be a disturbing factor in
+Chilean affairs.
+
+Perez had been re-elected in 1866, and his second term marks the
+beginning of a new era in Chilean politics. The dynamic elements had
+finally become stronger than the static, and the pressure for amendments
+to the Constitution could no longer be resisted. But in the forty years
+since Portales had fixed the form of the government in its aristocratic
+mould, political traditions had hardened into habits. No really radical
+changes had any serious chance of success. A measure forbidding the
+president to be re-elected was passed, and a desperate fight made to
+extend the suffrage to all who could read and write. Though favoured by
+President Perez the last failed to carry, and the most the liberals
+could obtain was a law reducing the property qualification.
+
+The election in 1871 was warmly contested. The advanced liberals pressed
+hard on the conservatives, who resisted further changes desperately. The
+latter united with the moderate liberals upon Errazuriz as presidential
+candidate to succeed Perez, and receiving the support of the outgoing
+administration he was elected. At first the elements who had elected him
+controlled a majority in congress, but the aggressiveness of the
+liberals and rival ambitions in the government coalition soon overthrew
+the reactionary ministry. Errazuriz changed as congress did and soon
+found himself pushing liberal reforms. The great issue was the
+amenability of the clergy to the civil tribunals. Though fifteen years
+previously President Montt had compelled the reinstatement of two church
+dignitaries deprived of their places by the archbishop, the clergy had
+nevertheless persisted in their claims. The liberals now insisted on the
+adoption of a criminal code which would leave no doubt, and amid bitter
+opposition it was passed. The clericals were further outraged by
+concessions as to Protestant worship and the obligatory teaching of the
+Catholic religion in the state colleges. Though the bill establishing
+civil marriage failed, the anti-clerical movement went so far that the
+old-line conservatives withdrew in disgust from the alliance which had
+existed between them and the moderate liberals since the revolt against
+Montt. Thenceforth the conservative party ceased to be an important
+factor, and the predominant liberals divided into factions who intrigued
+among themselves to organise working congressional majorities, which
+supported ministries and controlled patronage. Political reform went on
+with increasing momentum. To curb the control of elections which the
+ministry in power exercised through the local officers who made up the
+voting lists, minority representation was provided for, but only after
+the moderates had forced the radicals to a compromise, which exempted
+presidential and senatorial elections.
+
+Meanwhile material prosperity was steadily increasing and population
+growing at the rate of one and a half per cent. a year. Coal mines had
+been discovered in southern Chile, railroad building continued, and the
+finding of the rich Caracoles silver mines in 1870, lying near the
+northern limit of the jointly occupied territory, not only opened up
+vistas of wealth, but brought to the front the troublesome question of
+the Bolivian boundary. Peru became alarmed at Chile's rapid progress in
+the nitrate and guano business, Bolivia feared aggressions on the part
+of her powerful neighbour, and in 1872 these two powers entered into a
+defensive alliance intended to protect their joint interests on the
+Pacific coast. The reaction inevitably consequent on rapid commercial
+expansion came in the middle of Errazuriz' term, and was aggravated by a
+fall in the prices of Chilean exports caused by the world panic of 1873.
+The already burdened government finances quickly felt the strain; outgo
+exceeded income, and it was necessary to reduce expenses. Happily the
+debt, though large, was not excessive. Chile had gone in for no such
+reckless carnival of borrowing as Peru and the Argentine, and her bonds
+had been opportunely refunded at a low rate of interest.
+
+As the time for the election approached the radical liberals put forward
+Mackenna on a programme which included not only religious freedom in its
+widest sense, the extension of the common schools, and the abolition of
+the tobacco monopoly, but also railways and internal improvements enough
+to bankrupt the treasury. The moderate liberals were opposed to Mackenna
+and his programme, so the party split. The convention of moderates was
+at first unable to agree on a candidate, but on a second attempt Anibal
+Pinto was nominated. Favoured by the outgoing administration, his
+election was a foregone conclusion.
+
+By this time the dispute with the Argentine over the possession of the
+southern extremity of the continent had become acute, and public feeling
+in both countries had risen to a height perilous to the maintenance of
+peace. The only boundary treaty between Chile and Argentina--that of
+1856--provided that the limits should be as they had been during
+colonial times, but these were not certain because throughout the
+Spanish occupation the territory now disputed had been uninhabited, and
+neither the viceroy of Buenos Aires nor the captains-general of Chile
+had concerned themselves about it. Since independence Chile had always
+claimed to the Andes on the east and to Cape Horn on the south,
+including the region about the Straits of Magellan over to the Atlantic
+side. As early as 1843 she had established a post at the eastern end of
+the straits, and Argentina at first did not seriously dispute her
+possession. In 1870 guano was discovered in the region, and when Chile
+promptly proceeded to treat it as her own the Argentine government
+protested. For ten years the two countries bickered, but with the
+Peruvian war impending Chile thought it wiser to make some concessions,
+and the dispute was finally settled by a treaty in 1881 by which the
+territory was divided, Chile getting the more valuable part with the
+control of both ends of the straits, although this great interoceanic
+waterway was declared neutral and no fortifications may be erected
+there.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+CHILE'S GREATNESS AND THE CIVIL WAR
+
+
+Since 1873 the low prices of Chile's chief exports, wheat and copper,
+had turned the balance of trade against her. The government could not
+make both ends meet, and in 1878 the banks were compelled to suspend
+specie payments. They resorted to the issue of more notes, backed by the
+government's guaranty. Just at this juncture the Bolivian government
+levied a heavy royalty on the nitrate extracted by the Chilean companies
+operating in Bolivian territory. This threatened ruin to the most
+promising enterprise in which Chilean citizens were engaged, and was
+believed to be a manifest violation of the terms of the treaty of 1866.
+The government determined not to stop short of war itself if necessary
+to defend Chilean interests, though war on Bolivia also meant war on her
+ally, Peru.
+
+A meagre description of the stirring events of this contest will be
+found in that part of this volume devoted to Peru. Chile's overwhelming
+victory not only profoundly affected her international position, but
+also her internal condition. The preparations of the spring of 1879
+plunged the government into expenditures which ordinary revenues were
+totally insufficient to meet. A new issue of paper money was resorted
+to, but the interest on the foreign debt was kept up. The first nine
+months of 1879 were an anxious time for Chileans. Pitted against two
+nations whose combined population was nearly double her own, her
+treasury empty, while that of Peru was supplied by the marvellous
+nitrate deposits of Tarapacá, the result appeared doubtful and the
+consequences of failure almost too horrible to face. When the Peruvians
+lost their iron-clad, _Independencia_, hope rose, but the ease with
+which the _Huascar_ eluded the Chilean ships made the people again lose
+confidence in their navy, and the coast towns were terror-stricken. But
+the destruction of the dreaded iron-clad in the naval battle of the 9th
+of October changed in the twinkling of an eye fear into confidence,
+apprehension of national ruin into the joyful assurance that a Chilean
+army would soon be in possession of the Golconda of the Pacific. Within
+a month the Chilean forces were landed in the nitrate country, the
+Peruvians and Bolivians had been chased across the desert, and the
+Chilean collectors were receiving a million and a half a month from the
+royalties of the nitrate mines. A net sum nearly equal to the total
+revenue which Chile previously had been collecting from all sources was
+added to her income, and she was no longer driven to painful expedients
+in order to raise money to meet her military expenses. Although the
+issues of paper money were continued and prices consequently rose,
+business flourished and a period of abundance replaced the hard times
+which had reached a crisis in 1878. The government was able to abolish
+the odious tobacco monopoly, and the war rather lightened than increased
+the burdens of commerce. The centralised government of Chile proved an
+admirable instrument for times of war. The president and his ministry,
+backed by a compact congress, wielded the whole force and resources of
+the country like a weapon fitted to the hand, striking heavy and
+relentless blows until Peru lay prostrate.
+
+After the complete destruction of the allied army by the Tacna campaign
+in March, 1880, the government, confident that a treaty of peace would
+soon be signed, delayed further aggressive operations for several
+months. But the Peruvians were obstinate and later in the year it was
+resolved to carry the war to the centre of the enemy's country. Lima
+fell on the 17th of January, 1881, and the glorious news was received
+while the liberals were contending over whom they should select as a
+candidate to succeed Pinto. There was much striving among the rival
+chiefs and one convention had already adjourned without coming to any
+agreement. Pinto ventured to interfere in a more decided way than any
+previous president had done and his influence was sufficiently powerful
+to induce the liberal party to unite on his personal choice, Santa
+Maria. The opposition tried to rally around the candidacy of General
+Baquedano, the greatest general of the war, but the prestige of the
+administration was too powerful.
+
+Although his nomination had been bitterly opposed by many prominent
+liberals, once in office Santa Maria found means to unite in his support
+a great majority of congress. The members who took their seats in 1882
+were divided into three factions: the liberals proper, as the moderates
+were called, the radicals, and the nationals--few in number but counting
+in their ranks some of the ablest and wealthiest aristocrats in Chile.
+The conservatives, no longer an important factor, had abandoned their
+opposition to the civil reforms which the liberals pressed forward,
+concentrating their efforts on a hopeless but desperate resistance to
+religious innovations. Santa Maria was in full accord with his party,
+and his message of 1883 proclaimed that the time had come for the
+realisation of the oldest and dearest aspirations of Chilean
+liberals--civil marriage and registry, entire liberty of conscience, and
+the secularisation of the cemeteries. In the fierce discussion which
+followed, the eloquent prime minister, Balmaceda, took the lead.
+Although educated for the priesthood he had developed into an
+intransigent radical, a passionate advocate of the completest separation
+of Church and State.
+
+The civil-marriage law was pushed through in spite of the sullen
+resistance of the conservatives and clericals. The women of Chile, the
+old-fashioned elements of society, and the clergy would not accept the
+result. The priests refused to perform a religious ceremony for any one
+who had been married by the civil law, and excommunicated the president
+and his cabinet. Devout Chileans of all classes would not yield on this
+point of conscience, and cursed the liberal politicians as betrayers of
+their God. All other political questions were held in abeyance. Urged by
+their wives and the priests, the conservatives abandoned the attitude of
+abstention from politics which they had so long maintained, and went to
+the polls to do what they could to secure a majority for the repeal of
+the law. But ladies' entreaties and priests' absolutions availed little
+against the government's control of the election machinery, and the law
+remained on the statute books. Opposition centred against the
+presidential candidacy of Balmaceda--the radical, the Anti-Christ, the
+uncompromising. In vain Santa Maria tried to unite the four liberal
+groups--the government liberals, the radicals, the nationals, and the
+new division called dissidents. They refused to meet in a general
+convention. However, a majority, composed of the government liberals,
+the nationals, and a portion of the radicals, decided to support
+Balmaceda and he was triumphantly elected in 1886.
+
+The dissidents, conservatives, and opposition radicals formed a
+formidable minority, determined to obstruct his administration. In the
+closing days of 1885 scenes were enacted on the floor of the Chilean
+congress which resembled recent sessions of the Austrian parliament. The
+revenue and appropriation bills were about to expire, and fresh ones for
+a new fiscal period had to be adopted. Under the regulations every
+member had a right to speak twice on each section, and the minority
+filibustered until the constitutional period for adjournment had
+expired. Santa Maria would have to finish out his administration and
+Balmaceda begin his without supply bills. Under a strict construction of
+the Constitution all government would cease, but Balmaceda was not the
+man to shrink from enforcing the right of self-preservation inherent in
+all governments. The executive calmly proceeded to collect taxes and pay
+expenses according to the provisions of the expired law until a new
+congress met shortly after Balmaceda's inauguration, and this solution
+was peacefully accepted by the country.
+
+Chile had never known a time of such material prosperity as the first
+three years of Balmaceda's administration proved to be. The revenues,
+well-nigh doubled by the nitrate and copper of the provinces wrested
+from Peru, were further increased by the flourishing condition of
+commerce and industry. The administration initiated and carried forward
+many important public works. Large sums were voted for railways,
+colonisation, and schools. Public salaries were raised, the Araucanian
+country colonised, and the Indians finally incorporated as real citizens
+of Chile. The clericals made the best of their defeat, and the liberal
+majority in congress, inspired by Balmaceda's energy, pushed forward
+rapidly on the road of reform and change. A new election law was passed
+and a beginning made toward making the Constitution more democratic.
+
+Balmaceda's first idea was to unite all the liberal factions, conciliate
+the conservatives, and devote himself to a policy of material
+development. Although owing his election to three political parties out
+of the six, he was unwilling and perhaps unable to govern solely by
+their assistance. Instead of regarding himself as the chief of a
+combination of parties, entrusted by it with the direction of affairs
+and under obligations to act in harmony with it, he did not hesitate to
+accept the help offered by his former political opponents when that help
+was needed to carry into effect his personal ideas of what was best for
+the public interest. On the other hand, the party which had elected him
+was really no party at all--it was only a temporary coalition of three
+discordant factions. It is not necessary to follow the many changes in
+his cabinet, the continual substitution of one group for another, the
+details of the efforts which he made during three years to govern as he
+pleased, and at the same time to govern in harmony with congress. His
+difficulties lay not so much in reconciling conflicts of opinion on
+matters of policy as with the personal rivalries and ambitions of the
+factions. Suffice it to say that toward the end of 1889 he found himself
+without a majority in congress and with no prospect of obtaining one.
+Heretofore the rival groups had been only too anxious to trade their
+votes in exchange for a share of patronage. Now, satisfied that the
+president was determined upon depriving them of their secular influence
+in public affairs, all the factions of the ruling aristocracy fought him
+bitterly. They feared that the president was plotting the formation of a
+personal party, cemented by hopes of office, responsible to him alone,
+and that the system of parliamentary government which had grown up by
+tacit consent and long-continued custom, would be replaced by a real
+presidential government in which the executive would be the source of
+power and not merely its channel.
+
+Indeed, circumstances and his own characteristics were rapidly forcing
+Balmaceda into this position. Conscious of his own integrity and the
+disinterestedness and patriotism of his motives, his irritation against
+the stubborn self-seeking of the cliques ended in convincing him that
+the old interpretation of the Constitution must be abandoned, and the
+president in person in reality vested with all the powers given by the
+letter of the fundamental law. He devoted the remainder of his life to
+an effort to free the presidency from the practical control which
+congress had exercised since the days of Portales. In January, 1890, he
+threw down the gauntlet by appointing a cabinet composed exclusively of
+personal supporters. The new ministers announced that, considering their
+power to be derived from the president, they would hold office so long
+as they continued to be satisfactory to him, regardless whether or not
+they were supported by a parliamentary majority. In May, Balmaceda went
+a step farther by selecting another cabinet at whose head he placed San
+Fuentes, his own intimate friend and a man regarded with particular
+hatred by the president's opponents because it was understood that he
+had been selected as the president's successor, pledged to the
+continuance of the same policy. Congress replied by passing a vote of
+censure. Balmaceda insisted that the cabinet should remain in power.
+Congress refused to pass any appropriation bills and summoned the
+ministers to the bar of the House. But the president was confident that
+he could carry the elections, and, sure of ultimate victory, felt he
+could afford to make present concessions. In August a compromise was
+agreed upon by which Balmaceda dismissed the San Fuentes cabinet and
+selected one composed of neutral men, while congress consented to pass
+the appropriation bills. The truce did not last long. The new ministers
+soon found that they were mere figureheads and that the Balmacedist
+executive committee was the real power in the administration. They
+resigned and Claudio Vicuña formed a ministry which was a re-edition of
+the May cabinet. The announcement of its appointment was in effect a
+notification that the armistice was at an end. Congress accepted the
+gage of combat and immediately began to organise for civil war.
+
+The wealth, social distinction, and professional classes of the country
+were mostly on the side of the congressionalists, and all who were
+conservative and fearful of disturbance in the established order rallied
+around them. The democratic elements, the reformers, the radicals, the
+dissatisfied, supported Balmaceda, but the great mass of the common
+people, used for centuries to political subordination to the upper
+classes, remained inert. His opponents met with no encouragement in
+their efforts to suborn the army and General Baquedano refused the
+leadership of the insurrection which they offered him. However, the
+officers of the navy, recruited from among the aristocratic classes,
+enthusiastically assured their undivided support, and Jorge Montt, who
+held a high position in the navy, was chosen as chief of the revolution.
+
+The congressionalists resolved to make the issue upon the point whether
+the president had a right to maintain any military force, land or naval,
+after the 31st of December, the day upon which the existing
+appropriation law expired. Balmaceda did not hesitate an instant, but
+issued a proclamation that he would follow the precedent established in
+1886--collect taxes and maintain the public service by executive
+authority until the assembling of the next session of congress. He
+expressly disclaimed any designs of establishing a permanent
+dictatorship, while expressing his firm determination not to permit the
+refusal of congress to interrupt the functioning of government. The
+issue was sharply drawn; neither side would recede; either congress
+would cease to exercise its immemorial control of the executive or would
+depose him.
+
+  [Illustration: JOSE MANUEL BALMACEDA.]
+
+Five days after Balmaceda's proclamation the congressionalist chiefs
+embarked on board the war-ships lying in Valparaiso Bay, and the civil
+war was on. The army remained faithful to Balmaceda and he was in
+undisputed possession of the whole country, although his opponents had
+powerful sympathisers everywhere. The latter's plan of campaign was
+simple. Once again power on the sea was to decide the fate of the
+Pacific coast. The navy sailed away to the nitrate provinces, a region
+separated from the rest of Chile by the impassable Atacama desert and
+to which, therefore, Balmaceda could not send re-inforcements. The small
+garrison under Colonel Robles made a desperate resistance, but was soon
+overpowered, and there the revolution established its base of
+operations. The population of sturdy miners, used to discipline under
+their bosses, furnished an admirable supply of recruits, and a revenue
+of two millions a month fell at once into the hands of the
+congressionalists. Possessing the sinews of war, it was only a question
+of a few months to equip an army with the most modern weapons and have
+it thoroughly drilled and organised by experts. The blockade of the
+southern ports intercepted Balmaceda's supplies and the congressionalist
+partisans escaped by hundreds to make their way up the coast and join
+the revolutionary army. By August they were ready with a force of more
+than ten thousand men.
+
+In the meantime Balmaceda had been making desperate efforts to get a
+navy, but iron-clads cannot be improvised, and the congressionalist
+agents in New York and Europe had money enough to outbid him and to
+command influences which effectually hindered prompt action. In Chile
+itself he adopted stern repressive measures against the plots of his
+enemies and vigorously recruited his army, putting into the field nearly
+thirty thousand soldiers. But the blockade prevented his procuring
+modern arms and they had to go into battle with old-style rifles whose
+range was only half that of those carried by their opponents. He was
+also at a disadvantage in that the enemy could strike where he pleased
+on a coast nine hundred miles long. Balmaceda was obliged therefore to
+keep his forces divided. Nine thousand were at Coquimbo, three hundred
+and fifty miles north of Santiago; as many at Concepcion, four hundred
+miles south of the capital; and five thousand at Valparaiso, a hundred
+miles north-west. At Santiago he kept the remainder as a reserve to be
+sent to the assistance of whichever of the three divisions might be
+attacked.
+
+On the 20th of August the fleet of seventeen vessels carrying the whole
+revolutionary army suddenly appeared a few miles north of Valparaiso.
+Balmaceda had short warning and was not able to oppose the landing,
+which was skilfully conducted by Colonel Canto, the able strategist who
+commanded the congressionalist forces, with the valuable assistance of
+Colonel Koerner, a Prussion tactician of the first rank whose services
+had been hired. There was no time to get troops from Coquimbo and
+Concepcion. The congressionalist generals moved so rapidly that the best
+the president could do was to send the Santiago division, which, united
+with that at Valparaiso, made a force nearly equal in numbers to the
+enemy. The revolutionists landed with their rations in their haversacks
+and within a few hours were marching straight south along the seashore
+on Valparaiso. The Balmacedists tried to defend the passage of the
+Aconcagua River, which enters the ocean twenty miles north of the city,
+but they had hardly got into position on the heights which overlook its
+southern bank when the enemy was upon them. The latter's artillery was
+twice as strong and his infantry more numerous besides being armed with
+longer range rifles. In spite of the advantage of position and the
+fatigue of their opponents the Balmacedists were flung back in complete
+defeat by the volleys of the Mannlichers and the furious cannonading
+from both batteries and ships. The battle lasted the whole day and at
+its close two thousand of the government troops lay on the field, three
+thousand had been dispersed or deserted to the enemy, and scarcely three
+thousand held together for the retreat to the neighbourhood of
+Valparaiso, where three regiments of the Santiago division who had taken
+no part in the fight were waiting. Canto followed, but failing in a
+tentative attack on the strong northern defences of Valparaiso, he
+determined to make a circuit to the east, cut the railroad between
+Santiago and Valparaiso, and either take the latter place in the rear or
+march on the capital as seemed best. The movement, so masterfully
+conceived, was skilfully carried out without a moment's loss of time.
+The essential thing was to act so promptly that Balmaceda could not
+concentrate his forces. On the 25th the whole congressionalist army had
+reached Quillota, on the railroad twenty-five miles back of Valparaiso.
+But Balmaceda had also been active, and during those three days the
+Concepcion division had arrived at Santiago, and reinforcements had been
+got through to Valparaiso which raised the army to nearly ten thousand
+men. Four thousand troops defended Santiago and more were momentarily
+expected from Coquimbo.
+
+Canto resolved to give him no time for any further concentration, but to
+fall upon the Valparaiso army before the railroad could be repaired and,
+by destroying Balmaceda's largest force, end the war. A forced march
+across country brought him to the old carriage road which comes into
+Valparaiso from the south. By the 27th his army had covered the
+incredible distance of forty miles and was within six miles of the
+government forces, who occupied a strong position between the
+congressionalists and Valparaiso. Tired though the congressionalists
+were, they were forced to attack without delay. The only provisions
+which they could count on were the rations that they had brought in
+their haversacks; and Balmaceda might at any moment receive
+reinforcements from Santiago. So they advanced resolutely to the
+assault. The Balmacedists fought with little enthusiasm or hope; the
+desertion of part of their cavalry and the inactivity of the rest
+discouraged the infantry and artillery, but at first they met the
+charges with the steadiness characteristic of the race. The battle was
+decided by a flank movement executed by Koerner, who turned the
+Balmacedist left, while the cavalry charged recklessly up the hill.
+Thrown into confusion, the government troops were simply swept out of
+existence by furious volleys and determined charges. Some had stood
+steady long enough to kill and wound a sixth of the enemy who charged up
+the hill, but more than a quarter of their own numbers perished in the
+battle and the pursuit.
+
+The fight was over at half-past ten in the morning, but the news of the
+utter ruin of all his hopes did not reach Balmaceda until half-past
+seven. It was his wife's saint's day and friends were coming to dine at
+his house. Characteristically he did not recall the invitations, and not
+until the dinner party was over did he arrange to turn over the
+government of the city to General Baquedano. Then he quietly walked to
+the Argentine legation and received asylum. Vicuña, the recently elected
+president, who would have succeeded Balmaceda on the 18th of September,
+was in Valparaiso and fled to a foreign warship followed by the
+principal Balmacedist chiefs. No further resistance was made and the
+congressionalist junta, with Jorge Montt at its head, assumed the
+supreme direction of affairs. Balmaceda's fall was followed by some
+riots, but the arrival of the responsible chiefs of the victorious party
+ensured the re-establishment of order. Like the Anglo-Saxon, the Chilean
+fights desperately on the field of battle, and when his blood is up he
+is relentless, but when beaten he phlegmatically accepts the
+consequences, and when victorious he is not cruel. The Chileans resemble
+their prototypes of the northern hemisphere in lacking the vivid
+imagination which makes the inhabitants of warmer climates vengeful.
+Slow, silent, serious, practical-minded, hard to themselves as well as
+to others, they turned at once to the work of reconstruction.
+
+No one suspected that the defeated president was at the house of the
+Argentine minister. It was supposed that he had escaped in disguise, but
+on the 18th of September, the day upon which his legal term as president
+expired, the country was astounded to hear that he had shot himself that
+very morning. The unhappy man feared that he might get his generous host
+into danger, and his theatrical temperament could not bear the
+humiliation of a public trial or the risk of being torn to pieces by a
+mob in case he were discovered. He offered himself as an expiatory
+sacrifice, knowing that his death would save his friends from further
+persecution and hoping that it might do for the cause of democratic
+government in Chile that which his life had so signally failed to
+accomplish.
+
+An election had been called and Jorge Montt chosen president of Chile
+with all due regard to legal forms. The aristocratic and parliamentary
+form of government, under which Chile had so long lived in peace, order,
+and prosperity, growing at home in intellectual and moral graces and in
+material welfare, while abroad the nation had waxed great in the
+consideration of the world, was restored as it had been before Balmaceda
+attacked it. Not only the arbitrament of battle, but the verdict of the
+people, so far as the latter can be gathered from the convinced
+enthusiasm shown by the congressionalists and inferred from the
+passiveness of the masses, had decided that there should be no radical
+change; that the president should be advised by the congress and rule in
+harmony with its majority; that the ballot should be guarded by both an
+educational and a property qualification; that political evolution
+should proceed by slow amendment and not by radical innovation--by
+experiment, not by theory.
+
+The last twelve years of Chile's internal political history offers
+little of special interest to the foreign student. Jorge Montt, though
+raised to power by force of arms, proved a modest and non-aggressive
+president. For two years the anti-Balmacedist groups managed to keep a
+majority together, but incompatible ambitions rather than differences
+of principle soon divided them. Balmaceda's old partisans quickly
+rallied and elected nearly a quarter of the members of the congress of
+1894, holding the balance of power amid the warring factions. Curiously
+enough, it was with the conservatives that the Balmacedists formed a
+combination, and though they held no cabinet position in Montt's time,
+they were a principal factor in the coalition which elected Errazuriz to
+the presidency in 1896. The jealousies among the rival factions of the
+liberals were too bitter to permit the bulk of that party to make any
+effective combination against the conservative-Balmacedist-liberal
+alliance, and the latter remained in power during most of Errazuriz's
+administration. At its end, the liberals having failed to agree, German
+Riesco was nominated and elected by much the same influences over Pedro
+Montt, son of the old president.
+
+The present Chilean parties do not embody any definite and conflicting
+political principles. Each one derives its origin from some great
+conflict which took place under a former administration. Once welded
+together in battling for a common cause, friendship, gratitude, the hope
+of mutual aid in their ambitions have kept the members united. The
+latter-day Balmacedists are not enemies of parliamentary dominance; the
+nationals are now classed as liberals, though they started as
+ultra-conservatives under Montt; the conservatives do not especially
+oppose reforms, though they defend the Catholic universities against
+radical attacks. The property qualification for suffrage is liberally
+construed; any one who has an income of a thousand pesos is legally
+entitled to vote, and if the elector can read and write he is not
+rigidly cross-examined as to the exact amount of the wages he receives.
+However, this wide extension of the suffrage has not brought about any
+material change in the personnel of congress. Discussion of the
+advisability of changing the present system is purely academic, and if
+dissatisfaction exists it ferments far beneath the surface. Like the
+English aristocracy that of Chile is truly representative, wielding its
+power with a keen sense of its responsibility to the nation, and rarely
+refusing to adopt a reform which is clearly demanded by the country.
+
+  [Illustration: THE PLAZA VICTORIA VALPARAISO.]
+
+Chile recovered with some difficulty from the industrial disorganisation
+and tremendous expenditures caused by the civil war. Balmaceda's vast
+issues of paper money disturbed government finances and made the returns
+of private enterprise uncertain. The world-wide fall of prices in the
+years following 1893 hurt Chilean exports, and an era of economy made
+necessary by closely balanced budgets succeeded the flush times.
+Meanwhile, the marvellous material growth of the Argentine Republic
+began to make Chileans doubt if their country could retain that military
+and naval hegemony which she had possessed since her great victories
+over Peru and Bolivia. Shut in between the Andes and the sea, on the
+north an uninhabitable desert and on the south the bleak Antarctic
+waste, Chile naturally envied the limitless and fertile plains over
+which her neighbour might spread her population, and the Argentine navy
+was fast approaching her own in size and efficiency.
+
+By the year 1895 Argentina's revenue exceeded Chile's nearly twenty per
+cent., while the former's foreign commerce was seventy per cent. and her
+population fifty per cent. greater. Their rivalry, none the less real
+because tacit, explains the seemingly unreasonable bitterness of the
+dispute over the differing interpretations of the treaty of limits. That
+treaty fixed the boundary at the crest of the Andes, but when the joint
+commissioners appointed to make the surveys reached southern latitudes
+where the range becomes ill-defined and runs off into the sea they found
+it difficult to determine just where the crest was. The Argentines
+insisted on a line drawn between the highest peaks because that would
+give them more territory, while the Chileans contended for the watershed
+between the two oceans. Another dispute also arose about the line which
+ought to divide the Argentine from the province which Chile had taken
+from Bolivia. Though in both cases the disputed territory was
+comparatively valueless, national feeling rose to an extraordinary pitch
+and more than once war has been imminent. The northern dispute was at
+length settled in 1898 by the arbitration of the American minister to
+Buenos Aires, but, though a similar method of settlement had been agreed
+upon as to the other and more important question, its final submission
+was delayed from year to year, and meanwhile each nation suspected the
+other of aggressions. Argentina ordered new iron-clads, which she could
+ill afford; Chile ordered still better ones, and Argentina kept pace. In
+1898 and again in 1901 the two countries were on the brink of a war
+which certainly would have ruined either one or the other. Happily,
+better counsels prevailed and arbitration by the English government was
+hurried forward, resulting in 1902 in a settlement with which both
+parties are in reality satisfied, and the fine iron-clads building in
+Europe are now for sale.
+
+
+
+
+BOLIVIA
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE CONQUEST AND THE MINES
+
+
+Between latitudes fourteen and a half and twenty-three and a half, the
+mighty Andean chain is massed into a plateau five hundred miles wide,
+over twelve thousand feet high, and interspersed with a complex system
+of mountains and ridges, parallel, transverse, and interlaced.
+Geographers estimate that this central portion of the Andean system
+contains nearly five hundred thousand cubic miles of matter above sea
+level, and that it would, cover the entire area of South America to an
+average depth of four hundred feet. The great ranges which stretch north
+to the Caribbean and south to Cape Horn are mere arms of this massive
+elevation of the earth, the highest and largest in the new world. Within
+a few miles of the coast rises a lofty and continuous range of mountains
+which can be scaled only over a few passes, none of which fall far below
+fourteen thousand feet. From the top a vast plateau stretches to the
+lofty chain which forms the inland rim of the Andean massif. This
+plateau is Bolivia. The northern portion forms the Titicaca basin, the
+whole of which was formerly covered by an immense fresh-water sea, fed
+by the snows of the surrounding mountains, and draining south-east into
+the Plate Valley. Now, however, the rainfall has so decreased that the
+great lake is shrunk to a mere tithe of its original dimensions, and
+none of its waters escape out of the dry plateau. In its southern part
+the plateau is bifurcated by a high central range, which divides
+southern Bolivia into two portions, the western of which, called the
+Puna, is too high, cold, and dry for cultivation. To the east the plains
+are lower and moister, sloping very gradually toward the east until they
+plunge off abruptly into the great central valley of South America.
+
+The northern part of the Titicaca basin was the cradle of civilisation
+in South America. On the shores of the lake are ruins of great buildings
+erected by a race who occupied this plateau unknown centuries before the
+rise of the Inca power. One doorway exists in an almost perfect state of
+preservation, carved out of a single block of stone seven feet high and
+twice as long, covered with figures elaborately sculptured in high
+relief, while dozens of heroic statues, and walls containing hewn stones
+twelve yards long, remain to attest the skill of the old workmen.
+
+  [Illustration: MONOLITHIC DOORWAY AT TRAHUANACO.]
+
+Bolivian history emerges from the realm of conjecture with the invasion
+of the Incas, a warlike and civilised tribe who inhabited the slightly
+lower plateaux and valleys north-east of the Titicaca basin. The ancient
+Titicacan civilisation had long since fallen from its high estate and
+the Inca armies easily overcame the resistance of the scattered
+shepherd tribes. The conquered aborigines were incorporated with the
+Incas and Quichua became the principal although not the only language.
+Great colonies of the dominant race spread south and east over the
+massif into the fertile regions of Yungas, Cochabamba, and Charcas.
+Bolivia became one of the principal seats of the Inca power. There they
+built their most magnificent palaces; in the northern mountains they
+found the copper for their tools and weapons, and the gold which they
+used to ornament their temples. Over the higher plains roamed flocks of
+llamas and vicuñas. The slightly lower parts of the plateau produced
+potatoes and quinoa, and the warmer valleys maize, cocoa, and cotton.
+The broad lake, the rivers, and the roads over the comparatively level
+country favoured intercommunication and social and industrial
+consolidation.
+
+In the terrible civil war which broke out about 1525 between Atahuallpa
+and Huascar, Bolivia suffered less than the Peruvian and Ecuadorean
+provinces, but thousands of her sons were drafted into the armies which
+Huascar successively launched against Quizquiz and the horde of northern
+tribes which relentlessly marched from Quito to Cuzco, and after five
+years of slaughter captured the southern capital and the legitimate
+emperor. But before Quizquiz had had time to pursue his conquering way
+into Bolivia, news came that Pizarro had imprisoned and murdered
+Atahuallpa, and that the Spaniards were on their way to Cuzco to give
+battle to Quizquiz and restore the legitimate succession. The northern
+Indians were defeated and at the close of 1533 Pizarro entered Cuzco in
+triumph riding at the side of Huascar's heir. The people of southern
+Peru, Bolivia, Tucuman, and Chile regarded the Spaniards as deliverers
+and allies. Within a few months after the occupation of Cuzco the
+strangers rode out of the city along the splendid stone-flagged Inca
+roads, crossed the transverse range into the Titicaca basin, and
+followed south-east to the extremity of the plateau, encountering little
+resistance and regarded as ambassadors from the Inca emperor. They found
+the country teeming with a docile and prosperous population, and the
+mountains on its borders were reported to abound in silver, gold, and
+copper. Almagro, Pizarro's partner and associate, to whose share had
+fallen the southern half of the empire, resolved not only to take
+possession of Bolivia, but also to conquer the great province which the
+Indians told him lay far to the south in fertile valleys on the western
+side of the Andes and hard by the Pacific Ocean.
+
+In 1535 Almagro marched from Cuzco with five hundred Spaniards and ten
+thousand Indians, the latter under the command of a brother of the
+Emperor. After crossing the Titicaca basin, he surmounted the
+difficulties of the bleak and icy Puna, the snowy passes, and the
+Atacama desert, and descended finally into Chile. But he found the
+people poor and warlike, and encountered little gold. Returning in 1538
+to make war on Pizarro, he was defeated and died strangled in prison by
+his relentless rival. Hernando and Gonzalo Pizarro, Francisco's
+brothers, became dominant on the Titicacan plateau, and began
+establishing great feudal lordships, dividing the country among their
+followers and exacting tribute and forced labour from the Indians. In
+1540 the great Marquis himself visited Charcas, the southern capital and
+only large Indian city in Bolivia.
+
+Late that same year his quartermaster, Pedro de Valdivia, led another
+expedition along the route over the Bolivian plateau into northern
+Chile. Meanwhile the Spaniards were diligently searching Bolivia for the
+Indian gold mines. Though the Incas were known to have extracted immense
+quantities of the metal from the placers around Lake Titicaca, the
+surface deposits had been pretty well exhausted, and the Spaniards were
+disappointed. Silver, however, existed in abundance and the strangers
+began to work the mines shortly after they reached the plateau. About
+1545 the great deposits of Potosí were discovered on a bleak
+mountainside four hundred miles south-east of Titicaca and near Charcas,
+in the regions where Gonzalo Pizarro possessed immense estates. At that
+time Gonzalo was virtually independent monarch of the whole Inca empire,
+having headed a successful revolt against a viceroy sent out to
+reorganise the country and put a stop to Indian slavery. But he did not
+long enjoy his riches, for in 1548 he risked his all in a hopeless
+battle with a new Spanish governor and ended his stormy life on the
+scaffold.
+
+The discovery of Potosí revolutionised Upper Peru--as Bolivia was then
+called. It is probable that the high and inaccessible plateau would
+have largely escaped Spanish settlement if it had not been for the
+marvellous riches now offered to Spanish cupidity. Pizarro's original
+followers came as conquerors and not as settlers. They overran a great
+and civilised empire whose revenues they proposed to absorb and whose
+inhabitants they subjected to tribute, but after they had obtained all
+the gold accumulated in the hands of the Indians there would have been
+little to have induced them to remain in Bolivia. But as soon as the
+unprecedented extent of the silver deposit at Potosí was recognised,
+Bolivia became the greatest source of that metal in the known world and
+the most important province of the transatlantic dominions of the
+Castilian king. That one mountain has produced two billion ounces of
+silver. Even by the early rude processes which the Spaniards found in
+use among the Indians seventy million ounces were taken out in the first
+thirty years, and the discovery of quicksilver in Peru, with the
+invention of the copper-pan amalgamation process in 1575, quadrupled the
+output. A great mining camp sprang up on the Potosí mountainside; royal
+officials, contractors, and merchants flocked to this Eldorado; the
+mountain roads to Lima swarmed with mule trains, carrying down silver
+and painfully toiling back again laden with supplies; the routes of the
+Bolivian plateau became the greatest arteries of travel in Spanish
+America.
+
+The year of Gonzalo's execution the city of La Paz was founded in a
+valley lying in the open plains just south of Lake Titicaca, and soon
+became a great emporium of Spanish trade. On the fertile plateau to the
+east of Potosí the city of Charcas flourished and was made the political
+and ecclesiastical capital of Upper Peru, Potosí being too high for
+Europeans. Soon other great mines were found, among which those of
+Oruro, on the south-eastern edge of the Titicaca basin, proved
+especially rich. Nearly ten thousand abandoned silver mines testify to
+the activity of the Spaniards in hunting the precious metal, and the
+total production of silver in Bolivia during the colonial period
+exceeded three billion ounces. To work these mines the Spaniards
+ruthlessly impressed the helpless Indians. Each village was required to
+furnish a certain number of labourers annually. Lots were drawn as if
+for a proscription, and the unhappy creatures who drew the bad numbers
+went off to meet a certain death in the dark wet pits and galleries,
+bidding good-bye to their wives and children like men stepping on the
+scaffold. The destruction of life was frightful, the official returns
+made by the officials charged with the impressment demonstrating that in
+the neighbourhood of Potosí the Indian population fell within a hundred
+years to a tenth of its original numbers.
+
+The influx of Spanish adventurers and officials also stimulated the
+extension of the system of agricultural encomiendas--that is, the grants
+of large tracts of land with the privilege of enslaving the Indian
+occupants. Sheep were introduced from Spain within twenty years of the
+conquest, and immense herds belonging to the Spanish proprietors and
+tended by Indian slaves soon covered the vast pasture grounds which are
+found even on the higher and colder portions of the plateau. Horses had
+come with the first conquerors and the breeding of mules flourished,
+especially in Cochabamba, the great agricultural centre which was
+founded in 1573, as well as in Charcas and the far southern districts of
+Tucuman. Cattle spread quickly over these same regions, and their beef,
+maize, mules, and horses found a good market in the mining districts.
+
+By the year 1580 the Spanish colonial system affecting the natives had
+been perfected, codified, and put into general operation. The whole
+country was divided into about thirty districts, each governed by a
+corregidor who in theory was controlled by a complicated and carefully
+drawn system of regulations, but who in practice was a petty tyrant
+against whom the white Creoles had little chance of redress, and who
+held the Indians absolutely at his mercy. The regulations framed by the
+distant viceroy at Lima for the protection of the natives were evaded by
+the corregidors, intent solely on extorting money from the poor
+creatures committed to their charge. Encomiendas had nominally been
+abolished, but landed proprietors still exercised the right to exact
+tribute from the Indians on their estates and great numbers were forced
+to serve as life servants under various pretexts. Those Indians who
+retained a semblance of freedom obeyed their own caciques, who were
+often the descendants of the royal Inca family. The principal duty for
+which the Spaniards held these chiefs responsible was the collection of
+the head-tax in their respective villages.
+
+The letter of the law required a seventh of the adult male population to
+work for the benefit of the Government, and in practice this resulted in
+an unlimited farming out of Indians as slaves to the rural proprietors.
+As much as possible the Indians retired to their villages to escape the
+notice of the officials, hoping to find under their own caciques a
+measure of security and a chance to live in modest poverty. Misrule,
+slavery, labour in the mines, neglect of that intensive and
+government-directed agriculture which had alone rendered it possible to
+sustain the dense population of Inca times, decimated the Indians.
+
+Few parts of the plateau escaped coming under Spanish rule, but the
+white conquerors, like their Inca predecessors, stopped short when they
+reached the dense forests and steep valleys, eroded by wildly rushing
+rivers, which cover the eastern slope of the great mountain region. Down
+these terrific gorges no progress was made, and only occasionally did
+some devoted priests manage to establish a mission among the intractable
+Indians who inhabit the open prairies interspersed among the beautiful
+forest-covered plains drained by the tributaries of the Madeira. The
+roads the Incas had built to the Pacific continued even in Spanish times
+to be the only practicable way of communication between Bolivia and the
+outer world. Transportation over the steep and tedious route from Potosí
+to La Paz, thence around Titicaca, and along the high valleys of
+southern Peru to the beginning of the tremendous descent to Lima, was
+too expensive to permit any export except of the precious metals. To
+the south there was a somewhat easier route to the valleys of
+north-eastern Argentina, into which the Spaniards had spread within a
+few decades after the discovery of Potosí, and whence food and pack
+animals were drawn for the mining regions. Spanish law forbade the use
+of the Atlantic ports at the mouth of the Plate, and for more than two
+centuries Bolivia continued under both administrative and commercial
+subordination to Lima.
+
+Jesuit missionaries arrived in Bolivia within twenty-five years after
+Loyola had founded the order. They established an important mission on
+the banks of Lake Titicaca in 1577, and five years later introduced the
+printing-press in order to distribute among their proselytes grammars
+and catechisms in the native tongues. In the seventeenth century they
+succeeded in penetrating down the eastern slope of the Andes and across
+the great central plain to the outlying hills of the Brazilian mountain
+system where they established several missions among the Chiquitos
+Indians. They even reached the grassy prairies which lie three hundred
+miles north of the inner angle of the great plateau, converted the
+Mojos, and taught them to herd cattle. But in the forests and along the
+base of the Andes the fierce tribes held their own as they had against
+the Incas and as they have continued to do against the Spanish-Americans
+to this day.
+
+In 1619 another great silver find was made, this time near Lake
+Titicaca. A few years later civil war broke out among the Potosí miners
+caused by the rancorous greed of the speculators who worked the mines
+under contract. Official authority could do little to suppress the
+bloody encounters, and the factions were only reconciled after three
+years of fighting. The discovery, in 1657, of another very rich silver
+mine near the lake brought on desperate fights among the miners who
+flocked to the place. The chief contractor enraged the other Spaniards
+by his exactions, and the situation became so serious that in 1665 the
+viceroy went in person and summarily tried and executed forty-two
+persons, among them the contractor's own brother.
+
+For one hundred and fifty years the Spaniards had failed to find gold
+deposits equal to those from which the Incas had drawn the fabulous
+treasures that paid Atahuallpa's ransom, but about the end of the
+seventeenth century rich placers were discovered in the mountains east
+of Lake Titicaca. The town of Sorata soon rivalled Potosí in opulence.
+Shortly thereafter other great gold deposits were found on the eastern
+slope of the inner Andes by adventurous Brazilians who had made their
+way across the continent to the eastern headwaters of the Madeira and
+ascended the Beni River as far as the escarpment of the great plateau.
+The news of the discovery brought a crowd of Spanish miners from Chile,
+and as the placers were rich and Indian labour abounded, fortunes were
+rapidly accumulated. The gold was sold in annual fairs which continue to
+be held to this day, but as is always the case in gold washings the
+first results were the best. The region is too difficult of access for
+quartz mining, and the production rapidly fell off. Activity in that
+part of Bolivia ceased in the eighteenth century and only a few Indians
+continued to wash a little gold in the remoter streams. In 1781 Sorata
+was destroyed and the gold country virtually abandoned.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE COLONIAL SYSTEM AND TUPAC'S REVOLT
+
+
+During the two hundred years which followed the Spanish conquest, life
+on the Bolivian plateau was vegetative and changeless except for the
+occasional excitement caused by the discovery of a rich new silver mine.
+The Indians lived in their villages, herding their masters' sheep or
+cultivating maize and potatoes, paid tribute to the encomenderos or the
+Crown collector, and submitted with dull patience to all the exactions.
+They reverenced their caciques, listened submissively to the parish
+priests, and meekly suffered the tyranny of the corregidors. The
+language of the conquerors was unintelligible to most of the people.
+When summoned to work in the mines they went to slow misery and certain
+death with the stoicism of their race. The South American Indian changes
+his attributes but slowly, and we find a moral resemblance in tribes
+differing widely in material culture. The Inca emperor exacted and
+received the same blind, unquestioning obedience which the Paraguayans
+gave to Lopez four centuries later, and the rude Guaranies on the banks
+of the Paraná, who had hardly entered the stone age, were no more
+readily submissive to the Spaniards than the Quichuas of Bolivia, whose
+engineering, agriculture, and architecture had reached a high degree of
+development.
+
+Except the floating population of miners, the Spaniards and their
+descendants lived in the cities--La Paz, Cochabamba, Oruro, Charcas,
+Tarija, Santa Cruz. Each city had its plaza, its townhouse, its
+officials, and its law-courts. Administrative centres for the
+surrounding districts, their inhabitants were mainly functionaries and
+hangers-on, who varied the sleepy monotony of their existence by
+factional quarrels and political intrigues. In these cities the slow
+process of amalgamating the white and red races began, and the dynamic
+restlessness of the Caucasian infiltrated by degrees into the static
+calm of the Indian. The lower classes of the towns became half-breed,
+while in the country districts pure Indians predominated. Late in the
+colonial period the Spaniards were still occupying the position of alien
+taskmasters, and the process of fusing the different races into a
+homogeneous mass had made little progress after two centuries and a half
+of contact. In a word, the social and political organisation of Upper
+Peru was largely a continuation of the Inca system, but that system had
+been deformed and deprived of its efficiency and was subject to constant
+arbitrary interference from the Spanish corregidors, while the cities
+were separately governed by military governors and their own cabildos.
+
+Until the middle of the eighteenth century the authority of the Lima
+viceroy nominally extended over the whole of Spanish South America.
+However, boards of high judicial and civil functionaries called
+audiencias, responsible directly to the Crown, exercised very important
+and independent judicial and administrative functions, each over a great
+division of Spanish America. Hardly had the conquest been completed when
+an audiencia was established at Charcas and that city became the
+political and ecclesiastical capital not only of all Upper Peru but of
+the vast regions to the south. The viceroy was too far away to
+interfere, and in effect a great semi-independent province was created,
+whose boundaries extended indefinitely south and east from the
+transverse range which separated the Titicaca basin from the region
+immediately governed by the viceroy and known as Lower Peru. To the
+jurisdiction of this province the governors of Tucuman, Paraguay, and
+Buenos Aires were subject, as well as the missions among the Chiquitos
+and Mojos on the headwaters of the Paraguay and Madeira.
+
+The Bourbon kings, who succeeded the House of Austria early in the
+eighteenth century, were forced to abandon the effort to centralise the
+administration and commerce of the whole continent at Lima. The Atlantic
+and Caribbean coasts could not be effectively governed from the Pacific
+and the rising currents of trade and immigration must be allowed more
+liberty to follow their natural channels. The viceroyalty of Bogotá was
+created in 1740 including the northern and north-western portions of the
+continent, and in 1776 the south-eastern parts were erected into the
+viceroyalty of Buenos Aires. The whole audiencia of Charcas was
+separated from Lima, and to its territory was added that portion of
+Chile which lay east of the Andes. Though the Bolivian plateau was the
+most populous and important division of the new viceroyalty, Buenos
+Aires, far away on the Atlantic and in a region then considered of
+little value, was chosen as the capital.
+
+In spite of prohibitive regulations goods had long been smuggled into
+Buenos Aires and thence carried over the Argentine plains up the
+comparatively easy passes leading to southern Bolivia, and the selection
+of the Plate city was a recognition by the Spanish government of the
+futility of longer trying to divert the trade of the Atlantic slope from
+its natural channels. But the greater length of the Atlantic route
+largely overcame the advantage of easier gradients, and social and
+commercial habits centuries old could not be revolutionised by statute.
+Most of Bolivia's small intercourse with the outside world continued to
+be conducted along the old Inca routes to the Pacific, and political
+union brought about no organic and commercial incorporation with the
+provinces near the mouth of the Plate.
+
+Before the new viceroyalty was in good running order, a great Indian
+insurrection broke out which involved a large proportion of the Indians
+of the plateau. Tupac Amaru, the legitimate heir of the Inca emperors,
+and a wealthy and influential cacique in one of the valleys between
+Cuzco and the Bolivian border, had received a good Spanish education
+and possessed many friends among the whites. But his heart went out to
+his own people, and he had the courage to protest against the
+intolerable oppressions of the corregidors. Failing to obtain redress
+after repeated prayers to the Spanish authorities at least to enforce
+their own laws honestly, he resolved to appeal to arms, and in 1780 he
+captured and killed a particularly demoniacal corregidor, his own
+immediate superior, and summoned the Indians of southern Peru to fight
+for their rights under his banner. Tupac had secured some firearms and
+out of the vast multitudes which assembled at his call he equipped three
+thousand men. The Spaniards advanced from Cuzco with a force of twelve
+hundred men, but Tupac defeated them and hastened across the range to
+arouse the population around Titicaca. At every village he addressed the
+people from the church steps, saying that he was come to abolish abuses
+and punish the corregidors, and the Indians responded with acclamations
+for the Inca and redeemer. Meanwhile the Spanish officials were
+assembling a large force in Cuzco which, strange as it may seem, was
+mostly composed of Indians. The race possessed little instinctive
+capacity for organisation, was deficient in initiative, moral courage,
+and independence, and had not the resolution to refuse to follow the
+Spanish officers. There were only a few like Tupac who possessed the
+mental energy and originality to plan and to fight on their own account.
+Receiving news of the Spanish preparations, the Inca hurried back to his
+home province and attempted to negotiate. He recounted to the Spanish
+authorities his own earnest endeavours to obtain a measure of justice
+for his people, the habitual violation of Spanish law by Spanish
+officials, and the intolerable oppression of the system of impressment.
+He proposed a negotiation by which reforms might be attained without
+further bloodshed. Tupac's fame as an enlightened and unselfish patriot
+rests securely on the contents of the noble and able despatch which, on
+this occasion, he sent to the Spanish authorities. But the latter
+refused all compromise and ordered an advance on Tupac's position. He
+was surrounded, his army destroyed, and he himself sentenced to be torn
+in pieces by horses after witnessing with his own eyes the fearful
+tortures and death of his innocent and harmless wife and children.
+
+The perpetration of such atrocities goaded even the dull and stoical
+Indians into a fury. They rose everywhere on the plateau and the
+Spaniards in northern Bolivia fled for refuge to La Paz and Puno. The
+Spanish army which had overcome Tupac advanced into the Titicaca basin,
+but was compelled to retreat before overwhelming numbers. Puno was
+evacuated and in 1781 the Spaniards had lost all foothold in northern
+Bolivia. But the habit of obedience was too strong; their first fury
+over, the Indians listened to promises of fair treatment and offers of
+compromise. Tupac's cousin, who had been made chief of the insurrection
+after the former's murder, was persuaded to submit on the promise of
+pardon, only to be arrested, tried, and executed as soon as his
+followers had laid down their arms. The family of the Inca was
+extirpated, ninety of its members, including women and children, being
+sent on foot, loaded with chains, over the hundreds of miles of mountain
+road to Lima and thence conveyed to Spain, where they rotted away in
+prison.
+
+Many of the reforms to secure which Tupac had lost his own life and
+devoted his kin to destruction, were voluntarily put into effect by the
+Spanish government a few years later. The office of corregidor was
+abolished, and the district governors were made directly responsible to
+the governor of the province, who was in turn responsible to the viceroy
+and audiencia. Courts were established to protect the rights of the
+Indians and the higher authorities made a sincere effort to secure the
+enforcement of the laws. However, the reforms did not materially change
+the condition of the country, and the Indians apparently settled back
+into the same apathetic obedience to the whites. The anti-Spanish
+feeling took no active form for the present, but the events had proved
+that the Indian population had become a field well prepared for the
+springing up of a crop of bloody insurrections.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE
+
+
+The South American war of independence began and ended on the plateau of
+Upper Peru. On Bolivia's soil the first blood of the great revolt was
+spilt and there the last Spanish soldiers laid down their arms. Lying on
+the great route from Lima to Buenos Aires, her territory inevitably
+became the battle-ground for the hardest and most continuous fighting on
+the continent, and her population, having been the most oppressed by
+Spanish misrule, showed itself the most tenacious in efforts to drive
+out the Spanish authorities.
+
+From 1809 to 1825, with scarcely an intermission, battle succeeded
+battle, campaign campaign, and insurrection insurrection, as the
+Spaniards and patriots, alternately victorious, marched and
+counter-marched along the great mountain road that winds through the
+plateau from Humahuaca on the Argentine frontier to the barrier north of
+Lake Titicaca. Not a village but what was captured and pillaged, not
+merely once but many times, and the tale of garottings and hangings, of
+massacres, burnings, and depredations, of heads and hands spiked up by
+hundreds along the highways, wearies in the telling. The Indians and
+half-breeds who formed the bulk of the Bolivian population joined by
+tens of thousands the bands that were continually being recruited by the
+patriot caudillos, or were impressed into the Spanish armies. Like
+Missouri in the American Civil War, Bolivia furnished more than her
+contingent to both sides, and her geographical position was similar to
+that of Virginia. The fighting on her soil was the longest continued and
+the severest, although the decisive battles were fought outside her
+territory. Suipacha, Huaqui, Ayohuma, Viluma correspond to Seven Pines,
+Chancellorsville, and Fredericksburg; while Chacabuco, Boyacá, and
+Ayacucho, like Donelson, Vicksburg, and Chattanooga, were the fights
+that brought the real results.
+
+The patriots from the Argentine wished to carry the war to the seat of
+Spanish power and made continual efforts to get to Lima by way of
+Bolivia, but though they often reached the plateau they could never long
+maintain themselves. The farthest that they ever penetrated was to the
+south end of Lake Titicaca, where they were still distant from their
+goal by more than a thousand miles of difficult mountain road. The
+Spanish generals were more successful, but any army in possession of the
+plateau was immediately impelled to dissipate its forces in keeping open
+lines of communication with the seaboard and in tedious marches.
+
+The news of the French usurpation in 1808 and the consequent civil
+disturbances in Spain demoralised the Spanish authorities in the
+Bolivian cities, and the Creoles immediately conceived the hope that
+they might possess themselves of the offices and the revenues. Early in
+1809 a few influential native Bolivians and disaffected Spaniards took
+forcible possession of the government buildings in Charcas and La Paz
+and deposed the Spanish officials. The insurgents managed to arm a few
+troops, but were able to make no effective resistance to the forces
+which the viceroys at Buenos Aires and Lima promptly sent to quell the
+movement. The rebellion was quenched in blood. Goyeneche, the Lima
+general, ordered wholesale executions among those who had taken part,
+and the news of his dreadful cruelties roused a bitter desire for
+revenge in the hearts of the Creoles of all South America.
+
+The deposition by Buenos Aires of her viceroy on the 25th of May, 1810,
+was shortly followed by the advance of an Argentine army into Bolivia,
+and the forces which the Spanish authorities at Potosí and Charcas had
+been able to collect were defeated at Suipacha, near the southern border
+of the plateau. All the cities of Bolivia fell into the hands of the
+patriots, while the villages rose in revolt against their Spanish
+tyrants. The Buenos Aireans wished to subject the Bolivian provinces to
+a centralised government and rule them from the capital on the Plate,
+but every town in Upper Peru had its ambitious Creole leaders who wished
+to control their own country. These disagreements had much to do with
+the crushing defeat which the Argentine army shortly suffered at Huaqui
+on the southern shore of Lake Titicaca. The projected triumphal advance
+through Cuzco and Lower Peru to Lima was turned into a precipitate
+retreat through La Paz, Oruro, and Potosí into the Argentine. Alone the
+Bolivian patriots were not strong enough to prevent the re-establishment
+of the Spanish authority in the cities along the main route. But in the
+villages and the outlying cities like Cochabamba and Santa Cruz the
+insurgent bands kept up a desperate resistance.
+
+The main body of the victorious Spanish army pursued the fleeing
+Argentines into their own territory, only to be defeated by General
+Belgrano in the battle of Tucuman--a victory which probably saved Buenos
+Aires from capture and the South American revolution from extinction. In
+1813 the Argentines again invaded Bolivia, but they had not proceeded
+far beyond Potosí when they were met and routed in the battles of
+Villapugio and Ayohuma. The Bolivian patriots were once more left to
+their own resources, and their country subjected to the most awful
+devastations. Though unable to concert a general plan of action or to
+assemble one large army, nevertheless they had courage to die in battle
+or on the scaffold. The most famous leaders in the south were Camargo
+and Padilla, whose daring forays helped prevent the Spaniards from
+advancing into the Argentine, while Arenales at Santa Cruz and other
+patriot leaders farther north continually threatened the line of
+communication to Titicaca, Cuzco, and Lima.
+
+  [Illustration: BALSAS ON LAKE TITICACA.]
+
+Late in the year 1814 the region north of Lake Titicaca to and beyond
+Cuzco burst into insurrection under the lead of an Indian cacique and
+an indefatigable agitator of a priest named Munecas. The Indians rose
+_en masse_ and the Spanish army in southern Bolivia was cut off from
+Lima. Twenty thousand insurgents assembled near the north end of Lake
+Titicaca, but they possessed neither arms, officers, nor organisation.
+Not one in twenty had a musket, and though their invasion down the
+Maritime Cordillera to Arequipa was at first successful, a comparatively
+small force of Spanish regulars chased them back over the passes to the
+region of the lake and there dispersed them at the battle of Humachiri.
+Meanwhile the guerilla bands in southern Bolivia and the Argentines in
+Salta had been more successful. The Spaniards were compelled to retire
+from the Argentine border back beyond Potosí. The Argentines again
+invaded the plateau and advanced in force on the road to La Paz and
+Lima. Once again the Spanish forces which concentrated to meet them were
+victorious and the allied patriots were completely overthrown in the
+battle of Viluma, November, 1815, which marks the end of the first
+period of the war of independence. Thenceforward for seven years the
+Spanish generals were dominant on the plateau, and the Bolivian patriots
+made only a desultory and scattered resistance.
+
+With admirable foresight the victorious Spanish general, Pezuela, went
+to work to subdue thoroughly the whole of Upper Peru. The viceroy,
+Abascal, backed him up in establishing in this natural fortress a strong
+military state, whence money and soldiers could be drawn for offensive
+operations against the insurrection in any part of the continent. The
+mines supplied the funds of which the viceregal government stood in such
+desperate need, and the hardy, sturdy Indians of Bolivia afforded a
+stock of excellent recruits whose fidelity might be enforced by white
+officers and severe discipline. Pezuela remorselessly pursued the
+patriot chiefs; Camargo was finally run to earth, captured, and
+garrotted; Padilla fell in the midst of his little band and was brutally
+beheaded as he lay wounded on the ground. Garrisons occupied all the
+towns and important positions, the irregular excesses of the Spanish
+soldiery were sternly forbidden, a measure of order and security
+replaced the confusion of the previous years, and the whole resources of
+the people were carefully husbanded and devoted to the upbuilding of an
+army. Before the end of 1816 Pezuela had a well-equipped and efficient
+force of eight thousand men ready for an advance into the Argentine.
+
+The year 1816 was the blackest for the patriot cause since the beginning
+of the revolution. Chile had been reduced to obedience; the Argentine
+was convulsed by civil war; Uruguay had fallen into the hands of the
+Portuguese king; the Spaniards were triumphant in Venezuela, and New
+Granada, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia were making no resistance. Pezuela
+had been promoted to be viceroy at Lima and La Serna in the beginning of
+1817 led the Spanish army into the Argentine and advanced far beyond the
+frontier. But he made his campaign according to the rules of regular
+European warfare, and though the gauchos of Salta did not venture to
+give him battle they kept up a harassing series of night attacks,
+ambushes, and daring forays into his very lines. Mounted on their fleet
+and hardy plains horses, living on wild cattle, and needing no baggage
+or provision train, their mobility was phenomenal, and they rendered the
+advance of the Spanish army through the long stretches of desert and
+pampa almost impossible.
+
+Meanwhile San Martin's great victory at Chacabuco in Chile completely
+changed the situation throughout the continent. It was necessary for the
+viceroy to drain the other provinces of troops to attempt Chile's
+recovery. Even if La Serna did succeed in pushing toward Buenos Aires,
+San Martin could recross the Andes and strike him in flank with a
+victorious army. So the Spanish general withdrew from the northern
+Argentine and took up the old position near the Bolivian border. The
+Argentines never attacked him in force, although they kept up a war with
+incursions over the frontier, and the indomitable Bolivian patriots rose
+in one local revolt after another during the next four years. The
+country was never pacified, although the relentless vigilance of the
+Spanish commanders prevented the insurrection from becoming general.
+
+In 1820 San Martin sailed from Valparaiso and landed his army of
+Argentines and Chileans on the Peruvian coast near Lima. His masterly
+dispositions soon compelled the Spaniards to evacuate the capital and
+thenceforth their power was confined to the Andean region which extends
+south-east from the Cerro de Pasco to the southern boundary of Bolivia.
+The patriots had the advantage of being able to land troops at any point
+on the coast, and the Spanish generals, to meet these invasions, were
+compelled to move their armies over the tortuous mountain paths. Late in
+1822 an expedition attempted to reach the Bolivian plateau by the pass
+which leads directly up to La Paz. Valdez, the Spanish general, managed
+to get to the threatened point before the patriots had pushed their way
+up the mountain. They attacked at a disadvantage, and their army was
+destroyed.
+
+A year later a similar effort was made by an army of five thousand
+Peruvians under the command of Santa Cruz, a Bolivian half-breed of
+noble Inca lineage who had been engaged in the Spanish service until
+1821, and then, deserting, had risen to supreme power in the patriot
+army after the retirement of San Martin. Northern Bolivia had been
+denuded of troops by the Spanish generals in the course of their
+operations near Lima. No army disputed the pass, and Santa Cruz
+penetrated to La Paz without opposition. Valdez hastened from Peru, and
+the Spanish army in southern Bolivia moved toward the threatened region.
+Santa Cruz's position lay directly between them; his forces were
+superior to either of the Spanish armies and apparently it would not be
+difficult for him to whip them in detail. But he made the mistake of
+dividing his own forces, and Valdez came up with such unexpected speed
+that he failed to unite his two divisions before the Spaniards reached
+La Paz. He retreated to the south in order to join his other division,
+closely followed by the enemy, and scarcely had he effected the junction
+when Valdez skilfully outflanked him and united his forces to the army
+of southern Bolivia. By this manoeuvre the patriot army found itself
+hopelessly outnumbered and fled north in disorder. By the time it
+reached the coast it had been practically annihilated. One body of
+Spaniards resumed at its leisure a position threatening Lima, while the
+Bolivian division occupied itself with crushing the insurgents who had
+risen at Cochabamba and other points during Santa Cruz's stay upon the
+plateau.
+
+This disastrous campaign seemed to destroy all hope of Bolivian freedom
+for years to come. But Olañeta, the renegade Argentine who commanded the
+Spanish army in Bolivia, quarrelled with La Serna and the northern
+generals. They sent a force to fight him, and while the Spaniards were
+thus warring among themselves word was received that Bolivar had arrived
+on the Peruvian coast, accompanied by his great lieutenant, Sucré, and a
+large army of Colombian veterans. To meet this pressing danger the
+viceroy abandoned his efforts to reduce Olañeta to submission, recalled
+the troops he had sent into Bolivia, and sent north as large a force as
+he could muster. Bolivar climbed the coast range unopposed and met the
+Spanish army not far south of Cerro de Pasco. On the 24th of August,
+1824, he won the cavalry action of Junin, and the Spaniards were
+compelled to retire to Cuzco. Bolivar went to Lima to consolidate his
+political position, leaving the command with Sucré. Four months later
+the viceroy suddenly broke out of Cuzco, outmanoeuvred Sucré, and
+marched toward Lima closely followed by the Colombian forces. The two
+armies finally met at Ayacucho, December 9, 1824, and though the
+royalist army fought on a field of its own choosing and had the
+advantage in numbers and artillery, it was annihilated.
+
+The only Spanish troops which remained in the field were Olañeta's in
+southern Bolivia. He struggled desperately to hold his men together and
+make another stand, but the news of Ayacucho was the signal for an
+uprising of the patriots all around him. The royalist officers and
+troops had no heart for a hopeless fight, and as Sucré approached the
+detached garrisons deserted. In March Olañeta received word that one of
+his lieutenants, Medina Celi, who was in command at Tumusla near
+Potosí, had declared for the patriots. The Spanish general promptly
+marched with the few troops who remained faithful, and, on April 1,
+1825, fought the last action of the war of independence. Olañeta was
+defeated and himself slain, probably by a ball fired by one of his own
+men.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+BOLIVIA INDEPENDENT
+
+
+After his great victory at Ayacucho, Sucré advanced rapidly to Cuzco and
+thence into the Titicaca basin. By February he had reached Oruro in what
+is now central Bolivia, and Upper Peru rose as one man to welcome the
+deliverer. The next step was to decide upon the future government. For
+thirty years before the beginning of the revolution this country had
+been part of the viceroyalty of Buenos Aires, and when the city on the
+Plate had expelled its Spanish rulers the patriots there had expected
+that Upper Peru would continue to be connected with the new nation.
+Although in the early years of the war these provinces sent delegates to
+congresses which assembled in the Argentine cities, the Creoles of the
+plateau never showed any anxiety to incorporate their country with the
+Argentine, and the successes of the Spanish generals virtually renewed
+Bolivia's ancient connection with Lima. Now that the Spaniards were
+expelled, the Bolivian Creoles were no more willing to unite with Lower
+Peru than with Buenos Aires, and Bolivar encouraged this sentiment. The
+ambitious and lucky soldier had formed the Napoleonic conception of
+making himself supreme dictator of a confederation of small states, each
+of which was to be ruled by a subordinate dictator named from among his
+creatures. To organise Upper Peru into a separate country with Sucré at
+its head would be a long step in this direction. Bolivar himself was
+president of the confederation of Venezuela, New Granada, and Ecuador,
+as well as dictator of Lower Peru, and at the head of a victorious army
+of Colombians. Argentina's influence was nullified by civil war. Chile's
+strength was as yet unsuspected. For the moment Bolivar was supreme in
+South America. At his dictation Peru and Buenos Aires promulgated
+decrees leaving to the provinces of Upper Peru the right "to decide
+freely and spontaneously as to what form of government would be most
+conducive to their prosperity and good government."
+
+When Bolivar himself reached the country he was received in a delirium
+of joy and gratitude, and the enthusiastic Bolivians acclaimed him
+father of their country. In a literal sense he deserved the title, for
+his intervention had conferred independence on Bolivia, and his decrees
+now fixed her boundaries. In general he followed the ancient limits of
+the audiencia of Charcas. Peru retained the seacoast directly to the
+west as well as all the Titicacan basin north and west of the lake,
+compelling Bolivian commerce to pass through foreign territory in order
+to reach the ocean. Far to the south Bolivia was conceded a little
+ribbon of coast, but the route thither lay over the bleak and barren
+Puna and was too long to be of any practical service.
+
+On the 11th of August, 1825, official proclamation was made that the new
+republic had begun its existence, taking the name "Bolivia," in honour
+of the liberator. Congress said in the act of independence that: "Upper
+Peru is the altar upon which the first blood was shed for liberty, and
+the land where the last tyrant perished. The barbarous burning of more
+than a hundred villages, the destruction of towns, the scaffolds raised
+everywhere for the partisans of liberty, the blood of thousands of
+victims that would make even Caribs shudder; the taxes and exactions, as
+arbitrary as inhuman; the insecurity of property, life, and of honour
+itself; an atrocious and merciless inquisitorial system; all have not
+been able to extinguish the sacred fire of liberty and the just hatred
+of Spanish power."
+
+Early in the following year Bolivar presented a Constitution all ready
+for the approval of congress. Written in his own hand, it stands a
+curious proof of his political ideas. After laying down the somewhat
+vague principle that liberty is a mere island which the waves of tyranny
+and anarchy alternately threaten to engulf, and establishing a
+legislative system, too complicated to be workable, he shows the cloven
+hoof by providing for a president elected for life and possessing the
+right to nominate a successor. Sucré was made the president as a matter
+of course, but hardly had he begun his regular government when troubles
+broke out. His own character, the internal conditions of Bolivia, and
+the international jealousies felt against him as the friend and
+representative of Bolivar, combined to make his position untenable. A
+general of the first order, a statesman of enlightened ideas, and a
+single-minded and unselfish patriot, Sucré would not deign to impose
+himself by force of arms on a reluctant people, nor make undignified
+compromises with the turbulent caudillos. He had accepted the presidency
+only after it had been repeatedly pressed upon him by the Bolivian
+congress, and though he was probably influenced by his loyal wish to aid
+Bolivar in the latter's scheme of uniting all Spanish-America under a
+strong, semi-monarchical government, he was unselfishly anxious to
+restore peace and order. The heterogeneous population of about a million
+who lived upon the plateau was, however, demoralised by the terrible
+experiences through which it had passed in the previous fifteen years.
+Three-fourths were Indian, a stoical, docile race which would not make
+much trouble, but which was divided into two nations speaking different
+languages and possessing little capacity for organisation. The few
+whites and the more numerous people of mixed blood were the dominating
+elements, and these had been trained to lawlessness and ferocity by the
+long war.
+
+Sucré vainly tried to replace anarchy by some semblance of orderly
+government. The revenues of the country had fallen from the two millions
+annually of colonial times to almost nothing. His attempt to substitute
+a rational system of direct taxation for the countless Spanish imposts
+failed. Money to pay the Colombian troops could not be raised and the
+mercenaries became mutinous. At the same time symptoms of rebellion
+appeared among the Bolivian caudillos. Troubles in Colombia and
+Venezuela had forced Bolivar to retire from Peru and the troops he left
+behind almost immediately mutinied, and Santa Cruz pushed himself to the
+head of affairs at Lima. The Bolivarian Constitution of Peru was
+overthrown, and Santa Cruz and Gamarra advanced upon Bolivia to expel
+Sucré. The latter's Colombian troops mutinied and bands of
+insurrectionists rose in various parts of the country to aid the
+Peruvian invaders, while Argentina and Chile plainly showed their desire
+for Sucré's overthrow. On the 28th of July, 1828, a little more than
+three years after his triumphant entry into Bolivia, Sucré made a treaty
+with the leader of the Peruvian army agreeing to withdraw from Bolivia
+with all the natives of Colombia. General Santa Cruz was named
+president, and the Peruvians occupied many of the Bolivian provinces for
+several months, only to withdraw when it became evident that their
+continued presence would surely provoke a universal uprising. Santa Cruz
+soon triumphed over all opposition and established himself as master of
+the country.
+
+The new president was a man whose general intelligence and ability and
+knowledge of diplomacy, law, and economics gave the country a successful
+and rational government. Though he abandoned Sucré's premature attempt
+to reform the taxing system, he energetically applied and improved the
+old imposts and soon brought some order out of the financial chaos. His
+army was the best organised, disciplined, and equipped in South America.
+He also tried to attract European immigration and to improve
+agricultural, commercial, and social conditions and methods. The
+difficulties of communication and the conservative and industrially
+unenergetic character of the population, however, prevented any rapid
+development. Peru was distracted by civil commotions, and Santa Cruz
+pressed hard on the northern country. He probably could have forced the
+cession of adjacent seacoast to the inestimable and lasting benefit of
+Bolivia, but his ambition led him farther. Appealed to for help by one
+of the rival Peruvian factions, he gave it upon the condition that that
+country should be divided, the two parts uniting with Bolivia in a
+confederation of which he was to be the supreme head. In 1835 he invaded
+Peru and made himself master of the country.
+
+The creation of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation was an especial menace
+to Chile and the Argentine. The latter country, still a prey to the most
+lamentable civil disorders, was in no position to undertake any
+effective intervention, but Chile's already strong and well-established
+government determined to restore the balance of power. Pretexts for war
+were soon found, and the more solid texture of Chile's social and
+political organisation, the energy of her people bred in cold regions,
+and her command of the sea, quickly made themselves felt. The first
+expedition sent to Arequipa in 1837 was compelled to retire by an army
+which Santa Cruz despatched down the Cordillera from La Paz. The
+factions in Peru, however, rose and in the following year Chile renewed
+the war. On the 20th of January, 1839, with the aid of the Peruvian
+auxiliaries, the Chileans overwhelmingly defeated an army of Bolivians
+and Peruvians under Santa Cruz at the battle of Yungay.
+
+The fragility of the foundations upon which Santa Cruz had rested his
+system was now apparent. The "Peru-Bolivian Confederation" disappeared
+from the map. Peru re-established her independent existence with her old
+boundaries. Santa Cruz's enemies in Bolivia rose in rebellion and he
+fell without a struggle. As a matter of fact the ten years of his more
+or less orderly government had not changed the character of the Bolivian
+Creoles and mixed-bloods. His government had been military, reactionary,
+and a mere makeshift; the Indians still occupied their inferior
+position, the lower classes regarded the ruling coteries as self-seeking
+aristocrats, a dull discontent fermented among the whole population, and
+the ambitious chieftains found little difficulty in seducing the
+soldiery. Bolivia, definitely cut off from the Pacific, helpless to
+defend her interests in the plains surrounding the plateau, unable to
+attract the fertilising and civilising currents of commerce and
+immigration, entered upon an epoch of civil war, pronunciamentos, and
+dictatorships which lasted nearly half a century. A recital of the
+literally countless armed risings, and of the various individuals who
+exercised, or claimed to exercise, supreme power, would throw little
+light on the progress of the country. Foreign commerce and domestic
+industry were so small that the government was always poor and unable to
+meet its expenses. Peru's possession of the seaports held Bolivian
+commerce at her mercy, and the military and naval power of Chile was a
+continual menace. Either of Bolivia's larger neighbours could easily
+bring on a revolution by opportune aid to ambitious factions, and the
+turbulence of the Creole military classes was not restrained by any
+powerful and intelligent commercial and industrial population.
+
+In the midst of the fighting which followed the overthrow of Santa Cruz,
+a liberal Constitution was proclaimed which attempted to take from the
+executive his preponderance in the government. Negro slavery was
+abolished and the movement was altogether in the direction of democracy
+and against the property-holding classes. In 1840 General Ballivian
+overcame all his rivals and gained supreme power. In the following year
+the dictator of Peru, taking advantage of the continual disputes over
+questions of transit through Peruvian territory, and thinking that in
+Bolivia's enfeebled condition she would not be able to resist
+incorporation, led a large army over the border and occupied the
+province of La Paz. But the Bolivians rallied around Ballivian and
+defeated the Peruvians in the battle of Yngavi near the end of 1841, a
+victory which definitely assured the independence of Bolivia.
+
+Ballivian had risen to power by brute military force and crushed out the
+feeble attempt at popular government made after the fall of Santa Cruz.
+Despotic, irritable, and ambitious, he had not the wide knowledge or
+administrative capacity of Santa Cruz, and he gave the country a much
+worse government. The pride of the turbulent half-breeds was roused by
+the victory over the Peruvians, and conspiracies and insurrections
+occurred more frequently. Ballivian ordered the liberal Constitution of
+1839 to be repealed and the preponderance of the executive in the
+governmental system was restored by the Constitution of 1843. He ruled
+until 1848, but the partisans of Santa Cruz grew bolder and bolder. In
+spite of the president's efforts to surround himself with officials of
+talent and intelligence, the power of the government decreased. The
+irrational and artificial boundaries given to Bolivia by Bolivar
+continued to involve her in disputes with Peru, and in 1847 the
+imposition of practically prohibitive duties nearly brought on war.
+Ballivian assembled an army, but Castilla, the Peruvian president, found
+means to foment an insurrection, and the Bolivian president was soon
+engaged in a desperate conflict with the very men whom he had expected
+to lead against the foreign enemy. Successful at first in his
+operations, one mutiny was suppressed only to be followed by others more
+formidable, and he finally gave it up in disgust and retired to exile.
+
+A year of confused struggling followed and at last General Belzu
+succeeded in establishing himself as dictator. Of low origin and
+uneducated, passionate and violent, the new ruler owed his elevation to
+his popularity with the common soldiery and the lowest classes of the
+population. His so-called policy of conciliation amounted in fact to
+permitting the guerilla bands to do as they pleased. Rapine, robbery,
+and riot became almost the normal condition of the country, while the
+better elements never ceased their conspiracies. Doctor Linares, a man
+of probity and learning, though stubborn and uncompromising, persisted
+untiring in his efforts to rid the country of the dictator. For seven
+years, however, Belzu maintained himself, while Bolivia fell lower and
+lower into the pit of anarchy, disgraced abroad by the actions of an
+ignorant tyrant who broke treaties, refused to listen to the protests of
+foreign ministers, and finally bundled them all out of the country,
+secure that on his mountain-tops no army could reach him to avenge the
+insult. The British foreign office literally wiped Bolivia from the map,
+declaring that she could no longer be recognised as a civilised nation.
+At last the dictator tired of his place and voluntarily resigned it,
+leaving as his successor a bastard son-in-law, named Cordova. The latter
+suppressed nine revolutionary movements in three years before he was at
+last overthrown by the indefatigable Linares.
+
+The new dictator started in with the good wishes of the respectable
+elements, and earnestly tried to raise his country from the abyss into
+which she had fallen. But the nation had been so thoroughly demoralised
+that there was no foundation to build upon. The public offices were
+filled by political favourites, but when he threw them out and tried to
+put honest and competent men in their places he lost the good-will of
+the office-holding class. He tried to reform the army and dismissed the
+useless swarm of officers without commands, but this gained him the
+enmity of the military. The very ministers whom he had selected to aid
+him in putting reforms into effect plotted against him, and it was a
+conspiracy led by Fernandez, the member of his cabinet in whom he placed
+his greatest confidence, that brought about his fall after he had ruled
+three stormy and anxious years.
+
+A period of frightful confusion, known as the presidency of General
+Acha, ensued. The chiefs fought among themselves with such ferocity that
+in Chile and Peru the partition of Bolivia was seriously discussed.
+Finally, at the end of 1864, a remarkable man came to the front out of
+the tangle. This was the celebrated dictator, Melgarejo, who frankly
+abandoned all pretence of governing by any sanction except that of brute
+force and terror. He kept up a great army of spies, and the conspiracies
+which they reported were ruthlessly crushed by the well-paid ruffians
+who composed his army and blindly obeyed his capricious commands. One
+day the dictator, drunk, as was his habit, called the guard and ordered
+them to jump out of the windows in order to show a visiting foreigner
+the superior discipline of the Bolivian soldier. Several had broken
+their arms or legs, but he did not even look to see, and continued his
+demonstration by ordering his aide-de-camp to "lie dead" like a poodle
+dog. Taxes were arbitrarily levied; peaceable citizens were exiled and
+shot; around him circulated a crowd of parasitic functionaries. But in
+spite of his extravagances and cruelties Melgarejo gave some solidity
+and consistence to the governmental structure. The production of silver
+had been declining until about 1850, but at the beginning of Melgarejo's
+administration had again reached ten millions annually, and thereafter
+rapidly increased with the encouragement given by him to the investment
+of foreign capital. Money was freely spent on public works, and the
+Mollendo railroad, extending to the head of Lake Titicaca, dates from
+this time. It is the principal route for Bolivia's foreign commerce,
+though it does not touch Bolivian territory. The isolated desert region
+on the coast began to be exploited and the guano, nitrate, copper, and
+silver found there vastly increased the country's revenues, although a
+considerable foreign debt was incurred.
+
+Melgarejo's enemies succeeded in overthrowing him in 1871, and their
+leader, General Morales, succeeded to the supreme power. There followed
+some relaxation of the system of personal tyranny, but in the main the
+form of the administration changed little, either under Morales or his
+immediate successors. The first named was able to negotiate a European
+loan to be employed in the building of railways, and in fact one was
+constructed--running from Antofagasta on the nitrate coast over the
+Cordillera and across the Puna table-land to the centre of the country
+at Oruro. Heavy gradients, the unproductive character of the region
+along the line, and its length, have prevented its furnishing the cheap
+and practical outlet to the sea which had been hoped for. Insurrections
+continued to break out from time to time, and in 1876 General Daza
+usurped supreme power. His rule lasted until the Chilean war of 1879,
+but the first decisive defeat was the signal for his fall.
+
+Narciso Campero became president, and the Bolivian nation, hopeless of
+recovering its coast provinces by force of arms, began the task of
+re-adjusting itself to the new conditions. The Constitution was
+re-written in its present form, and a succession of presidents have
+since ruled the country in a peace and security which forms a happy
+contrast with the anarchy that preceded Melgarejo's advent. The
+production of silver rapidly increased, reaching fifteen million dollars
+in 1885, when Pacheco was president, and growing to twenty millions in
+1888 with Arce in the executive chair. Potosí still yields three million
+ounces per annum, and the great Huanchaca mines far surpass Potosí,
+making Bolivia the third silver-producing country in the world. But her
+great resources can never be profitably utilised until a practical
+outlet to the sea has been found. On the Pacific she has been absolutely
+shut in since the Chilean war--Peru controlling the northern fourth of
+the coast which separates her from that ocean and Chile the remainder.
+Bolivia is without a seaport, though she retains a hope of receiving
+compensation for the loss of her nitrate territory in the cession of one
+such outlet, when Chile and Peru are able to come to an agreement about
+the province of Arica. But the explorations of Heath on the upper
+tributaries of the Madeira resulted in discoveries which may ultimately
+enable Bolivia to utilise the magnificent fertile plain lying just at
+the foot of the table-land, but so far well-nigh as inaccessible as the
+South Pole. Broad and navigable rivers meander through this vast region,
+needing only the construction of a railway around the Madeira rapids to
+communicate with the Amazon and the Atlantic.
+
+  [Illustration: LOADED LLAMAS.]
+
+Since the days of the Jesuit missionaries the Mojos Indians in the
+prairies on the Mamoré north of Santa Cruz have retained a measure of
+civilisation, breeding cattle and keeping up a connection with the
+Creoles at Santa Cruz. Lately the latter have pressed on into the rubber
+regions of the lower Mamoré and even crossed into the valley of the Beni
+and founded the town of Riveralta where the Orton joins the Beni. From
+La Paz daring men painfully made their way down the roadless gorges of
+the great Cordillera and reached navigable water where the Beni emerges
+from the mountains. Thence to Riveralta the way was comparatively easy
+and little steamboats now ply those waters. This region is permanently
+inhabitable by civilised man, but to the north-east the country drops
+off into swampy plains drained by the Acre, a tributary of the sluggish
+Purus. Up the latter river the Brazilian rubber hunters had come from
+Manaos and found the banks of the Acre unprecedentedly rich in the
+finest gum. Thousands poured into the territory and by the early
+nineties it was furnishing a large percentage of the world's supply.
+Though the Bolivian boundary had long been believed to cross the Acre
+near the 9th degree, the Brazilian rubber gatherers did not hesitate to
+enter an entirely unoccupied territory and even penetrated as far south
+as the 12th degree in a region undisputably Bolivian. The authorities at
+La Paz attempted to assert their political control, but since it was
+well-nigh impossible to get troops into the country except by way of the
+Atlantic, the rubber gatherers defied them. The Brazilian government
+intervened to protect the interests of its citizens; President Pando
+headed an expedition in 1902 which was met at the borders of the Acre
+valley, and after some fighting with the insurgent Brazilians, which
+seemed likely to bring on a war between the two powers, a treaty was
+agreed upon by which Brazil takes the territory, paying a money
+indemnity, agreeing to build the railroad around the Madeira Falls, and
+ceding a port on the Paraguay.
+
+Internally the condition of Bolivia has in the main been quiet since the
+Chilean war, and the contest between clericalism and radicalism has lost
+much of its bitterness. General Camacho led an unsuccessful insurrection
+in 1890 and afterwards fled to Valparaiso. Three years later he planned
+another insurrection and the government had great difficulty in
+obtaining arms and money for operations against him. Chileans finally
+furnished rifles and a loan, and shortly afterwards a treaty was
+negotiated by which Bolivia abandoned its alliance with Peru and came
+under Chilean influence. Peru resented this and the following year her
+restrictions on Bolivian commerce nearly brought the two countries to
+blows. The crisis, however, passed, and Bolivia has returned to the
+policy of avoiding entangling alliances, while pressing Brazil, Chile,
+or Peru to give her outlets to the ocean. In 1896, Alonso, leader of the
+conservatives, and that energetic general and explorer, José Manuel
+Pando, chief of the liberals, contested the presidential election. In
+this contest the geographical jealousies which exist between northern
+and southern Bolivia played a considerable rôle. Alonso was successful
+and served as president during three years, but early in 1899 Pando
+began warlike operations and in April overthrew Alonso in a decisive
+battle. Under his vigorous administration the country has been quiet.
+The plain of the Madeira has been opened up to settlement, and the
+international position of the government is now vastly improved.
+
+
+
+
+ECUADOR
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE CARAS
+
+
+The irrigated valleys of Chile lie open to the ocean or are easily
+accessible over the low coast range. The sea-board of Peru is likewise
+defenceless, and though the Andean passes are high they are dry and
+practicable and offer a way of approach to the table-land behind. The
+want of rain from Valparaiso to Paita is explained by the Antarctic
+current whose waters cool the breezes so that the warmer land condenses
+no moisture. But at the northern boundary of Peru the coast bends
+abruptly to the east; the cold current follows its original north-east
+direction and lets the warm tropical waters wash the land. From the Gulf
+of Guayaquil to Panama the coast and mountainsides are covered with
+luxuriant vegetation and the ascent of the passes becomes well-nigh
+impracticable. Therefore the Andean plateau in Ecuador is accessible
+from the Pacific only on the south and the Colombian plateaux are
+virtually cut off from communication with the western ocean.
+
+Tradition relates that about the seventh century of the Christian era a
+nation of Indians, bearing the name of Caras, invaded the sea-board of
+central Ecuador. They were warlike, aggressive, conquerors by instinct,
+and their civilisation was superior to that of the barbarous tribes upon
+whom they descended. They came by way of the sea, most probably from the
+south, bringing a complicated religion to which they were fanatically
+devoted, and a military and tribal organisation which gave them an
+overwhelming advantage. In all probability the Caras were akin to those
+highly civilised nations who lived in the valleys of the northern
+Peruvian coast. Be this as it may, there is no doubt that the Caras were
+not long content with dominance along the coast, and succeeded in
+forcing their way up the slopes of the Cordillera through a zone
+uninhabitable on account of the perpetual rain, and only penetrable
+along defiles where the soaked clay of the steep mountainsides affords
+no footing and the tangle of vegetation leaves no path.
+
+At six thousand feet above sea-level the roads became better, the
+vegetation ceased to be tropical, and when they emerged through the
+passes to the comparatively level plains about Quito, some eight
+thousand feet above the sea, they found themselves in a country where
+the cereals and fruits of the temperate zone flourish and no forests
+interrupt communication. Two lines of great mountains stretched north
+and south and between them lay a plateau less than forty miles in width,
+and though much of it was bleak and arid, at least half lay below the
+elevation where the successful cultivation of the cereals and the
+potato becomes possible. At regular intervals transverse ranges of
+mountains, called "nudos," or knots, cut the plateau into separate
+divisions, each measurably protected from attack by its neighbours.
+Andean Ecuador has been aptly compared to a great ladder four hundred
+miles long, with the "nudos" forming its gigantic rungs. Beginning at
+the northern boundary of modern Ecuador, Quito lies in the second of the
+eight sub-plateaux, which is one of the largest and most fertile. Into
+it descended the Caras and began to conquer and absorb the aborigines.
+These inter-Andean valleys were inhabited by numerous tribes speaking
+distinct languages, who had developed considerable skill in agriculture.
+The compact and efficient military organisation of the Caras gave them a
+great advantage over more loosely organised peoples, but for three
+hundred years they were occupied in extending their power over the
+valley of Quito and thence over Latacunga and Ibarra, which adjoin it
+north and south.
+
+From the year 1300 the Cara traditions gather more clearness and
+precision. By a law handed down from immemorial times each Shiri was
+succeeded by his son, or if he had no son by the son of a sister,
+daughters and other female descendants being absolutely excluded. The
+eleventh Shiri, whose reign corresponded with the last years of the
+thirteenth century, had no male heir, and he asked the general council
+of the nation for permission to name as successor the husband he might
+choose for his daughter. Each one of the different chiefs, hoping to be
+selected, voted for the proposition, but the Shiri diplomatically went
+outside of his own dominions and proposed to the monarch who ruled in
+Riobamba that his eldest son, Duchisela, marry the Princess Toa. The
+proposition was accepted and the Quito kingdom doubled its territory and
+power.
+
+Duchisela reigned seventy years, and upon his death was succeeded by his
+son Autachi, the thirteenth Shiri. This monarch raised the Cara power to
+its highest pitch, extending his dominions south over the plateaux of
+Alausi, Cañar, Cuenca, Jubones, Zaruma, and Loja, and thence far beyond
+the present Ecuadorian boundary over the Peruvian provinces of
+Huanacabamba, Piura, and Paita. This vast increase of territory was due
+more to treaties of confederation and alliance than to conquest. None of
+the new provinces were ever thoroughly incorporated into the Cara
+confederacy, and their allegiance to the Shiri in far-away Quito sat
+lightly upon them. By the end of the fourteenth century the Cara
+influence was dominant along the Andean plateau from the first degree of
+north latitude to the sixth south, and extended to the arid coast plain
+of northern Peru. The humid and forested coast region north of Guayaquil
+remained in the hands of barbarous tribes, nor were the Caras ever able
+to extend their power down the wooded eastern slopes of the Andes into
+the Amazon plain.
+
+Cara expansion was suddenly checked by the Incas. In the latter part of
+the fourteenth century these fierce and indomitable Islamites of the
+western continent under the lead of Tupac Yupanqui conquered the coast
+nations from Lima to Paita, and the ruder tribes who lived in the
+mountains from Cerro de Pasco north to the Ecuadorian border. Tupac did
+not respect the southern confederates of the Caras, and the Shiri
+appears to have made little resistance when his allies were rapidly
+reduced. The Inca system was the far better adapted for conquest. The
+emperor could equip and lead to invasion armies numbering tens of
+thousands, well disciplined, blindly obeying their generals, marching
+over carefully prepared roads, and supplied by an admirable
+commissariat. The Caras had contented themselves with treaties of
+alliance; they were only the chief tribe in a confederacy, and warlike
+as were the members they could not combine to offer any effective
+resistance to the first onslaught of the great military empire.
+
+A fairly homogeneous civilisation had grown up in the Ecuadorian
+Cordillera during the four hundred years of Cara influence. Bringing
+with them from their unknown original home a capacity for military and
+political organisation far superior to that of most American aborigines,
+the Caras were like a ferment introduced into the heterogeneous and
+inert tribes of the plateau, which gradually transformed the latter into
+a vigorous people so well fitted to their surroundings that they
+survived the Inca conquest, even turning the tables and becoming the
+dominant element in the empire, and then outlived the decimating tyranny
+of the Spaniards, so that ninety-five per cent. of the present
+population is composed of their descendants. That this civilisation was
+in the main self-developed can hardly be doubted. There is no evidence
+of any intimate contact with the Incas; with the peoples of Yucatan and
+Mexico the Caras had no connection, and the conjectures as to
+communication with the peoples of eastern Asia have no historical or
+archæological basis. Their civilising and consolidating mission was
+aided by exceptionally favourable surroundings. The climate was healthy,
+agreeable, and conducive to bodily and intellectual vigour; the soil
+reasonably fertile and well adapted to the production of eminently
+nourishing food crops, while requiring hard labour in its cultivation.
+The potato, the quinoa grain, and maize played no insignificant rôle in
+the history of the Caras; they might never have risen above the level of
+Caribs if they had lived in a region where savoury and poorly nourishing
+esculents grow wild. Not less important was the physical configuration
+of Ecuador. Dry and open valleys, some of them large enough to sustain
+two hundred thousand people, and easily penetrable in every part, while
+surrounded by high mountains and bleak "paramos," shut off from the
+outer world by the forest-covered declivities of the Cordilleras, were
+admirably adapted to favour the growth of compact little states, whose
+inhabitants would retain their individual initiative and local pride
+even after incorporation in a larger political system.
+
+Hualcopo, the fourteenth Shiri, ascended the throne of Quito in 1430.
+Tupac Yupanqui had completed the reduction of the coast tribes of
+northern Peru and the mountain tribes as far north as the present
+Ecuador border had ceased to resist him. From the coast valleys of Piura
+and Paita, he marched up the easy pass which leads over the Cordillera
+into the fertile plateaux of southern Ecuador, and after a few victories
+all the tribes as far north as the nudo of Azuay submitted, and
+transferred their allegiance from Quito to Cuzco. Loja, Zaruma, Jubones,
+the great valley of Cuenca, and Cañar were taken away, and Hualcopo was
+deprived of all but his hereditary dominions--the old kingdoms of
+Riobamba and Quito. The Shiri possessed no army capable of undertaking
+an offensive campaign against the Incas, but, although terrified at
+Tupac's rapid advance, the ancient possessions of the Shiri remained
+faithful. Tupac spent two years in the province of Cañar, erecting
+fortifications and recruiting his army by new arrivals from the south
+and enlistment among the recently conquered tribes. Meanwhile Hualcopo
+was fortifying himself in the valley of Alausi, which lies north of
+Azuay, and in the passes that lead over the Tiocajas nudo into Riobamba.
+About the year 1455 the Inca army advanced in force. Defeated in several
+minor actions, the Shiri abandoned Alausi and concentrated his forces in
+the passes of Tiocajas. After three months of skirmishes and sieges in
+which the forts fell one by one, the Caras were compelled to accept a
+pitched battle. The conflict was well sustained, but with the death of
+the principal Cara general, victory declared for the Incas and the Caras
+fled from the field leaving sixteen thousand dead.
+
+Hualcopo retired to Riobamba, but there it was impossible to maintain
+himself, and he was forced to retreat to the fortress of Mocha in the
+nudo which divides Riobamba from the valley of Latacunga. Here he made a
+determined and successful stand, and all Tupac's efforts to force his
+way over the last line of natural fortifications which kept him out of
+the northern valleys were in vain. The Inca emperor was forced to
+content himself with assuring his possession of the provinces already
+conquered. In 1460 he returned to Cuzco, leaving the territory
+garrisoned. Three years later the heroic Hualcopo died, and was
+succeeded by his son, Cacha, the fifteenth and last Shiri. The young man
+signalised his accession to the throne by an aggressive campaign for the
+recovery of the lost provinces. He passed south into the valley of
+Riobamba, surprised the Inca garrisons, and put them to the sword,
+revindicating all the country as far south as the nudo of Azuay. Beyond
+that range he was unable to go, for all his efforts failed before the
+obstinate resistance of the inhabitants of Cañar. Tupac began
+preparations to lead an overwhelming army against Cacha, but his own
+death interrupted him, and it was not until 1475 that his son, Huaina
+Capac, surnamed the "great," was able to take the road for the north,
+determined to put an end to the Shiri dynasty. He first consolidated his
+power among the tribes on the coast south of Guayaquil, whom his father
+had left half independent, and then extended his conquests along the
+northern shore among the barbarians of Manabi. On the island of Puna he
+put to the sword all the male inhabitants, and one tribe in Manabi,
+notorious for its abominable and unnatural practices, he extirpated.
+Returning south, he crossed the mountains in northern Peru, and
+descending their eastern slopes, waged a bloody war against the
+Pacamorés, who inhabited the forests where the Upper Amazon debouches
+into the plain. Having thus secured his line of communications he
+devoted himself to the main object of the campaign--the conquest of
+Quito.
+
+Disproportionate as appeared the resources of the contending nations,
+the war which ensued was well contested. The Caras had resumed their
+warlike habits and the imminence of the danger animated them and their
+allies to a desperate resistance. For months the Caras held the great
+Inca army at bay in the defiles of the Azuay, but finally they were
+defeated and retreated to the line of Tiocajas. The Incas followed and
+in a great battle vanquished their opponents so decisively that not only
+was Riobamba lost, as had happened after the former defeat, but likewise
+Latacunga and Quito itself. No stand could be made at Mocha, and the
+Shiri fled to Ibarra, through Quito, where the Caranquis, the most
+warlike members of the confederacy, were determined to resist to the
+last. A considerable number of Cara warriors had escaped the slaughter
+at Tiocajas, and a formidable army assembled to defend the last
+fortresses in the extreme north of the kingdom. Huaina himself laid
+siege to Otavalo, the principal stronghold of the Caranquis, but was not
+able to reduce it. Their successes encouraged them to take the
+offensive, and in a sortie the Inca emperor narrowly escaped losing his
+life. Compelled to retire to suppress a mutiny among his southern
+troops, he left the northern army under the command of his brother,
+Auqui Toma, and the latter was killed in an assault on the redoubtable
+fortress of Otavalo. This, however, was the last victory which the Shiri
+won. Huaina's reinforcements had come up and he advanced with an
+overwhelming army to avenge his brother's death. Otavalo was taken and
+its garrison put to the sword; the Shiri fled to another fortress, where
+he was defeated and slain. The victorious emperor took a fearful
+vengeance on the Caranquis, whose obstinacy had cost him so dear.
+Tradition tells that twenty-four thousand were massacred, and their
+bodies thrown into a lake which has ever since borne the name of
+Yahuarcocha--the "pool of blood."
+
+Thenceforth the provinces of the old Quito kingdom were integral parts
+of the Inca empire. The southern valleys had readily accepted the Inca
+rule, and the central ones appear to have abandoned the Shiri's cause
+promptly after the second battle of Tiocajas. Though the Caranquis had
+been exterminated and the Caras had suffered greatly, the other tribes
+remained intact. The Inca emperor saw that a policy of conciliation
+would best insure the obedience of these formidable peoples. He spent
+the remainder of his long life in Ecuador, married the daughter of the
+dead Shiri, and ruled rather as the legitimate successor of the ancient
+dynasty than as an alien conqueror. So far as possible the religious,
+political, and social customs of the Incas were introduced, but it does
+not appear that the work of amalgamation had proceeded very far in the
+fifty years which intervened until the advent of the Spaniards. The
+Quichua had not displaced the native tongues to any great extent, and
+while the Ecuadorean tribes became loyal subjects, they did not regard
+themselves as in any way inferior to the older subjects of the empire.
+Rather had the balance of power passed to them; they had acquired the
+skill in regular warfare once the exclusive property of the Incas; and
+the issue of the civil war between Huascar and Atahuallpa seems to prove
+that they would have played the principal rôle in the Inca system if the
+advent of the Spaniards had not altered everything.
+
+Huaina Capac died in Quito in 1525, and his body was taken to Cuzco to
+be laid with his ancestors. In order better to secure the northern
+kingdom to his descendants he named Atahuallpa, a son by his marriage
+with the Shiri princess, ruler of the old dominions of Quito. His eldest
+son, Huascar, was given the rest of the empire with the title of emperor
+and a suzerainty over Atahuallpa. But Huaina's wise provisions were
+rendered valueless by the dispute which arose between the two brothers
+about the boundaries of Atahuallpa's territories. The latter insisted
+that they included the provinces south of the Azuay, which had been
+wrested from Hualcopo by Tupac Yupanqui seventy years before, but
+Huascar would not admit that they extended beyond the hereditary
+dominions of the Shiri dynasty. The people of Cañar, the most northerly
+of the disputed provinces, had always been bitter enemies of Quito, and
+their chief now refused to recognise Atahuallpa as overlord and sent a
+deputation to Huascar. Atahuallpa despatched his uncle Caluchima and his
+great general Quizquiz to occupy the province and dethrone the
+recalcitrant chief. Huascar hurried up some of his Inca regulars to aid
+the people of Cañar, who won the first battles and advanced towards
+Atahuallpa's capital. The northerners rallied around the grandson of
+their old Shiri, and two great armies met on the banks of the Naxichi,
+only fifty miles south of Quito. Atahuallpa gained a complete victory,
+and followed it up by advancing over the Azuay into Cañar, where he was
+again overwhelmingly victorious over a second army which Huascar had
+sent against him. The whole of southern Ecuador fell into his hands and
+he took a fearful vengeance on the Cañaris. Atahuallpa himself remained
+in Ecuador while Quizquiz went on into Peru to achieve that crushing
+series of victories which resulted in the taking of Cuzco and the
+capture of Huascar himself. By the year 1532 the whole empire as far
+south as Cuzco lay prostrate, and it seemed certain that the Cuzco
+dynasty would be displaced by the illegitimate Quito branch.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE SPANISH CONQUEST
+
+
+The fratricidal war lasting seven bloody years exhausted the resources
+of the northern and central provinces of the Inca empire, and raised the
+spirit of faction to a bitter pitch. Hardly had the last battle been
+fought when Pizarro landed on the northern Peruvian coast. The moment
+could not have been more favourable. The story of Atahuallpa's capture,
+of Pizarro's intrigues with the different Inca factions, and of his
+triumphal march to Cuzco through a country distracted by civil feud,
+belongs rather to the history of Peru than of Ecuador. With Atahuallpa's
+death and the defeat of Quizquiz near Cuzco, Quito was left without a
+master. The country had been drained of able-bodied men by Atahuallpa's
+levies, and bands of troops who found their way back from Peru fought
+among themselves. The indefatigable Cañaris rose again against the Quito
+authorities, and following the fatal example set by the Huascar party in
+Peru, applied to the Spaniards. From San Miguel, the colony which
+Pizarro had established at Piura, in the valley where the road from the
+Ecuador table-land debouches into the coast plain, Sebastian de
+Benalcazar led a force of two hundred Spaniards to their assistance.
+Ascending the Cordillera he was joined by great numbers of Indians in
+Loja, Cuenca, and Cañar, and crossed the Azuay before he encountered the
+meagre forces of the Quito generals. Horses and firearms gave the
+Spaniards an easy victory, and their enemies retreated to the defences
+of Tiocajas. This locality was once more fated to be the scene of a
+battle decisive of Ecuadorean history. Benalcazar and his allies were
+victorious, but at such a cost that he thought seriously of giving up
+the enterprise. Tradition recites that the giant volcano Cotopaxi burst
+forth into a terrific eruption after the battle, and that the midnight
+explosions were heard scores of miles along the plateau. To the Indians
+this was an infallible signal of the displeasure of the sun god.
+Trembling with superstitious fear they retreated in disorder; Benalcazar
+crossed Tiocajas without resistance, and overran the country as far
+north as Quito, taking possession of the city in December, 1533.
+Meanwhile Almagro had been hurrying up from Peru with reinforcements and
+on his way along the plateau fell in with a third expedition under
+Alvarado, governor of Guatemala. Coming from Panama on his own account
+and landing on the coast a long distance north of Guayaquil, Alvarado
+had succeeded in forcing his way through the dense forests and
+rain-soaked defiles and debouched on the plateau near Riobamba. Almagro
+paid him one hundred thousand dollars to withdraw, and Benalcazar was
+entrusted with the completion of the conquest he had so well begun.
+
+Disappointed in the search for gold, Benalcazar divided the country into
+feudal lordships, enslaving the Indians and compelling them to pay
+tribute. His restless energy was not satisfied with the conquest of the
+old Cara kingdom, and he soon led an expedition of one hundred and fifty
+Spaniards and four thousand Indians against the coast provinces and
+founded the city of Guayaquil, whose magnificent and sheltered port, the
+best on the Pacific coast, gave independent access to the sea. Though
+the passes leading from Guayaquil to Riobamba were far more tedious than
+the southern ones from Piura to Loja, they brought Quito two hundred
+miles nearer the ocean, and their use made Ecuador independent of
+northern Peru. Hardly had Benalcazar returned to the table-land and gone
+north to conquer southern Colombia, when the tribes near Guayaquil
+attacked and destroyed the settlement. His lieutenant at Quito
+despatched another expedition; Pizarro sent reinforcements by sea; and
+the place was re-founded. Again was it destroyed, and only in 1537, when
+Pizarro sent up Orellana with an adequate force, was a permanent
+settlement made on the site where to-day is the largest and richest city
+of Ecuador.
+
+Benalcazar had conquered Quito in the name and under the authority of
+Pizarro, and the latter now named his brother Gonzalo governor.
+Confident of finding another Peru in the unknown regions to the east of
+his new domain, the young Pizarro enlisted hundreds of adventurers, and
+in the beginning of 1541 led the largest and best-equipped expedition
+yet assembled in South America down the declivities of the Andes.
+Difficulties began as soon as he reached the sweltering, steaming forest
+region. Rain fell unceasingly; the soft clay of the defiles afforded no
+footing; instead of finding stone highways like those over which they
+had marched in their conquest of the table-land, the Spaniards had to
+cut tracks along the mountainsides through the matted vegetation.
+Provisions ran short, clothes rotted, arms rusted, no villages or tribes
+possessing food were encountered. Finally Gonzalo was obliged to halt
+the main body, sending a detachment under Orellana, the second in
+command, on ahead to find provisions. Orellana followed down a stream
+which soon grew large enough to be navigable. He built boats and
+proceeded, but still found no signs of civilised inhabitants. Fearing
+that he could never ascend the river to the main body, he determined to
+keep on, confident that ultimately he must reach the ocean. The river he
+was descending is now called the Napo. After a course of nearly a
+thousand miles, it flowed into the Amazon, and down the latter's broad
+current Orellana and his little band floated to the Atlantic, there
+built a little ship, and finally made their way to Spain.
+
+Hearing nothing of Orellana, Gonzalo gave up and climbed back to Quito
+with a starving and naked remnant of his men. There he learned of the
+assassination of his great brother at Lima, and that Vaca de Castro, the
+royal commissioner appointed to settle the disputes between the
+partisans of Almagro and Pizarro, had passed through Ecuador on his way
+south to Peru, appointing another governor for Quito. Gonzalo retired to
+Charcas in southern Bolivia, whence he emerged a year later to head the
+great rebellion. The viceroy was compelled to fly from Lima, and landing
+at Tumbez made his way to Quito. The Spaniards in Ecuador and southern
+Colombia were against Pizarro, but the latter chased the viceroy out of
+Quito and north into Popayan, where Benalcazar took sides with him. Four
+hundred Spaniards accompanied the viceroy in a counter-invasion, but
+near the city he was completely defeated and decapitated as he lay
+wounded on the field. Gonzalo, now undisputed lord of the whole Inca
+empire, returned at his leisure to Lima. The tale of how Gasca, shrewd
+old priest, by intrigue and conciliation, re-established royal authority
+and brought Pizarro to the scaffold, does not especially affect the
+history of Ecuador.
+
+By 1550 the civil wars were over, the unruly original conquistadores had
+been executed, banished, or reduced to obedience. Shortly afterward the
+system of Indian tribute and slavery was modified so that although the
+proprietors got rich the aborigines were saved from rapid extermination,
+royal officials and functionaries were installed, an elaborate system of
+taxation established, and Ecuador, with the rest of Spanish America,
+entered upon a long period of exploitation under form of law, instead of
+being the haphazard prey of irresponsible private adventurers.
+
+  [Illustration: ECUADOR INDIANS.]
+
+For the next two hundred and fifty years Ecuador has no history. The
+occasional eruption of a volcano or an Indian insurrection is all one
+finds in the annals, except the interminable lists of the Spanish
+officials sent out to enrich themselves and the Crown at the expense of
+the hapless Indians. The Spanish occupation brought about no
+colonisation of Ecuador in the true sense of that word, although it
+worked a considerable revolution in the life and customs of the Indians
+who continued to constitute the bulk of the population. Indeed, the
+habitable area of the Andean plateau was so limited and the aboriginal
+population so numerous, that there was no room for immigration without a
+war of extermination. The cultivable area of Andean Ecuador barely
+exceeds eight thousand square miles, and it is probable that more than
+a million natives lived there in the time of the Caras and Incas. Even
+at the present day these eight thousand miles contain more than
+two-thirds of the total population, and not more than four hundred
+thousand people inhabit the two hundred and eighty thousand square miles
+of high, barren mountains, steep declivities of the Cordillera, and
+wooded plains on the coast and in the Amazon valley, which constitute
+the remainder of Ecuador.
+
+One of the important results of the Spanish occupation was the
+introduction of new food plants and domestic animals. Wheat and barley
+were early planted by the Castilian proprietors who had divided the
+country among themselves, and these grains quickly replaced the quinoa,
+which, with the potato, had been the chief reliance of the Caras. The
+cultivation of the potato and also of maize was, however, continued. The
+Spanish invaders introduced the plantain and banana, which immediately
+became the staples of the forested and tropical districts, making
+possible a great increase of population. The plateau was found suited to
+European fruits, and orchards were soon flourishing in its more favoured
+parts. Rice, indigo, and sugar-cane were also introduced, and an export
+trade in these articles grew up, as well as in the native cacao and
+sarsaparilla.
+
+The Spanish rulers effected radical changes in the political, social,
+and religious life of the civilised Indians. A certain apathy and
+fatalism seems characteristic of the American aborigine, and in
+Ecuador, trained through countless centuries to the patriarchal rule of
+his own chiefs, he submitted to the exactions and innovations of his new
+masters. According to Spanish constitutional law and practice, America
+was not a component part of the mother-kingdom, but the new continent
+was regarded as the personal property of the king of Castile, its lands,
+mines, and inhabitants being his to dispose of at pleasure. The viceroy
+at Lima was the monarch's lieutenant, only responsible to the king
+himself or to the advisory board known as the Council of the Indies. For
+great territorial divisions like Ecuador this power was delegated to
+governors, and the corregidors were likewise unrestrained within the
+smaller subdivisions. The Indians were regarded as mere chattels, and
+the tribute exacted from every adult was a logical consequence of their
+legal status. In theory even the Spanish residents had no rights to
+self-government, nor did any constitutional guaranties of life and
+property exist.
+
+But such a despotism largely existed only on paper. The Spaniards who
+came to South America brought with them their characteristic
+constitutional traditions and personal independence. Instinctively they
+flocked into cities and organised municipal governments after the
+time-honoured Spanish form. So a system came into existence which had
+the sanction of the people's co-operation and was therefore workable.
+The country districts were left to the Indians and as long as they paid
+their tribute to the Crown or to the Spaniard who claimed the lands
+they tilled, little heed was paid to the form of civil government among
+them. The influence of their hereditary chiefs survived for centuries,
+and their old laws and customs died out only by degrees. In the cities
+contact between Spaniards and Indians was closer. In process of time the
+increasing number of half-breeds aided in the process of amalgamation,
+and even the pure-blood Indians of the fields and villages learned much
+of what their masters had to teach them.
+
+  [Illustration: CHURCH OF SANTO DOMINGO AT GUAYAQUIL.]
+
+The Church, however, operated more powerfully than any other influence
+in making Ecuador Spanish. Within a few years after the conquest a
+regular bishopric was established in Quito, and hundreds of priests and
+friars flocked over to take part in the wholesale evangelisation of the
+heathen natives. The gospel was preached everywhere, churches and
+chapels built in even the smallest villages, the obdurate Indians were
+treated with scant ceremony, and it soon became well understood among
+the natives that a hearty acceptance of the Christian cult tended to
+keep them out of trouble. Ecuador quickly became one of the most
+devotedly Catholic countries in the world, and has ever since remained
+so. The Crown and the landed proprietors made lavish gifts to the cause
+of religion, and a great proportion of the property of the country
+ultimately fell into the hands of the religious orders. Quito has
+appropriately been called the city of convents, and if we are to believe
+the accounts of travellers in colonial times half the population must
+have been priests, monks, and nuns. The introduction of Christianity
+among the Indians aided powerfully in spreading a knowledge of the
+Spanish language, but was more effective in substituting the Quichua for
+the ancient local tongues. The evangelists found it easier to preach to
+all the tribes in one language, and Quichua was naturally chosen, since
+it was already in the most general use as the official medium of the
+Inca empire. The Spanish priests reduced it to written form and it
+became a _lingua franca_ which was understood among all the nations of
+the Andean plateau very much as Guarany was among the Indians of the
+Atlantic slope.
+
+The details of Spanish civil, military, and financial administration in
+Ecuador did not differ greatly from those in the other provinces, and
+there is no need to repeat them here. The peaceable character of the
+Ecuador Indians made the maintenance of a standing army or even of a
+militia unnecessary. A few companies of troops in each of the principal
+towns and the natural military aptitude of the Spanish residents were
+sufficient to suppress any symptoms of rebellion, and to keep the
+Indians at work for their masters. Happily for the natives no great
+finds of silver or gold were made except in the southern province of
+Loja, and forced labour in the mines did not decimate the population, as
+happened in Bolivia and parts of Peru. Spaniards did not immigrate to
+any considerable extent, and negro slavery flourished on the seacoast.
+
+The only schools were priests' seminaries in which little except
+theology was taught and the level of intellectual culture among the
+Creoles sank very low. Taxes were heavy, public employments and titles
+of nobility were openly sold by the government, commerce amounted to
+little, because little gold and silver was mined and other articles
+would not bear the heavy transportation charges and the exactions and
+restrictions of the Spanish colonial system. The magnificent stone
+highways which the Cara and Inca monarchs had built were allowed to fall
+into ruins, but their remains are to be seen even to this day on the
+table-land near Cuenca, still solid in spite of the storms and
+earthquakes of four centuries. Population on the plateau slowly
+decreased. Quito had been a great city while it was the Cara
+capital--the residence of Huaina Capac and Atahuallpa--and in 1735 Ulloa
+estimated that it contained over seventy thousand people, but at the end
+of the eighteenth century it had fallen to less than forty thousand.
+However, the introduction of the plantain undoubtedly brought about an
+increase of population in the coast provinces, and Guayaquil flourished
+with the cultivation of cacao and sugar-cane.
+
+No great figure of a soldier, reformer, or administrator stands out
+among all the hundreds of officials who were sent over from Spain to
+rule the country. Even records of the growth of jealousies between
+Spaniards and Creoles, such as we encounter in other countries of South
+America are wanting. The Creoles appear never to have been able to
+interrupt the monotonous course of Spanish administration. In 1564 the
+old kingdom of Quito, with the addition of some outlying Colombian and
+Peruvian provinces, was erected into a presidency, and a royal
+audiencia, or court of appeals, with important administrative functions,
+was established. The viceroy of Lima continued to exercise nominal
+jurisdiction over all Spanish South America until the year 1719, when
+the viceroyalty of New Granada was first created. The Quito presidency
+was attached to the new jurisdiction, and this emphasised the separation
+from Peru. Twelve hundred miles of crooked, wretched road intervened
+between Quito and Lima, while the distance to Bogotá was less than half
+as great. However, the natural outlet for the plateau from Cuenca north
+to Popayan was the road to Guayaquil, and the Quito presidency was
+therefore co-extensive with a natural commercial subdivision of the
+continent.
+
+In 1736 a party of scientists commissioned by the king of France came to
+Quito for the purpose of measuring an arc of the earth's meridian at the
+equator. These savants erected two pyramids to serve as a permanent
+record of the line they had measured, and placed upon them an
+inscription stating that the work had been done under the patronage of
+the king of France. Years afterwards a Spanish official, offended in his
+national pride by the wording of the inscription, obtained an order from
+Madrid for the destruction of these monuments, so invaluable to the
+science of exact geography.
+
+The latter part of the eighteenth century was marked by a greater
+interest in education. The seminaries widened their courses of study to
+include something more than the canon law and the Fathers, and
+public-spirited Creoles endowed new and better institutions of learning.
+No press or periodical literature appeared, but poetry and
+belles-lettres were cultivated with some success by native authors.
+Though the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1765 was accomplished without
+bloodshed, it resulted in no material weakening of ecclesiastical
+influence. The revolutionary ideas which were transforming the political
+thought of the world during the eighteenth century hardly penetrated
+Ecuador at all, and whatever influence they had was confined to the
+small percentage of the population that boasted of non-Indian blood.
+The news of Lexington and Yorktown and the enfranchisement of British
+North America stimulated no similar movement among the patient Indians
+and devout Creoles of the Andean valleys, and even the tremendous
+cataclysm of the French Revolution passed almost unnoticed.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE
+
+
+The beginning of the nineteenth century saw Spain involved to her ruin
+in the tremendous struggle between Napoleon and his enemies. Her fleets
+were destroyed at St. Vincent and Trafalgar; her treasury was emptied;
+her administration demoralised. Free communication with her American
+colonies was impossible while British frigates commanded every sea, and
+both on the Peninsula and in America, Spanish subjects lost their
+traditional respect for the monarchy. Though the jealousy against their
+imported rulers which always fermented among Creoles was not so strong
+in quiet, isolated, and agricultural Ecuador as in the coast provinces
+and mining regions, the news of Spain's defeats and humiliations
+awakened ambitious lawyers and wealthy landowners to a realisation that
+the Spaniards might be ousted from the lucrative offices.
+
+The opportunity came in 1809 with the resignation of Charles IV., the
+deposition and imprisonment of Ferdinand VII., the usurpation of the
+Spanish throne by Joseph Bonaparte, and the occupation of the Peninsula
+by the French. The viceroys and governors of Spanish America refused to
+recognise Joseph. The many patriots on the Peninsula who resisted the
+French usurpation organised provisional juntas which assumed to be the
+supreme depositaries of power pending the expulsion of Joseph and the
+return of Ferdinand, while the Queen claimed a regency for herself. The
+Spanish authorities did not know who would come out on top and were
+principally anxious to maintain themselves in their places, while
+ambitious leaders among the Creoles immediately began to plot to turn
+the confusion to their own advantage and to secure autonomy and even
+independence for the colonies.
+
+In 1809 Don Ruiz de Castilla was president of Quito. His jurisdiction
+included not only all present Ecuador, but also the southern part of
+Colombia, extending north three hundred miles along the great Andean
+plateau through the populous regions of Pasto and Popayan and far down
+the high and fertile valley of the Cauca. These portions of Colombia are
+continuous with the table-land on which Quito stands and directly
+accessible therefrom, while they are separated from the parallel series
+of plateaux on which Bogotá, Tunja, and Socorro lie, by the deep valley
+of the Magdalena. Castilla's dependence upon the Bogotá viceroy was
+therefore largely nominal, and he could expect as little help from New
+Granada as from Peru. He had only a few troops at Quito--probably not
+more than two or three hundred,--while the governors of the subordinate
+provinces, Popayan, Guayaquil, and Cuenca, each could muster only a few
+dozen armed police. A number of wealthy Creole proprietors and restless
+lawyers determined in the early part of 1809 to overthrow the president
+and create a governing junta composed of residents of Ecuador. Castilla
+was powerless to avert the storm. The handful of troops in barracks was
+easily suborned by the conspirators, who included the persons of
+greatest wealth, intelligence, and influence in the community. The mass
+of the Indian population was inert and would naturally side with their
+landlords, while the Spanish residents and Creole Tories had formed no
+plans for common action.
+
+On the night of the 9th of August, 1809, the chiefs of the movement,
+with the officers of the troops, met in the house of Doña Manuela
+Canizaries, the Madame Roland of Ecuador, and assigned to each the rôle
+which he was to play in the _coup d'état_. The officers went to the
+barracks, led out the troops, and took possession of the government
+buildings in the name of the revolutionist committee. The president and
+those Spanish officials who proved recalcitrant were imprisoned, a
+governing junta of nine with Juan Montufar as chief was appointed, and
+an open cabildo summoned which confirmed these acts. The junta notified
+the viceroys of Bogotá and Lima that it had assumed the government, and
+sent messengers to the provincial capitals demanding that they expel
+their Spanish authorities, adhere to the new order of things, and
+recognise the supremacy of the Quito junta. But the movement met with no
+favourable response from the rest of the presidency. The governors of
+Popayan, Cuenca, and Guayaquil immediately began to enlist troops to
+defend themselves against an attack from Quito. The junta prepared for
+war, but though plenty of ambitious young Creoles volunteered as
+officers there were not firearms enough to go around. At last an
+expedition set off to the north against Pasto and Popayan only to be
+easily defeated by the hasty levies the Spanish authorities had made
+among the sturdy Indians of those regions. Frightened by this defeat and
+their hopeless isolation, the junta resigned under promise of amnesty
+and in October Castilla returned to Quito and resumed the reins of
+government. But his position was insecure, and rumors of a fresh
+conspiracy soon drove him to repressive measures and the imprisonment of
+leading Creoles. The feeling grew bitter and in August, 1810, a
+desperate effort was made by the Creoles to get possession of the
+barracks. Its failure was followed by a frightful massacre in which many
+of the most popular men in the place were murdered.
+
+Meanwhile, the supreme junta at Seville, anxious to pacify the
+revolutionary disorders, had commissioned Carlos Montufar, a son of the
+chief of the fallen Quito junta who then happened to be in Spain, to go
+to Ecuador and reconcile the factions. Under his advice Castilla
+resigned to a new junta the direction of affairs, taking, however, the
+position of its chief member, and sent away his troops. In reality the
+younger Montufar sympathised with his brother Creoles; the universal
+indignation at the massacre of 1810 pushed him on to vengeance;
+Spaniards travelling through the country were waylaid and assassinated;
+and by the time Molina, appointed by the Spanish government in
+Castilla's place, had reached Cuenca on his way north to Quito, the old
+governor had again been deposed and imprisoned and open war existed
+between Arredondo, the Spaniard commanding the troops who had retired
+from Quito in accordance with the compromise, and the junta in the
+latter city. The year 1811 passed without any material change in the
+situation. The Spanish generals controlled Guayaquil and Cuenca in the
+south and Pasto and Popayan in the north, practically isolating the
+revolutionary government at Quito. As the troops of both sides became
+better trained the war took on a more determined and cruel character.
+Royalists and revolutionists both raised recruits among the sturdy
+mountain Indians and half-breeds. In technical knowledge of their
+profession the Spanish officers were superior to the revolutionary
+leaders and could procure arms more readily. Their armies were usually
+better disciplined and more efficient, although more liable to depletion
+by desertion.
+
+In this state of perpetual war, government rapidly became exclusively
+military. On the surface the contest seemed only a struggle between two
+sets of independent chiefs, in whose mouths "liberty" and "loyalty" were
+mere catch-words, and who continually quarrelled among themselves even
+when they nominally belonged to the same side. Early in 1812 Montufar
+was overthrown by another Creole chief in Quito who thereupon undertook
+an expedition against the Spanish general at Cuenca. But sedition among
+the patriot troops gave an easy victory to the latter, and the Spaniards
+took the offensive. Marching toward Quito, they dispersed the patriot
+army at Mocha, and entered the capital in triumph.
+
+Montes, the Spanish general who now became ruler of the presidency, was
+a wise and moderate man, and spared no pains to conciliate. He soon
+succeeded in so completely consolidating his power that during nine
+years Quito and most of the presidency remained quietly submissive, and
+became one of the centres whence Spanish expeditions went out against
+the parts of the continent which still remained in revolution. An able
+general, Samano by name, carried the successes of the Spanish arms to
+the north, and although the patriots of Colombia obtained some temporary
+advantages in the winter of 1814-15, they never penetrated south of
+Pasto. In 1816 the tide again turned with the arrival of eleven thousand
+Spanish veterans in the north of Colombia. The patriots were soon
+everywhere defeated, Bogotá itself taken, and a remnant of
+revolutionists who attempted the invasion of Popayan and Pasto were
+overwhelmed by Samano in 1816 at the battle of Tambo. The patriot cause
+was at its lowest ebb in all South America. Resistance ceased in
+Colombia; only a few scattered bands kept up a desultory warfare in
+Venezuela; Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia were quiet; Spanish authority had
+been re-established in Chile; Uruguay had fallen into the hands of the
+Portuguese king; and Spanish armies were invading the Argentine, the
+last refuge of the revolution.
+
+San Martin's thunderbolt descent upon Chile and his victory at Chacabuco
+changed the aspect of affairs. A fleet was improvised at Valparaiso
+which obtained command of the Pacific coast, cutting off the Spaniards
+in Ecuador from receiving supplies except overland from the Caribbean
+ports. Bolivar took new heart for his tedious task of arousing the north
+and driving the Spaniards from Venezuela and New Granada. In 1819 he
+climbed the east side of the Andes to the neighbourhood of Bogotá and by
+defeating the Spanish army at Boyacá, freed most of present Colombia,
+and even in Quito the patriots renewed their revolutionary plotting.
+Meanwhile San Martin had completed the expulsion of the Spaniards from
+Chile, and in 1820 he transported an army by sea to the neighbourhood of
+Lima itself, opening communications with the anti-Spanish party all
+along the coast. On the 9th of October, 1820, a successful revolution
+broke out at Guayaquil, and little time was lost in sending an army to
+the plateau. The Spaniards defeated it, but with Bolivar threatening
+them from Colombia, their comrades in Peru fighting for their lives
+against San Martin, the population of Quito on the verge of a revolt,
+and the Pacific in the control of the patriots, they could not follow up
+their advantage.
+
+On June 24, 1821, Bolivar gained the crowning victory of Carabobo in
+Venezuela. The Spanish position in the Caribbean provinces became
+irretrievable, and the patriot general was thenceforth free to pursue
+his plans for the expulsion of the enemy from southern New Granada and
+Ecuador and their incorporation with Colombia. In the fall of that year
+General Sucré, who shares with San Martin the honor of being the
+greatest soldier of the patriot side, arrived at Guayaquil by sea,
+bringing with him seventeen hundred Colombian and Venezuelan veterans.
+Bolivar was to advance from Bogotá, conquering Popayan and Pasto on his
+way to Quito, while Sucré came up from the south. The latter at once
+ascended the Andes to the plateau, but was badly defeated. Retreating to
+Guayaquil, he reorganised his army, incorporating with it a
+reinforcement of twelve hundred men sent by San Martin, and again
+climbed the Andes. By this time Bolivar was advancing from Popayan to
+Pasto and the Spaniards, thinking it best to concentrate their forces,
+abandoned Cuenca and the southern provinces and allowed Sucré to advance
+unopposed to the neighbourhood of Quito. There he outmanoeuvred them and
+gained a commanding position on the slopes of the great volcano,
+Pichincha, overlooking the city. His foes were forced to the alternative
+of giving battle at a disadvantage or permitting him to effect a
+junction with Bolivar, and overwhelming them by superior numbers. On the
+morning of the 24th of May, 1822, the battle decisive of Ecuador's fate
+was fought. The royal army suffered annihilation; four hundred dead lay
+on the mountainside and two hundred wounded; eleven hundred men and one
+hundred and sixty officers surrendered the following day. The only
+troops who escaped belonged to scattered detachments not present at the
+battle, who fled down the eastern slope of the Andes into the trackless
+forests and finally made their way down the Amazon to the Atlantic.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE FORMATION OF ECUADOR
+
+
+At the head of a victorious army of Colombians and Argentines, Sucré
+could naturally do as he liked with Ecuador and an assembly of the
+people of Quito accepted incorporation into the republic of Colombia.
+Bolivar, meanwhile, had had some hard fighting with the stubborn
+loyalists of Pasto, and the issue remained doubtful until news of the
+victory of Pichincha was received. The Spanish commander surrendered;
+Bolivar came on to Quito, and thence proceeded to Guayaquil. The
+inhabitants of this important city were divided. Many wanted to be
+independent; others preferred incorporation with Peru, to being tied up
+with Colombia, a country whose capital could only be reached by months
+of tedious travelling; others, however, were willing to maintain the
+ancient political connection with New Granada. As a matter of fact,
+discussion was useless, for Bolivar threw into the scale the weight of
+his military power. Guayaquil and the adjacent coast region became a
+department of Colombia, while the southern plateau provinces--Cuenca
+and Loja--were also erected into a department of Bolivar's vast
+confederation. This completed the division of the old presidency of
+Quito into four parts--Pasto and the northern provinces, Quito and the
+central, Cuenca and the southern, and Guayaquil with the coast, and in
+all of them the influence of Bolivar's satraps was predominant.
+
+Shortly after his arrival at Guayaquil Bolivar and San Martin had their
+famous interview. The latter came up from Lima hoping to arrange plan of
+joint campaign, but he quickly saw that Bolivar would never consent to
+share the glory of driving the Spaniards from their last strongholds.
+The great Argentine magnanimously determined to retire, and returning to
+Lima, resigned the presidency of Peru. San Martin once out of the way,
+Bolivar was eager to lead a Colombian army to Lima, but the Peruvians
+declined his assistance. Alone, however, they had little chance against
+the able Spanish generals, and, aghast at the progress of the enemy,
+they soon sent to Bolivar begging his assistance on his own terms. The
+selfishly ambitious liberator gladly accepted, and within a month Sucré
+was on his way south at the head of a fine army of Colombian veterans.
+Bolivar himself followed with reinforcements, and though hampered and
+delayed by the revolt of the Callao garrison, Sucré's military ability
+backed by Bolivar's tireless energy and large resources produced their
+legitimate results. Bolivar in person advanced to the plateau and August
+6, 1824, won the cavalry action of Junin which compelled the retirement
+of the Spanish army to Cuzco. Bolivar returned to Lima leaving Sucré in
+command, and on the 9th of December the latter annihilated the main body
+of the enemy in the battle of Ayacucho--the crowning victory of the war
+of South American independence.
+
+Bolivar was supreme from the Caribbean to Potosí. As president of the
+United States of Colombia he ruled Venezuela, New Granada, and Ecuador,
+he himself was dictator of Peru, and his faithful lieutenant exercised
+supreme power in Bolivia. The realisation of his cherished plan for the
+union of all South America into one great confederacy, with himself as
+life-president, seemed near at hand. But successful soldier though he
+was--heroic, resourceful, and unwavering in reverse--his statecraft was
+short-sighted and impracticable. The moment of his apogee marked the
+beginning of his decline. He failed to appreciate that the spirit of
+South America was profoundly democratic and local, and that the war of
+independence owed its beginning and successful prosecution to a deeply
+rooted impulse toward division, liberty, and anarchy among the Creoles.
+To build a tower out of sand would have been easier than to create a
+stable union between the recently liberated provinces of Spanish
+America. Viewed in the light of subsequent events the wonder is that
+territorial disintegration stopped where it did, and that South America
+did not split into twenty instead of nine separate countries.
+
+Bolivar's partisans in Colombia were unsuccessful in their intrigues to
+replace the Constitution of Cucutá with one drawn up after the plan
+their chief had imposed upon Bolivia and Peru. Neither leaders nor
+people, army nor professional classes, showed any disposition to concede
+him greater powers. His attempts to interfere in the affairs of
+Argentine and Chile were repulsed, Peru became restless under his
+dictatorship, Bolivia only waited a favourable opportunity to expel
+Sucré, the very troops he had brought from Colombia to Peru became
+mutinous, his pan-American congress at Panama turned out a fiasco. He
+remained two years in Peru, until the news of a great uprising in
+Venezuela made it necessary for him to hurry to the north. Hardly had he
+left Lima than the military chiefs in Peru virtually disavowed his
+authority. Under the leadership of their officers the Colombian troops
+in Lima revolted, and the Peruvians, delighted to be rid of these
+embarrassing guests, paid their pecuniary demands, and to the number of
+over three thousand despatched them in ships for the north. They
+disembarked in Ecuador, where one division took possession of Guayaquil
+and another of Cuenca. Bolivar was so occupied with the troubles in
+Venezuela that he could personally take no measures against this
+defection, but General Flores, a Venezuelan whom he had appointed
+commander of the military forces of the three southern provinces of the
+old Quito presidency,--Guayaquil, Cuenca, and Quito,--proved energetic
+and fortunate. His intrigues sowed discord among the officers of the
+revolting troops. A counter-revolution occurred in his favour at Cuenca,
+and after a short period of virtual independence Guayaquil also returned
+to its old connection with Quito.
+
+The movement against Bolivar from Colombia proper involved Pasto and
+Popayan--the northern division of the old Quito presidency--while Quito
+and the southern provinces were left largely to their own devices.
+General La Mar, who had succeeded in making himself president of Peru,
+conceived the idea of enlarging the limits of that country by the
+acquisition of Guayaquil and Cuenca, and he was the more enthusiastic
+because the latter was his native province. In 1828 war broke out
+between Colombia and Peru. Peruvian ships blockaded Guayaquil, and in
+January, 1829, forced the surrender of that place, while a Peruvian army
+seven thousand strong invaded the Ecuadorean plateau and penetrated
+beyond Cuenca. Flores and his rivals united in face of the common
+danger, the Colombian veterans scattered through the country rallied to
+the banner of Sucré, who came in person to take command, and the
+decisive battle was fought at Tarqui in February. The Peruvians were so
+badly defeated that they sued for peace, and agreed to surrender
+Guayaquil and the greater part of the southern provinces.
+
+  [Illustration: GUAYAQUIL, ECUADOR.]
+
+By this time, however, Bolivar's own position had become desperate.
+Venezuela had already separated from the confederation, and when on the
+12th of May, 1830, Flores proclaimed the Quito presidency independent,
+it was little more than the announcement of an existing fact. He
+attempted to disarm jealousy against Quito by christening the country by
+the fanciful name of Ecuador, and by decreeing that each province should
+have an equal vote in the legislative assembly. Flores was merely one
+of a multitude of military chiefs who had been fighting among themselves
+since the expulsion of the Spaniards. Though married to a Quito lady he
+was a Venezuelan and could rely on few local friendships or sympathies,
+and the Colombian veterans, who swarmed over the country devouring the
+substance of the people and eager for pay and plunder, regarded him as
+one of themselves and were ready to desert him for any chief who might
+offer higher wages.
+
+Now that Bolivar was overthrown and Sucré murdered on a lonely mountain
+road by hired assassins, the sentiment of loyalty to their old chiefs
+tardily revived among the fickle Colombian regulars. They received
+Flores's declaration of independence with indignation; an insurrection
+broke out among the garrison at Guayaquil; and the veterans marched to
+the plateau. Flores had no force capable of making headway against them,
+and was compelled to negotiate a treaty, agreeing to support Bolivar in
+case the latter should remain in South America. On the other hand, the
+troops consented to recognise Flores if Bolivar should go into exile.
+Hardly had the treaty been signed than word was received of the lonely
+death of the great Venezuelan at Santa Marta. Most of the veterans took
+service under Flores, and he pursued the recalcitrants with relentless
+and bloody severity. Pasto and Popayan, composing the province of Cauca,
+the northern division of the old Quito presidency, wavered as to whether
+they would cast their lot with Ecuador or New Granada. The government
+at Bogotá sent an army into the disputed territory, and Flores tried to
+organise a force large enough to beat it, but he was hampered by
+mutinies, conspiracies, and poverty, and after a year of expensive
+though nearly bloodless operations withdrew and consented to a treaty by
+which Ecuador gave up all claim to Pasto and Popayan, losing a third of
+the territory and population of the old presidency of Quito.
+
+  [Illustration: COSTUMES OF NATIVES NEAR QUITO.]
+
+Flores, however, managed to hold Guayaquil and Cuenca as well as Quito
+and must therefore be regarded as the founder of Ecuador, though his
+reactionary, absolute, and violent government was hated by all that was
+young, intelligent, and liberal in the country. The Indian peasants
+groaned under the burden of taxes imposed to subsidise a horde of
+functionaries. Finances were in deplorable confusion; the public debts
+left unpaid; population decreased, especially in the Andean region;
+agriculture, industry, and commerce remained stationary, except in the
+cacao districts on the coast. The lower classes had a hard struggle for
+bare existence, and the parasitical ruling race was solely pre-occupied
+with political war and intrigue. But it cannot fairly be said that
+Flores or any other one man was responsible. The lamentable condition of
+affairs resulted inevitably from the long struggle with Spain and from
+the situation, character, and ideals of the people. But such a janizary
+system of government was too burdensome, unwieldy, and wasteful not to
+fall by its own weight sooner or later. The people were simply unable to
+pay the taxes which Flores levied vainly trying to satisfy his troops.
+Mutinies broke out among the latter, and the liberals were encouraged to
+organise.
+
+A revolutionary society was formed in Quito whose ramifications extended
+among the enthusiastic youth in every part of the republic. In
+Guayaquil, the wealthiest and most commercial city, the demand for
+better financial administration became universal. In 1833 Vicente
+Rocafuerte, the foremost of Ecuadorean liberals and the most
+accomplished public man in the country, openly assumed the leadership of
+the opposition to Flores. Elected a member of congress he bravely
+defied the dictator, who sentenced him to banishment. But when he
+reached Guayaquil the troops and citizens of that city arose to support
+him. Flores led an army down the Andes and attacked and captured
+Guayaquil, Rocafuerte and his partisans escaped and kept up the struggle
+at different points of the coast, while sympathetic insurrections broke
+out on the plateau in Flores's rear. Though the dictator finally
+succeeded in capturing Rocafuerte, the only use he was able to make of
+his victory was to secure better terms from the liberals. Rocafuerte and
+he formed an alliance and together they pacified the country, the former
+becoming president and the latter retaining command of the army. Ecuador
+enjoyed her first real respite from civil war and tumult since 1809, and
+Rocafuerte's inauguration in 1835 marks the beginning of civil and
+constitutional government.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+MODERN ECUADOR
+
+
+President Rocafuerte was not only animated by revolutionary principles,
+imbued with liberal ideas, and a student of the best political and
+economic writers, but he proved to be a good administrator--practical,
+cautious, and sure--and earned the title of the greatest of Ecuador's
+reformers. His first step was to summon a constituent assembly which
+divided the country into provinces and parishes, outlined a rational
+scheme of administration, and made a substantial beginning toward
+substituting civil for military government. Although he did not attempt
+to carry into practice the dreams of radical liberals--impracticable
+among a population nine-tenths Indians in semi-bondage, and in a country
+where the clergy were dominant--he reformed the taxing system, set in
+order the finances, so far as his means and knowledge would permit,
+earnestly encouraged industry, agriculture, and commerce, repaired and
+built roads, promulgated a new and humane criminal code, and established
+schools. He set up the pyramids of the French geographers, showing that
+tender regard for his country's repute abroad which is rarely absent in
+statesmen of high character and noble aims. Under his administration
+Ecuador assumed the payment of her proportion--twenty-one and a half per
+cent., or one million eight hundred thousand pounds--of the debt
+contracted by the defunct United States of Colombia during the war of
+independence. However, this debt proved a burden too great for her
+resources. Interest fell behind and the principal has been scaled down
+repeatedly. Only in 1900 was an arrangement satisfactory to the
+bondholders finally reached.
+
+His efforts made Ecuador the second South American republic whose
+independence was formally recognised by Spain. In religious matters he
+proved true to his liberal convictions, and while never persecuting the
+clergy always advocated religious freedom for the individual. But though
+he set his country's feet in the path of progress, the steps were slow,
+short, and uncertain. His alliance with the military element as
+represented by Flores, and the religious and social conservatism of the
+bulk of the people, hampered rapid progress. The radical liberals
+conspired against him, but their plots were sternly stamped out.
+Government remained essentially military and aristocratic, and active
+participation was confined to the educated and military classes.
+Nevertheless, a sort of equilibrium between the demands of the governing
+caste and the capacities of the producing masses was reached, and a
+certain degree of order replaced the indiscriminate exactions and
+tyranny which the proletariat had endured ever since the first Spaniard
+had landed. When Rocafuerte finished his term in 1839, Ecuador was at
+peace and had recovered much of the material prosperity lost during the
+long wars. On the plateau the Indians cultivated their wheat and
+potatoes in security, while on the low coast lands the cacao industry
+flourished, making Ecuador one of the chief sources of the world's
+supply of chocolate and multiplying Guayaquil's population and wealth.
+
+  [Illustration: ECUADOR PEON'S HOUSE.]
+
+Flores's command of the army insured him the succession to the
+presidency. Though his return to power meant political reaction, the
+beneficent effects of Rocafuerte's system had been too obvious to be
+entirely ignored and hastily abandoned. Flores's first measures were
+moderate, but his irrational ambition quickly led him into an expensive
+and fruitless intervention in the Colombian civil war of 1840. His
+financial difficulties and a return to military habits caused him to
+adopt measures continually more arbitrary, and he went stubbornly ahead
+with his schemes to make his dictatorship permanent. He forced the
+adoption of a new Constitution lengthening the presidential term to
+eight years, and caused himself to be declared elected in 1843. The
+conflict with the liberals became acute; Rocafuerte protested and was
+forced to fly for his life. The young radicals of Quito plotted the
+tyrant's assassination, while the villagers of the plateau arose in
+revolt against the gatherers of an obnoxious poll-tax. In 1845 a liberal
+revolution broke out at Guayaquil. Flores descended from the table-land,
+but the liberal army met and defeated him at the foot of the mountains,
+and he accepted the offer of twenty thousand dollars in cash and a
+pension to leave the country.
+
+The better elements of the triumphant party were not able to keep the
+upper hand. A new Constitution was hastily adopted and the mulatto Ramon
+Roca installed as president. For four years he ruled while the gulf
+between liberals and conservatives widened day by day, and factional
+jealousies and ambitions within the dominant party became menacing. The
+congress of 1849 quarrelled bitterly over the presidential succession
+and was unable to agree on any one. Ambitious chiefs got arms and men
+together, and after a year of uncertainty General Urbina, of Guayaquil,
+issued a pronunciamento declaring Diego Noboa provisional head of the
+government. A convention called for the purpose adopted a new
+Constitution and elected Urbina's nominee president for the full term.
+To the consternation of the liberals he recalled the Jesuits and gave
+asylum to the defeated conservatives from Colombia, going so far as to
+send troops to the frontier to aid in their restoration. But Urbina, to
+whose command these forces had been entrusted, proclaimed himself
+dictator and exiled Noboa. He promulgated a new Constitution--Ecuador's
+sixth in twenty-two years,--persecuted the conservatives, and ruled for
+four years as an ultra-liberal. At the expiration of his term in 1856 he
+named his friend Robles as his successor, who maintained himself against
+the conservative attacks until in 1859 his government became involved in
+a war with Peru. When Robles and Urbina went to the Peruvian frontier
+the conservatives rose behind them. As a matter of fact the country was
+tired of the misrule of the military chiefs, miscalled liberals, whose
+government was a compound of oppression for their enemies and license
+for their friends. The clericals armed their adherents in the northern
+villages and marched on Quito. The partisans of the administration at
+the capital could oppose no effective resistance, and the insurgents
+entered the city, and on May 1st installed a provisional government with
+Garcia Moreno at its head. The latter at once pushed on south with a
+small force, and, though defeated by Robles, he escaped to Peru, where
+he received help for new operations. In spite of Moreno's temporary
+reverse his friends retained possession of Quito, and the Peruvian
+blockade of Guayaquil absorbed the president's attention. The forces
+under Robles soon crumbled away, and he resigned and went into
+banishment. Urbina, the real chief of the liberal party, had a small
+body of troops in Cuenca with which he tried to maintain the unequal
+contest, but his position soon became untenable and he followed Robles
+into exile.
+
+Moreno was now master of the whole Andean region. Guayaquil, however,
+remained in the hands of a liberal chief; the Peruvian government had
+tired of its bargain to support the Ecuadorian clericals; the blockade
+was abandoned, and the Peruvian ships retired after making a treaty with
+the Guayaquil authorities. This rid Moreno of an embarrassing
+entanglement with a foreign power, although it left the Guayaquil
+insurgents free to employ all their forces against him. Descending with
+all the forces he could muster, his mountaineers defeated the coast
+troops in every encounter, and on the 2d of September, 1860, Moreno
+captured the great seaport, putting an end to open opposition in all
+Ecuador. Every successful revolutionist in those days made his own
+Constitution, so it is a waste of words to tell that Moreno summoned a
+convention which promulgated a new fundamental law for the republic.
+During the next fifteen years he remained the dominant personality in
+Ecuadorian history. His biography is typical of the careers of the
+higher class of Creole statesmen, and profoundly interesting to a
+student of South American history as illustrating the difficulties with
+which men of constructive minds and a passion for order have been
+obliged to contend. A scion of one of the oldest and proudest Spanish
+families, he had been proscribed in his youth, and spent the years of
+his exile studying in the old world. He returned with his naturally fine
+mind stored with the fruits of study and observation, but with his
+prejudices of caste and religion unshaken. The clericals set all their
+hopes on this brilliant young advocate, and his public life, his
+opinions, and his personality résumé the reactionary characteristics of
+Ecuador. Nevertheless it is hard for an unprejudiced outsider to study
+the history of his country during his time without retaining a strong
+admiration for his abilities and force, even if not convinced that his
+career made for the moral uplifting of the republic.
+
+He found the finances in a wretched state. Salaries were unpaid,
+the revenue amounted to less than a million pesos, and the government
+was living from hand to mouth on twenty-per-cent. loans. He directed
+his activity principally toward effecting urgent material
+reforms--increasing the revenue by systematising taxation, suppressing
+frauds and contraband, founding a mint and hospital at Quito, building
+the great waggon-road from Quito to the southern provinces, and
+connecting that remote and mountain-locked capital by a telegraph line
+with Guayaquil. The whole of his own salary he devoted to the public
+use, the laws were better enforced, life and property became safer, and
+material prosperity increased. The government was centralised, the
+semi-independency of the departments abolished, the Jesuits recalled,
+the rights and privileges of the clergy restored and increased, and a
+Concordat signed with the Holy See which virtually freed the Ecuadorian
+Church from all secular control.
+
+The Concordat was denounced throughout the continent as treason to South
+American independence, and his relations with European diplomatic
+representatives were so cordial and frank that rumours of his
+willingness to accept a foreign protectorate or even annexation by Spain
+were rife in the other capitals. The publication of his personal
+correspondence with a French diplomatist raised such a storm against him
+that other countries plotted his overthrow, and the democrats of
+Colombia, victorious in the civil war of 1863, sent an army to the
+frontier, proclaiming that their purpose was "to liberate the brother
+democrats of Ecuador from the theocratic yoke of Professor Moreno." His
+army was defeated in the battle of Cuaspud, but he stood firm and his
+people showed no eagerness to accept Colombia's invitation and re-enter
+that confederacy. Her army was unable to follow up its advantage, and
+the danger quickly passed. When war broke out between Spain and Peru he,
+like the Emperor of Brazil, refused to follow Chile's example and take
+sides, against the mother country. In a word, his foreign policy was a
+selfish but intelligent opportunism, and he was not influenced by vague
+sentimental considerations and blind chauvinism.
+
+In 1864 Urbina, with the countenance and assistance of Peru, invaded the
+southern province, Loja, but the insurrection was promptly crushed. Next
+year Moreno's term expired, and he named a disciple and friend to be
+president in his place, but his own political preponderance was so
+unquestioned and his prestige so enormous in the barracks, convents, and
+pulperias that he continued the real ruler of the country. His
+understudy did not please him and he demanded and received a
+resignation. The incumbent next selected proved insubordinate and had to
+be displaced by force. When Moreno declared himself provisional dictator
+the Guayaquil liberals undertook an armed resistance, but by 1869 he was
+firmly in the saddle once more. He kept his hold on the government,
+apparently becoming more securely entrenched each year in the love and
+confidence of the soldiery, the priests, and the common people. From the
+safety of exile the liberals wrote crushing pamphlets against him and
+his despotism, his favouritism toward the clergy, his steady, relentless
+policy of conservatism and reaction. But their attempts at insurrection
+were feeble and in 1875 he was re-elected as a matter of course. The
+liberals, hopeless of ending his domination constitutionally or by open
+war, had recourse to assassination. On the 6th of August a party of
+young Creoles deliberately killed him at midday on the principal square
+of Quito in the presence of the populace and the soldiery.
+
+The murderers were executed and the vice-president succeeded to the
+vacancy. However, no one appeared big enough to fill Moreno's shoes, and
+his death made civil war inevitable. After a few months the
+vice-president was deposed; then one of Moreno's ministers remained at
+the head of affairs for a short time; but finally Antonio Borrero was
+selected president in constitutional form. He proved not to possess the
+resolution requisite to cope with the situation. General Veintemilla,
+commander of the troops in Guayaquil, revolted in the name of the
+liberal party, defeated Borrero, and went through the usual form of
+summoning a convention, adopting a new Constitution, and having himself
+named president. He held power insecurely and by the aid of a personal
+party from 1878 to 1883, but neither conservatives nor liberals were
+satisfied. The radicals attacked him furiously for not putting in
+practice anti-clerical principles, and the conservatives never trusted
+him. When his constitutional term expired, the army proclaimed him
+dictator, but he soon fell before the combined forces of his enemies.
+During the fighting José Camano came to the front, and now seized the
+presidency. Alfaro, the principal liberal leader who had co-operated
+with Camano in overthrowing Veintemilla, made war against his late ally,
+but was defeated. The new president, once securely in his seat, formed
+close relations with the clergy and the old partisans of Moreno, and
+though the liberal chiefs kept up a guerilla warfare in the forests and
+swamps, he finished out his term. In 1888 he was succeeded by Antonio
+Flores, who followed his predecessor's policy in the main, and was in
+his turn succeeded by another friend of Camano's--Luis Cordero. It was
+not until 1895 that the liberals were able to gather their forces for a
+formidable rebellion. Camano was then governor of Guayaquil, and the
+immediate occasion of the outbreak was the charge that he had taken part
+in the sale of the Chilean iron-clad, _Esmeralda_, to Japan, then at war
+with China. It was claimed that Ecuador had acted as a go-between and
+committed a wilful breach of the rules governing the conduct of neutral
+nations. President Cordero's prestige was seriously compromised by this
+incident. His forces were defeated in several actions and he resigned.
+Alfaro, who had been in exile since 1883, returned, took possession of
+Guayaquil, was proclaimed dictator, and finally completely overthrew the
+conservatives in the battle of Gatajo. His election to the presidency
+followed in 1897, and he was succeeded four years later by the present
+incumbent, General Leonidas Plaza.
+
+  [Illustration: PRINCIPAL STREET IN GUAYAQUIL.]
+
+The Ecuador coast is one of the most fertile and lovely regions on the
+earth. It already furnishes a considerable proportion of those tropical
+products of which the great nations of the temperate zone demand more
+every year. Like a Luzon which has been stranded at the foot of the
+Andes, its green shores refresh the eyes of the north-bound traveller
+tired of the dreary desert that stretches from Valparaiso to the Gulf of
+Guayaquil; it possesses the best harbour on the Pacific south of Panama
+and one of the few in all South America which is not mountain-locked.
+Between the Cordillera and the sea there is room for untold millions of
+cacao and coffee trees. In spite of civil war and political upheavals
+which have made her custom-house so often the prey of irresponsible
+bandits, masquerading under the name of dictators, Guayaquil's
+population and wealth have increased until she has outstripped the hoary
+old capital, which, enthroned on a volcano side, overlooks a narrow
+strip of cultivable land. Nevertheless the plateau is still predominant
+in the Ecuadorian state, and supports a vast majority of the
+population. Nine-tenths of the inhabitants of the Andean region are
+Indians, mostly in a condition not far removed from bondage, by
+circumstance and their own distrustful natures shut up within the narrow
+limits of an existence which has no outlook over the mountains. None the
+less, they are sturdy fellows, admirably suited to the climate of those
+high altitudes, and though their numbers have been practically
+stationary since the Spanish conquest, the failure to increase has been
+rather due to lack of room than to misgovernment, vice, or the want of
+the qualities that make for success in the struggle for existence. In
+that day, now near at hand, when a great railway shall connect the
+string of towns on the Ecuador plateau with Peru and Colombia, and when
+branches shall run to the ports and take the place of the well-nigh
+impassable trails down the tremendous, rain-soaked slopes of the Andes,
+the mountain region of Ecuador may be transformed and revivified by new
+systems of agriculture, and the artistic taste and remarkable ingenuity
+of the people may find a market and a reward. The railway from Guayaquil
+long stopped at the foot of the mountains, but within the last three
+years the almost insurmountable difficulties of the ascent have been
+overcome by American engineers, and the line is being rapidly built
+along the plateau to Quito. Ecuador already supplies the world with
+Panama hats, and other manual industries may flourish when unfavourable
+transportation conditions are removed. Not only are the common people
+patiently industrious, but they possess innate good taste and artistic
+feeling. Such a people has special aptitudes, sure to give it a place in
+that vastly complicated workshop into which the multifarious needs of
+modern civilisation are transforming the earth. The plateau of Ecuador
+does not, however, offer room for any considerable immigration, and its
+wheat, barley, and potatoes do not and will not much more than suffice
+for local consumption. Ecuador's great future lies in the beautiful and
+as yet sparsely peopled Pacific plain, and in the vast and absolutely
+unknown forests which stretch east from the Andes.
+
+
+
+
+VENEZUELA
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+CONQUEST, SETTLEMENT, AND COLONIAL DAYS
+
+
+On his third voyage in 1498 Columbus sighted the Venezuelan coast just
+south of the Windward Islands. A year later, Alonso de Ojeda saw the
+mainland at about the same place and skirted the coast for four hundred
+miles west without finding any important break in a line of mountains
+which rose almost directly from the sea to a height of three to nine
+thousand feet, covered to their very tops with luxuriant vegetation. But
+there was no such barrier as that made by the main Andes on the Pacific;
+the passes were only half a mile instead of nearly three miles high; the
+slopes were not dry and desolate as in Peru, or covered with a tangled
+mass of forest as in Pacific Columbia and Ecuador. Just beyond the
+harbour where Puerto Cabello now stands, the coast-line turned abruptly
+to the north-west, leaving the mountains farther inland, but the
+intervening plain was swampy and uninviting. Still following west, Ojeda
+rounded Cape San Roman and turned south into the great Gulf of
+Maracaibo. There he saw Indian villages of houses built on piles near
+the shallow shores, and he called the place Venezuela--"little
+Venice,"--a name shortly extended to the whole coast from the mouth of
+the Orinoco west to the forbidding and uninhabitable peninsula of
+Goajira, which forms the western promontory of the Gulf of Maracaibo.
+
+There is no record that either Columbus or Ojeda effected a permanent
+landing, and it was not until 1510 that some adventurers founded a
+settlement on the small island of Cubagua, in the channel between the
+large island of Margarita and the mainland. This was a mere nest of
+pirates who persecuted the Indians of the shore, kidnapping and selling
+them as slaves to the Spaniards on the Antilles, and it was shortly
+abandoned. In 1520, on the coast just opposite, was founded the
+settlement of Cumaná, the oldest city on the South American continent,
+which, though destroyed by the natives, was rebuilt in 1525, when
+valuable pearl fisheries were discovered in the neighbouring waters of
+Margarita. However, the place remained of little importance and did not
+become a centre for the colonisation of the adjacent country, the
+Spaniards attaching little value to this region because it contained no
+gold washings.
+
+The real colonisation of Venezuela began four hundred miles farther west
+with the foundation in 1527 of the city of Coro on the narrow neck of
+land which separates the Gulf of Maracaibo from the Caribbean Sea.
+Thence there was easy access by water to the shores of the great lagoon,
+or by land over the coast plain to the north-western slopes of the
+Andean range which runs south-west to the giant plateau of Pamplona just
+over the Colombian border. The Andean valleys were filled with gold, and
+among the higher mountains lay fertile plateaux, cultivated by tribes of
+semi-civilised Indians. Altogether the region was well calculated to
+stimulate the cupidity of adventurers.
+
+Charles V. granted the Venezuela coast to the Welser family of Augsburg,
+the greatest merchants of their time and his heavy creditors. Under
+their commission the first adelantado, Alfinger, took possession of Coro
+and conducted various expeditions south-west along the Andes, perishing
+near Pamplona about 1531. His successors continued these murdering,
+kidnapping incursions into the interior, often being led to their ruin
+among remote mountain fastnesses by tales of a mythical Eldorado, where
+the rivers ran over silver sands, the palaces were of solid gold with
+doors and columns of diamonds and emeralds, and the Indian king every
+morning covered his body with gold dust and bathed in precious aromatic
+essences.
+
+Eighteen years, however, elapsed before the Spaniards established a
+permanent settlement in the interior, and only in 1545 was the city of
+Tocuyo founded in a beautiful Andean valley a hundred and fifty miles
+south of Coro. But the cruelties of the proprietors' agents scandalised
+public opinion. Charles V. declared their concession cancelled and a
+governor, responsible directly to the government, was appointed in 1547.
+Thenceforward the settlement of Venezuela proceeded more rapidly. Five
+years later the city of Barquisimeto, fifty miles north of Tocuyo and
+near the point where the Andes join the coast range, was established on
+a secure footing after hard fighting with the Indians; in 1555 the
+Spaniards penetrated east a hundred miles along the lovely plateaux of
+the coast mountains, and founded Valencia. The following year they
+settled Trujillo, fifty miles south-west of Tocuyo, and two years later
+Merida, a hundred miles farther in the same direction and not far from
+the Colombian frontier.
+
+To the east of Valencia lay valuable gold washings, and to work these
+the Spaniards fixed a camp at San Francisco in the Aragua Valley about
+1560. This is the garden spot of Venezuela, and the warlike Teques
+Indians, under their terrible chief, Guaicaipuro, massacred the miners
+and defeated several expeditions from Valencia and Barquisimeto. It was
+not until 1567 that the Spaniards succeeded in establishing their power
+in the valley of Caracas, which, a hundred miles east of Valencia, lies
+close to the shore, although three thousand feet above sea-level and
+separated from the ocean by high mountains. The defensibility of the
+site as well as the fertility of the soil pointed it out as the best
+place for the seat of government. A city was founded which ten years
+later replaced Coro as the capital of the province, and shortly
+thereafter a port was opened at La Guaira giving direct communication
+with Spain. The savage tribes fought more pertinaciously than the
+civilised natives of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and northern Chile and
+Argentina, and a greater number of Europeans and negroes replaced those
+who were slain. Finally, however, the majority submitted, and were
+incorporated as peasants into the Spanish system.
+
+By the end of the sixteenth century the Spaniards had obtained
+undisputed possession of that lovely strip of mountainous country which
+extends from Cape Codera west between two parallel coast ranges to
+Barquisimeto and thence west-south-west nearly to the head of Lake
+Maracaibo--a belt some four hundred miles long and fifty or seventy-five
+wide. They also held the great peninsula east of Maracaibo Gulf, and had
+established outlying settlements in the llanos south of the mountains,
+besides the two isolated ports--Cumaná on the eastern coast and
+Maracaibo on the western. Notwithstanding the sack of Caracas in 1595 by
+the daring British buccaneer, Amyas Preston, the colony prospered.
+Unlike the Pacific coast, it had easy and direct communication with the
+Antilles and Europe; the altitude was great enough to ensure a healthful
+climate, while its fertile valleys could be reached from the sea in a
+few hours over easy passes, far different from those formidable gorges
+which are the only ways of reaching the table-lands of Colombia,
+Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. The interior, instead of being a heavily
+forested plain like that of the Amazon, practically inaccessible behind
+tremendous rain-soaked declivities, was an open prairie into which the
+mountains sank gently, and whose grassy expanses afforded pasture for
+innumerable herds. These geographical and topographical features have
+been determinative of Venezuela's development and history, political as
+well as industrial.
+
+In the early years of the seventeenth century the long-neglected Cumaná
+district on the eastern coast began to be developed. The city of
+Barcelona was founded in 1617 near a magnificent body of grazing land
+and in the best tobacco country in Venezuela, where the Indians had
+grown the plant for untold generations. Barcelona soon became an
+important centre of population, and the starting-point for missionaries
+to the interior tribes. The gold placers which had attracted the first
+adventurers to the mountains west of Caracas became exhausted within a
+few decades. Nevertheless, the fertile lands, distributed among the
+Spaniards in encomiendas, continued to be cultivated by Indian and negro
+labour, but, although maize, bananas, potatoes, and in the higher
+valleys even wheat, as well as the vine and olive, with the cattle
+introduced by Europeans, furnished an abundant supply of food, to say
+nothing of tobacco and sugar, Spain's blind colonial policy virtually
+prevented export of agricultural products. The Spanish authorities
+wanted nothing from their American dominions but gold and silver, and
+when Venezuela's placers were exhausted the colony was neglected. It was
+in spite of the prohibition of the Spanish government that cacao trees
+were introduced, and the exportation which soon grew up--the first of
+any importance from Venezuela--was mostly clandestine. Practically all
+the goods legally imported had to be procured from the Cadiz monopoly,
+and were sent to the Isthmus and there transhipped into coasting
+vessels, paying enormous freight charges, profits, and duties. Tobacco
+and salt were monopolised by government concessionaires, and not a
+chicken could be sold in the markets without paying an exorbitant tax.
+
+Education was completely neglected. It was not until 1696 that a
+priests' school was established in Caracas, and when the city of Merida
+asked a similar boon, it was denied because "His Catholic Majesty did
+not deem it wise that education should become general in America." So
+the Creoles grew up nearly as ignorant as the Indians around them,
+although retaining all the fierce pride of their Spanish descent,
+acknowledging no man as superior, and retaining very dim sentiments of
+loyalty to the mother country. Nevertheless, the ancient municipal
+forms, traditional among peoples of Spanish descent, survived,
+furnishing the framework of civil government, while the priesthood
+constituted a moral and intellectual tie binding the Creoles to their
+Castilian ancestors.
+
+The repressive regulations against commerce could not be perfectly
+enforced. Although the arrival of a ship from Spain was a real event,
+British, Dutch, and French traders frequented the coast, opening markets
+with their swords, and often turning buccaneers and sacking a town when
+not satisfied with their reception. But the burning of a few coast
+hamlets was more than compensated by the advantages of practical
+free-trade, and Venezuela owed much of the prosperity she enjoyed during
+the seventeenth century to these semi-pirates. The settlements crept
+along the Andean valleys to the Colombian frontier; the Creoles ventured
+farther and farther into the wide plains of the Orinoco and their cattle
+were soon roaming half-wild in the immense and luxuriant pastures
+stretching south of the agricultural strip. From the mixture of the
+Indians of the llanos with Europeans sprang a new race of men, the
+semi-nomadic llaneros, whose hardiness, courage, horsemanship, and
+prowess as hunters of big game have given them equal celebrity with the
+gauchos of the Argentine, the cossacks of the Russian steppes, or the
+Texas cowboys. The buccaneers and smuggling traders were especially
+active in the latter part of the seventeenth century. In 1654 Frenchmen
+were repelled in an attack on Cumaná, but in 1669 the Britisher, Morgan,
+sacked Maracaibo, and in 1679 the French pillaged Caracas itself. The
+paralysis suffered by Spain during the war of the Spanish Succession
+nearly destroyed Venezuelan commerce, and it did not recover with the
+peace of Utrecht. Only five ships arrived in the first thirty years of
+the eighteenth century, and from 1706 to 1721 not a single vessel sailed
+for Spain.
+
+The Spanish government determined to try if another system would not
+bring a larger revenue into the royal treasury. The Guipuzcoa Company
+was granted an exclusive franchise to buy and sell in the colony, and
+the operations of this powerful corporation galvanised commerce into a
+certain activity. In order to stimulate the receipt of hides, and
+prevent the incursions of wild plains Indians, trading posts were
+established in the llanos, and soon the prairies south of Valencia and
+Caracas rivalled the Barcelona country in cattle, and the ranches
+extended up the Apuré, the great western tributary of the Orinoco, to
+the foot of the Colombian Andes. Meanwhile expeditions penetrated up the
+Orinoco from its mouth, and in 1764 the city of Angostura was
+established four hundred miles from the sea. The operations of the
+Guipuzcoa Company did not aid in establishing a more friendly
+understanding between the home government and the Venezuelan Creoles.
+The independent merchants constantly quarrelled with the company's
+agents; the low prices for which they were compelled to sell their stock
+outraged the ranch owners; the farmers resented the monopolisation of
+tobacco and the restrictions on sugar-culture; exorbitant prices were
+demanded for imported goods. Protests became so loud that special
+commissioners were sent from Spain to investigate, but they gave
+no satisfactory relief. Shortly after the foundation of the
+Guipuzcoa Company, Venezuela had been raised to the dignity of a
+captaincy-general. The increased efficiency of the administration
+assisted the monopoly in suppressing clandestine trading, and the
+feeling grew to such a height that in 1749 a Creole leader, named Leon,
+menaced Caracas itself at the head of six thousand armed men, demanding
+the suppression of the company and the expulsion of its factors. The
+captain-general was forced to yield and the revolutionists dispersed,
+but his promise was never redeemed. The active measures of the company
+effectually shut off foreign trading-ships, and the ports were so
+fortified that the British expeditions retired defeated from the
+attacks they made in 1739 and 1743 on La Guaira and Puerto Cabello,
+although in 1797 they captured the island of Trinidad and menaced the
+entrance to the Orinoco. It was not until 1778, when the Spanish
+government finally abandoned the monopolistic colonial system and opened
+all the ports of South America to free commerce with each other and with
+Spain, that the Guipuzcoa Company retired from business. Six years
+before this the provinces of Maracaibo, Cumaná, and Guiana--as the lower
+Orinoco region was called,--all of which had heretofore been directly
+dependent upon the viceroy of Bogotá, were placed under the jurisdiction
+of the captain-general of Caracas, fixing the modern boundaries of
+Venezuela.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE REVOLT
+
+
+Venezuela's conditions during colonial times produced a people
+possessing in the clearest and most accentuated form the characteristics
+distinctive of the Spanish Creole. Not more than one per cent. of the
+total population of over eight hundred thousand were native Spaniards;
+fifteen per cent. were Creoles of pure European descent; sixty per cent.
+were Indian, two-thirds of whom had an admixture of white blood; and
+three-fourths of the twenty-five per cent. of negroes and mulattoes were
+free. The majority did not consist of docile, inert, pure-bred natives
+as in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Paraguay, though the white element was
+not so large that the Creoles had ceased to occupy the position of a
+governing and property-owning caste who lived upon the labour of the
+half-breeds, Indians, and negroes. They regarded themselves as a
+superior class, entitled by birth to exemption from manual labour, and
+even considered commercial pursuits unworthy a gentleman.
+
+  [Illustration: ANCIENT INDIAN ROCK FOR GRINDING MAIZE.]
+
+The Spanish government had concerned itself little with this purely
+agricultural colony, and its hand was felt only in the collection of
+taxes. The officials were comparatively few, the number of resident
+Spaniards small, and neither mutual commercial interests nor a solid
+administration existed to strengthen the flimsy ties that bound
+Venezuela to the mother-country. So little had the interference of the
+Spanish government been felt since the abolishment of the Guipuzcoa
+Company that no well-defined and widespread sentiment in favour of
+separation existed. There was a vague feeling of dissatisfaction among
+the masses, but their ignorance prevented them from forming any rational
+plans for the betterment of their condition. However, the Venezuelan
+coast is so accessible that the fertilising and disturbing currents of
+trade and ideas had really profoundly modified the people, and the
+leaven of unrest was at work. The wealthier Creoles had imbibed radical
+notions and were ambitious of trying their hands at governing. By
+heredity, social custom, and environment indisposed to industry and
+commerce, their unemployed activities naturally flowed into the channel
+of politics, intrigue, and fighting.
+
+The first outbreak owed its origin to events in Spain. In 1796 a
+republican conspiracy was brought to light on the Peninsula, and several
+of its leaders were exiled to La Guaira. In their prison they were
+visited by many prominent Creoles, into whose minds they inculcated
+their republican principles, and it was not long before the existence of
+an extensive republican plot among the Creoles of La Guaira and Caracas
+was denounced to the captain-general. Many persons were arrested, and of
+the two principals, España expiated his treason on the scaffold, while
+the other, Gual, escaped into exile. But the seed of revolution had been
+planted, and many leading Creoles entered into correspondence with the
+British authorities on Trinidad, who promised aid in arms, munitions,
+and ships. Francisco Miranda, a native of Caracas, who had fought under
+Washington, and distinguished himself at Valmy and Jemappes as a soldier
+of the French republic, planned an invasion with the avowed purpose of
+achieving Venezuelan separation from Spain. With three ships manned by
+American filibusters he sailed from New York early in 1806, and
+attempted to land at Ocumare, near Puerto Cabello. But the Spanish
+authorities had been warned and he was beaten in a sea-fight where he
+lost sixty prisoners. Ten North Americans were condemned by
+court-martial and shot in Puerto Cabello, and their names are inscribed
+on a monument recently erected in the principal square of the town. The
+captain-general offered thirty thousand dollars for Miranda's head, but
+the latter retired to Jamaica, where, with the help of the British
+authorities, he organised a force of five hundred foreigners. Three
+months later he made a descent on Coro, effected a landing, and took the
+city. But the population remained inert, and the indifferent or hostile
+attitude of the region forced him to withdraw.
+
+Though the western provinces received Miranda so coldly, among the
+Creoles of the upper classes at Caracas aspirations for constitutional
+government, autonomy, and even for independence had made headway in the
+ten years since the suppression of the conspiracy of Gual and España. In
+1808 French commissioners arrived bringing the news of Ferdinand's
+expulsion. They were empowered to receive the allegiance of the colony
+for Joseph Bonaparte, but the captain-general hesitated and asked the
+advice of leading citizens, who proved unanimous against recognising the
+French régime. The captain-general's vacillation gave the Creoles of the
+cabildo a predominance in governmental councils. Although in the middle
+of the following year it was decided to recognise the Seville junta as
+supreme, pending Ferdinand's return, this decision was reached only
+after many debates, and a numerous party among the Creoles saw no
+reason why Venezuela should not establish a junta of her own. The news
+of the frightful cruelties perpetrated by Goyeneche in suppressing the
+junta at La Paz excited great indignation among Creoles; the
+anti-Spanish feeling grew rapidly; and when, on the 19th of April, 1810,
+the captain-general summoned an open cabildo to receive the news that
+the French armies had overrun nearly the whole of Spain and that only
+Cadiz remained faithful to Ferdinand, the electors had no sooner met
+than, excited by suggestions of ambitious persons, they turned into a
+mob howling for the resignation of the captain-general and the
+establishment of a Caracas junta. Accordingly a junta was named which
+exiled the Spanish functionaries and sent messages to the provincial
+capitals demanding their adhesion. The cities of the mountain strip
+extending from Cumaná to the Colombian Andes responded favourably and
+sent delegates to Caracas, while Maracaibo, Coro, and Guiana refused. As
+a matter of fact the masses as yet took little interest. The Caracas
+revolution was effected by a few determined spirits, and the adhesion of
+the mountain provinces was given by Creole municipal authorities who saw
+in the change an opportunity to better their personal fortunes. Nor was
+the resistance of Coro and Maracaibo so much inspired by love of Spain
+as by the presence of the resolute, clear-headed José Ceballos, who
+gathered troops and sent emissaries into the revolted provinces. The
+Caracas junta responded by raising an army which marched toward Coro,
+and the civil war was on.
+
+The news of the massacre of the Ecuadorean revolutionists at Quito in
+August, 1810, warned the junta Creoles that they had engaged in no
+child's play. A commission went to London to solicit the intervention of
+the British government in reaching an accommodation with the patriot
+authorities in Spain, but the Seville junta declared the Caracas
+revolutionists traitors. The commissioners fell under Miranda's
+influence and he convinced them that an open declaration of independence
+was the only course left. Meanwhile the troops sent to conquer Coro had
+been defeated by Ceballos. Threatened by the royalist arms, unable to
+count on the support of any considerable proportion of the rural
+population of even their own provinces, the Creoles of the ruling
+coterie proceeded to extreme measures. A congress met in March and on
+the 5th of July, 1811, adopted a declaration of independence,
+proclaiming the seven provinces of Cumaná, Barcelona, Caracas, Barinas,
+Trujillo, Merida, and Margarita free and sovereign states. Venezuela
+was, therefore, the first independent republic in Spanish America.
+Congress adopted a Constitution full of the most radical reforms and
+advanced ideas, and a handful of political theorists and advanced
+radicals took the direction of affairs, and imposed their crude theories
+on a bewildered and reluctant population. The ruling clique issued fiat
+money in immense quantities, and the resulting disorganisation of
+business increased discontent.
+
+Miranda, who had come from Europe to take command of military
+operations, warned them that the fabric was not strong enough to
+withstand the shock of battle, but the eager young reformers persisted.
+The clergy and the native Spaniards were the first to react. Though an
+outbreak of the Spaniards in Caracas was bloodily suppressed, the
+priests stirred up the people of Valencia, and that city--the second in
+the republic--declared against the Caracas government. Miranda succeeded
+in reducing the place only after costly fighting. The ruling clique did
+what they could to raise and equip troops to meet the approaching
+attacks from Coro and the West Indies, but their efforts were hampered
+by loyalist risings. In February, 1812, Monteverde, a Spanish leader,
+marched with a small detachment south from Coro, and northern Trujillo
+welcomed him. Defeating the patriot forces wherever he met them and
+refusing quarter to his prisoners, he prepared to advance eastward on
+the centre of the revolution. The junta was already trembling, when, on
+the 26th of March, a terrific earthquake devastated the revolted
+provinces. The solid ground rocked with such violent oscillations that
+in less than a minute the cities of Caracas, Barquisimeto, and Merida
+were mere heaps of ruins. Twelve thousand persons perished in Caracas
+alone. The loyalist provinces escaped injury, and the priests preached
+that the earthquake was a punishment sent by God upon impious rebellion.
+The people of Barquisimeto joined Monteverde, and he marched east,
+slaughtering the raw recruits with which the patriot leaders tried to
+block his way. Merida, Trujillo, and Barinas declared for the king, and
+an expedition sent from Caracas to the lower Orinoco was destroyed.
+Monteverde entered Valencia unopposed and only the coast from Caracas
+east to Cumaná remained to the republic. In despair the politicians made
+Miranda dictator, but, though the army numbered five thousand, he had no
+confidence in his men. He signed a capitulation and tried to fly while
+his army dispersed or joined the loyalist forces. On the 30th of July
+Monteverde entered Caracas and the first Venezuelan revolution ceased to
+exist.
+
+Among the volunteer officers who had been entrusted with positions of
+confidence by Miranda was a young Creole, named Simon Bolivar. Heir to
+some of the largest estates in Venezuela he had been left an orphan at
+three years of age, and was educated by a tutor who filled his
+marvellously impressible mind with a crude political philosophy, and
+under whose teachings he evolved original theories of government which
+all the wars, debates, and revolutions of his stormy life failed to
+modify. Preoccupied with his own ideas, he gave no heed to the counsels
+of others, took no thought of obstacles, and, victor or vanquished,
+stubbornly followed his own way, always confident of infallibility and
+persevering in the face of difficulties that would have appalled a
+rational man. From his earliest childhood a little feudal lord, owing
+obedience to no parent, with hundreds of slaves at his orders, his
+precocious intelligence the object of that ruinous admiration with which
+thoughtless strangers and servants spoil a rich and lonely child, his
+naturally strong will uncurbed by any discipline, he grew into
+manhood--arrogant, uncompromising, solitary, suspicious, a deep thinker,
+wildly ambitious, marvellously brilliant, though lacking steady
+common-sense, blindly confident of his own moral and intellectual
+infallibility, firmly convinced that he was destined for vague great
+things, inordinately fond of honours and praise, and absolutely unable
+to distinguish his desires of gratifying selfish ambitions, and his
+yeasty notions of regenerating mankind. At sixteen he went to Spain to
+complete his education; his wealth procured him an entrance into the
+aristocratic families of Madrid; and he even penetrated the precincts of
+the ceremonious court and had the honour of playing ball with the lad
+who afterwards became Ferdinand VII. When only eighteen he married a
+beautiful girl, who died shortly after he brought her back to Caracas.
+For the rest of his life he remained without family ties. Again he went
+to Europe and wandered through England, France, and Italy, falling more
+and more under the spell of the mighty spirit of Napoleon the Great. At
+the age of twenty-three Bolivar returned to his native country and took
+up his life as a rich slave-owner. When the revolution broke out in 1810
+he took no part until the junta requested him to go to England on the
+embassy previously mentioned. There he became acquainted with Miranda,
+and, appreciating that the South American revolution must be decided by
+arms, made up his mind that only as a soldier could he put himself at
+the head of affairs in Venezuela. His first essays in the military art
+were not successful, and it was he who lost Puerto Cabello, giving the
+first revolution its _coup de grâce_. But a situation in which others
+saw no hope he regarded as an opportunity, and he resolved to devote his
+life to South American independence.
+
+Bolivar went to Cartagena in Colombia and offered his sword to the
+patriot junta which ruled that city. Given a small military command on
+the Magdalena River, he embodied a few militia and surprised two posts
+which were obstructing the navigation of the river. Delighted at these
+successes, the Cartagena junta sent him reinforcements, with which he
+captured Ocana, an important city lying east of the Magdalena and not
+far from Pamplona and the Venezuelan border. The loyalists had collected
+a considerable force in the Venezuelan province of Barinas, with which
+they proposed to advance into Pamplona. The patriot chief of this
+Colombian province appealed to Bolivar and this suggested to him the
+Napoleonic plan of relieving Pamplona and reconquering Venezuela. On his
+own responsibility he dashed with only four hundred men over the Andes
+in front of Ocana, descended into the plain north of Lake Maracaibo,
+took the royalists on their march to Pamplona by surprise, and routed
+them. Joined by the patriots from Pamplona, he received formal
+authorisation to drive the Spaniards from the Venezuelan provinces of
+Merida and Trujillo. His movements among the mountain valleys were like
+lightning flashes, and though the Spanish forces were more numerous
+their commanders were demoralised by his attacks made in defiance of all
+the rules of prudent warfare. Within fifty days there was not an enemy
+left in the two provinces, and Bolivar's army had been trebled by
+enlistments. The New Granadan government ordered him to pause, but he
+paid no heed. Issuing a proclamation that no quarter would be given, he
+crossed the mountains south-west into the province of Barinas,
+annihilated the Spanish forces there, and rushing to the east caught
+another army of a thousand men near Valencia and destroyed it.
+Monteverde had no time to concentrate his scattered forces, and the news
+of this last defeat caused him to flee to the protection of the
+fortifications of Puerto Cabello. Bolivar occupied Valencia and Caracas
+without resistance. In a campaign of ninety days, with a handful of New
+Granadans and mountaineers from western Venezuela, he had defeated and
+dispersed over four thousand royalists, and conquered the country from
+the Andes to the capital.
+
+Only the lower plains of the Orinoco and the coast provinces of
+Maracaibo and Coro remained royalist, for while Bolivar had been
+overrunning the west, another young Creole, Mariño, had led a small
+expedition from the island of Margarita, captured Maturin just east of
+the mouth of the Orinoco, and with the military stores found there armed
+the inhabitants of Cumaná province, made ripe for revolt by the
+cruelties of Monteverde. The Spanish attempts to recover Maturin by
+assault were repulsed with great slaughter, and Mariño followed up his
+success by besieging Cumaná. By the time Bolivar reached Caracas the
+place was in the last extremities of starvation, and Monteverde's
+flight was a signal for its surrender. There were therefore two
+dictators in Venezuela, and Mariño sent to Bolivar to treat about the
+form of government, but the latter had determined on a centralised
+administration with himself supreme. Mariño refused to agree, and only
+the activity of the loyalists prevented a war between him and Bolivar.
+
+Monteverde held out in Puerto Cabello, and when reinforcements arrived
+from Spain resumed the offensive. Though Bolivar won a victory at Las
+Trincheiras, and was greeted on his return to Caracas with the title of
+"Liberator," reaction had in fact begun. Reports of loyalist movements
+came from all sides; Bolivar's power was confined to the towns; the
+terrible Boves roused the llaneros and gathered the nucleus of a
+formidable army of horsemen. Ceballos sallied out from Coro and captured
+Barquisimeto, utterly defeating Bolivar when the latter attacked him.
+Difficulties, however, only stimulated this remarkable man to fresh
+exertions. The patriot leader, Campo Elias, overthrew Boves's horsemen
+near Calabozo on the llanos south of Caracas, killing the prisoners and
+butchering every man in the town because it had helped the loyalists.
+This cruel deed decided the llaneros for the Spanish side, and though
+Bolivar, with the assistance of Campo Elias's troops, won the pitched
+battle of Araure from Ceballos, Boves had escaped to the plains there to
+recruit another army of llaneros, which was destined to expel the
+Liberator.
+
+Bolivar was soon reduced to the possession of Caracas and its
+neighbouring valleys, with a feeble reserve at Valencia. Mariño had
+thirty-five hundred men, and Bolivar finally agreed to recognise him as
+dictator of the eastern provinces as the price of his help. But their
+union only put off the evil day. Boves crushed Campo Elias at La Puerta
+and advanced on Caracas. Raging like a trapped wild beast, Bolivar
+ordered the wholesale assassination of eight hundred and sixty-six
+Spaniards confined at La Guaira. His desperation inspired his followers,
+and when Boves attacked the entrenchments outside Caracas and rushed the
+patriot magazine, the young Granadan who was in command, seeing that the
+place could not be held, ordered his men to fly, but when the loyalists
+triumphantly rushed into the building they found him in the act of
+throwing a match into the powder. In the explosion eight hundred of the
+assaulting column were blown into the air and the survivors desisted.
+Mariño was coming by forced marches from the east along the plains, and
+Boves retired to cut him off, while Ceballos also abandoned the siege of
+Valencia. Mariño eluded Boves and beat off one attack. If the Liberator
+had concentrated his forces and united with his colleague the patriots
+would have stood a chance, but he sent most of his own troops to recover
+the west, joining Mariño with only a few men. At La Puerta on the 14th
+of June, 1814, the battle decisive of the second Venezuelan revolution
+was fought. The desperate charges of Boves's llanero horsemen
+overwhelmed the patriots, and more than half their number were left dead
+on the field. Bolivar fled to Caracas, gathered all the money and
+jewels, and, encumbered by a great multitude of fugitives, retreated
+east. But at Aragua the patriots were driven out of their trenches with
+terrific slaughter. The Liberator took ship at Barcelona with the
+intention of making a last stand near the mouth of the Orinoco, but his
+comrades had had enough of him. He was declared a traitor and Rivas put
+in command. The remaining patriots managed to repulse one attack of the
+royalists, but in a second they were defeated, and in a third Boves
+slaughtered them nearly to the last man, although he himself was killed
+in the mêlée. Only a few scattered bands on the plateaux of Barcelona
+and the plains of the upper Orinoco kept up a resistance. The detachment
+which Bolivar had so imprudently sent west before the battle of La
+Puerta escaped into New Granada, while the Liberator went by sea to that
+country and took service under its government.
+
+The revolution headed by Bolivar and Mariño had been crushed by Boves,
+Morales, and Ceballos with troops recruited in Venezuela itself.
+Monteverde's defeat and Boves's death left Morales master of Venezuela,
+and virtually independent of outside control. But by 1815 Ferdinand was
+securely on the throne of Spain, and absolutism had replaced the
+Constitution established by the popular leaders of 1812. The Spanish
+government determined to suppress the revolutionists who still
+maintained themselves in New Granada and the Argentine, and to reduce
+the semi-independent royalist chiefs to a more exact obedience. In
+April, Morillo, Spain's ablest general, arrived near Cumaná at the head
+of ten thousand veteran regulars. Morales sailed out to meet the Marshal
+and place his troops at his orders, but the regular officers gazed in
+astonishment at the dark-skinned llaneros, wearing only a hat and a
+waist-cloth, who were the pillars of royal authority in Venezuela. At
+first the Spaniards accepted the aid of these half-savage allies, but
+Morillo lost no time in establishing a military despotism in which the
+llanero chiefs had no place. Even more unpopular was his leaving three
+thousand Spaniards to garrison Venezuela while he impressed an equal
+number of native troops to accompany him on his expedition against New
+Granada. Nearly a third of the latter deserted rather than embark, and
+the attitude of the Spanish officers who were left behind to rule the
+country roused the native instinct for independence.
+
+Meanwhile the scattered bands of patriot guerillas on the western
+headwaters of the Orinoco, near the Granadan border, had been uniting
+and increasing in strength. José Antonio Paez, a mixed-blood, only
+twenty-six years old, who could neither read nor write, but of herculean
+strength and skill in the use of lance and sword, proved the leader for
+the occasion. A small corps in which he was a simple captain was
+threatened by the Spanish governor of Barinas at the head of fourteen
+hundred men. His own commander wished to retreat, but Paez persuaded
+five hundred reckless fellows to follow him in a night assault. Leading
+his men in a furious charge he bore down the enemy with a rush, killing
+four hundred and taking many prisoners, whom he treated so well that
+they all joined him. The fame of his success spread through the llanos
+and the rough plainsmen, dissatisfied with the discipline and routine of
+the regular Spanish officers, flocked to the banner of this new
+chieftain, and he began the organisation of the army of the Apuré,
+destined to be the principal instrument in the redemption of Venezuela.
+
+Meanwhile the guerilla chiefs farther down the Orinoco made headway
+against the Spaniards, and the whole plain turned to the patriot side.
+Hearing of these successes, Bolivar resolved to return to Venezuela. He
+landed near the mouth of the Orinoco, but was soon driven thence and
+took ship for Ocumare, near Puerto Cabello. From this point he sent a
+small expedition inland towards Valencia under the command of MacGregor,
+who achieved some successes against isolated bodies of loyalists, was
+joined by many llaneros, and finally made his way to the plains of
+Barcelona, while Bolivar was compelled to re-embark and flee to Hayti.
+MacGregor took the city of Barcelona, and then with the assistance of
+the negro chief, Piar, who had been besieging Cumaná, repulsed Morales
+himself at the battle of Juncal. By the end of 1816 the patriots had
+gained so many advantages that Morillo thought himself obliged to return
+to Venezuela at the head of huge reinforcements. However, the patriot
+cause needed a head. The chieftains were rude and ignorant men with a
+talent for fighting and nothing more, while Bolivar was a man of wide
+and varied accomplishments. In spite of his failures he retained great
+prestige among the Creole officers. He was agreed upon as
+general-in-chief, and in December landed at Barcelona. But Piar had led
+his victorious army over to the Orinoco, and notwithstanding Bolivar's
+entreaties the llaneros persisted in their refusal to return to a
+country where cavalry could not manoeuvre to advantage. When Bolivar
+arrived at Piar's headquarters near Angostura he appreciated that the
+true theatre for a successful war had been found. In those plains the
+llanero cavalry, which formed the bulk of the patriot force, was
+invincible. Morillo also realised that the coast would not long remain
+tenable if the line of the Orinoco were in the hands of the patriots,
+and he sent a regular force of three thousand men under La Torre down
+the Apuré and Orinoco to Angostura, while he himself quickly made an end
+of the few insurrectionists who stubbornly refused to retire from the
+coast to the llanos. During one of Bolivar's absences, La Torre offered
+Piar battle, and at San Felix, in April, 1817, the plainsmen annihilated
+the Spanish infantry.
+
+  [Illustration: THE PASS OF ANGOSTURA, BOLIVAR CITY.]
+
+Bolivar now went vigorously to work to secure complete command of the
+river and soon had quite a fleet. His ascendancy over his officers
+increased daily, and when Piar conspired against him he was strong
+enough to have the negro hero arrested and shot as a traitor. Before the
+end of 1817 the patriots were in command of the whole line of the rivers
+except the fortress of San Fernando, near the junction of the Apuré and
+Orinoco, and Morillo could do nothing against them because the plains
+were flooded. When the waters fell in early spring the royalists
+achieved some successes, but Bolivar joined Paez, established a blockade
+of San Fernando, and surprised Morillo himself near Calabozo. Against
+Paez's advice he now insisted on making a campaign for the recovery of
+Caracas, but was badly defeated by the marshal at La Puerta--a spot for
+the third time the scene of a patriot downfall. Though Paez had captured
+San Fernando his expedition into the mountain country was no more
+successful than Bolivar's, and the two retreated to the river to raise
+fresh troops. Morales followed the patriots to the Apuré, but was in his
+turn repulsed by Paez, giving Bolivar a breathing spell.
+
+The Liberator's position was desperate; his infantry had been destroyed;
+his cavalry reduced in numbers; his men were nearly without arms; his
+ammunition exhausted. Ill-considered movements had turned the brilliant
+situation in which he had found patriot affairs a year before into the
+gloomiest sort of an outlook. On the other hand, a defensive campaign in
+the llanos could be kept up indefinitely, and though Morillo had twelve
+thousand men in the populous mountain provinces north of the plains, he
+also was without money, arms, and supplies. As he reported to the
+Peruvian viceroy: "Twelve pitched battles in which the best officers and
+troops of the enemy have fallen, have not lowered their pride or
+lessened the vigour of their attacks." With that indomitable energy
+which more than compensated for his inferiority as a strategist, Bolivar
+set to work to create a new army. Cavalry of the most admirable sort
+could be recruited in sufficient numbers among the llaneros, but bitter
+experience had convinced him that against Spanish regulars the native
+infantry stood little chance. The cessation of the Napoleonic wars had
+left thousands of European veterans without employment, and Bolivar
+contracted for a few thousand Britishers and Irishmen, paying a bounty
+of eighty dollars per man on enlistment and promising five hundred
+dollars at the conclusion of the war. Some of these troops arrived
+opportunely late in 1818, and, few as their numbers were, no soldiers in
+South America could stand against them.
+
+In October Bolivar issued a proclamation foreshadowing the union of
+Venezuela and New Granada. In the midst of defeat, with all of both
+countries except the thinly populated Orinoco plains in possession of
+the Spaniards, he was confidently planning the creation of a great
+empire. Morillo opened the campaign of 1819 by advancing with over six
+thousand men against Paez on the upper Orinoco. The Creole's four
+thousand were mostly cavalry, and he had learned better than to risk a
+pitched battle. The Spanish columns were harassed beyond endurance by
+his light horsemen, and after weeks of heartbreaking marches Morillo had
+to retire, having accomplished nothing.
+
+From Bolivar's erratic genius now emanated a great stroke of strategy.
+West of the plains of the Apuré and Casanare, tributaries of the upper
+Orinoco, rises the giant range of the Cordillera and on its top lay the
+fertile plateaux of Socorro, Tunja, and Bogotá, the populous heart of
+New Granada. For three years the Spaniards had been in secure possession
+and all except three thousand troops had been drafted for service in
+Venezuela and Peru. A small Spanish force came down from Tunja to attack
+the patriot guerillas in Casanare, and was repulsed. Where the enemy
+could go he could follow, reasoned Bolivar. Paez's cavalry had proved
+itself amply able to hold the llanos, so no risk to Venezuela would be
+incurred by temporarily withdrawing part of the infantry. With two
+thousand natives and five hundred British the Liberator followed up the
+Orinoco, Meta, and Casanare to the latter's sources at the foot of the
+Paya pass, which leads directly into the fertile valley of Sagamoso, the
+heart of Tunja province. This pass is high and very difficult, although
+the distance to be traversed was only eighty miles. The road was a mere
+track leading along precipices, crossing and recrossing mountain
+torrents, and the rain fell incessantly as the patriots struggled up the
+slippery path. When they reached the higher regions a hundred men
+perished with the cold, and not a horse survived. The army arrived at
+Sagamoso in a pitiable condition, but without seeing an enemy except an
+outpost, which was easily dislodged.
+
+Not knowing Bolivar's numbers, Barreiro, the Spanish commander, dared
+not attack, and the Liberator thus obtained a much-needed opportunity to
+rest his men and gather horses for his dismounted cavalry. As soon as he
+got his army in hand he outmanoeuvred Barreiro and by a rapid march
+captured the city of Tunja, where he found a good store of arms and
+material. This movement also placed the patriot army between the
+Spaniards and Bogotá. Barreiro, seeing himself cut off from his base,
+made a desperate dash for the capital, but Bolivar knew the enemy's
+route and took up a position directly across his path on the right bank
+of the small river Boyacá. Though the patriots were only slightly
+superior in numbers, the Spaniards had to attack at a disadvantage, and
+fled completely defeated after losing a hundred men. Practically their
+whole force was dispersed or made prisoners. Small as were the numbers
+engaged and easily as it was won, Boyacá was the most important battle
+fought in northern Spanish America. Central New Granada, the wealthiest
+and most populous part of the country, fell into Bolivar's hands without
+a further blow. Its revenues relieved his financial difficulties and
+among its sturdy inhabitants he recruited a new army. Morillo, now
+isolated in Venezuela, must expect an attack from the llaneros,
+reinforced by the Granadan mountaineers.
+
+  [Illustration: ROAD NEAR MACUTO.]
+
+During the Liberator's absence from Venezuela he had been branded as a
+traitor for abandoning his country without the authorisation of
+congress, and Mariño made commander-in-chief. But the news of Boyacá
+fell like a thunderbolt among the disaffected, and his return in
+December quelled them utterly. No opposition was made when he announced
+that Venezuela and New Granada were united into a single republic, the
+United States of Colombia, with himself as president and military
+dictator. The year 1820 passed without any decisive campaign. Bolivar
+occupied himself principally in recruiting and refitting his armies.
+Twelve hundred Irish mercenaries arrived and were incorporated with an
+army which was sent by sea to threaten the Spaniards in Cartagena, and
+co-operate with the New Granadans on the lower Magdalena. A strong
+division of Venezuelans was sent against Quito. Paez with the main army
+of the Apuré was, however, repulsed in an advance into Barinas. In spite
+of this success Morillo could only lie inactive south of Caracas. His
+forces were not numerous enough both to retake New Granada and to hold
+northern Venezuela. But word came that Ferdinand was preparing an army
+of twenty thousand men which would shortly sail from Cadiz for America,
+and with this reinforcement the marshal believed he could destroy all
+the patriot armies. The revolution which broke out in Spain in 1820
+against Ferdinand's absolute government overturned his hopes. The
+expedition never sailed, and the new liberal government showed itself
+disposed to make terms with the revolted colonies. In November a six
+months' armistice was arranged pending the despatch of peace
+commissioners to the mother-country, and Morillo resigned in favour of
+La Torre.
+
+Bolivar's lieutenants respected the armistice only where convenient, and
+shamelessly continued warlike operations, wresting the New Granadan
+coast from the Spaniards, beginning the siege of Cartagena, and
+encouraging a revolt in the province of Maracaibo. When La Torre
+declared the armistice at an end late in April, 1821, Bolivar had
+twenty thousand men in the field disposed in five armies. Montilla was
+besieging Cartagena with three thousand; one Granadan army held the
+valley of the Magdalena; another was operating against Ecuador; Bermudez
+with two thousand men threatened Caracas from the east; and Bolivar and
+Paez at the head of nine thousand men were ready to advance directly
+from the Orinoco on Valencia and Caracas. To these forces La Torre could
+only oppose nine thousand troops besides his garrisons. The moment the
+armistice was formally terminated Bolivar started straight for La Torre.
+The latter had made the fatal mistake of dividing his forces, and had
+only about three thousand men drawn up on the wide plain of Carabobo, at
+the northern foot of the passes which lead through the mountains from
+the llanos to the Valencia plateau. Bolivar's six thousand captured the
+passes, but he could not deploy his infantry on the flat ground in front
+except at the risk of having them cut to pieces. On June 23, 1821, he
+detached the British legion of one thousand men and fifteen hundred
+cavalry under Paez around to the left to take the Spaniards in flank.
+The charge of the llanero horse was driven back by the musket fire, but
+the pursuing Spaniards were checked by the steady Englishmen, who stood
+in their tracks and withstood the fire of the whole Spanish army. Their
+ammunition was soon exhausted; no help came from Bolivar; all seemed to
+be over with them; a second cavalry charge was as unsuccessful as the
+first; and the surviving Britishers made up their minds to carry the
+enemy's position or perish. Their commander had fallen; the colours
+changed bearers seven times; still they kept their formation as steadily
+as if on parade, and bayonet in hand rushed on the Spaniards, who
+outnumbered them four to one. For a brief time the struggle was fierce
+and the result doubtful, but cold steel in the hands of such a
+desperate, forlorn hope was too much for the Spaniards. They began to
+give ground and at last broke and fled. The llanero horse rode them
+down, and only a remnant escaped to the shelter of Puerto Cabello.
+Bolivar entered Caracas acclaimed--and this time justly--as the
+liberator of his country.
+
+Meanwhile the constituent congress of the new republic of Colombia had
+met at Cucutá, a town near the limits of Venezuela and New Granada. It
+was composed entirely of civilians and lawyers and proved to be
+radically republican and opposed to Bolivar's anti-democratic theories.
+Though a centralised government was adopted, congress rejected the life
+presidency and hereditary senate, and abolished the military
+dictatorship by providing that the commander-in-chief, when on active
+service, should leave his political functions in the hands of the
+vice-president. Bolivar made a pretence of declining the presidency, but
+yielded to the importunities of congress and continued in command of the
+army on the terms proposed, stipulating, however, that he be allowed to
+organise as he saw fit the provinces he might conquer in the rest of
+South America.
+
+The Spaniards now held only Puerto Cabello and Cumaná, but no progress
+was made toward driving them out of these positions during the remainder
+of 1821, nor until after Bolivar had, early in 1822, left for the south
+to co-operate with Sucré in the conquest of Quito. In October Cumaná
+surrendered to Bermudez, but from Puerto Cabello Morales led an
+expedition which reconquered Maracaibo and Coro. He was unable to hold
+them and the defeat of his squadron on Lake Maracaibo in July, 1823,
+forced him to surrender. On the 8th of November Puerto Cabello was taken
+by assault and the long war for Venezuela's independence was over.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+MODERN VENEZUELA
+
+
+In 1822 Bolivar departed bent on the conquest of Ecuador, Peru, and
+Bolivia, leaving a New Granadan vice-president as ruler of the great
+Colombian republic, of which Venezuela was merely one division. The
+massacres and sackings of ten bloody years had depopulated and
+impoverished Venezuela, and the cost of maintaining the army and aiding
+Bolivar in his foreign contests drained its exhausted resources. The
+educated Creoles, especially powerful in the agricultural regions near
+the coast, saw no place for themselves in Bolivar's centralising system.
+They wanted to control the offices in their own localities, and did not
+relish the establishment of a bureaucracy in which appointments and
+promotions would be settled at Bogotá. The predominant radical French
+ideas added force to the sentiment of local independence. The theorists
+were offended by Bolivar's manifest predilection toward aristocratic
+forms and the favours which he granted the clergy. Most dangerous of
+all, jealousy of the Liberator was rife among the generals.
+
+Paez had been left at the head of military affairs in Venezuela and soon
+after the capture of Puerto Cabello he became involved in quarrels with
+the municipal authorities. The llanero general recked little of the
+arguments of the lawyers, and carried things with a high hand. In 1826,
+when the Bogotá government sent an order for the organisation of
+militia, he filled the measure to overflowing, and the municipality of
+Caracas made a formal complaint to the central government. A decree for
+his suspension was issued, but a riot in the streets terrorised the
+cabildo and he was replaced in power as a sort of dictator. This
+amounted to a destruction of the influence of the central Colombian
+government in Venezuelan affairs. Many cities raised the standard of
+rebellion and made themselves virtually independent. Bolivar hastened
+back from Peru to reduce his old companion in arms to obedience. He
+cajoled Paez into temporary co-operation, subdued most of the revolted
+cities, and, seeing that his system could not be sustained without
+coercion, assumed a dictatorship. But the news that Peru had revolted
+destroyed his dream of a continent-wide dominion, and the demand for
+local autonomy continued so strong throughout Venezuela and New Granada
+that he was forced to call a national assembly to amend the Constitution
+on the basis of a compromise. In spite of Bolivar's intrigues nearly
+half the elected delegates staid away, and a majority of those who
+presented themselves at Ocana, in March, 1828, though chosen under the
+pressure of his influence, opposed his measures.
+
+  [Illustration: ENTRANCE OF PUERTO CABELLO IN 1870.]
+
+The minority who favoured him withdrew at his suggestion, leaving the
+congress without a quorum. It dissolved and the Liberator visited
+Caracas, Cartagena, and Bogotá, calling popular assemblies whose
+deliberations were directed by bayonets and which obediently besought
+him to save the country from anarchy in his own way. He issued a decree
+virtually abolishing the Cucutá Constitution, but a conspiracy to
+assassinate him was formed at Bogotá in the fall of 1828, and he was
+saved only by the devotion of his mistress, who stood in the way of the
+midnight assassins, giving him time to jump from a window and escape. He
+took a fearful vengeance on the conspirators and banished his worst
+political enemies, but the incident failed to turn public sentiment in
+his favour, and it was in vain that he exhibited himself as a martyr.
+His old friend, General Cordoba, headed an unsuccessful insurrection in
+the province of Antioquia; insurgents rose in Popayan and Rio Negro, and
+towards the end of 1829, in Bolivar's native city, Caracas, an assembly
+of one thousand generals, public functionaries, and prominent citizens
+announced that Venezuela would shortly separate from Colombia and called
+upon Paez to assume a dictatorship. The Liberator struggled vainly
+against the rising tide of federalism; the country was at heart opposed
+to Cæsarism and union; he had been unable to convince the Creoles of the
+advisability of providing a strong centralised government; and his only
+supporters were personal ones. Bitterly protesting that he was falsely
+charged with aspiring to mount a throne, and insisting that his real
+ambition had been only to secure the perpetuity of the Colombian union
+and establish an ordered government, he offered his resignation.
+Congress, however, contained many of his friends and hesitated at coming
+to an open breach. He was re-elected and made one last effort to enforce
+the obedience of Venezuela. But the troops he raised in New Granada did
+not dare to attack Paez, who with superior forces was waiting in an
+impregnable position near the frontier. Sick and discouraged, the
+Liberator renewed his resignation--this time in earnest--and retired to
+the seacoast, where a few months later he died of a wasting sickness at
+the early age of forty-seven. Though his courage, energy, and sublime
+persistence and self-confidence had been the chief factors in securing
+South American independence, those qualities proved utterly inadequate
+to hold in check the unruly ambitions of the Creoles. He died clearly
+foreseeing the decades of anarchy which lay before the northern
+countries of the continent. "I blush to admit it," he said to congress
+on the eve of his fall, "but independence is the only benefit we have
+achieved, and that has been at the cost of all others." On his death-bed
+he wrote: "Our Constitutions are books, our laws papers, our elections
+combats, and life itself a torment. We shall arrive at such a state that
+no foreign nation will condescend to conquer us, and we shall be
+governed by petty tyrants."
+
+The Venezuelan federalists had not waited for Bolivar's death to
+complete the formal separation from Colombia. In May, 1830, a
+constituent congress assembled which named Paez dictator and notified
+Bogotá that the country regarded itself as absolutely independent. But
+Bolivar had partisans and the ruling clique enemies. The eastern
+provinces refused to recognise Paez's authority and the whole country
+was soon under arms. But Bolivar's death and the virtual recognition of
+Venezuela's independence by New Granada brought about a treaty between
+Paez and Monagas, the chief of the insurrection. The Creole aristocracy
+came to a working understanding with the generals, and little cliques in
+each city supported the central government as long as they were
+recognised as dominant in their own localities. Naturally the ignored
+outsiders were dissatisfied and plotted to overthrow these oligarchies.
+In May, 1831, a revolution broke out in Caracas which menaced nothing
+less than the extermination of the property-holding classes, but it was
+suppressed and its leaders executed. On paper the form of government was
+most liberal, congress abolishing the tobacco monopoly and many odious
+taxes inherited from Spanish times, proclaiming religious freedom, and
+adopting a Constitution very similar to that of the United States. But
+in practice the conservative cliques had things their own way. Though
+ambitious chiefs headed insurrections from time to time, they were all
+bought off or defeated, and Paez continued president until 1835, leaving
+the country in a condition of comparative order and prosperity.
+
+Doctor Vargas, a civilian, succeeded him, but against him the generals
+revolted, declaring Mariño dictator. Carujo, the soul of the
+insurrection, said, in the act of making the president and his ministers
+prisoners, "Doctor Vargas, the world belongs to the strongest," and the
+latter nobly replied, "No, the world belongs to the just," résuméing in
+a word the conflict between force and law, between unbridled ambition
+and the necessity for order, which has desolated Venezuela to this day
+and which will last until the selfish elements learn that their own true
+interests would best be served by promoting the prosperity of the whole
+people--by relying upon their own industry rather than on chances to
+despoil the producing classes. The government party appealed to Paez,
+and the llanero general accepted the command. His prestige with the
+common people and the army enabled him to gather forces with which he
+overcame the revolted generals after eight months of bloody civil war.
+Vargas was recalled from exile, but after a short time refused to
+continue in the presidency, and his place was taken by the
+vice-president, Doctor Narvarte. In 1839 Paez was again made president,
+and was succeeded in 1842 by General Soublette, another of the heroes of
+the war of independence. Until 1846 there was comparative tranquillity
+in Venezuela. The population had decreased by a fifth during the Spanish
+wars, being estimated at six hundred and fifty thousand in 1825, but
+within the succeeding twenty years it grew to a million and a quarter.
+Cacao, coffee, and sugar became important articles of export and made
+the landed proprietors rich. With the cessation of warlike operations on
+the plains, cattle rapidly multiplied, the first waggon roads were
+built, and a bank was established.
+
+In 1846 an anti-Creole insurrection broke out among the men of colour,
+and Paez was again invested with dictatorial powers. When he had
+completed his work he installed Monagas as president. Popular irritation
+against the ruling conservative coterie was, however, profound and
+Monagas quarrelled with congress, and sent his soldiers to break up its
+meetings. Paez took up arms again and tried to expel his nominee, but
+was defeated, and for the next nine years Monagas and his brother
+alternated in the presidency. Though raised to power by the conservative
+party they abandoned it and before 1850 had thrown themselves into the
+arms of the liberals, or federalists. Extravagant powers were granted
+to the states; the provincial coteries ran their localities to suit
+themselves; the ties binding the different parts of the country together
+were weakened; an elaborate and confused set of taxes, national,
+provincial, and municipal, well-nigh choked commerce out of existence.
+More and more liberty was conceded to the states and municipalities,
+and, on paper, to the individual also. Slavery was abolished in 1854.
+
+Revolutions broke out from time to time, and finally, in 1858, the
+so-called conservatives overthrew the Monagas régime. But they
+immediately divided into warring groups, and their new Constitution
+proved too centralising to suit the Creole politicians. The liberals
+hoisted the banner of federalism and several provinces rose in revolt.
+Under the leadership of Pedro Gual the conservatives were, however,
+victorious, but they again split to pieces, and Gual himself went over
+to the liberals. A revolution in Caracas brought back old General Paez,
+who assumed a dictatorship and tried to re-establish the power of the
+central government. But it was impossible. Many disappointed
+conservatives had turned federalist. No politician seemed willing to
+submit to any administration unless he was a member of it. The struggle
+had degenerated into a mere selfish contest for power, and the terms
+liberal and conservative, federalist and unitarian, had ceased to have
+any real relation to the opinions of the persons who bore these
+appellations. General Falcon, with Guzman Blanco as lieutenant, led a
+successful insurrection in Coro and made himself undisputed master of a
+considerable portion of the country. The province of Maracaibo formally
+declared itself separated from all connection with Caracas. For three
+years civil war raged, when finally Paez gave up and Falcon assumed
+direction of the exhausted country. On only one thing had the rapid
+succession of dictators, provincial and national, been agreed,--the
+increase of taxes. Import duties had been raised to such a point that
+commerce could stand no more. But in spite of the enormous sums wrung
+from merchant, producer, and consumer, the treasury was empty, for the
+local chiefs openly took possession of the receipts of the custom-houses
+in their respective districts, and diversions of public funds to private
+use were the rule among all ranks of officials.
+
+  [Illustration: VENEZUELAN SOLDIER OF 1870.]
+
+Falcon's success meant the definite triumph of unrestrained federalism.
+The twenty states into which the seven old provinces had been divided in
+the effort to provide enough offices to go around, became in law
+sovereign; the presidential term was reduced to two years; absolute
+liberty of the press was permitted, and the right of meeting for any
+purpose guaranteed. Imprisonment for debt, the death penalty, and
+religious instruction in the schools were all abolished. During the five
+years that Falcon was the chief political figure affairs in Venezuela
+grew worse and worse. State after state burst into revolution. Falcon
+sometimes whipped the insurrectionists and sometimes bought them off,
+but more often was unable to secure even a semblance of obedience
+except by conceding everything. National penury reached the limit, the
+states collected and pocketed the dues in most of the custom-houses,
+officials were in regular partnership with smugglers, and finally the
+feeble ghost of a federal administration simply flickered out of
+existence because it could pay nobody.
+
+A chief of the so-called unitarian party was declared president in 1868,
+but Guzman Blanco, now the undisputed head of the federalists, retook
+Caracas in 1870 and installed himself as dictator. He proved the
+strongest and most tenacious man who had yet come to the front. With a
+terrific insurrection raging against him, he concentrated all powers in
+his own hands, suppressed the peculations of his agents, and
+relentlessly dragged the half-breeds and negroes into his armies. He
+finally put down all his enemies and in 1873 was installed as
+constitutional president. Until 1889 he virtually reigned over
+Venezuela. Though occasionally he might allow some one else to be
+elected president, after a short interval he would find a pretext for
+intervention and oust his nominee. Though the Constitution was left
+substantially unamended, he interpreted it as he pleased. He organised a
+regular machine through which he governed the "sovereign" states, taking
+care that none but his creatures should become governors and that the
+members returned to congress should be docile. To all intents and
+purposes his will was the law of the land, for the legislative and
+judicial departments were his instruments, and his executive decrees
+covered nearly every imaginable subject. The minutest details of
+commercial and social life were regulated, the clergy owed their
+positions to the dictator, and even private property was not safe if
+Blanco took a fancy to it. But in the main his tyranny was intelligent.
+The country escaped the desolating outbreaks of local chiefs, with
+forced loans wrung from property owners and merchants, the seizure of
+cattle and coffee for "war purposes," and the lassoing of peons to serve
+in the armed bands. Though the taxes imposed by Blanco were enormously
+heavy, the marvellous productive forces of the soil could stand almost
+any burden provided its amount were certain and its collection regular.
+Though the dictator withdrew millions for his private use, depositing
+them in Paris against the evil day of his expulsion, indiscriminate
+exactions by subordinates were suppressed. Large sums were spent on
+public works and buildings, and the beautification of the city of
+Caracas, one of the handsomest and best-built cities in America, dates
+from Guzman Blanco's time. Nearly five hundred miles of railroad were
+constructed. The country was given and has retained the inestimable
+blessing of a stable currency, and the coffee and cacao businesses
+increased enormously. The number of cattle, which the civil wars prior
+to 1870 had reduced to one million four hundred thousand, increased
+sevenfold in fifteen years.
+
+But Blanco's system was anomalous and rested on no secure foundation.
+The commercial and property-holding classes abstained from politics, the
+people became tired of his busybody tyranny, the peons were still an
+inert and ignorant mass, harmless by themselves, but furnishing a
+tempting recruiting ground for ambitious revolutionists. Nor had the
+Creole politicians changed their nature. There were plenty of talented
+adventurers whose mouths fairly watered seeing the immense fortune
+Blanco was accumulating, and who only waited a favourable opportunity to
+conquer a share in the spoils. The successful outbreak came in 1889,
+headed by Rojas Paul. His success was a signal for other chiefs to
+imitate his example. Resolute leaders hastily organised bands of peons,
+and the old story of pronunciamentos, kidnappings of peaceful peasants,
+attacks, surprises, forced loans, and all the demoralising and
+disintegrating horrors of civil war were repeated. Paul was overthrown
+by Andueza, and in 1892 Crespo got to the head of affairs and held power
+long enough to accumulate a respectable fortune. Andrade succeeded
+Crespo, but had to divide the spoils with his predecessor. The
+disturbances did not become of a character to injure seriously
+Venezuela's commerce and production until 1896, but there then began a
+rapid decline in the value of her exports. The government's revenues
+diminished a third and amounted to less than half the expenditures. The
+debt grew to alarming figures and the guaranteed interest on foreign
+capital employed in building railroads was allowed to fall into arrear.
+In 1899, Castro, a man hitherto unknown in politics, started an
+insurrection against Andrade in the western state of Los Andes. Marching
+from one town to another his army grew like a rolling snowball by
+forced enlistments, and though the sturdy hillmen did not know what they
+were fighting for and would gladly have been at home, they showed all
+the stolid bravery that seems inborn in their race. The government
+troops could not stand against them, and Castro finally entered Caracas
+in triumph. Though insurrection after insurrection has broken out
+against him, the dauntless courage with which he leads his men has
+enabled him to maintain himself. The successful South American
+revolutionist must be willing to risk losing his own life, for so long
+as he leads he will be followed, but his cowardice or death means a
+rapid dissolution of his forces.
+
+  [Illustration: VENEZUELAN GUERILLAS.]
+
+Though the solidity acquired by the Venezuelan commercial and financial
+structure during the long years of Blanco's reign has prevented the
+country from reverting into the anarchy which prevailed before 1873, and
+though the spirit of federalism is not so rampant and the chieftains
+aspire rather to a control of the whole country than to power confined
+to their own localities, the recent civil wars have disorganised the
+finances. Internal production has been hampered and external obligations
+have been deferred--the latter with serious consequences. Anti-foreign
+sentiment, already raised to a threatening height by the boundary
+dispute with British Guiana--a long-standing matter which was happily
+settled by arbitration after menacing a serious rupture between the
+United States and Great Britain,--was further exacerbated by the
+blockade of Venezuelan ports and the destruction of the Venezuelan navy
+by the joint fleets of Germany, England, and Italy in 1902--measures to
+which the European governments had been incited by the failure of
+Venezuela to settle claims of their citizens. In the face of this
+foreign war the civil conflicts were interrupted, and President Castro
+empowered the American minister to negotiate for the submission of the
+claims to arbitration. To the weight of the sentiment that international
+money claims should not be enforced by warlike measures was added the
+existence of a current of opinion in the United States which favoured
+arbitration as in this instance certainly the best method of adjustment.
+The temporary occupation of ports on American soil by European powers
+might give the latter a military hold in the western continent which
+would embarrass and complicate more important relations. The submission
+was quickly and amicably arranged, the claims of the citizens of other
+countries are to be ascertained at the same time, and the matter is now
+before The Hague international tribunal.
+
+  [Illustration: ECUADOR COLOMBIA AND VENEZUELA]
+
+By a resolution of congress General Castro is empowered to hold the
+office of president for six years from 1902. Bitter and costly as have
+been the experiences through which Venezuela has passed during the last
+twelve years, the vast majority of the intelligent and property-holding
+classes realise more clearly than outsiders possibly can that internal
+stability will alone ensure the commercial development of the country;
+that Venezuela united is far more likely to prosper than if separated
+into always jealous and often warring provinces. The mass of the people
+are industrious and peaceable. Real progress has been made since the
+time of Bolivar in the almost impossible task of adjusting republican
+forms and procedure to a people who by inheritance and tradition knew
+nothing of the difficult art of self-government. It cannot fairly be
+said that Venezuela as yet sees her way clear to a solution of the
+problem, but her commercial statistics for the last thirty years prove
+that her people have acquired industrial capacity, and the history of
+other Spanish-American countries shows that the power for evil of the
+turbulent military class may perish once for all with startling
+suddenness when the right stage in national development is reached.
+
+
+
+
+COLOMBIA
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT
+
+
+When Alonso de Ojeda coasted along the Venezuelan shore in the spring of
+1499 he stopped short just west of the Gulf of Maracaibo, near the
+present boundary between Venezuela and Colombia. The following year
+Rodrigo Bastida doubled the Goajira peninsula and pursued his voyage to
+the west, catching sight of the giant snowclad mountains of Santa Marta
+and of the low land which lies between them and the sea. Coming to the
+mouth of a great river on the day sacred to Saint Magdalene, he named it
+the Magdalena, and farther to the south-west found the fine harbour
+where the city of Cartagena now stands. At the head of the Gulf of
+Darien he came to another great river, the Atrato, and here his
+explorations stopped.
+
+More than a year later the great Columbus himself, on his fourth and
+last voyage, sighted the Central American coast at Cape Gracias á Dios,
+near the present boundary between Nicaragua and Honduras. Thence he
+sailed south-east along a pestilential shore for eight hundred miles,
+finally arriving near the point where Bastida had left off his
+explorations. It is said that Bartholomew Columbus founded a settlement
+on the Atlantic shore of the Isthmus, but it was soon destroyed by the
+neighbouring Indians. The long stretch of coast was unfit for the abode
+of Europeans, but the Indians had gold in abundance, and the Spaniards
+were satisfied that the interior was full of mines. Hundreds of
+fortunate adventurers had accumulated fortunes in the placers of Hayti,
+and with a view of repeating their successes on the mainland, Alonso de
+Ojeda solicited and obtained from the Spanish Crown the grant of the
+territory from Goajira to the Atrato, while Diego de Nicuesa was given
+the coast from the Atrato to Cape Gracias á Dios. In 1510 one of Ojeda's
+lieutenants founded a town called Sebastian on the eastern shore of the
+Gulf of Darien. The Indians soon destroyed it, but Antigua was
+established across the gulf. This place was in fact on the Isthmus of
+Panama, and not much more than one hundred miles from the Pacific Ocean,
+of which the Spaniards then knew nothing. Among the military adventurers
+who had followed Ojeda to Darien were Nuñez de Balboa and Francisco
+Pizarro. In 1511 the former went a short distance into the interior
+looking for gold, and fell in with an Indian chief who told him that
+only a few leagues south lay a great sea whose shores were inhabited by
+numerous rich and civilised nations. Two years later he headed an
+expedition from Antigua which resulted in the epoch-making discovery
+which has immortalised his name. As the band of Spaniards approached
+the line of hills from which the natives told them they could see the
+mysterious ocean, Balboa hastened ahead of his men and was the first to
+catch a glimpse, but in the headlong rush for the honour of first
+touching its waters he was beaten by Alonso Martin and that lean and
+tireless soldier who was afterwards to conquer Peru--Francisco Pizarro.
+
+The Pacific side of the Isthmus proved to be more healthful and
+habitable than the marshy shores of the Atlantic, and the settlers at
+Antigua were soon driven by fevers and dysenteries, torrential rains and
+sweltering heat, to the more healthful region of Panama. Nicuesa
+likewise had been able to do nothing with his long stretch of Isthmian
+and Central American coast. Nombre de Dios, not far from the present
+site of Colon, was the only town which he succeeded in establishing, and
+that maintained itself only as landing-place on the way to Panama. To
+this day the Caribbean coast from the Atrato delta as far as Gracias á
+Dios is practically uninhabited by white men; on the site of Antigua
+there is left not a trace; the Indians in its neighbourhood are still
+independent savages; and the north shore of the Isthmus has been a
+hospital and a grave for successive generations of white men during four
+hundred years. Only its position at the strategical gate to the great
+South Sea has induced men to go to its noisome shores.
+
+The Isthmian settlements were, as they remain, separated from the
+continent of South America by the deep and broad valley of the Atrato,
+where the rainfall is the greatest known, and whose dense tropical
+forests are uninhabitable and practically impassable. No land
+communication exists between Panama and Colombia proper. However, the
+coast east of the Atrato delta is dryer, and at Santa Marta, beyond the
+mouth of the Magdalena and at the foot of the great outlying mountain
+mass of Colombia's north-eastern peninsula, was founded in 1525 the
+first permanent settlement in Colombia proper. It was nothing more than
+a kidnapping station, whence expeditions scoured the interior for slaves
+to be sold to the Haytian gold mines. Meanwhile from Coro, established
+two years later, on the eastern side of Maracaibo Gulf, murdering and
+slaughtering expeditions were sent across the gulf, returning to
+Venezuela after making a circuit among the mountains lying south of
+Maracaibo Bay. Later these expeditions from Coro penetrated over these
+mountains, reaching the llanos of the Apuré and finally the plains of
+Casanare lying east of Bogotá, which now belong to Colombia.
+
+  [Illustration: OLDEST FORTRESS IN AMERICA, AT CARTAGENA.]
+
+The exploring parties from Santa Marta and Coro, and information picked
+up along the coast, gave the Spaniards a pretty fair idea of the
+geography of the interior, and the existence of immense quantities of
+gold and of civilised nations living on the high plateaux was verified
+from many sources. The conquest of the fertile and salubrious interior
+of Colombia was effected from three distinct centres,--Cartagena and
+Santa Marta on the Caribbean coast, and Quito on the Ecuador table-land.
+Serious colonisation began with Heredia's foundation of Cartagena in
+1533. The new leader set vigorously to work to establish himself firmly
+on the magnificent harbour and seek for gold. Cortes' and Pizarro's
+marvellous successes had brought a multitude of adventurers to the new
+world, all of whom were eager for a share in the spoils of the yet
+independent Indian kingdoms. Heredia found the rocky hills which rise
+not far south of Cartagena full of profitable gold washings, and the
+Indians reported that only a short distance in the interior, where the
+mountains rose higher, there was a region called Zenufana which produced
+the precious metal far more abundantly. Their story was true, and
+Zenufana was none other than the present state of Antioquia, which has
+produced hundreds of millions of dollars of gold. No time was lost in
+starting on the search. Heredia's first expedition penetrated to the
+headwaters of the river Sinu, which flows into the Caribbean not far
+south-west of Cartagena, and though successful in finding gold he was
+unable to force his way over the high sierra of Abibe, the most northern
+bulwark of the great Maritime Cordillera, which barred his way into
+Antioquia and the valley of the Cauca. In 1535 the town of Tolu was
+founded between the mouth of the Sinu and Cartagena, and the expeditions
+skirted the northern end of the Andes until they reached the river Cauca
+where it debouches into the Magdalena. In 1537 Spanish expeditions
+succeeded in crossing the formidable Abibe Mountains, and penetrated
+east into the coveted mining country. Up the Cauca they followed for two
+hundred miles, passing the rapids which place an almost inexpugnable
+barrier between the upper and lower river. Not far from the present city
+of Cartago they found traces of white men, and learned that while they
+themselves had been pushing south the indomitable companions of Pizarro
+had extended their explorations and conquests more than a thousand miles
+north from their landing-place on the Peruvian coast. The men from
+Cartagena went on to Cali, where the conquerors of Popayan had their
+headquarters, and there an expedition was fitted out which, under the
+leadership of Jorge Robledo, returned down the Cauca and conquered
+Antioquia after much bloody fighting with the Indians. It is said that
+each of Heredia's men received a larger amount than the conquerors of
+Mexico and Peru. Certain it is that the founding of Cartagena resulted
+in putting the Spaniards in possession of the valley of the Cauca and
+the wonderful gold mines of Antioquia as far south as the 5th degree.
+
+Benalcazar, one of Pizarro's lieutenants, after conquering Quito in
+1533, had proceeded north along the Andean plateau between the two
+Cordilleras. A hundred miles from Quito he entered the high region of
+Pasto, inhabited by vigorous, semi-civilised Indians much resembling
+those of Ecuador. Near this point the Andes, heretofore massed in one
+great chain, split into three parallel ranges. The western and central
+chains are separated from each other by the valley of the Cauca and near
+the Caribbean dip down to sea-level. The eastern range bears off a
+little to the right, with the Magdalena valley between it and the
+central mountains, and six hundred miles north turns north-east and
+enters Venezuela just south of Maracaibo Bay. Benalcazar went straight
+north from Pasto and entered the region where the Cauca gathers its
+headwaters. This was Popayan, a lower country than Pasto, but still high
+enough to be healthful, pleasant, and densely populated. In rapid
+succession the tribes inhabiting the whole upper Cauca valley were
+conquered, and Benalcazar's officers only stopped when they met their
+countrymen coming up from Cartagena. The city of Cali was founded in
+1536, Popayan in 1538, Pasto and Anserma in 1539, and Cartago in 1540.
+This beautiful valley is one of the most isolated regions on the globe.
+To the east and west the high walls of the Quindio, or central, and of
+the western Cordillera shut it off from the Magdalena valley and from
+the Pacific, and the rapids near Cartago make communication with the
+Caribbean almost impossible.
+
+Benalcazar himself had returned to Quito and it was not until 1538 that
+he was able to undertake the conquest of the upper Magdalena and those
+lovely plateaux and rich kingdoms which nestled on the broad top of the
+eastern Cordillera. In the meantime he had been forestalled by an
+expedition coming from the Caribbean. In 1536 Jimenez de Quesada sallied
+forth from Santa Marta with eight hundred men and one hundred horses.
+Avoiding the swampy delta of the Magdalena, he passed through the
+Chimilas mountains which lie east of it, and reached the solid ground of
+the foothills that approach the river banks some three hundred miles
+above its mouth. Along these he made his way through incredible
+difficulties and hardships, months being consumed in the journey, and
+his men perishing by scores from fatigue, starvation, and continual
+fights with the savage natives. When he reached the river Opon, he
+determined to climb to the plateau, near the site of Velez, where he was
+told that the mountain top was inhabited by a civilised race. After
+fighting his way through the unconquerable savages of the Opon valley he
+found himself in the centre of a series of lovely table-lands, many of
+them the beds of ancient mountain lakes whose alluvial bottoms were
+inexhaustibly fertile, where the climate was perfect and all the
+products of the temperate zone grew luxuriantly. The plateaux,
+interrupted by valleys and ridges, stretched from Pamplona to beyond
+Bogotá--a distance of more than two hundred miles. This region was then
+and remains to this day the populous heart of Colombia, the principal
+seat of power, wealth, and national civilisation. However, it is so
+isolated that it has never constituted a nucleus around which the widely
+separated provinces of Colombia could unite into a well organised
+nation. To reach Tolima, Bogotá's nearest neighbour in the upper
+Magdalena valley, it is necessary to descend thousands of feet of steep
+mountainside, along which the sure-footed mule can hardly climb. To
+reach Cauca, not only must the Magdalena valley be crossed but the
+enormously high Quindio range must be climbed, and before getting to
+the Pacific, still another mountain chain intervenes, while the populous
+gold regions of Antioquia can only be reached by following down the
+Magdalena and up the Cauca. Weeks of the most difficult journeying are
+required to get to the seacoast or any of the other states, and Panama
+might as well be on the other side of the globe so far as practical
+communication goes.
+
+  [Illustration: TRAVELLERS DESCENDING A MOUNTAIN ROAD]
+
+Quesada had lost three-fourths of his men in reaching the promised land,
+but once there he encountered fewer difficulties than any of the other
+great Spanish conquerors. The numerous nation of the Chibchas inhabited
+the southern plateaux, who acknowledged allegiance to the zipa of
+Meuqueta. But their so-called empire possessed no military force or
+cohesion, although they had carried agriculture to a high degree of
+perfection. They manufactured cotton cloths, mined gold and emeralds,
+worked artistic ornaments, had a circulating medium and a calendar,
+lived in houses, built splendid temples, and had tools hard enough to
+carve stones into elaborate sculptures. Their government was absolute;
+crimes were severely and relentlessly punished; the caste of priests
+wielded great power. Altogether they appear to have reached a stage of
+material civilisation not much inferior to the aztecs of Mexico, the
+caras of Ecuador, or the incas of Peru, but in efficiency of
+governmental and military organisation they fell far below those great
+peoples. Spanish chroniclers have amused themselves with recording
+traditions of great wars in which the Chibchas had assembled armies of
+hundreds of thousands not long before the conquest, but the fact
+remains that less than two hundred Spaniards overcame them and reduced
+them to unquestioning obedience within a few months and without serious
+loss. Indeed, Quesada's successors had more difficulty with the smaller
+nations who inhabited the northern plateaux of Tunja, Socorro, and
+Tundama, and the most serious resistance was made by the semi-savage
+tribes of the upper Magdalena, who fought nearly as desperately as the
+Indians of Antioquia and the Caribbean coast.
+
+Quesada chose the site of the ancient Chibcha capital for his city and
+there Bogotá was founded on the 7th of August, 1538. It lies on the
+eastern border of a magnificent level plain, the bed of the largest of
+the prehistoric lakes, thirty miles broad and sixty long, and nearly
+nine thousand feet above sea-level. One hundred and fifty thousand
+people live on that plain to-day, and the population in Chibcha times
+was probably even larger. The same year Benalcazar reached the
+neighbourhood of Bogotá, having come down the valley of the Magdalena
+from Quito and Pasto, and at the very same moment arrived an expedition
+from Coro in Venezuela, which had crossed the mountains south of
+Maracaibo and followed south along the llanos lying at the eastern base
+of the Colombian Andes, thence climbing the sierra to Bogotá. Remarkable
+as it may seem, these three bands of indomitable Spaniards, starting
+from widely separated points on the coast, met each other in the remote
+interior of the continent, brought to the same place by the fame of the
+fertility and riches of the Chibcha kingdom. The Venezuelans under
+Federmann, and the Ecuadoreans under Benalcazar, accepted the bribe
+which Quesada offered them not to interfere with his conquest, and the
+three chiefs, laden with gold, returned to Spain in the same ship.
+
+Quesada left his brother in nominal command of the colony, but each of
+the conquerors was a law unto himself. When the governor of Santa Marta
+came up to Bogotá they refused to recognise his authority. Tunja and
+Velez were founded in 1539 on the plateaux north of the capital, and a
+year or two later Quesada's brother wasted a great part of his forces in
+a fruitless expedition to the mountains of Pasto in search of the
+Eldorado. Meanwhile, in 1539, the Portuguese Geronimo Mello had
+succeeded in entering the mouth of the Magdalena, making his way for a
+considerable distance upstream. The great river proved to be perfectly
+navigable from the sea to a point nearly as far south as Bogotá, and the
+Spaniards immediately utilised it as a route to Santa Marta and
+Cartagena far preferable to the track through swamps and foothills which
+Quesada had followed. Each of the plateau provinces lying on the
+mountains which follow its eastern bank had its own paths down the
+slopes to the river, and a practicable though tedious and expensive
+communication with the Caribbean was developed.
+
+  [Illustration: NATIVE BOATS, MAGDALENA RIVER.]
+
+In 1542 Lugo, an adventurer who had successfully intrigued against
+Quesada, arrived with a commission as adelantado and considerable
+reinforcements. New cities were founded among the gold mines of the
+upper Magdalena at Tocaima, Ibague, and Neiva, as well as at Pamplona at
+the northern end of the plateaux. The tribes of Bogotá, Tunja, Velez,
+Socorro, and Pamplona submitted without appreciable resistance, and
+their fertile fields were divided into great estates among the
+Spaniards. But the more savage tribes in the gold-bearing valleys of the
+Upper Magdalena and Cauca and in Antioquia struggled hard to escape
+impressment into the mines, and war almost exterminated them. The same
+thing happened on the plains of the Caribbean coast, although in that
+region some tribes maintained their independence. To work the mines and
+plantations negro slaves had to be imported, with the result that black
+blood predominates in the lower regions of Colombia, while the
+descendants of the aborigines are in a majority on the eastern plateaux.
+
+Within twenty-five years after the establishment of the first permanent
+Spanish post at Santa Marta, the whites were in undisputed control of
+practically all Colombia which is now inhabited by civilised people.
+Three great territorial divisions corresponded to the three directions
+in which the conquest had been effected. From Cartagena, Antioquia and
+the lower Cauca had been settled; from Quito, Popayan, Pasto, and the
+upper Cauca; and Bogotá was the centre of the region extending from
+Pamplona south along the plateaux and into the valley of the upper
+Magdalena. This division of the country soon brought on disputes as to
+pre-eminence and jurisdiction between the authorities, foreshadowing
+the demand for local independence which desolated Colombia with civil
+war during so many years of the last century. Lugo, the new adelantado,
+who had displaced Quesada, deprived many of the original conquerors of
+their grants of lands and Indians, and the old and new comers fell to
+fighting among themselves. But their numbers were too small to make
+their disagreements really threatening to the interests of the Spanish
+Crown. In 1545 the Spanish government sent out a commissioner to reduce
+the country to order. The first royal commissioner was replaced by a
+second in 1553, who carried things with a high hand, depriving
+proprietors of their grants, nominating members of his own family to the
+lucrative posts, and finally even exiling Quesada himself and executing
+some of the most famous of the original conquerors. Under instructions
+from Madrid he promulgated many laws for the protection of the Indians
+from the exactions and tyrannies of the encomenderos--regulations which,
+as in Peru, excited great dissatisfaction among the colonists and were
+constantly evaded. It was forbidden for any encomendero to be military
+governor of his district, and the original conquerors were replaced in
+all positions of authority by officials newly brought out from Spain.
+However, the office of commissioner was an irregular and extraordinary
+one and his powers ill-defined. Even at Bogotá his authority was defied
+by the audiencia and the municipal councils, and over the remote
+provinces of Antioquia and Popayan, Cartagena and Panama, his power was
+a mere shadow. The Spanish government resolved to erect Quito and Bogotá
+into presidencies, whose governors would be responsible directly to
+Madrid and have greater authority over subordinate officials.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+COLONIAL TIMES
+
+
+In 1564 the president arrived in state with all the trappings
+appropriate to his high rank. His powers were most ample; he was
+practically vicegerent of the Castilian king; his jurisdiction extended
+not only over the Bogotá-Pamplona plateaux and Tolima on the upper
+Magdalena, but also over Santa Marta, Cartagena, Antioquia, and even to
+Panama and the Mosquito coast. The name of New Granada, which Quesada
+had given to his conquests in honor of his native province in Spain, was
+extended to the whole presidency. To it were also attached, though
+loosely, the provinces that now make up the republic of Venezuela. But
+access to the Venezuelan coast from Bogotá was so difficult as to
+prevent that region from ever being really a part of the New Granada
+presidency, and it became an independent captaincy-general in 1731. The
+eastern boundary of the president's immediate jurisdiction included the
+provinces which naturally communicated with the Colombian plateaux, but
+the extension of the Andes north-east from Pamplona along the
+Venezuelan coast was left to be settled from Coro. For similar reasons
+the valley of the upper Cauca--Cali and Popayan, as well as Pasto--was
+attached to the presidency of Quito, and the subordination of its
+governor to Bogotá was only incidental and gave rise to many disputes
+and conflicts. The administrative entity of New Granada may be said to
+have included the territory which the Spaniards had reached by the line
+of the Magdalena, and in addition the Cartagena region and the Isthmus.
+The last named province was a source of constant trouble, because the
+difficulties of communication and the diversities of interests really
+made it separate from the rest of New Granada. Panama's governor and
+independent audiencia frequently defied the commands received from
+Bogotá.
+
+  [Illustration: THE NATURAL BRIDGE AT GUARANDA.]
+
+The disorders near Bogotá ceased after the arrival of the first
+president, Neiva. He actively engaged in promoting new colonisation,
+founding the city of Ocana in the Maracaibo watershed north-west of
+Pamplona, as well as Leiva and several other towns. He opened a road
+down from Bogotá to Honda at the head of navigation on the Magdalena,
+and in his time great flatboats were introduced. These were poled
+against the river's rapid current, and they continued the sole means of
+river freight transportation for nearly three centuries. The cornerstone
+of the Bogotá cathedral was laid, and schools established which soon
+counted among the most successful and famous in Spanish America. The
+country prospered after a fashion. The fertile plateaux from Bogotá to
+the north were admirably adapted to the residence of Europeans, and the
+rich soil soon produced large crops of wheat and fed great herds of
+cattle. This region was so attractive that the Spaniards became attached
+to the country and contentedly established themselves as semi-feudal
+proprietors of estates cultivated by the docile and industrious Indians.
+A considerable proportion of the successive generations of
+office-holders sent out from Spain, applied for land-grants and remained
+in the country, founding new Creole families. Mixture with the
+aborigines occurred on a large scale and the process of Caucasianising
+the population made greater progress than in many other parts of Spanish
+America. The region was too far from the sea-coast to attract haphazard
+adventurers or to serve as a Botany Bay for convicts; the Spanish
+settlers belonged as a rule to good families; and the standard of
+living, education, and manners was exceptionally high. Bogotá became one
+of the principal centres of Spanish American culture, and Colombian
+authors are celebrated for their excellence throughout the
+Spanish-speaking world. In the invigorating climate the Creoles retained
+their physical vigour and the concentration of population on these
+densely inhabited plateaux increased their mental alertness. Living,
+however, as a superior class in the midst of a subject population, they
+acquired no taste or capacity for commerce or industry. A Creole was by
+birth a gentleman and exempt from manual labour. The Colombian plateaux
+made little material progress, and settled down into an eventless,
+patriarchal existence.
+
+  [Illustration: FALLS OF TEQUENDAMA.]
+
+Conditions were entirely different in the deep, hot valleys of the
+Magdalena and Cauca and on the sweltering sea-coast plain. The
+semi-savage Indians did not make good labourers, and were massacred or
+driven into the fastnesses on the mountain sides, while their places
+were taken by negro slaves. The white population fell into much the same
+position as it occupies in the West Indian Islands. In the mining
+regions the Indians were pretty nearly exterminated. Antioquia, the
+great mineral province, has always contained a larger proportion of
+white blood than any other part of Colombia, and with the decline of its
+mines it became a centre whence white emigration poured into the other
+departments. Still different conditions prevailed in the extreme
+south, where the highlands of Popayan and the dry, cold tablelands of
+Pasto offered the same aspect as adjoining Ecuador. In those utterly
+isolated and comparatively unattractive regions the Indian population
+remained predominant.
+
+In Colombia, as in all the other Andean countries, the impulse toward
+conquest, expansion, and colonisation seems to have died out completely
+with the disappearance of the first generation of conquistadores. We
+read of the foundation of new cities from time to time, but it usually
+means that previously existing villages were given municipal charters.
+After one brief spurt the Spaniards settled down to enjoy the fruits of
+their ancestors' heroic marches and battles. Except near Panama the
+rainy Pacific coast was left untouched, and the forests of the Amazon in
+the south-east could not be penetrated. The open prairies of the Orinoco
+north-east of Bogotá could be occupied and the province of Casanare at
+the foot of the eastern Andean range became a stock region, inhabited by
+the same hard-riding, semi-civilised llaneros as the adjoining
+Venezuelan plains.
+
+The Spanish government applied its restrictive colonial system with the
+utmost rigour. The obnoxious market tax was imposed as early as 1690;
+tobacco and salt were made monopolies; the exportation of agricultural
+products was discouraged; and the production of gold, emeralds,
+platinum, and silver, was jealously watched and heavily taxed. In the
+early history of the colony the profits of mining were prodigious, but
+during the seventeenth century, after the cream of the surface placers
+had been skimmed, progress was slow. The unhealthful climate of the
+mining regions almost exterminated the settlers; the native population
+diminished so rapidly that soon the mines were short-handed; and the
+importation of negro slaves was so costly that the smaller proprietors
+could not operate on their own account, and even the great mine owners
+had to be content with moderate profits. One-fifth of the gross product
+was required to be paid to the government, and there were other fiscal
+exactions. The efforts of the authorities to prevent the smuggling of
+gold introduced a swarm of soldiers, collectors, and guards with whom
+the miners were in a constant turmoil.
+
+The influence of the Church was very powerful, and the population became
+devotedly Catholic. Great tracts of the best lands were given to the
+bishoprics and the religious orders. Piously disposed persons left
+property in trust charged with the payment of so many dollars a year for
+the saying of so many masses, and the stewardships, or rights to
+administer these estates, were the subject of sale or descended from
+father to son. In 1630, a daring president, Jiron, presumed to arrest
+and banish the archbishop of Bogotá, but fifty years later one of his
+successors wrote back to Spain that "in New Granada there is much Church
+and little king." The poor Indians were decimated not only by war,
+massacre, and forced labour in the mines, but the white man's diseases
+played havoc with them. The small-pox was introduced on the plateaux
+within a few years after the conquest, and continued to ravage the
+country throughout the early part of the seventeenth century. The third
+president died of the leprosy within a few months after his arrival in
+1579, and the first case of elephantiasis, which has proved a curse to
+Colombia, occurred in 1646.
+
+The quarrels and disagreements between the president and the governors
+and audiencias of the associated provinces, especially Panama, to say
+nothing of the disputes with the president of Quito and the governor of
+Venezuela on account of conflicting jurisdiction, became so acute early
+in the seventeenth century that the Spanish government determined to
+erect New Granada into a viceroyalty, extending the power of the Bogotá
+central authorities over Ecuador and Venezuela. The first viceroy was
+inaugurated in 1719, but he recommended a return to the old system. In
+the year 1740 the viceroyalty was re-established and all connection with
+Peru ceased. Although in the meantime Caracas had been made a
+captaincy-general, it was placed nominally under the viceroy's
+jurisdiction, and Ecuador was again detached from Lima. Within a few
+years the attempt to govern Maracaibo, Cumaná, Margarita Island, and
+Guiana from Bogotá was abandoned, and these provinces transferred to the
+Venezuelan captaincy-general. But the high rank and royal powers of the
+viceroys did not save them from troubles. They were engaged in an almost
+continual struggle against the encroachments of the clergy, while the
+laity protested vigorously at the constantly increasing taxation. A
+special royal commissioner came out in 1774 to perfect the tobacco
+monopoly, and five years later another agent arrived with instructions
+still more irritating. The Creoles of Santander arose in the "Rebellion
+of the Communes" and so formidable was the insurrection that the
+authorities were compelled to make a feint of yielding to the people's
+demands. They promised to expel the obnoxious commissioner; to abolish
+not only the tobacco monopoly, but the market-tax on the sale of
+domestic products, the requirement that every shipment be accompanied by
+a high-priced official invoice, and the poll-tax; to lower the stamp
+duties, the curates' tithes, and the Indian tribute; to cease burdening
+commerce with unreasonable highway, bridge, and ferry dues; and to
+require the priests to give up the practice of forcing the Indians to
+pay for masses. The viceroy also promised to open public employments to
+Creoles, to permit the establishment of a militia, and to concede to the
+people the right to confirm the governors nominated by the Crown or
+viceroy. But no sooner had the insurgents dispersed, than the government
+repudiated all these pledges and dragged the popular leaders to the
+scaffold.
+
+  [Illustration: NATIVE HOUSES IN COLOMBIA.]
+
+The foreign commerce of the viceroyalty had diminished until only one
+small fleet came each year to Cartagena and Porto Bello, and though,
+during the latter part of the colonial period, certain viceroys did
+something to open up roads by which wheat, sugar, cacao, and hides could
+be exported at a profit, no measures could prove effective while the
+enormous fiscal exactions of the Spanish government continued. During
+the last few years of the eighteenth century, commerce was made
+nominally free, but this meant simply that the old prohibitions on
+private shipments by sea were abolished, and the ports opened for trade
+with Spain and the other colonies. These wise measures were, however,
+accompanied by such an increase in taxes that their effect was nugatory.
+
+Meanwhile New Granada had also had her external troubles. In 1586 Sir
+Francis Drake reached Cartagena and forty years after the Spanish
+government fortified the place at great expense. Nevertheless Ducasse
+took it in 1695 though Admiral Vernon, with a great fleet and army,
+unsuccessfully besieged the place in 1741, after having captured Porto
+Bello. The unsettled Central American coast north from the Isthmus was
+nominally a part of the vice-royalty, but had been completely neglected
+by the Bogotá authorities, and in 1698 a colony of twelve thousand
+Scotchmen, with authority from Parliament and backed by a vast popular
+subscription, landed on the north shore of the Isthmus. They purposed
+the establishment of a general emporium for all nations on the spot
+which the great financier, William Paterson, who originated the scheme,
+regarded as "the key of the commerce of the world." There was to be
+free-trade; the Indians were to be protected; religious liberty was to
+be established; and the Spanish monopoly of South and Central America
+destroyed. The far-sighted Paterson hoped to found a colonial empire and
+to enrich his own country by the resulting trade. But the enterprise was
+wrecked by the fatal climate and the supineness of the British
+Government. Provisions fell short, and within a year the survivors
+re-embarked in a miserable plight. Two small supplementary expeditions
+arrived in 1699 to find assembled a Spanish fleet and army against which
+no serious resistance could be made. After a little half-hearted
+fighting the Scotchmen capitulated and the colony was definitely
+abandoned. The Bogotá government continued to neglect that coast. It was
+placed under the jurisdiction of the captain-general of Cuba, and the
+claim that Colombia set up after she became an independent nation has
+never held good against the Central American republics.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE WAR AGAINST SPAIN
+
+
+The stirring events of the year 1808 in Spain and the disorganisation of
+the monarchy produced great excitement in the New Granadan cities. When
+the news of the establishment of a junta at Quito came in September of
+the following year, Amar, the Bogotá viceroy, summoned an assembly of
+the authorities and leading citizens for consultation. The Creoles
+favoured an independent junta, but the prestige of the Spaniards and
+Amar's popularity prevailed, and it was resolved to recognise the home
+revolutionary government, and to send an expedition to crush the Quito
+junta. Meanwhile the Ecuador patriots had despatched troops to Pasto,
+but the sturdy conservative mountaineers resented the invasion and
+repulsed the Quiteños. Thenceforth to the end of the war Pasto remained
+a loyalist stronghold. Though Quito soon laid down its arms under
+promise of amnesty, the re-established Spanish government massacred the
+insurgent leaders, and reports of these cruelties threw the Creoles of
+the cities into effervescence, though the Indian and negro population
+of the rural districts remained indifferent. On May 22, 1810, the
+citizens of Cartagena demanded and obtained an independent revolutionary
+junta; shortly after an insurrection broke out among the llaneros on the
+Orinoco plains north-east of Bogotá; on the 4th of July Pamplona
+followed Cartagena's example and set up its own junta; and a little
+later Socorro did likewise. By this time things were ripe in Bogotá for
+an anti-Spanish revolution. Ambitious Creoles intrigued among the
+people; the natural feeling of jealousy and hatred between Spaniards and
+Americans became inflamed; a contemptuous remark about Creoles made by a
+Spaniard in the streets was the signal for the gathering of a great mob
+which rushed tumultuously to the public square and howled for an open
+cabildo and the immediate appointment of a junta. With six thousand
+armed men in front of his palace the viceroy had no choice. The junta
+was named and a circular sent to the other cities inviting them to name
+deputies for a congress to arrange a federal union. But local
+jealousies, hardly held in check by the rigid colonial system, now
+flamed forth; the people instinctively grouped along geographical lines;
+and divergencies of opinion and ambition among leaders increased the
+confusion. Cartagena and other provinces declined to send delegates to
+Bogotá, preferring to act independently until the re-establishment of
+regular government in Spain.
+
+When the congress met it represented only a part of the territory, and
+but a small percentage of the population. Nariño and other popular young
+leaders in Bogotá intrigued for a centralised system in which Bogotá
+was to be master province. An insurrection against the junta installed
+him as dictator, and congress fled from the capital. The royalists had
+made no effort to oppose the revolution in the centres of population,
+contenting themselves with sending expeditions from Quito to occupy
+Pasto and Popayan, with keeping possession of the Isthmus, and
+establishing themselves on the lower Magdalena. Cartagena was thereby
+isolated from the rest of the revolted provinces, and Bogotá cut off
+from communication with the sea. In March, 1811, the patriots marched up
+the Cauca from Cali and defeated the Spaniards in Popayan. Quito rose in
+rebellion a second time, and the Ecuadoreans advanced north into Pasto,
+only to be beaten once more by the loyalist peasantry. The Granadans,
+who invaded by way of Popayan, met with no better success, and their
+forces under the command of a North American adventurer, Macaulay, were
+annihilated. The re-establishment of the royal authority at Quito
+followed, and Bogotá again lay open to attack from the south.
+
+While the royalist reaction was thus closing in around the revolution in
+central New Granada, the mass of the people cooled, the patriot leaders
+fought among themselves, and the interior was a prey to anarchy.
+Dictator Nariño had broken completely with the ambulatory congress, and
+was sending his troops into the adjacent provinces. Congress protested
+and a civil war broke out in central Granada. Nariño was defeated in an
+attack on Socorro, but the federalists were in their turn repulsed when
+they lay siege to the capital, and Bogotá declared itself an independent
+state. In the midst of these disorders, the alarming news was received
+that General Samano, advancing from Quito and Pasto, at the head of two
+thousand well-equipped men, had retaken Popayan, and was already
+menacing Antioquia and the lower Cauca. In the face of this common
+danger Nariño and congress came to terms. The latter advanced to meet
+Samano and badly defeated him at the battle of Calivio, January 15,
+1814. The re-occupation of Popayan was the only result of this victory.
+Pasto remained faithfully loyalist--a Vendee into which many republican
+armies were destined to dash in vain. The Spaniards brought up
+reinforcements, and when Nariño again advanced his army was overwhelmed
+and himself captured. However, the loyalists were not able to equip an
+army large enough to justify undertaking the conquest of central
+Granada, so the jarring factions and provinces were left alone for the
+present to waste their energies in internecine conflicts.
+
+  [Illustration: ROPE BRIDGE OVER THE MAGDALENA RIVER.]
+
+Cartagena had all the while remained independent, and in 1813 Bolivar,
+flying from his native Venezuela after the suppression of its first
+insurrection, took service with the Granadan city. With a handful of
+militia he drove the Spaniards from the lower Magdalena, and retook the
+important city of Ocana near the Venezuelan border. His unexpected
+success created such enthusiasm that the Cartagena dictator gave him a
+small body of regulars, and with them the daring Venezuelan began that
+marvellous campaign which for the second time expelled the Spaniards
+from Venezuela. His triumph was shortlived, and by September, 1814, his
+forces had been dispersed by the loyalist llaneros and he was back in
+New Granada. He now offered his services to the federated provinces, and
+in spite of his recent defeats, the prestige of the 1813 campaign
+secured him the command of the army which was about to march on Bogotá
+to force that recalcitrant province into the union. At the head of
+eighteen hundred men Bolivar prosecuted the campaign with all his usual
+activity. The outlying towns of the province surrendered at his
+approach, and the capital itself, which had been denuded of troops by
+Nariño for his ill-fated expedition against Pasto, and which in fact
+was tired of the dictatorship, could not make much resistance. The seat
+of the federal government was transferred to Bogotá, and the victorious
+general, though a Venezuelan, became captain-general of its forces, and
+to his title of "Liberator" was added that of "Illustrious Pacificator."
+If the adhesion of Cartagena could be secured, the union of New Granada
+would be well-nigh complete; so with two thousand men he proceeded to
+the lower Magdalena and established his headquarters just above the
+delta and within striking distance of the sea-port. However, his
+intrigues with its government led to nothing. Cartagena refused to
+co-operate with the confederation on any terms, and finally Bolivar made
+a foolish attempt to besiege the strongest fortress in America without
+artillery. He soon came to his senses, raised the siege, gave up his
+command of the Granadan army, and withdrew to Jamaica to wait a new
+opportunity to make war on Spaniards.
+
+The revolutionary cause was in a bad way. The loyalists of Venezuela,
+Ecuador, and southern New Granada had put down the insurgents in their
+own provinces. Bogotá was only held back by the military pressure of a
+few resolute republicans from declaring for the king, and the other
+provinces were disgusted with civil disorder and wavered in their
+allegiance. However, they were destined not to be given the opportunity
+to return peaceably to obedience on reasonable terms. Wellington's
+peninsular campaigns and Napoleon's fall changed the face of affairs in
+Spain. Ferdinand once more on the throne of his fathers, and absolute
+government re-established, all thought of compromising with the
+American rebels on the basis of autonomy or representation in the Cortes
+was abandoned. In April, 1815, Marshal Morillo, Spain's ablest general,
+arrived on the Venezuelan coast with more than ten thousand veteran
+regulars. Having reinforced himself among the Venezuelan loyalists, and
+leaving a large garrison of Spaniards in Venezuela, he proceeded to
+Cartagena at the head of over eight thousand troops. The defenders
+numbered less than four thousand, but behind the strongest
+fortifications in America they prepared to make a desperate resistance.
+So formidable were the walls that Morillo did not try to take the place
+by assault. His main body landed at Santa Marta and crossed the
+Magdalena to blockade the city from the rear, while his fleet cut off
+communication by sea. The besiegers suffered terribly in the
+pestilential swamps, but the defenders were reduced to the most horrible
+extremities during four months and a half. The provisions ran out;
+fevers decimated the people; the starving garrison ate rats and hides,
+sentinels fell dead at their posts; the commander drove out of the city
+two thousand old men, women, and children, and of this procession of
+spectres only a few reached the Spanish lines. Finally, the surviving
+soldiers escaped by boats in the midst of a storm which dispersed the
+Spanish squadron, and Morillo entered a deserted city where the very air
+was poisoned by the rotting bodies of famished people. It is calculated
+that six thousand persons died of hunger and disease. The Spaniards
+hunted down and shot the revolutionary leaders; the absolute powers of
+the governor were revived; and even the inquisition re-established.
+
+While Cartagena was being besieged, a Spanish army advanced along the
+Venezuelan Andes to the Granadan border and climbed to the Pamplona
+plateau. There they defeated the local patriots, and the latter fled
+from the province after killing all the Spanish non-combatants on whom
+they could lay hands. Desperately alarmed, the congress at Bogotá made
+Camilo Torres dictator, and he resolutely advanced with twenty-five
+hundred recruits against Pamplona. The Spanish general retreated to
+Ocana, with the patriots following, but receiving reinforcements, turned
+upon Torres, and on the 22nd of February, 1816, utterly defeated him.
+The revolution lay helpless at Morillo's feet. The royalist forces
+promptly occupied the great plateau provinces of Pamplona and Socorro,
+as well as Antioquia. Bogotá had in fact long been disaffected to the
+insurgent cause and now became openly royalist. Torres resigned, and
+when Madrid, whom the revolutionary chiefs appointed in his place,
+called for volunteers only six men presented themselves. Congress
+dissolved, and the dictator and a few determined leaders, with a remnant
+of the army, fled north to Popayan. There they joined a band of local
+patriots under Mejia, and gave unsuccessful battle to General Samano,
+who had advanced from Quito. This fight of Tambo seemed the revolution's
+_coup de grâce_ in New Granada, Ecuador, and Venezuela. Only on the
+plains of eastern Venezuela, and in the llanos on the Apuré and Casanare
+headwaters, did a few guerrilla bands maintain themselves. In far away
+Argentina, the town of Buenos Aires and the gauchos were still defiant,
+but elsewhere in all Spanish South America resistance to the King's
+generals had ceased.
+
+Marshal Morillo fully appreciated how dangerous to Spanish domination in
+New Granada and Venezuela were the fierce, hard-riding, llaneros,
+uncatchable and unconquerable in the vast Orinoco plains. Fighting on
+the royal side under guerrilla chiefs they had beaten the republicans
+and Bolivar, but they turned insurrectionist the moment Spanish regular
+officers assumed command. Morillo resolved to crush the towns
+completely, and hoped gradually to wear out or exterminate the llaneros.
+In pursuance of this policy all officers above the rank of captain were
+denied amnesty, and shot wherever found. The same fate was reserved for
+those who had held high civil office during the insurrection. The
+Marshal came to Bogotá in person to see that his bloody orders were
+carried out. The city's prisons were filled with unfortunates whose
+wives and daughters pleaded in vain for mercy. The most prominent
+patriots were shot in the back as traitors and their bodies hung on
+gibbets. The great scholar, Caldas, the pride of Bogotá for his
+world-wide reputation as a scientist, suffered a not much better fate.
+In the capital alone one hundred and twenty-five of New Granada's
+brightest and best perished on the scaffold, their property was
+confiscated, and their families reduced to abject poverty. Because they
+had not actively resisted the rebellion, the entire male population were
+adjudged to have forfeited all civil rights, and gangs of Granadan
+youth were impressed into the army, or, worse still, forced to work on
+the public roads. Even the ladies of Bogotá were sent to country towns
+to remain under police surveillance with women of doubtful character.
+
+While thus engaged in stamping out the revolutionary embers in New
+Granada word came to Morillo that the Venezuelan llaneros had risen
+against his lieutenants, and that Bolivar had landed near Valencia.
+Leaving a garrison of Venezuelan and Pasto royalists at Bogotá under the
+command of Samano, the Marshal, with four thousand Spanish troops, took
+the plateau road to the frontier, carrying with him some prisoners to
+shoot on the line. Samano's first act on assuming the government of
+Bogotá was to erect a gallows in the great square facing the windows of
+his palace, and to set up four execution benches on the public
+promenade. Of the victims who sat thereon with their backs to the firing
+squad, one of the first was the beautiful Policarpa Salabarrieta, with
+seven men also implicated in sending information to the llanero
+insurgents. She died exhorting her companions to meet their fate like
+men, and under the name of La Pola her memory is preserved in the songs
+of the Colombian people. Sixty years after her death the Colombian
+congress voted a pension to her surviving relatives.
+
+  [Illustration: THE HOME OF BOLIVAR.]
+
+Morillo never returned to New Granada. Before he arrived in Venezuela,
+Bolivar had temporarily retired, and the llaneros retreated to the vast
+solitudes in which they were unconquerable. Though the Spanish regulars
+won battle after battle their victories were fruitless, and Bolivar
+soon returned to Venezuela to be again placed at the head of the
+patriots and to wage unremitting warfare with cavalry from a secure base
+in the llanos, while he imported British mercenary infantry capable of
+making headway against the Spanish regulars. From 1816 to 1819 New
+Granada suffered hopelessly and silently the bloody despotism of the
+Spanish generals, while the tide of war rolled to and fro in Venezuela.
+In the early part of the latter year Samano sent a small expedition down
+the steep Cordillera slope against the guerrillas in the Casanare plains
+north-east of Bogotá. This gave Bolivar a great strategical idea. He
+knew that the tableland of New Granada had been denuded of troops; but
+it was useless to try an attack from the direction of the provinces
+south of Maracaibo Bay because this well-travelled route and its
+populous towns were in secure possession of the enemy. Where Spaniards
+could go he could follow--so he reasoned--and determined to assault
+Bogotá directly from the Orinoco plains, thus striking the centre of the
+Spanish line.
+
+With a mixed army of British mercenaries and hardy Venezuelans the
+Liberator mounted the difficult pass which leads from Casanare up to
+Tunja. Samano had only three thousand troops and these he sent under the
+command of General Barreiro to meet Bolivar. Though the patriots were
+somewhat inferior in numbers and arrived on the plateau fatigued,
+starving, and without horses, Barreiro, not knowing their real numbers,
+hesitated about attacking. Bolivar was given time to rest and remount
+his men, and then took a vigorous offensive. His rapid movements
+confused the Spanish commander, and the latter allowed the patriot army
+to get between him and Bogotá. Thus cut off from his base, Barreiro made
+a desperate dash to reach the capital, but ran against the patriots
+posted directly across his path at Boyacá, on the 7th of August, 1819.
+The loyalists attacked at a disadvantage and without hope. After losing
+a hundred men they fled in disorder and the whole army dispersed or was
+captured. The way to Bogotá lay open, and Samano had no forces to defend
+the city. Within three days Bolivar had traversed the hundred miles from
+the battlefield, and Samano fled in such precipitous haste that he left
+behind the government archives and even the money in the treasury. A
+month later the whole of New Granada, except the stubbornly loyalist
+Pasto and the fortress of Cartagena, was free. Bolivar had himself made
+president and military dictator, naming Santander vice-president, and
+giving each province two governors, one military and the other civil,
+responsible directly to Bogotá. The municipal governments were
+preserved, and the Spanish system of taxation continued, but patriot
+republicans displaced loyalists in all the offices.
+
+Bolivar soon returned to his Venezuelan headquarters on the Orinoco to
+fight Morillo and organise the grand republic he had dreamed of so many
+years. Though all of Venezuela except the Orinoco valley, all of
+Ecuador, and the sea-ports and southern provinces of New Granada still
+remained in the hands of superior Spanish armies, and although the
+Creole ruling class had already proved strongly prejudiced in favour of
+local autonomy and the tearing down of aristocratic forms, his
+imagination vaulted all obstacles and he planned the new state down to
+its minutest details. His idea was a centralised system with himself at
+its head as life president, backed by a hereditary senate, and ruling
+the three grand divisions of his empire through docile vice-presidents.
+But his military power and prestige were insufficient to overcome the
+opposition of jealous generals and ambitious lawyers. He spent the year
+of 1820 in futile intrigues among the politicians, and in unsuccessful
+campaigns against the Spaniards in Venezuela, while the patriots
+trembled at the news that a great army was assembling at Cadiz which
+would surely sweep them out of existence. A liberal revolution in Spain
+came opportunely to interrupt military operations.
+
+Bolivar was obliged to compromise with the advocates of federalism and
+democracy. A congress representing the Granadan and Venezuelan provinces
+then in the hands of the patriots assembled at Cucutá early in 1821.
+Composed of ambitious civilians it was opposed to centralisation or
+military rule, and in spite of the Liberator's protests adopted a
+compromise Constitution. Though Bolivar was conceded the title of
+president, he was required to give up his civil authority whenever he
+took command of the army, and this meant an abolishment of the
+dictatorship. The idea of a life presidency or a hereditary senate was
+abandoned, and the only part of his system which Bolivar managed to
+retain was the subordination of the provinces to the central government.
+The Liberator now devoted himself to the direction of the war, leaving
+that long-headed schemer, Santander, in power at Bogotá as
+vice-president. The winning of the battle of Carabobo in Venezuela in
+June, 1821, and the surrender of Cartagena in September, made necessary
+the withdrawal of the Spanish troops from the Isthmus. Panama
+immediately declared itself independent, in November, 1821, and
+announced its intention of joining the great confederation of Colombia,
+then composed of the provinces of Venezuela, and New Granada, and later
+of those of Ecuador.
+
+Pasto alone remained in the hands of the Spaniards. Bolivar determined
+to expel them from this province, and also from Quito and Guayaquil,
+while visions of conquests in Peru and Bolivia, and of returning to his
+dazzled countrymen in Colombia crowned with laurels gathered on southern
+battle-fields, floated through his mind. Congress gladly gave him leave
+of absence and Santander promised supplies of money and soldiers. In
+1822 he advanced against Pasto, sending his able lieutenant, Sucré,
+around by sea to Guayaquil to take Quito from the south. Gathering three
+thousand men at Popayan he marched into Pasto and on the 7th of April
+came upon the royal army at Bambona. A bloody battle followed and
+Bolivar by inciting his men to reckless charges remained master of the
+field. However, he lost three times as many men as the royalists; the
+latter retired in good order, and the Liberator, after encamping eight
+days on the plateau, surrounded by a hostile population, hampered by the
+difficulties of the mountain paths, with a strong enemy in front, was
+compelled to retreat on Popayan, leaving his sick and wounded. He
+remained inactive until the glorious news of Sucré's overwhelming
+victory at Pichincha arrived. The loyalists in Pasto were now completely
+isolated. The Spanish commander made terms with Bolivar and the
+indomitable mountaineers were induced to submit on the promise that they
+should be allowed to retain their local laws and customs.
+
+  [Illustration: PANAMA FROM THE BAY.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+MODERN COLOMBIA
+
+
+After Bolivar's departure for Peru, a period of relative quiet ensued.
+Nevertheless, ambitious local politicians constantly intrigued against
+Santander, who in his turn was suspected of encouraging federalist
+agitation in the hope of overthrowing Bolivar. The United States and
+England recognised the independence of Colombia shortly after the
+expulsion of the Spaniards, but foreign troubles arose when the new
+republic faced the question of paying the immense debt contracted by
+Bolivar's agents in recruiting and equipping the mercenary troops and
+buying ships, artillery, and ammunition. This debt had been enormously
+swollen by the dishonesty of some Colombian commissioners and by the
+greed of money lenders who insisted on receiving bonds for double the
+amount they had really advanced. The temptation to borrow more when it
+was refunded was too great to be resisted, and Colombia soon saw herself
+burdened with foreign obligations amounting to nearly seven millions
+sterling. All the revenues were insufficient to pay interest on this
+sum--a truly stupendous one for so poor a country. The payments fell
+into arrears, and though the debt has been scaled down repeatedly,
+interest has rarely been paid. At the very beginning of her independent
+existence Colombia's credit was ruined, and the three countries into
+which she was shortly divided have remained burdened to this day with
+the debts then contracted, their finances disorganised, their attempted
+operations blighted by the reputation of bankruptcy, and their
+diplomatic relations hampered by the clamours of bondholders.
+
+Santander's administration was further embarrassed by Bolivar's demands
+for money and troops with which to pursue his conquests in Peru and
+Bolivia, and still graver difficulties soon arose. Paez, left in command
+of the army in Venezuela, became involved in disputes with the
+authorities of the Venezuelan cities and with the ministers at Bogotá,
+all of whom he despised as mere civilians or as foreigners who had no
+right to interfere.
+
+Finally, in 1826 the central government formally deprived him of his
+position and summoned him to Bogotá, but a revolution which promptly
+broke out in Caracas made him dictator. The news brought Bolivar back
+from Lima, where for two years he had reigned an absolute monarch,
+leading the life of a voluptuous eastern prince. For the next four years
+the Liberator struggled in vain to repress the rising tide of federalism
+and radicalism in Venezuela and New Granada. The republican theorists
+could not forget that he had re-established the convents, placed the
+schools under priestly control, abrogated government contracts for
+personal reasons, introduced aristocratic decorations, and schemed for a
+hereditary senate and a life tenure of the executive; nor that his
+influence had stopped the Cucutá convention in the path of political
+reform, prevented the abolition of slavery and capital punishment, and
+retained the connection of Church and State, and the exemption of the
+army and clergy from civil jurisdiction. Santander was more liberal and
+a better practical politician. He had shown much ability during the
+Liberator's absence, and risen to be the head of a considerable party.
+
+Bolivar succeeded in temporarily crushing some of the opposition in
+Venezuela and in cajoling Paez, and on his return to Bogotá he made a
+feint of resigning the presidency. Congress, however, was still under
+his spell and re-elected him. He then made an attempt to secure legal
+sanction for his system by summoning another constitutent convention.
+But news had come of Peru's and Bolivia's defection, and the agitation
+of the transcendental liberals, the universal desire for local
+self-government, and the ambitions of a hundred intriguers for high
+office, proved too much for him. A majority of the convention which met
+at Ocana in 1828 were partisans of Santander and opposed Bolivar's
+proposals although the Liberator at the head of three thousand soldiers
+watched the proceedings. Though he did his best to intimidate the
+majority, he shrank from frankly playing the role of a Cromwell, and
+contented himself with ordering his supporters to withdraw, leaving the
+convention without a quorum. It dissolved and the country trembled on
+the verge of disintegration. His friends called an assembly which
+obediently proclaimed him dictator. The Liberator accepted, and deprived
+Santander of the vice-presidency. The press was muzzled, protesters
+banished, and military rule established. Some fiery young republicans,
+determined to emulate the example of Brutus, struck down the palace
+guards at midnight and rushed into the house to kill the dictator. But
+his mistress, Manoela Saenz, awakened by the noise, directed him to a
+window. He dropped a few feet to the pavement and ran and hid himself
+under a bridge, while the woman, in her night clothes, met the assassins
+on the stairs and told them they could enter only over her dead body.
+They pushed her aside with their bloody hands only to find the quarry
+escaped. The next day Bolivar returned to the palace and his spies soon
+hunted down the criminals. Santander, suspected of knowledge of the
+plot, went into banishment, and for the moment civil war was averted.
+
+  [Illustration: SCENE IN THE ANDES, EN ROUTE TO BOGOTÁ.]
+
+But the incident did not revive Bolivar's waning popularity. News came
+in 1829 that Paez had again assumed the dictatorship of Venezuela. This
+was fatal to Bolivar's hopes. With New Granada in a ferment behind him
+he could not expect to conquer Paez and the formidable llaneros. He made
+a half-hearted attempt to raise an army, but recoiled before the
+insuperable difficulties. Again he resigned the presidency, protesting
+that he was ready to sacrifice all personal ambition to secure the
+integrity of the Colombian union and the establishment of a strong and
+ordered government. Again he was re-elected, but meanwhile civil war was
+raging in Ecuador, where his own troops disavowed his authority.
+Rebellion also broke out in Pasto, and Peru intervened in Ecuador and
+sent a fleet to capture Guayaquil and an army to invade Cuenca. Bolivar
+exhausted his last resources in despatching troops to meet the Peruvian
+onslaught, but the principal result of the war was to put General Flores
+in a position to make himself independent dictator of Ecuador.
+Despairing of longer maintaining himself, but loath to give up his
+ever-cherished idea of union, the Liberator entered into negotiations
+with European diplomats to appoint a prince of a reigning family as king
+of Colombia. But the idea was impracticable. There was no place for a
+monarch, either native born or foreign, on the Granadan highlands, and
+Venezuela had already virtually separated. Although a rebellion in
+Antioquia headed by his old companion in arms, General Cordoba, failed
+in the fall of 1829, at the end of the year word came that Venezuela had
+formally declared her independence and had pronounced a sentence of
+perpetual banishment against the Liberator. This was the last straw, and
+Bolivar made no further resistance to his fate, but summoned a congress
+and retired to his country house penniless, sick, and heartbroken. All
+his vast estates had been sacrificed to the cause of independence; the
+hardships of his innumerable marches over the cold mountain roads had
+broken his health; and his mode of life during the intervals of peace
+had not tended to restore it. Although only forty-seven he was a dying
+man. Still he clung to his hopes of vindication and re-election, but
+seeing that even the bulk of his own friends opposed, he at last sent in
+a formal resignation. He lived only a few months after congress had
+elected Mosquera president.
+
+Though Bolivar's overthrow was a triumph for the federalists and red
+republicans, congress shrank from going too far and installed a wealthy
+aristocrat as president. However, his feeble administration was soon
+driven from power by the revolt of General Urdaneta, who made use of
+Bolivar's name as a rallying cry, but who in fact was actuated alone by
+personal ambition. The federalists and anti-Bolivarists did not leave
+him long in possession, and in May, 1831, he was expelled in his turn.
+Obando and Lopez, both bitter enemies of the Liberator during his
+lifetime, and the latter suspected of complicity in the cowardly murder
+of the great Marshal Sucré, came to the head of affairs. New Granada's
+intestine troubles made her too weak to attempt the coercion of
+Venezuela and Ecuador, so their independence was recognised and the
+Colombian republic ceased to exist.
+
+  [Illustration: CATHEDRAL--PANAMA.]
+
+A federalist Constitution for New Granada was framed in 1832, and
+shortly afterwards Santander became the first legal president.
+Unquestionably the strongest man in the nation, a good administrator and
+a shrewd politician, he was helpless to check the tendency toward
+disintegration, though he reduced Bolivar's army of twenty thousand to
+less than one half, and did much to establish civil administration.
+His energy in enforcing order earned him the title of the "Man of Laws,"
+and many Granadans regard him as the real founder of their nationality.
+Marquez, who succeeded to the presidency in 1837, was not radical enough
+to suit the advanced federalists and republicans, although the first
+serious rebellion which broke out against him was caused by his
+suppression of convents in reactionary and Catholic Pasto. At the same
+time Obando was intriguing against the government, and many of the
+provincial governors aided the plots. When summoned to trial, Obando
+fled to the wilds of Popayan and Pasto, and civil war raged through 1839
+and 1840. In this latter year Panama successfully revolted, maintaining
+its independence until 1842. Tomas Mosquera, the minister of war, with
+the help of his son-in-law, General Herran, eventually triumphed over
+the rebels. In 1841 the latter became president, and set vigorously to
+work to strengthen the power of the central government.
+
+By this time, all the people who took any interest in politics had
+divided into two parties. The liberals insisted on universal suffrage,
+the separation of Church and State, the granting the provinces the
+fullest autonomy, the division of the greater portion of the national
+revenue among the provincial governments, and even opposed the
+theoretical right of any government to impose its will on the individual
+citizen. The conservatives believed in respecting the clergy, in
+continuing the old system of education under priestly control, and
+resisted any further emasculation of the national government. Herran
+recalled the Jesuits, and under his direction a conservative convention
+framed a more centralising Constitution than that of 1832. Bolivar's
+ashes were delivered to the Venezuelan government with impressive
+solemnities, and his memory apotheosised as the father of the nation and
+the apostle of centralisation. Herran was succeeded by his
+father-in-law, Tomas Mosquera. During his administration, which lasted
+until 1849, steam navigation was introduced on the Magdalena, the Panama
+railway was begun, the finances were brought into some sort of order,
+the army was further reduced, and the post-office system was improved.
+
+  [Illustration: CROSSING THE MOUNTAINS IN 1850.]
+
+The liberals and federalists were constantly becoming more powerful and
+more discontented. Disturbances broke out from time to time and when
+Mosquera's term expired, the attempt to elect a successor in an orderly
+and constitutional manner utterly failed. Riots and bloodshed followed,
+and it was officially announced that no candidate had received a
+majority of the popular vote. The duty of making a choice fell upon
+congress, and Lopez, a general of the war of independence who had taken
+part in the overthrow of Bolivar, was installed. This meant a resumption
+of the march toward complete decentralisation, temporarily checked
+during Herran's and Mosquera's administrations. The Constitution was
+reformed so as to reduce the power of the national executive and
+guarantee greater privileges to the provinces. The latter were divided
+and subdivided to suit the exigencies of local politicians until their
+number reached thirty-five. Lopez had been a revolutionist himself and
+did not know when he might be one again, and his abolishment of the
+death penalty for political crimes met with the hearty approval of the
+large number of Granadan politicians who were in the same case. The
+central government transferred a large part of its revenues to the
+provinces, and gave up to them the control of judicial administration,
+of education, and of transportation. The tide of liberal legislation
+also swept over the privileges of the clergy. Laws were voted
+suppressing of tithes, giving the nomination of parish priests to the
+civil authorities, taking control of education out of their hands,
+separating Church and State, and establishing civil marriage. But it was
+easier to pass such laws than to enforce their observance by the
+Granadans. The clergy were enormously powerful among the common people
+and the conservative aristocrats. The banishment of the archbishop and
+several suffragans roused the conservatives. Politics became the
+principal preoccupation of the educated classes. Hardly a village in the
+country but had its political club, and more than a hundred party
+newspapers, besides innumerable pamphlets, thundered against their
+opponents. The conservative revolution broke out in 1851, beginning in
+Pasto and immediately spreading over the whole western half of the
+republic and even to the eastern plateau. Antioquia was the stronghold
+of the clericals, and there they gathered a force of a thousand men
+which was beaten at Rio Negro on the 10th of September, 1851, while the
+insurgent bands in a dozen other provinces were reduced in detail.
+Although the liberal government was thus triumphant in the field, the
+danger had been too great and was still too menacing to make it safe to
+maintain an uncompromising attitude on the religious question.
+
+Lopez procured the election of Obando, another political general of the
+same type and opinions as himself, as his successor in the presidency.
+The new president's first act was to summon a convention which abolished
+the last traces of Herran's moderately centralising Constitution, and
+depriving the executive of the power of naming provincial governors.
+Obando gave satisfaction to no one, and in 1854 General Melo, commander
+of the cavalry in Bogotá, incited the garrison and workingmen of that
+city to join him in an insurrection. However, the chiefs of the
+conservative party would have none of him; the recent concessions to the
+clergy had removed the strongest motives for rousing fanaticism to arms;
+and the clericals declared in his favour in only a few provinces. The
+property-holding and educated classes were practically unanimous against
+him. Mosquera and Herran, the most powerful men in New Granada and the
+historical chiefs of the moderate conservatives, had modified their
+views to suit the exigencies of the situation and become in effect
+moderate liberals. It was Mosquera himself who led the provincial
+militia against Bogotá and overcome the dictator after much bloody
+street fighting.
+
+  [Illustration: TYPES OF COLOMBIAN NATIVES.]
+
+The unhappy country, tired of continual internecine disorder and
+exhausted by the harrying civil wars, rested willingly for two years
+under the compromise administration of Mallarino in which
+representatives of both parties and most of the principal factions had a
+voice. As a matter of fact the federal government had almost ceased to
+exercise the greatly reduced functions which nominally remained to it.
+The executive had only the shadow of a control over the provinces, its
+revenues sank to well-nigh nothing, its army was reduced to eight
+hundred men. The very name of the country was changed from the "Republic
+of New Granada" to the "Granadine Confederation," and the organisation
+of powerful and independent federal departments was begun, foreshadowing
+the abolition of the old provincial system. In 1857 three candidates had
+presented themselves--Ospina, representing the clerical conservatives;
+Murillo, the advanced liberals; and Mosquera, the moderates. Suffrage
+had been made universal, and under the conditions necessarily
+prevailing among a population almost entirely illiterate and used for
+centuries to monarchical and military government, a satisfactory
+election was impossible. On the face of the returns Ospina received a
+plurality, but the radicals were able to force the adoption of a new
+federal Constitution in 1859 which abolished the old provinces. However,
+the new system had not the sympathy of the conservative and clerical
+president. He tried to usurp control of the elections, the liberals
+accused him of acting unconstitutionally, insurrections broke out in
+various parts of the country, and the confusion became worse confounded.
+
+In the state of Bolivar, the liberal insurrectionists triumphed, while
+in Santander the conservatives themselves started a revolution which
+Ospina only succeeded in suppressing by the bloody battle of Oratorio.
+Meanwhile Mosquera had become governor of Cauca, and when the
+conservatives of that state tried to expel him, he beat them and took
+advantage of his victory to declare himself independent of Ospina. The
+latter advanced, but Mosquera defeated him, and invaded the upper
+Magdalena, gaining the battle of Segovia. In every state there was an
+insurrection against Ospina, and three ex-presidents accompanied the
+insurgent armies. On the surface the civil war appeared to be a mere
+contest for personal power between Mosquera and Ospina, but the former
+had ensured a large support by raising the banner of federalism, and the
+latter's triumph would probably have meant a strengthening of the
+national government and certainly a reaction from the radicalism which
+had gained ground year by year since the fall of Bolivar. Supported by
+the clericals, conservatives, and reactionists, Ospina fought
+tenaciously and with a fair prospect of success. But the federalist
+armies advanced relentlessly from both north and south, and one after
+another the provinces of the eastern plateaux were wrested from him by
+bloody and well-contested battles. Bogotá was finally taken and the
+president imprisoned, but Mosquera's opponents kept up the conflict for
+some time in the states of Panama, Santander, and Antioquia, and it was
+near the end of 1861 before the federalists were everywhere triumphant.
+
+With Mosquera at the head of affairs, under the title of "Supreme
+Director," a congress was summoned whose members were called, not
+deputies, representatives, or delegates, but "plenipotentiaries" of the
+sovereign states. This congress adopted a new constitution, New
+Granada's sixth since 1830. The triumphant liberals expelled the
+Jesuits, abolished ecclesiastical entails, extinguished the monastic
+orders, confiscated Church property, decreed the absolute separation of
+Church and State, imprisoned the archbishop, and secularised the
+schools. Suffrage was made nominally universal, and the death penalty
+abolished. The name of the country was changed to the "United States of
+Colombia," and it became little more than a league of nine federal
+states for the purpose of defence against foreign attack. The national
+government was expressly prohibited from interfering in the affairs of
+the states, even for the preservation of order, and a clause of the
+Constitution provided that "when one sovereign state of the union shall
+be at war with another, or the citizens of any state shall be at war
+among themselves, the national government is obligated to preserve the
+strictest neutrality." The federal judiciary had no power to decide any
+constitutional questions nor could its decisions bind the state
+authorities. The national government was deprived of half its revenue
+for the benefit of the states, and the receipts of the latter equalled
+the federal income. This Constitution remained in force for twenty-two
+years, during which civil wars and factional disputes continually racked
+Colombia.
+
+  [Illustration: POST-OFFICE AT BOGOTÁ.]
+
+Moreno, the clerical dictator of Ecuador, had aided Ospina during the
+civil war, and to punish him Mosquera undertook a campaign which
+resulted in a Colombian victory at Cuaspud on the 30th of December,
+1863. However, he desisted from his announced intention of deposing
+Moreno and installing an anti-clerical government in Ecuador, and
+granted peace without the imposition of any onerous terms. Murillo was
+elected president in 1864 for the ensuing two years, to which short
+period the term had been reduced. The religious question would not down,
+and he found a conservative revolution going on in the state of
+Antioquia. It triumphed, and Murillo prudently recognised the successful
+insurgents as the legal government. He followed this same policy in
+regard to other revolutions in the states of Bolivar, Magdalena, and
+Panama, and cautiously refrained from all intervention, even when
+conservative insurrections occurred in the neighbourhood of Bogotá
+itself, or when the clericals of Antioquia invaded Cauca, and defeated
+the liberals. One of the last acts of his administration was to impose
+on the impoverished federal treasury the settlement of all the forced
+loans and confiscations made during the three years of terrible civil
+war. Mosquera, who succeeded Murillo in 1866, was not content to remain
+a mere figurehead, although it was under his leadership that the federal
+system had been definitely established. He bought ships and artillery
+without authorisation from congress, and claimed the power of
+intervening by force whenever the legal government of a state was unable
+to maintain order. This attack on the right of revolution outraged the
+radical republicans. According to their theory and practice the federal
+government was merely an alliance between the peoples of the states, but
+Mosquera's doctrine would tend to make it an alliance between the state
+governments, creating a ruling oligarchy whose power might be continued
+indefinitely. Denounced as the assassin of Colombian liberty, he broke
+off relations with the liberal majority in congress, and in 1867 assumed
+dictatorial powers. But the Bogotá garrison was suborned by his enemies,
+and its revolt was followed by his deposition and the substitution of
+Acosta.
+
+The new president renewed Murillo's policy of non-intervention. Colombia
+had begun to reap a benefit from the increasing foreign demand for
+tropical products. Exports grew in value, and with them, imports and
+revenue. But expenditures grew faster; the poorer states demanded and
+received subsidies from the federal treasury; public buildings and local
+improvements were planned beyond the nation's ability to pay; and a
+swarm of employees and pensioners battened on the public revenues. Under
+the concession of 1850 the Panama railway had agreed to pay three per
+cent. of its net revenue to the government, and the receipts from this
+source amounted to fourteen thousand dollars a year. Colombia had
+stipulated for the right to purchase the road in 1870 for the
+ridiculously low price of five million dollars, but Acosta's
+administration had no money to invest and was greedy for ready cash. So
+the franchise was extended until 1966 for one million dollars down and
+an annual subsidy of a quarter of a million. In 1880, under the pressure
+of poverty, the installments until 1908 were alienated.
+
+Under Gutierrez's administration (1868-69), when the governor of
+Cundinamarca gathered troops and assumed a dictatorship, the president
+deposed him. Even a liberal administration found it impracticable to
+carry out the theory of non-intervention. An attempt was now made to
+secure the nation's creditors by authorising the hypothecation of
+specific revenue--a measure which left the administration insufficient
+means to meet ordinary running expenses. Under Salgar (1870-72), the
+acknowledged deficits amounted to fifty per cent. of the total revenue.
+The increasing revenues had proved a curse instead of a blessing, for
+the demands of the states and officials were insatiable, and the sums
+spent in subsidies and internal improvements grew beyond all reason.
+Meantime the most extreme and unrestrained liberalism dominated the
+politics of the country. Congress passed a formal vote of condolence for
+the death of Lopez, Paraguay's unspeakable tyrant, who had just
+succumbed to Brazil and Argentina, after having devoted to destruction
+nine-tenths of his people. All honorary and useless military titles and
+employments were abolished, and the law on that subject contains the
+following curious provision: "In naming the eight generals spoken of by
+the Constitution, from whom must be chosen the commander-in-chief of
+the army, all Colombians over twenty-one shall be considered as generals
+of the republic."
+
+Murillo was elected for a second term in 1872, and at once devoted
+himself, and with considerable success, to the re-organisation and
+regulation of the finances. The law of 1868, which had hypothecated the
+revenues to meet the charges of the public debt, was repealed and the
+foreign bonds were scaled down to less than one-third their face. By
+such measures the president succeeded in paying the government employees
+and taking care of pressing home necessities, and even showed a nominal
+surplus at the end of his term.
+
+During the administration of Santiago Perez (1874-76) the first
+mutterings of the terrible storm of civil war soon to burst over the
+country were heard. The state of Panama defied his authority and
+imprisoned his officers, but he applied conscientiously the
+constitutional doctrine of non-intervention, and disavowed a general who
+on his own responsibility had deposed the governor. The governor of the
+state of Magdalena took possession of the custom houses at the mouth of
+the river, and the troops of the state of Bolivar attacked federal
+detachments passing along the Magdalena--a river which is inter-state,
+and whose navigation was free by the terms of the Constitution. The
+popular election of 1875 was so disturbed that congress assumed the
+power of selecting a president, and Parra was installed the following
+spring. An internecine conflict broke out in Cauca; the president
+started to intervene, and the states of Antioquia and Tolima declared
+war against him. Although guerilla bands in Cundinamarca, Boyacá, and
+Santander menaced the government's rear, twenty-five thousand recruits
+were raised and sent against the rebelling states. Antioquia was beaten
+at Chancos and Garrapata, and the rebels of central Colombia at La
+Donjuana, in battles where the largest numbers of soldiers ever gathered
+on Colombian soil were engaged.
+
+  [Illustration: RAFAEL NUÑEZ, PRESIDENT OF COLOMBIA IN 1879-1883,
+  1885-1891.]
+
+Peace was followed by a general amnesty, because the victorious
+liberals dared not proceed to extremities against their adversaries.
+Trujillo was installed as president without opposition, and the harried
+country recovered somewhat from the exertions and disasters of the
+terrible year of 1876. The finances were, however, in horrible disorder;
+expenses amounted to enormous figures; the deficits became greater than
+the total revenues; interest on the public debt, which had been
+regularly kept up since 1873, was indefinitely suspended. Disturbances
+soon began to break out again, and the national guard deposed the
+governors of Cauca and Magdalena. The president showed an inclination
+toward centralisation; he formed alliances with state governors,
+encouraged them to prolong their terms, and systematically fostered
+divisions in the liberal party. Trujillo was succeeded by Nuñez,
+nominally a liberal, but who at heart had also sickened of the
+federalistic system and was looking for an opportunity to strengthen
+presidential prerogatives. The Constitution stood during his first term
+and those of his two successors, but when he was re-elected in 1884 the
+policy which he followed soon caused him to be denounced by the liberals
+as a traitor to the Constitution.
+
+The failure of a liberal insurrection in 1885 was followed by a complete
+unitarian and clerical reaction. In 1886 a new Constitution was adopted
+which substituted a consolidated republic for the loose confederation.
+The country's name was changed from the "United States of Colombia" to
+"Republic of Colombia" in order to express the dominating principle of
+the new régime. The sovereignty of the individual states was expressly
+denied in the document, and the two most refractory ones--Panama and
+Cundinamarca--temporarily reduced to territorial dependencies. The
+governors were named from Bogotá instead of being elected and the right
+of federal intervention re-affirmed. Suffrage was limited by an
+educational and property qualification; the clergy were admitted to
+participation in politics; the Roman Catholic was declared to be the
+national religion, although individual freedom of worship was permitted;
+the presidential term was extended to six years; and an attempt was made
+to insure judicial independence by a life tenure.
+
+Under this Constitution there was for a long time less disorder. In
+Colombia political hatreds are, however, incredibly virulent and
+persistent because party differences are fundamental and irreconcilable.
+The clericals regard their opponents as pestilent enemies of religion
+and order, and the liberals anathematise the ruling party as a
+reactionary, corrupt, and benighted oligarchy. The exiled liberals have
+made repeated efforts to regain power, and the administrations have not
+been able to avoid a constantly mounting national expenditure and the
+continuation of deficits and repudiation. In 1899, a formidable
+insurrection, aided from Venezuela, broke out, President Sanclemente was
+imprisoned, and in 1900 Vice-President Marroquin assumed the executive
+functions. This terrible civil war ended only in November, 1902, when
+the insurgents surrendered their fleet and stores. President Marroquin
+and the conservative government seem now firmly established, backed as
+they are by the tremendous influence of the Church among the masses. The
+people are returning to their usual avocations, though business has been
+demoralised by the stupendous depreciation of the paper currency.
+
+The vast expenditures of the French canal company boomed Panama, but the
+resulting prosperity was confined to the Isthmus. The Bogotá government
+hoped for a great increase of income when the canal should be completed,
+and the abandonment of the enterprise was a disappointment. The
+principal subject of public preoccupation during 1903 was the
+negotiation with the United States concerning the permission desired by
+the latter to continue the work. Colombia proper has its outlet down the
+Magdalena to the Caribbean, and therefore has no greater special
+commercial interest in the building of a canal than Venezuela, Guiana,
+or Cuba, but the Colombians of the continent regarded the possession of
+the isolated Isthmian region as their most valuable national birthright,
+and believed that this invaluable strategic position should be used so
+as to obtain the utmost possible advantages for the Bogotá government as
+well as for the people of Panama. The revenue from the Panama railway
+had been one of the important sources of government income and the
+ruling political classes considered that they were entitled to have this
+income largely increased if a canal was built.
+
+The special congress summoned to consider the treaty already signed by
+the executive failed to ratify the agreement and adjourned, after
+empowering the president to try and negotiate a new one which would give
+Colombia a larger bonus and revenue. But the rejection of the treaty was
+followed by a declaration of independence on the part of the people of
+Panama, who believed that the United States would pay no larger sum than
+that already agreed upon and who saw their own interests being
+sacrificed for the sake of a far-distant interior region with which they
+had few commercial ties and whence invasion and coercion need not be
+feared because of the lack of practicable routes of communication. The
+United States and other powers promptly recognised the new nation, which
+at once made a canal treaty similar to that rejected by the Bogotá
+congress.
+
+At Bogotá the first impression was one of profound dismay. The executive
+offered to declare martial law, suspend the Constitution, and ratify the
+rejected treaty in spite of the Senate. General Reyes, the foremost
+living Colombian, immediately departed for Panama as a special envoy to
+endeavour to persuade the people there to return to their allegiance,
+but his overtures were rejected, and he went to Washington on the
+hopeless errand of inducing the United States Government temporarily to
+abandon its policy of forbidding fighting on the Isthmus, so that
+Colombia might reduce the people of Panama to obedience. Meanwhile many
+Colombians blamed the Marroquin administration for the irreparable loss
+of Panama and ten million badly needed dollars. Some popular
+demonstrations occurred, and the hot-headed demanded that war be
+declared against the United States and an army marched across the Atrato
+swamps to attack Panama from the land. But the financial and
+topographical difficulties were so evidently insurmountable that the war
+talk soon died down, the demonstrations against the Government ceased,
+and most elements seem to have acquiesced in the election of General
+Reyes to the presidential term which begins in 1904. It will be under
+his able guidance that Colombia will start on the tedious road leading
+to internal peace and regeneration, to financial rehabilitation, and to
+the reconcilement of those fierce factions whose wars have drenched
+their country's soil with blood for so many decades.
+
+
+
+
+PANAMA
+
+
+
+
+PANAMA
+
+THE EVENTS LEADING TO INDEPENDENCE
+
+
+The history of Panama is for the most part identified with that of
+Colombia, which is narrated elsewhere in the present volume. It will,
+however, be convenient to review certain movements and tendencies of the
+last half-century in order to obtain a just understanding of the
+position and prospects of the new republic.
+
+All the principles of advanced democratic government were included in
+the programme of the party which ruled Columbia from 1863 to 1883, and
+the statute books of the time afford ample proof that the leaders
+earnestly tried to put those principles into practical effect. They
+dreamed a Utopia, but practically their efforts only aggravated the
+anarchical tendencies bequeathed by the Spaniards and Bolivar. Colombian
+liberals still insist that a persistent enforcement of the Constitution
+and principles of 1863 would ultimately transform the character of the
+people--that religious bigotry and priestly influence would gradually
+disappear; that the progressive enlightenment of the masses would make
+military despotism and revolutions impossible; and that in process of
+time the relations of the states to the federal government would reach a
+satisfactory and workable basis. But so far as the experiment went no
+progress was made toward unifying the nation and pacifying the adverse
+elements. Discontent, disorders, civil wars increased in violence as the
+years went by. Though one-fifth of the federal revenues were spent on
+the public school system, and one-tenth of the children were nominal
+attendants, the clergy were permitted to have no share in their control,
+and retaliated by excommunicating the parents. The devotedly pious
+Creole mothers and wives, threatened with the closing of the
+confessionals and the denial of absolution, threw their incalculable
+influence against the atheistic government. The destruction of the
+convents and the confiscation of the vast ecclesiastical estates
+violently changed the ownership of two-thirds of the land in the
+confederation, but this imposition of new landlords on the industrious,
+oppressed, half-enslaved tenantry did not much modify real agricultural
+conditions. No extensive subdivision of estates resulted, and the Creole
+aristocracy continued to pay more attention to political intrigue than
+to improving their property.
+
+  [Illustration: VIEW OF PANAMA.]
+
+Not less disappointing in its practical working was the independence of
+the states. Not only did the local bosses constantly abuse autonomy for
+their own selfish purposes, but the presidents at Bogotá often ignored
+the constitutional rights of the states, and selected for coercion
+precisely those states which were farthest from the capital and most
+needed wide autonomous powers. Though Panama's position was isolated,
+its population cosmopolitan, its commercial interests and social
+structure peculiar, and though in colonial times its dependence on
+Bogotá had been only nominal, the liberal presidents usually ruled it
+like a conquered province. Members of the Andean oligarchy poured in to
+batten on its revenues; the autonomy guaranteed by the Constitution
+proved illusory, and discontent led to repeated efforts to achieve
+absolute independence.
+
+Rival ambitions among its own leaders furnished, however, the immediate
+cause of the downfall of the liberal party. A close oligarchy grew up
+and that inevitable corollary, a powerful faction of dissident liberals,
+while the clericals remained formidable and irreconcilable even after
+their bloody overthrow in 1876. Rafael Nuñez, a brilliant writer, a
+resolute and ambitious party chief, and a leader in the confiscation of
+church property, had been defeated in his candidacy for the presidency
+in 1875. The younger and dissatisfied liberals rallied behind him in his
+war against the oligarchy, and in 1880 the old-fashioned liberals could
+not prevent his election to the presidency. He vigorously strengthened
+the prerogatives of the federal executive and built up his personal
+following, but although the issue of paper money and the discontinuance
+of interest on the foreign debt--a debt which only ten years before had
+been scaled down to $10,000,000, one-sixth its original amount, on a
+solemn promise that at least this much would be faithfully paid--placed
+large funds at his disposal, the old-line liberals were strong enough to
+prevent his re-election in 1882. Their victory was illusory and
+temporary. Nuñez controlled both houses of congress and was able to
+block President Zaldua at every turn. Eighty years old and in feeble
+health, the latter died after a year of fruitless struggle.
+
+  [Illustration: STEAMERS ON THE MAGDALENA RIVER.]
+
+After a short _ad interim_ administration in which Nuñez's influence
+predominated, he was re-elected to the presidency and installed in 1884.
+By this time his centralising tendencies were manifest, and the measures
+he adopted unmistakably pointed to the substitution of a unified
+republic for the old loose confederation. Many of his liberal
+supporters fell away and he was driven into an alliance with
+the conservatives. Appointments of members of that party to
+important positions were followed by the great revolt of 1885. The
+insurrectionists delivered their main attack on the Caribbean coast,
+whither the importation of arms was easy. Much of the department of
+Magdalena fell into their hands, and they besieged Cartagena in force.
+But when one of their expeditions invaded the Isthmus, burning Colon,
+and interrupting traffic on the Panama Railway, the president appealed
+to the United States, as previous presidents had done in similar cases,
+to carry out the guaranty of free transit contained in the treaty of
+1846. At the same time the government troops attacked and defeated the
+isolated insurrectionists at Colon, and shortly afterwards the latter's
+main army suffered a bloody repulse in an assault on Cartagena. This
+broke the back of the movement against Nuñez, and the liberals abandoned
+the hopeless struggle.
+
+The insurrection had been undertaken for the purpose of defending the
+1863 Constitution, and its defeat meant the destruction of departmental
+independence. As the logical and natural result of his victory, the
+president proclaimed the abolishment of the Constitution and summoned a
+convention to adopt a new one. Thenceforward until his death ten years
+later Rafael Nuñez and his political ideas were supreme in Colombia, and
+Panama was held in the most rigid subjection. The old "United States of
+Colombia" was replaced by the "Republic of Columbia," one and
+indivisible; the departments became mere administrative divisions whose
+governors were appointed from Bogotá; the presidential term was
+increased to six years; the radical liberal projects were abandoned; the
+clergy regained many of their privileges; and the historical
+conservatives continued the dominant party.
+
+As long as Nuñez lived there were few outbreaks and no serious civil
+war, though the ousted liberals never ceased to plot the government's
+overthrow. The centralising system held the departments in a rigid
+control from whose inconveniences Panama suffered far more than the
+mountain districts. Practically she was allowed no voice in either her
+own or general affairs; the very delegates who nominally represented her
+in the constitutional convention of 1885 were residents of Bogotá
+appointed by Nuñez; military rule became a permanent thing on the
+Isthmus; all officials were strangers sent from the Andean plateau; and
+the million dollars of taxes wrung each year from the people of Panama
+were spent on maintaining the soldiers who kept them in subjection. In
+January, 1895, the harassed province broke out in a rebellion which was
+suppressed by an overwhelming force of Colombian troops in April.
+
+Meanwhile in Colombia proper the opposition to the ruling clique grew
+stronger and stronger. Persecution united the liberals, and they began
+organising for revolt all over the republic. The conservatives
+themselves divided into two parties, one of which opposed the
+administration. Nuñez did not live to finish the second term to which
+he had been elected in 1892, but his successor managed to suppress the
+premature revolt of 1895, and in 1898 Sanclemente was elected, the
+opposition refraining from going to the polls. The new president soon
+found his position very difficult, and, unlike Nuñez, was unable to
+dominate his own party and hold the opposition in check. The French
+Canal Company, whose concession, granted in 1878, would expire in 1904,
+offered a million dollars for a renewal, desiring to recoup, by a sale
+to the United States, a part of the two hundred millions sunk by De
+Lesseps. Sanclemente's government wished to accept, but the opposition
+and even the conservative congress insisted on the forfeiture of the
+French rights. The administration rapidly lost prestige, the
+discontented elements saw their opportunity, and the long-brewing storm
+now broke on the hapless country. The liberals hurriedly completed their
+preparations, and in the fall of 1899 a civil war began--the most
+terrible and destructive that has ever devastated the republic. Before
+it ended in 1902, more than two hundred battles and armed encounters had
+been fought, and thirty thousand Colombians slain. The detailed history
+of the campaigns has not yet been written, but it is apparent that the
+insurrectionists at first gained many successes. The president declared
+martial law, suspending the functions of congress, and the extension
+desired by the French Canal Company was granted by executive decree. But
+the pecuniary relief thus obtained did not materially help the
+floundering administration. Sanclemente became a mere figurehead for his
+more resolute ministers, and in July, 1900, the vigorous
+vice-president, Marroquin, seized power by a _coup d'état_, throwing
+Sanclemente into a prison, where he remained until his death. Thereafter
+the war against the rebels was prosecuted with more energy, and the tide
+turned with the defeat of an army of Venezuelans, eight thousand strong,
+which had invaded the eastern provinces, to co-operate with the
+insurrectionists.
+
+  [Illustration: NATIVE VILLAGE ON THE PANAMA R. R.]
+
+However, the liberals were still strong in the west and north. On the
+Isthmus four insurrections had broken out from October, 1899, to
+September, 1901, and though each had been promptly suppressed, in 1902
+the liberals were able to make a last great effort to establish
+themselves at Panama. They had considerable forces near the mouth of the
+Magdalena, and gunboats on the Pacific. The secure possession of the
+Isthmus would have enabled them to reinforce this Magdalena army, cut
+off Marroquin from the sea, and undertake a campaign against the
+interior. At first all went well for them; their gunboats captured the
+government's vessels on the Pacific side; they concentrated a
+respectable army there and finally defeated and captured two thousand of
+Marroquin's troops at Agua Dulce, near Panama. But this was their last
+success. Marroquin poured reinforcements into Colon, and though the
+American admiral at first refused to allow them to be transported over
+the railroad to Panama, permission was granted when it became evident
+that there would be no fighting near the line. News came of the defeat
+of the liberal army near the Magdalena, and General Herrera, the victor
+at Agua Dulce, found himself isolated. In desperation he sent an
+expedition in October which surprised and captured Colon, but French and
+American marines were promptly landed to prevent fighting in that city.
+The expedition had no alternative but to surrender, and a few days later
+General Herrera with the main body capitulated on the Pacific side.
+
+The three years of war left Colombia in frightful demoralisation. The
+victorious government was little better off than the defeated liberals.
+Commerce and industry had been prostrated; revenues had dwindled to
+nothing; the paper currency was worth less than one per cent. The
+exhaustion of its adversaries, not its own strength, enabled Marroquin's
+government to continue in power. In such a situation the administration
+welcomed the opportunity which now offered of renewing the building of
+the Isthmian canal. The United States government determined to undertake
+this great work itself, and finally decided in favour of Panama as
+against the Nicaragua route. Forty million dollars was agreed upon as a
+just price for the work already done by the French Company, and nothing
+remained but to obtain Colombia's consent to the transfer. The civil war
+helped to delay the negotiation of a satisfactory treaty, but as soon as
+it was over the Marroquin administration lost little time in coming to
+an agreement with the United States. Colombia was to receive a bonus of
+ten million dollars for consenting to the transfer and enlarging the
+terms of the original concession; her sovereign rights were reserved
+and guaranteed, although she agreed to police and sanitary control of
+the canal strip by the United States.
+
+When this treaty was submitted to the Colombian Senate for ratification,
+opposition developed which the administration was not strong or resolute
+enough to overcome. Among the politicians at Bogotá, the opinion was
+almost universal that the executive should have demanded more. The
+Colombian people have ever regarded the political control of the Isthmus
+as their most valuable national heritage, and cherished extravagant
+hopes that some day they would be vastly enriched by the sale or rental
+of this strategic bit of ground for its natural use as the greatest
+artery of the world's commerce. Many now insisted, as they had done in
+1898, on enforcing a forfeiture of the French rights, or at least on
+receiving a proportion of the $40,000,000 to be paid for them. It was
+also said that the Americans could well afford a larger bonus, and the
+opponents of the treaty made the further point that the agreement was
+unconstitutional and contained insufficient guaranties of Colombian
+sovereignty. Against this storm the feeble administration probably could
+do little and certainly did nothing. The Senate was allowed to adjourn
+without ratifying the treaty, and an attempt was made to negotiate a new
+one providing for a larger bonus and more stringent guarantees of
+Colombian sovereignty.
+
+The United States, however, absolutely refused to consider any other
+terms than those already agreed upon, and the civilised world saw the
+completion of an enterprise promising incalculable benefits to mankind
+indefinitely postponed by the opposition of Andean provinces whom the
+accidents of war and international politics had given an arbitrary
+control over a region with which they had no natural connection. The
+situation was particularly hard for the people of the Isthmus, whose
+confident hopes were now disappointed of at last receiving, by the
+prosperity which would follow the building of the canal, some
+compensation for the oppression and losses they had suffered during
+eighty years of misrule by the Bogotá oligarchies. Hardly had the treaty
+been rejected when plotting for a declaration of independence began. The
+resident population was unanimous, and good grounds existed for
+believing that even the Colombian garrison would offer no resistance
+unless reinforcements should come from Bogotá. In case of an armed
+conflict with Colombia the people of Panama could count on the sympathy
+of all America and Europe. The stockholders of the French Company had a
+direct pecuniary interest in their success. If once they could establish
+independence and a _de facto_ government, Colombia could not deliver an
+effective attack without violating the neutrality and security of
+transit guaranteed to the Isthmus by the United States. Everything
+pointed to the success of a well-conducted movement.
+
+Though the preparations for the revolt could not be concealed, the
+Bogotá government took no effective measures to forestall it. Warned
+that trouble was impending, the United States sent ships to prevent
+fighting that might interfere with transit. The new republic was
+proclaimed at Panama on the 3rd of November, 1903. The Colombian
+authorities made no resistance; the garrison surrendered without firing
+a shot; and the entire population acquiesced in the appointment of a
+provisional government, pending the calling of a convention and the
+adoption of a Constitution. A small force of Colombians had been landed
+at Colon, but the revolution at Panama found it still on the Atlantic
+side. On November 4th the American naval commander refused to give these
+troops permission to use the railroad for warlike purposes. Because the
+vital portion of the new republic is virtually neutral under the treaty
+of 1846, the provisional government having established itself in
+peaceable possession was safe from external attack. The useless
+Colombian troops at Colon either joined the people of Panama or retired.
+The inhabitants of Colon and the outlying districts immediately sent in
+their adherence, and the peace of the whole Isthmian region remained
+unbroken. On the 13th of November the United States recognised the new
+republic, being followed by France on the 18th, and then by all other
+nations as soon as diplomatic formalities could be complied with. Dr.
+Manuel Amador Guerrero was elected first president of the Republic of
+Panama, being inaugurated on February 19, 1904. A treaty with the United
+States for the building of the canal was framed on substantially the
+same lines as the one which had been negotiated with Colombia. By the
+end of February it had been ratified and proclaimed, and the United
+States at once made preparations for the beginning of the work.
+
+  [Illustration: MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  A
+
+  Abascal, General, Viceroy of Peru, 73-78, 163, 168, 260
+
+  Abibe Mountains, 408
+
+  Acha, General, 276
+
+  Aconcagua River, the, 223;
+    plain of, 168
+
+  Acosta, Juan, 56
+
+  Acosta, President of Colombia, 464, 465
+
+  Acre River, the, 280
+
+  "Adelantados," 26, 349, 414, 417
+
+  Agua Dulce, battle of, 484, 485
+
+  Alansi, valley of, 291
+
+  Alacantra, Francisco, 26, 46
+
+  Alfaro, President of Ecuador, 339, 341
+
+  Alfinger, Adelantado of Venezuela, 349
+
+  Almagro, partner of Pizarro, 23, 24, 27, 32, 36, 136, 239, 298;
+    at war with Pizarro, 41-43, 239, 301;
+    execution of, 43, 44, 136, 239
+
+  Almagro the younger, 49, 50
+
+  Alonso, President of Bolivia, 281
+
+  Alpaca, the, 3, 4
+
+  Alvarado, Spanish adventurer, 44, 88;
+    Governor of Guatemala, 298
+
+  Amar, Viceroy of Bogotá, 430
+
+  Amat, Don Manuel, 154, 155
+
+  Amazon River, the, discovery of, 44, 114, 279, 293
+
+  Amazon, forested plains of, 4, 5, 40, 67, 303, 351, 424
+
+  Andagoya, Pascual de, 22
+
+  Andean plateau, the, 3, 235, 285, 288, 302, 312, 335, 342
+
+  Andean valleys, 10;
+    gold in, 349, 354
+
+  Andes, the, 4, 135, 245, 317, 342, 347, 409 et passim
+
+  Andes, army of the, 168, 173, 174, 185, 186
+
+  Andrade, Creole revolutionist, 396
+
+  Andueza, Creole revolutionist, 396
+
+  Angol, besieged, 145
+
+  Angostura (city), 374
+
+  Anserma, founded, 409
+
+  Antigua, founded, 404, 405
+
+  Antioquia, great mineral province of Colombia, 387, 407-409, 412, 416,
+  417, 419, 422, 433, 437, 451
+
+  Antioquia, state of, 407, 457, 461, 462, 467
+
+  Antofogasta, 119, 120, 122, 277
+
+  Apples, 66
+
+  Apuré River, the, 355, 374-376, 406, 437;
+    army of, 372, 380
+
+  Aragua Valley, the, 350
+
+  Araucania, colonised, 216
+
+  Araucanians, the, independent spirit of, 138-147, 150, 151, 155;
+    treaty of, with Spanish, 150, 151;
+    missions established among, 201;
+    at war with Chile, 206, 216
+
+  Arauco, besieged, 145
+
+  Araure, battle of, 368
+
+  Arce, President of Bolivia, 278
+
+  Arenales, General, 81, 89, 258
+
+  Arequipa (city), founded, 44, 80, 99, 103, 108, 110, 112
+
+  Arequipa (province), 39, 41, 77, 104, 259
+
+  Argentina, 11, 13, 18, 71, 142, 245;
+    civilised tribes of, 58, 350;
+    revolution in, 76, 160, 161, 317;
+    civil wars in, 78, 186, 261, 267, 271, 323
+
+  Argentine, army, the, 80, 81, 98, 185, 186, 257, 258;
+    navy, the, 78, 79, 173, 183, 184;
+    pampas, 99
+
+  Argentine Republic, the, 140;
+    expansion of, 155, 230, 231;
+    boundary treaty of, with Chile, 209, 210
+
+  Arica (city), 108, 123, 125
+
+  Arica (province),
+    arrangement between Peru and Chile concerning, 127, 278
+
+  Asses, 66
+
+  Atacama desert, the, 239
+
+  Atahuallpa, Inca empire divided between Huascar and, 14, 308;
+    fratricidal war between Huascar and, 16-19, 238, 295, 296;
+    sends ambassador to Spaniards, 21;
+    treacherously captured by Pizarro, 30, 31, 48;
+    offers ransom, 31, 246;
+    murder of, 32, 238, 297
+
+  Atrato, River, the, 403-406;
+    Valley, 405, 472
+
+  Audiencias, royal, established, 67, 71, 250, 251, 254, 267, 308, 417,
+  420, 426
+
+  Auqui Toma, 294
+
+  Ayachucho, plain of, 95;
+    battle of, 96, 97, 256, 264, 266, 322
+
+  Ayohuma, battle of, 256, 258
+
+  Azuay, nudo of, 17, 291-293, 295, 298
+
+  Aztecs, the, 412
+
+
+  B
+
+  Balboa, Nuñez de, discoverer of the Pacific, 22, 23, 404
+
+  Balcarce, General, 185
+
+  Ballivian, General, 273, 274
+
+  Balmaceda, Chilean Liberal leader, 214-216, 218-220, 222-225;
+    death of, 226
+
+  Balta, Colonel, President of Peru, 113, 114, 116
+
+  Bambona, battle of, 444
+
+  Bananas, 66, 303, 352
+
+  Baquedano, General, 213, 219, 225
+
+  Barcelona (city), founded, 352;
+    captured, 372
+
+  Barcelona (province), 362
+
+  Barinos (province), 362, 363, 366
+
+  Barley, 66, 303, 343
+
+  Barquisimeto, founded, 350, 351;
+    destroyed by earthquake, 363;
+    captured, 368
+
+  Barreiro, General, 377, 378, 441
+
+  Bastida, Rodrigo, 403, 404
+
+  Belgrano, General, 258
+
+  Bello, civil code prepared by, 200
+
+  Belzu, General, 274, 275
+
+  Benalcazar, Sebastian de, conquers Quito, 298, 299, 409, 410, 413, 414
+
+  Beni River, the, 246, 279, 280
+
+  Bermudez, Colonel, 130, 381
+
+  Biobio River, the, 138, 139, 141, 145-147, 150
+
+  Blanco, Guzman, Dictator of Venezuela, 391, 394-396, 398
+
+  _Blanco_, the, 119-121
+
+  Bogotá, (city) 308, 312, 316, 317, 378, 384, 420, 448;
+    founded, 413;
+    one of the centres of Spanish-American culture, 422;
+    Archbishop of, banished, 425, 457, 461;
+    revolutionary junta in, 431;
+    seat of federal government, 435, 442, 470, 471;
+    punishment of, 438, 439
+
+  Bogotá (province), 376, 416, 419, 434, 437;
+    vice-royalty of, 71, 250, 313, 327, 356, 385, 416, 420, 426;
+    jurisdiction of, 356, 420, 426, 429;
+    audiencia of, 417;
+    presidency of, 418;
+    named New Granada, 419;
+    declares itself an independent state, 433
+
+  Bolivar, Simon,
+    the "Liberator" of South America, 79, 86, 368, 382, 384, 435;
+    Dictator of Peru, 90, 98, 447;
+    military exploits of, 92, 264, 317, 321, 366, 367;
+    President of United States of Colombia, 99, 322, 378, 442, 443, 448,
+          450, 451;
+    plan of, for South American Confederation, 99, 267, 320-322, 384,
+          442, 443, 450, 451;
+    constitutions, 99, 101, 268, 270, 385, 386;
+    undertakes conquest of Quito, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, 101, 318,
+          383, 384, 447;
+    wins battle of Ayachucho, 264;
+    welcomed in Bolivia, 267;
+    political theories of, 268, 322, 448, 451;
+    forced to retire from Peru, 270;
+    drives Spanish from Venezuela and New Granada, 317, 370, 372, 374,
+          375, 378, 433-435, 439, 440, 444;
+    interview of, with San Martin, 321;
+    life of, devoted to South American independence, 366, 388, 451;
+    army of, 376, 380, 381, 440, 441, 452;
+    proclamation of, 376;
+    overthrow of, 323, 326, 448, 450, 451;
+    death of, 326, 387, 388, 452;
+    character and education of, 364-366;
+    native city of, 387;
+    apotheosis of, 455
+
+  Bolivar, State of, 460, 463, 466
+
+  Bolivia (Upper Peru), 235-281;
+    description of 235, 236;
+    Inca conquest of, 13, 18, 236, 238;
+    military roads in, 36, 239, 244, 251;
+    Spanish conquest of, 36, 239, 248, 250;
+    Inca cities in, 44, 59;
+    capital of, 44;
+    precious metals found in, 44, 238-242, 245-247;
+    railroads in, 54, 277, 279, 280;
+    audiencia established in, 67, 250 (_see also_ Charcas);
+    the battleground of war of independence, 76, 77, 86, 97,
+          255 _et seq._, 268;
+    republic of, created, 99, 267, 268;
+    Bolivar the Father of, 99, 266, 267;
+    named, 99, 268;
+    first president of, 99, 268-270;
+    constitutions of, 99, 268, 270, 273, 278, 322;
+    the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, 101-103, 105, 197, 270-273, 281;
+    boundary treaty of, with Chile, 117, 281;
+    at war with Chile, 118, 271, 272, 281;
+    secret treaty of, with Peru, 118;
+    nitrate territory of, 211, 278;
+    early civilisation of, 236, 239, 249;
+    rainfall in, 236;
+    fertility of, 238;
+    population of, 239, 244, 269;
+    character of population of, 239, 260, 269, 272, 273, 357;
+    Spanish cities in, 241, 242, 249;
+    cattle-raising in, 242, 243, 248;
+    Spanish colonial system in, 243, 245, 249;
+    taxation in, 243, 269, 270, 276;
+    missions established in, 245, 279;
+    printing-press, in, 245;
+    battles in, 257-260, 264-266, 272, 273, 281;
+    sturdy spirit of patriots in, 258-262, etc.;
+    commerce of, 267, 272, 281;
+    period of civil war and anarchy in, 272 _et seq._;
+    slavery abolished in, 273;
+    greatest silver producing country of the world, 277, 278;
+    rubber production of, 278-280;
+    without seaports, 278, 280, 281;
+    treaty of, with Brazil, 280;
+    international position of, 281
+
+  Bonaparte, Joseph, 311, 312, 360
+
+  Bonaparte, Napoleon, 77, 159, 311, 365, 435
+
+  Borrero, Antonio, President of Ecuador, 339
+
+  Bourbon dynasty, the, 70, 154, 250
+
+  Boves, organises troop of llaneros, 368, 369;
+    death of, 370
+
+  Boyacá River, the, 378;
+    battle of, 86, 256, 317, 378, 441
+
+  Boyacá, state of, 467
+
+  Brazil, treaty of, with Bolivia, 280;
+    loyalty of, 337
+
+  Brown, Admiral William, 78
+
+  Buccaneers, 69, 70, 150
+
+  Buenaventura, 49
+
+  Buenos Aires, viceroyalty of, 67, 71, 155, 251, 257;
+    smuggling in, 71, 152, 251;
+    revolutionary junta in, 76, 160, 161, 438;
+    pampas of, 78, 149;
+    importance of, 156, 158
+
+  Bunes, General, 198, 199
+
+
+  C
+
+  Cabildos, in Bogotá, 431;
+    in Bolivia, 249;
+    in Chile, 160, 161;
+    in Ecuador, 313;
+    in Venezuela, 360, 361, 385
+
+  Cacao, native to South America, 66, 238, 303
+
+  Cacao industry in Colombia, 428;
+    in Ecuador, 303, 328, 332, 341;
+    in Venezuela, 352, 390, 395
+
+  Caceres, President of Peru, 126-131
+
+  Cacha, the last Cara shiri, 292, 294
+
+  Caciques, 64, 243, 244, 248
+
+  Cadiz, 70, 361, 380, 443;
+    monopoly, the, 152, 352
+
+  Cajamarca, 17, 20, 21, 29, 31
+
+  Calabozo, 368, 375
+
+  Caldas, Colombian scientist, 438
+
+  Calderon, Garcia, 126
+
+  Cali (city), 408, 409, 432
+
+  Cali (province), part of presidency of Quito, 420
+
+  Calivio, battle of, 433
+
+  Callao, engulfed by tidal wave, 71;
+    Peruvian fleet at, 104;
+    Spanish fleet at, 112, 184, 186
+
+  Callao Castle, 80, 84, 97, 321
+
+  Caluchima, 296
+
+  Camano, José, President of Ecuador, 339
+
+  Camargo, patriot leader, 258, 260
+
+  Campero, Narcisco, President of Bolivia, 278
+
+  Cañan (province), 288, 291, 296, 298
+
+  Cañaris, the, Indian tribe, 14, 16, 17, 296, 297
+
+  Candamo, Señor, President of Peru, 131
+
+  Cancha-Rayada, battle at, 176-178
+
+  Cañete (city), founded, 143, 144;
+    besieged, 145, 146
+
+  Cañete, Marquis of, the "good viceroy," 57, 58. _See_ Mendoza
+
+  Canizaries, Doña Manuela, 313
+
+  Canseco, General, President of Peru, 113
+
+  Canterac, Spanish commander, 85, 89, 93, 96, 97
+
+  Canto, Colonel, 223, 224
+
+  Cape Codera, 351
+
+  Cape Gracias á Dios, 403, 404, 405
+
+  Cape Horn, 69, 152, 209, 235
+
+  Cape San Roman, 347
+
+  Captaincies-General, 67, 71, 148, 355, 356, 419, 426
+
+  Carabobo, battle of, 86, 317, 381, 443
+
+  Caracas (city), revolutionary junta in, 76, 361;
+    founded, 350;
+    sacked, 351, 354;
+    made a captaincy-general, 356, 392, 426;
+    destroyed by earthquake, 363;
+    Bolivar's birthplace, 382, 386, 387;
+    under jurisdiction of Bogotá, 426;
+    revolution in, 447
+
+  Caracoles, silver mines of, 208
+
+  Cara Indians, the, confederacy of, 11, 12, 16, 288, 289;
+    invade Ecuador, 11, 286, 287;
+    conquered by Incas, 11-14, 288-296
+
+  Caranquis, the Indian tribe, 13, 293, 294
+
+  Caras, description of, 286-290, 293, 412;
+    staple articles of food of, 290, 303;
+    conquered by Spanish, 299
+
+  Carbojal, Spanish commander, 53, 56
+
+  Caribbean Sea, 70, 71, 348, 405, 406, 414, 470
+
+  Carib Indians, the, 268, 290, 413
+
+  Carrasco, Captain-General of Chile, 159-161
+
+  Carrera, José, creole leader, 162, 164, 166, 167, 173, 182
+
+  Carrera, Juan, 162, 173, 181, 182
+
+  Carrera, Luiz, 162, 173, 181, 182
+
+  Carrillo, 126
+
+  Cartagena (city), revolutionary junta in, 366, 431;
+    Bolivar takes service with, 366, 433;
+    besieged, 380, 381, 429, 435-437, 480;
+    oldest fortress in America, 406-409, 428, 436, 442;
+    surrender of, 443
+
+  Cartagena (province), 417, 419, 420, 431, 432
+
+  Cartago (city), 408, 409;
+
+  Carujo, Venezuelan revolutionist, 389
+
+  Casanare (province), 424
+
+  Casanare River, the, 376, 377, 437;
+    plains of, 406, 440
+
+  Cassava, 66
+
+  Castilla, Don Ramon, President of Peru, 106-110, 112, 274;
+    character and ability of, 108;
+    death of, 113
+
+  Castilla, Don Ruiz de, President of Quito, 312, 314
+
+  Castilla, Marshal, 118;
+
+  Castro (city), 151
+
+  Castro, President of Venezuela, 396, 398, 399
+
+  Castro, Vala de, Governor of Peru, 46, 49, 50, 52, 300
+
+  Cattle, introduced into South America, 66, 151, 352
+
+  Cattle-raising in Bolivia, 243, 261;
+    in Colombia, 421;
+    in Venezuela, 354, 355, 390, 395
+
+  Cauca (province), northern division of Quito presidency, 324, 326;
+    State of, 460, 466, 468
+
+  Cauca River, the, 49, 312, 408, 409, 411, 412, 422, 432, 433
+
+  Caudillos, the, Bolivian, 256, 269, 270
+
+  Caupolican, Arauncanian chief, 144
+
+  Ceballos, José, 361, 368, 369
+
+  Central America, Colombia's claim to, 429
+
+  Cerro de Pasco Mountains, 4, 9, 11, 17, 18, 32, 36, 81, 262, 264, 289
+
+  Chacabuco, battle of, 78, 168, 170, 172, 256, 261, 317
+
+  Chanca Indians, the, 9
+
+  Chancos, battle of, 467
+
+  Charcas (Sueré), Indian capital of Bolivia, 44, 59, 240;
+    audiencia of, 71, 250, 251, 267;
+    revolutionary junta in, 76;
+    Spanish capital of Upper Peru, 242, 249, 301;
+    jurisdiction of, 250, 251
+
+  Charles IV. of Spain, 311
+
+  Charles V., Emperor, authorises conquest of Peru, 25, 26, 41, 60;
+    appoints governor for Venezuela, 349
+
+  Chaves, Francisco, 47
+
+  Chibcho Indians, the, 412-414;
+    civilisation of, 412
+
+  Chile, Inca conquest of, 11, 12, 18, 135;
+    Spanish conquest of, 36, 43, 44, 60, 136, 139-149;
+    captain-general of, 67, 148, 154, 155, 158, 160, 161;
+    war of independence in, 76, 78, 112, 156 _et seq._, 190, 261, 317;
+    junta established in, 161;
+    at war with Peru and Bolivia, 104, 105, 118, 119, 208, 211, 281;
+    boundary treaty of, with Bolivia, 117, 118, 206;
+    boundaries of, 117, 147, 150, 155;
+    defeats allies, 121-125;
+    captures Lima, 125, 126, 213;
+    mineral products of, 117, 136, 138, 144, 148, 199, 208;
+    nitrate industry of, 117, 118, 126, 206, 211;
+    gains control of nitrate region, 212, 220-222;
+    navy of, 118-121, 183-185, 204;
+    characteristics of inhabitants of, 135, 136, 149, 150, 190;
+    area of, 135;
+    rainfall in, 135;
+    population of, 135, 136, 152, 230;
+    agricultural conditions in, 136, 148, 199;
+    battles in, 141, 143-145, 164, 167, 176-178, 180-182, 187, 223-225,
+          272;
+    Spanish cities of, 145, 151, 154, 155;
+    at war with Araucanians, 147, 206;
+    the colonial period in, 148-155;
+    immigration into, 149, 156, 199, 203;
+    growth of commerce in, 148, 152, 154, 158, 162, 199, 200, 203, 230;
+    smuggling in, 152;
+    taxation in, 152, 158;
+    prosperity of, 154-156, 158, 203, 208, 216;
+    universities in, 154, 198;
+    the capital of, 154, 158;
+    seismic disturbances in, 154;
+    Cuyo separates from, 155;
+    landed aristocracy of, 158, 159, 162, 189, 201;
+    liberal reforms in, 162, 168, 200, 206-208, 214-217;
+    slavery abolished in, 162;
+    Spanish authority re-established in, 163, 166, 168, 316;
+    independence of, proclaimed, 176;
+    civil wars in, 189 _et seq._, 200-203, 215-226;
+    constitutions of, 193, 196, 206;
+    strong government established in, 196, 197, 271, 272;
+    qualifications for suffrage in, 196, 206;
+    becomes dominant power on Pacific coast, 198;
+    political conditions in, 198-203, 207, 214, 215, 227-229;
+    financial conditions of, 98, 200, 211-213;
+    religious conditions in, 199, 201;
+    adopts civil and criminal codes, 200, 207;
+    at war with Spain, 203, 204, 337;
+    debt of, 208;
+    boundary treaty of, with Argentina, 209, 210;
+    boundary disputes with Argentina, 209, 210, 230, 231;
+    chief exports of, 211;
+    paper money issued in, 212;
+    under jurisdiction of Buenos Aires, 251
+
+  Chilean (city), 145, 151, 164
+
+  Chiloë Islands, the, explored, 143, 149, 188, 192, 197
+
+  Chimilas Mountains, 410
+
+  Chincha Islands, the, seized by Spain, 112, 203
+
+  Chinchon, Countess of, cure of, 70
+
+  Chinese coolies in Peru, 111
+
+  Chiquitos  Indians, the, 245, 250
+
+  Chocolate, Europe indebted to Peru for, 66;
+    Ecuador supplies large amount of, 332
+
+  Chorrillos (city), 125
+
+  Coal mines, 208
+
+  Cochabamba (city), 243, 249, 258
+
+  Cochrane, Lord Thomas, Admiral, 79-83, 186-188, 190
+
+  _Cochrane_, the, 119-121
+
+  Cocoa palm introduced into South America, 66
+
+  Coffee-raising, 341, 390, 395
+
+  Colombia (New Granada), plateau of, 13, 312, 406, 410, 414, 419;
+    Spanish exploration of, 22, 347, 348, 403-406, 410-414;
+    native tribes of, 23, 406, 409, 410, 412-414, 416;
+    first permanent settlement in, 406, 416;
+    Spanish conquest of, 407-418;
+    revolutionary spirit in, 366, 430 _et seq._;
+    war of independence in, 86, 316, 317, 430-444;
+    formation of United States of, 98, 99, 318, 322, 378, 382, 461;
+    provinces in confederation of, 98, 99, 267, 318, 320-322, 337, 378,
+          443;
+    Bolivar, President of confederation of, 99, 322, 378, 442, 443, 448,
+          450, 451;
+    southern part under jurisdiction of Quito, 312;
+    Constitution of Cucutá, 322, 386;
+    confederation of, breaks up, 324, 388, 451, 452;
+    at war with Peru, 324;
+    civil wars in, 333, 337, 417, 450-458, 460, 470, 476, 481-485;
+    boundaries of, 403;
+    gold in, 404, 406-409, 412, 414, 416, 424;
+    cities founded in, 404-406, 408, 409, 413-416, 424;
+    climate of, 405, 406, 410, 422, 424, 425;
+    rainfall in, 405;
+    tropical forests of, 406;
+    fertility of, 406, 410, 412, 414, 420, 421;
+    Indian slavery in, 406, 416;
+    negro slaves in, 422, 425;
+    early civilisation of, 404, 409-412;
+    population of, 409, 410, 413, 422, 424;
+    territorial divisions of, 416;
+    royal commissioners sent to, 417, 427;
+    erected into a presidency, 418, 419;
+    jurisdiction of presidency, 419, 420;
+    colonial period of, 419-429;
+    names of, 419, 458, 459, 461;
+    education in, 420, 422, 454, 456, 461;
+    roads built in, 420, 428;
+    river transportation in, 420;
+    creoles of, 421, 422, 427, 428, 430, 431, 476;
+    agricultural products of, 421, 424, 428;
+    Antioquia, great mineral province of, 422;
+    commercial conditions in, 422, 425, 427, 428, 485;
+    taxation in, 422, 424, 427, 428, 481;
+    authors of, celebrated, 422;
+    mineral products of, 424;
+    Spanish colonial system in, 424, 427, 428, 431;
+    decrease in population of, 425;
+    smuggling in, 425;
+    religious conditions in, 425, 437, 455-458, 461, 462, 469, 470;
+    governors of, 425, 428, 437;
+    diseases rife in, 426;
+    "Rebellion of the Communes" in, 427;
+    viceroys of, 428, 430, 431;
+    exports of, 428, 464;
+    claim of, to Central America, 429;
+    Congress of, 432, 433, 437, 439;
+    battles in, 433, 437, 439, 441, 443, 461, 462, 467, 482;
+    independence of, recognised, 442, 446;
+    financial conditions in, 446, 447, 455, 463-466, 468, 472, 485;
+    public debt of, 446, 447, 468, 469, 478, 479;
+    credit of, 447;
+    liberty of the Press in, 450, 457;
+    numerous constitutions of, 452, 455, 457, 460-462, 468, 469, 475,
+          478, 480;
+    political conditions in, 454-462, 465, 469, 476, 480, 481;
+    right of suffrage in, 454, 459-461, 469;
+    steam navigation introduced into, 455;
+    death penalty abolished, 456, 461;
+    campaign of, against Ecuador, 462;
+    power of judiciary in, 462, 469;
+    receipts from Panama railway, 464;
+    franchise of railway extended, 465;
+    becomes a consolidated republic, 468, 469, 479;
+    name changed to Republic of, 468, 480;
+    length of presidential term in, 469, 481;
+    paper currency in, 470, 478, 485;
+    negotiates treaties with United States, 470;
+    rejects treaties, 471, 485, 486;
+    Panama declares her independence of, 471;
+    threatens war against United States, 472;
+    future of, 472;
+    appeals to United States, 480;
+    demands of, in regard to Panama Canal, 485, 486
+
+  Colombian army, the, 98, 267, 323, 326, 337
+
+  Colon (city), 405;
+    burned, 480;
+    captured, 485;
+     adheres  to Panama, 488
+
+  Colonia (city), 152
+
+  Columbus, Bartholomew, 404
+
+  Columbus, Christopher, 347, 348
+
+  Concepcion, founded, 139, 140, 142, 151;
+    burned, 145;
+    destroyed by tidal wave, 154;
+    patriots capture, 164;
+    southern capital of Chile, 191
+
+  Concordat signed by Ecuador, 337
+
+  "Conquistadores," the, 50, 56, 424
+
+  Copiapo, valley of, 137;
+    mines of, 199
+
+  Copper, 8, 117, 211, 238, 239
+
+  Copper-pan amalgamation process, 241
+
+  Coquimbo, founded, 138;
+    northern capital of Chile, 151, 190
+
+  Cordero, Luis, President of Ecuador, 340, 341
+
+  Cordilleras, the, 4, 11, 33, 259, 286, 290, 376, 408
+
+  Cordoba, General, 387, 451
+
+  Cordoba, Gonzalo de, 21
+
+  Coro (city), 348-350, 360, 361, 406, 413, 420
+
+  Corregidors, 60, 64, 69, 243, 248, 249;
+    abolished, 72, 254
+
+  "Corregimentos," 64
+
+  Cortes, Hernando, conqueror of Mexico, 22, 26, 44, 407
+
+  Cortes, the Spanish, 166,436
+
+  Cotopaxi, eruption of, 298
+
+  Cotton, 3, 8, 111, 113, 238, 412
+
+  Council of the Indies, 304
+
+  _Covadonga_, the, 119
+
+  Coya (city), 145
+
+  Creoles, 65, 66, 243, 279, 308, 310, 421;
+    growth of revolutionary ideas among, 72, 74, 77, 84, 159, 160, 257,
+          311, 312, 338, 359-362, 388, 430;
+    characteristics of, 272, 273, 357, 396, 422;
+    education among, 307, 309, 310, 336, 353, 384;
+    new race of, 354
+
+  Crespo, President of Venezuela, 396
+
+  Croix, General Theodore de, 72
+
+  Cuaspud, battle of, 337, 462
+
+  Cuba, captain-general of, 429
+
+  Cubagua, island of, 348
+
+  Cucutá (city), 382;
+    Colombian Congress meets at, 443, 448
+
+  Cucutá, constitution of, 322, 443
+
+  Cuenca (city), 100
+
+  Cuenca (province), 291, 298, 312, 314, 323, 324, 327;
+    plateau of, 288, 307, 308
+
+  Cumaná, oldest city in South America, 348, 351, 383
+
+  Cumaná (province), 356, 362;
+    transferred to jurisdiction of Venezuela, 426
+
+  Cundinamarca, State of, 465 467, 469
+
+  Cuyo (province), 78, 149;
+    separation of, from Chile, 155
+
+  Cuzco, plateau of, 3, 4, 9
+
+  Cuzco (city), Inca capital, 5, 12, 18, 19, 32, 33, 59, 63, 103, 108,
+          291, 295;
+    military road from, 9, 18, 28;
+    possessed by Spanish, 32-36, 39, 238, 258
+
+
+  D
+
+  Darien, gold-mines of, 22;
+    Gulf of, 403, 404
+
+  Daza, General, 278
+
+  De Lesseps, Ferdinand, 482
+
+  Drake, Sir Francis, 428
+
+  Ducasse captures Cartagena, 428
+
+  Duchisela, long reign of, 288
+
+
+  E
+
+  Earthquake, of 1751, 154;
+    of 1812, 363
+
+  Echenique, General, President of Peru, 109, 110
+
+  Ecuador, Cara conquest of, 11-13, 286-288;
+    Inca conquest of, 12, 13, 17, 24, 288, 291-296;
+    character of inhabitants of, 24, 27, 286, 287, 289, 307, 342, 343,
+          357, 409;
+    gold and silver in, 27, 53, 307;
+    military roads in, 12, 28, 307, 336;
+    Spanish conquest of, 58, 67, 297 _et seq._;
+    Inca cities in, 59;
+    war of independence in, 76, 86, 309 _et seq._, 437;
+    incorporation of, with Colombia, 98, 267, 318, 320-322, 443;
+    the founder of, 101, 327;
+    description of, 285-287, 290, 291;
+    climate of, 285, 290;
+    fertility of, 286, 290, 341-343;
+    taxation in, 301, 307, 328, 336;
+    area of, 302, 303;
+    population of, 302, 303, 342, 343;
+    European grains and fruits introduced into, 303, 308;
+    cacao industry of, 303, 328, 332, 341;
+    Catholic Church in, 305, 306, 309, 337;
+    education in, 307, 309;
+    the capital of, 307;
+    decrease in population of, 307, 308, 328;
+    negro slavery in, 307;
+    presidency of Quito erected, 308, 321, 323, 324, 326, 327;
+    under jurisdiction of New Granada, 308;
+    audiencia established in, 308;
+    junta appointed in, 313, 314;
+    open cabildo summoned, 313;
+    battles in, 293, 298, 316, 318, 324;
+    independence of, declared, 324, 452;
+    named, 324;
+    treaty of, with Colombia, 327;
+    civil war in, 328, 329, 337-341, 451;
+    civil and constitutional government in, 329;
+    reforms in government of, 330, 331, 336;
+    financial conditions of, 31, 336;
+    second South American republic recognised by Spain, 331;
+    prosperity of, 332;
+    numerous constitutions of, 333-335, 339;
+    railways of, 342;
+    manual industries of, 342;
+    future of, 342, 343;
+    under jurisdiction of Bogotá, 426;
+    Colombian campaign against, 462
+
+  Eldorado, 241, 349
+
+  Elephantiasis, 426
+
+  Elias, Campo, patriot leader, 368, 369
+
+  Emeralds, 27, 412, 417, 424
+
+  Encalada, Blanco, 80
+
+  Encomiendas, system of agricultural, 38, 46, 53, 65, 240, 242;
+    abolished, 50, 51, 243, 417
+
+  England, granted privilege of exporting negroes to South America, 70;
+    war between Spain and, 158;
+    fleet of, destroys Venezuelan navy, 398;
+    recognises independence of Colombia, 446
+
+  Errazuriz, President of Chile, 207, 228
+
+  _Esmeralda_, the, capture of, 82, 119;
+    sale of, to Japan, 340
+
+  España, creole leader, 359, 360
+
+  Estremadura (province), 21, 26
+
+
+  F
+
+  Falcon, General, 391-394
+
+  Federmann, explorer, 414
+
+  Ferdinand VII. of Spain,
+    deposition and imprisonment of, 159, 311, 312, 360, 365, 370, 380;
+    restoration of, 435
+
+  Fernandez, conspiracy of, 276
+
+  Flores, Antonio, President of Ecuador, 340
+
+  Flores, General, the founder of Ecuador, 101, 323, 324, 326-329, 333,
+  451
+
+  France, war between Spain and, 152, 256, 311, 312;
+   recognises republic of Panama, 488
+
+  Franciscans, the, 68
+
+  Freire, General, 104, 191-194, 197
+
+  French scientists in Quito, 309
+
+  Fruits introduced into  South America, 66, 151, 303, 308
+
+
+  G
+
+  Gallo heads insurrection, 202
+
+  Gamarra, General, Dictator of Peru, 101-105, 270
+
+  Garrapata, battle of, 467
+
+  Gasca, Pedro de la, 54, 56, 57, 301
+
+  Gatajo, battle of, 341
+
+  Gauchos, 171, 261, 438
+
+  Gavilan, battle of, 172
+
+  Goajira, peninsula of, 348, 403, 404
+
+  Goats, 66
+
+  Gold, Spain's desire for, 26, 35, 53, 65, 66, 69, 241, 352;
+    in Bolivia, 240, 246, 247;
+    in Chile, 136, 138, 144;
+    in Colombia, 404, 406-409, 412, 414, 416, 424;
+    in Ecuador, 27, 53, 299, 307;
+    in Peru, 25, 27, 32, 36;
+    in Venezuela, 352
+
+  Goyeneche, General, 257, 361
+
+  Grains introduced into South America, 66, 151
+
+  Grapes, 66;
+    cultivation of, forbidden, 159
+
+  Grau, Miguel, Admiral, 119-121
+
+  Great Britain, action of foreign office in regard to Bolivia, 275;
+    threatened rupture between United States and, 398;
+    abandons Isthmian colony, 429.
+    _See also_ England.
+
+  Gröningen, victory of, 62
+
+  Guaicaipuro, Indian chief, 350
+
+  Gual, creole leader, 359, 360
+
+  Gual, Pedro, 391
+
+  Guamanga, founded, 44, 49, 50, 60, 106, 126;
+    battle at, 49, 50
+
+  Guano deposits, 109, 113, 114, 116, 127, 128, 206, 210
+
+  Guarany, Indians, the, 249;
+    language, 306
+
+  Guatamala, 39, 298
+
+  Guayaquil (city), founded, 299;
+    best port on Pacific coast of South America, 86, 101, 105, 299, 323,
+          324, 326, 335;
+    population and wealth of, 328, 332, 341
+
+  Guayaquil (province), 312, 314, 317, 327, 444;
+    cultivation of cacao and sugar-cane in, 308
+
+  Guayaquil, Gulf of, 12, 20, 25, 27, 285, 341
+
+  Guiana (province), under jurisdiction of Bogotá, 356;
+    transferred to jurisdiction of Venezuela, 361, 426
+
+  Guiana, British, 398
+
+  Guipuzcoa Company, the, 354-356, 358
+
+  Gutierrez brothers, the, 114, 116
+
+  Gutierrez, President of Colombia, 465
+
+
+  H
+
+  Hague  international  tribunal, the, 399
+
+  Hayti, Bolivar flees to, 372;
+    gold placers of, 404, 406
+
+  Heath, explorer, 278
+
+  Heredia founds Cartagena, 406, 408
+
+  Herran, General, President of New Granada, 454, 455, 458
+
+  Herrera, General, 103, 485
+
+  Hides, exportation of, 354, 428
+
+  Honda (city), 420
+
+  Honduras, 403
+
+  Horses, 20, 27, 39, 66, 243, 261
+
+  Huacho, San Martin lands at, 81
+
+  Huaina Capac, Inca emperor, campaign of, 12;
+    conquest of Quito by, 12-14, 18, 292-294, 308;
+    death of, 14, 295
+
+  Hualcopo, Cara shiri, 290-292, 295
+
+  Huanacabamba (province), 288
+
+  Huanca, Auqui, 17
+
+  Huanchaca, mines of, 278
+
+  Huaqui, battle of, 170, 256, 257
+
+  Huascar, Inca empire divided between Atahuallpa and, 14;
+    fratricidal war between Atahuallpa and, 16-19, 238, 295, 296;
+    execution of, 31
+
+  _Huascar_, the, 119-121, 212
+
+  Humachiri, battle of, 259
+
+  "Husares de la Muerte," cavalry corps, 182
+
+
+  I
+
+  Ibague (city), 416
+
+  Ibarra, 287, 293
+
+  Iglesias, President of Chile, 126, 127
+
+  Immigrants, into Peru, 111, 149;
+    into Chile, 156, 203;
+    into Ecuador, 307
+
+  Imperial (city), founded, 140;
+    besieged, 142, 145, 146
+
+  Inca Indians, the, home of, 3, 4;
+    civilisation of, 3, 24, 25, 236, 290, 412;
+    migration of, 4
+
+  Incas, language of, 4, 10, 13;
+    religion of, 5, 13;
+    social and industrial organisation of, 5, 6, 10, 59, 249, 289, 295;
+    capital of, 5, 12, 18, 19, 32-35, etc.;
+    emperors of, 5, 6, 8-10, 12, 14, 16, 28-32, 34-38, 40, 61, 62;
+    death of last emperor of, 63;
+    conquests of, 6, 8-19, 236, 288 _et seq._;
+    irrigation system of, 6, 10, 25, 59;
+    empire of, 8, 9, 11, 13, 22, 292-294;
+    military roads built by, 9, 10, 12, 28, 29, 38, 59, 239, 244, 251,
+          307;
+    armies of, 11, 18, 19, etc., 237;
+    Spanish conquest of, 20-40, 297;
+    population of, 25, 65, 244, 303;
+    reduced to slavery, 38, etc., 242-244, 348;
+    cities built by, 20, 38, 44, 59, 60, 240
+
+  _Independencia_, the, 119, 212
+
+  Indians of South America,
+    the, early civilisation of, 3, 4, 236, 286, 289, 410, 412;
+    various tribes of, 3, 5, 8-14, 23, 59, 135, 238, 245, 286-289, 292,
+          293, 350, 405, 410, 413;
+    language of, 4, 9, 10, 11, 136, 238, 306;
+    characteristics of, 24, 25, 77, 136, 249, 252, 253, 289, 303, 307,
+          421, 422;
+    conquered by Spanish, 24, 25, 27-40;
+    oppression and slavery of, 38, 58, 59, 63-65, 68, 69, 242-244, 253,
+          254, 348, 406, 416, 422, 425-428;
+    rebellions of, 38-40, 72, 77, 251, 253, 254, 258, 259;
+    Spanish legislation in behalf of, 57, 243, 254, 417;
+    impressment of, 64, 69, 242, 253, 416, 425;
+    missions established among, 151, 244, 250, 306, 352
+
+  Indigo, 303
+
+  Inquisition established, in Peru, 69;
+    in Colombia, 437
+
+  Ipecacuanha, Europe indebted to Peru for, 66
+
+  Iquique, Peruvian port, 119, 122
+
+  Iquitos (city), 114
+
+  Irish mercenaries in Bolivar's army, 376, 380
+
+  Irrigation in South America, 6, 10, 25, 59, 135
+
+
+  J
+
+  Jauja (city), 54, 60, 84, 89, 92-94
+
+  Jauja, valley of the, 9, 18, 33, 35, 36, 39, 44, 49
+
+  Jemappes, battle of, 359
+
+  Jesuits, in Bolivia, 245, 279;
+    in Colombia, 455, 461;
+    in Ecuador, 309, 334, 337;
+    in Peru, 68, 71, 309
+
+  Jiron, Governor of New Granada, 425
+
+  Jubones, plateau of, 288, 291
+
+  Juncal, battle of, 372
+
+  Junin, battle of, 93, 321
+
+  Jurisprudence, Spanish system of, in South America, 66, 200, 304
+
+
+  K
+
+  Koerner, Colonel, 223, 225
+
+
+  L
+
+  La Donjuana, battle of, 467
+
+  La Fuente, Dictator of Peru, 102, 106
+
+  La Guaira, 350, 356, 359, 369
+
+  La Mar, General, President of Peru, 100, 101, 324
+
+  La Palma, battle of, 110
+
+  La Paz, founded, 60, 241, 249;
+    spirit of independence in, 76, 77, 257, 260, 361
+
+  La Puerta, decisive battles of, 369, 375
+
+  Lara, General, deported, 99
+
+  Las Casas, famous book of, 50, 59
+
+  La Serna, General, Viceroy of Peru, 84, 91;
+    army of, 93-95, 261, 264
+
+  Las Heras, patriot commander, 171, 172, 177, 181
+
+  Lastra, General, 194
+
+  Las Trincheiras, 368
+
+  Latacunga, valley of, 287, 292, 293
+
+  La Torre, General, 374, 380, 381
+
+  Lautaro, Araucanian chief, 141, 142
+
+  Leiva founded, 420
+
+  Leon, creole leader, 355
+
+  Leprosy, 426
+
+  Lima (city), founded by Pizarro, 36, 46, 60;
+    Incas attempt to take, 39, 42;
+    Pizarro in, 46, 52;
+    political, social, and commercial centre of South America, 67, 71;
+    viceroyalty of Peru established at, 50, 60, 67, 70, 71, 142, 148,
+          304, 426;
+    jurisdiction of, 67, 250, 251, 304, 308;
+    earthquakes in, 71;
+    revolutionary spirit in, 73, 75, 76, 81-84, 317;
+    evacuated by the Spaniards, 84, 89;
+    Bolivar at, 99, 321, 323;
+    insurrections in, 114, 116, 131;
+    Chilian army captures, 125, 126, 213;
+    public library of, destroyed, 126
+
+  Linares, Doctor, 275, 276
+
+  Linnæus names chinchona, 70
+
+  Lircay, victory at, 194
+
+  Llamas, 3, 4, 150, 238
+
+  Llaneros, the, origin of, 354, 424;
+    cavalry troops of, organised, 368;
+    valour of, 369, 371-374, 376-378, 381, 382, 385, 389, 431, 434, 438,
+          439, 450
+
+  Llanos, 354, 368, 372, 375, 377, 406, 413, 437, 440
+
+  Loja (city), built by Spaniards, 60
+
+  Loja (province), 101, 288, 291, 298, 307, 338
+
+  Loncomilla, battle of, 200
+
+  Lopez, General, President of Colombia, 452, 455, 457
+
+  Lopez, tyrant of Paraguay, 248, 465
+
+  Los Andes, 396
+
+  Louis XIV. and war of Spanish Succession, 152
+
+  Loyola, founder of Jesuit order, 245
+
+  Lugo, adelantado, 414, 417
+
+  Luque, partner of Pizarro, 23
+
+
+  M
+
+  MacGregor captures Barcelona, 372
+
+  Madeira Falls, the, 280
+
+  Madeira River, the, 244, 246, 278-281
+
+  Madrid, Pizarro goes to, 25;
+    legislation at, in behalf of Indians, 50, 417;
+    commissions from, 58;
+    revenue sent to, 69;
+    government, 70, 147, 309, 418;
+    French king on throne of, 152
+
+  Madrid, Dictator of Colombia, 437
+
+  Magdalena River, the, 366, 380, 406, 408-410, 412-414 _et passim_;
+    named, 403;
+    Valley, 312, 381
+
+  Magdalena, State of, 463, 466, 468, 480
+
+  Magellan, Straits of, 69, 140, 209
+
+  Maipo, battle of, 79, 179-182
+
+  Maize, 3, 4, 8, 39, 238, 248, 290, 303, 352;
+    Europe indebted to Peru for, 66
+
+  Mallarino, President of New Granada, 458
+
+  Manabi, 292, 293
+
+  Manaos, 280
+
+  Manco Capac, first Inca sovereign, 5, 6
+
+  Manco Capac, brother of Huascar, 34, 38-41
+
+  Manso, Governor, 154
+
+  Maracaibo Bay, 406, 409, 441
+
+  Maracaibo (city), sack of, 354;
+    refused to bend delegates to Caracas, 361
+
+  Maracaibo, Gulf of, 347, 348, 351, 403, 406
+
+  Maracaibo, Lake, 351, 383
+
+  Maracaibo (province), under jurisdiction of Bogotá, 356, 426;
+    transferred to jurisdiction of Venezuela, 356, 426;
+    revolt in, 380;
+    separated from Caracas, 392
+
+  Marco, General, 170
+
+  Margarita, Island of, 348, 367, 426
+
+  Margarita (province), 362
+
+  Mariño, Dictator of Venezuela, 367, 369, 370, 378, 389
+
+  Marquez, President  of  New Granada, 454
+
+  Marroquin, President  of Colombia, 469, 470, 484
+
+  Martin, Alonso, 405
+
+  Maturin captured, 367
+
+  Maule River, the, 11, 135, 136, 138, 142, 145, 164, 166
+
+  Medina Celi joins patriots, 264, 265
+
+  Melgarejo, Dictator of Bolivia, 276, 277
+
+  Mello, Geronimo, explores Magdalena River, 414
+
+  Melo, General, 458
+
+  Mendoza, Andre Hurtado de,
+    Marquis of Cañete, "the good viceroy," 57, 58, 60, 142;
+    death of, 61
+
+  Mendoza, Garcia de, campaign of, 142, 143;
+    founds Cañete, 143
+
+  Mendoza (province), 140, 149
+
+  Menendez, President of Peru, 107
+
+  Mercury, 69
+
+  Merida (city), founded, 350;
+    destroyed by earthquake, 363
+
+  Merida (province), 362, 363, 366
+
+  Meta River, the, 377
+
+  Meuqueta, zipa of, 412
+
+  Mexico, 22, 39, 290
+
+  Miranda, Francisco, patriot leader, 359, 360, 362, 363
+
+  Mississippi River, the, 27
+
+  "Mitta," 64, 65
+
+  Mocha, 293, 316
+
+  Mochica language, the, 11
+
+  Mojos Indians, the, 245, 250, 279
+
+  Molina, Governor of Ecuador, 315
+
+  Mollendo railroad, the, 54, 277
+
+  Monagas, President of Venezuela, 388, 390
+
+  Monteagudo, Dr., 182
+
+  Montes, General, 316
+
+  Monteverde, General, 363, 364, 367, 368, 370
+
+  Montilla, General, 381
+
+  Montt, Jorge, President of Chile, 220, 227
+
+  Montt, Manuel,  President of Chile,  199-201;
+    proclaims martial law, 201
+
+  Montt, Pedro, 228
+
+  Montufar, Carlos, 314
+
+  Montufar, Juan, 313
+
+  Moquegua, 124
+
+  Morales, General, 277, 370, 372, 383
+
+  Moreno, Garcia, President of Ecuador,
+    long administration of, 335-339, 462;
+    character of, 336
+
+  Morgan, sacked Maracaibo, 354
+
+  Morillo, Marshal, in Venezuela, 370-372, 436-439;
+    report of, 375;
+    resigns, 380
+
+  Mosquera, Tomas, President of Columbia, 452, 454, 455, 458, 460-464
+
+  Mosquito Coast, the, 419
+
+  Munecas, priest, 259
+
+  Murillo, President of Colombia, 459, 462, 466
+
+
+  N
+
+  Napo River, the, 300
+
+  Napoleon. _See_ Bonaparte
+
+  Nariño, Dictator of Colombia, 431, 432, 434
+
+  Narvarte, Doctor, 390
+
+  Naxichi, battle at, 16
+
+  Negroes, 70, 273, 351, 352, 357, 394, 416, 422, 425
+
+  Neiva (city), 416
+
+  Neiva, President of New Granada, 420
+
+  New Granada, captain-general of, subject to viceroy of Peru, 67;
+    viceroyalty of, created, 71, 308, 312, 426;
+    jurisdiction of, 420;
+    revolutionary junta installed in, 76;
+    war of independence in, 86, 98, 101, 261, 312, 317, 318, 320, 322,
+          326, 370, 435, 442;
+    provinces in Colombian confederation, 376, 443;
+    opposition to Bolivar's government in, 385, 387;
+    recognises independence of Venezuela and Ecuador, 388, 452;
+    name of, extended to presidency of Bogotá, 419;
+    influence of first president of, 452, 454;
+    army of, 452, 458;
+    constitution of 1832, 452, 455, 457;
+    name of, changed, 458, 459, 461.
+    _See also_ Colombia.
+
+  "New Laws," the, 51, 54, 57, 59
+
+  Nicaragua, 27, 403;
+    Canal, 485
+
+  Nicuesa, Diego de, 404, 405
+
+  Nieto, Dictator of Peru, 102
+
+  Nitrates, 113, 114, 117, 277;
+    extent of region, 117, 206;
+    taxed, 118, 211
+
+  Noboa, Diego, 334
+
+  Nombre de Dios founded, 405
+
+  "Nudos," 4, 8, 287, 291, 292
+
+  Nuñez, Rafael, President of Colombia, 468;
+    political ideas of, 478-480;
+    death of, 481
+
+
+  O
+
+  Oats, 66
+
+  Obando, General, President of New Granada, 452, 454, 457, 458
+
+  Ocana (city), captured, 366, 433;
+    national assembly held at, 385, 448;
+    founded, 420;
+    battle near, 437
+
+  Ocumare, 359, 372
+
+  O'Higgins, Ambrose, career of, 156, 158
+
+  O'Higgins, Bernardo, gallantry of, 164;
+    saves Santiago, 166;
+    defeated, 167;
+    dictator, 171, 173, 181, 182, 190;
+    resignation of, 191
+
+  Ojeda, Alonso de, explorations of, 22, 403;
+    names Venezuela, 347, 348
+
+  Olañeta, renegade Argentine, 91;
+    death of, 97, 263-265
+
+  Olives, 66, 159, 352
+
+  Opon River, the, 410
+
+  Oranges, 66
+
+  Oratorio, battle of, 460
+
+  Orbegoso, Dictator of Peru, 102-105
+
+  Ordoñez, General, 171
+
+  O'Reilly, General, 81
+
+  Orellana, discoverer of the Amazon, 44, 300;
+    refounds Guayaquil, 299
+
+  Orinoco, River, the, 78, 348, 355, 356, 374, 377, 442;
+    plains, 354, 367, 424, 441;
+    valley, 442
+
+  Orton River, the, 279
+
+  Oruro, silver mines of, 242, 249, 266, 277
+
+  Osorio, General, re-establishes Spanish authority in Chile, 167, 168;
+    defeated by San Martin, 174, 176-181
+
+  Osorno, founded, 143; besieged, 145, 146
+
+  Ospina, President of New Granada, 459-461
+
+  Otavalo, capture of, 293, 294
+
+
+  P
+
+  Pacamdré Indians, the, 293
+
+  Pachacutec, _See_ Yupanqui.
+
+  Pacheco, President of Bolivia, 278
+
+  Pacific Ocean, the, discovery of, 22, 404, 405
+
+  Padilla, patriot leader, 258, 260
+
+  Paez, José Antonio,
+    patriot leader, 79, 371, 372, 375, 377, 380, 381, 385, 387;
+    Dictator and President of Venezuela, 389-391, 447, 450
+
+  Paillamachu, Araucanian chief, 144-146
+
+  Paita (city), 28
+
+  Paita (province), 285, 288, 289
+
+  Pampas, 78, 99, 149
+
+  Pampas River, the, 94
+
+  Pamplona, revolutionary junta in, 431
+
+  Pamplona (province), 349, 366, 411, 416, 419, 437
+
+  Panama (city), founded, 22, 23-25, 298, 341, 412;
+    Pizarro sends to, for aid, 39;
+    pan-American Congress at, 323
+
+  Panama Canal, the, 470-472, 482, 485-489
+
+  Panama, Gulf of, 27
+
+  Panama hats, manufacture of, 342
+
+  Panama, Isthmus of (province), 22, 23, 27, 69, 352, 404, 405, 417,
+  419, 420, 429, 432, 470
+
+  Panama (province), audiencia of, 420, 426;
+    joins Colombian confederation, 443;
+    rebels against Colombia, 454
+
+  Panama railway, the, 455, 480, 484, 488;
+    receipts from, 464, 470
+
+  Panama, State of, 461, 463,466, 469, 470;
+    Colombian misrule in, 471, 478, 480, 481, 487;
+    declares independence, 471, 488;
+    republic of, recognised, 471, 488;
+    neutrality and free transit guaranteed to, by treaty of 1846, 480,
+          487, 488;
+    insurrections in, 484;
+    provisional government in, 488;
+    canal treaty with United States, 488, 489
+
+  Pando, José Manuel, President of Bolivia, 280
+
+  Paraguay, 67, 71, 248, 357
+
+  Paraguay River, the, 280
+
+  Paraná River, the, 249
+
+  Pardo, Don Manuel, first civilian President of Peru, 114, 116;
+    aristocratic party founded by, 131
+
+  Parra, President of Colombia, 466
+
+  Pasco, 92
+
+  Pasto (city) founded, 409, 413
+
+  Pasto (province), 49, 312, 314, 316, 324;
+    part of presidency of Quito, 326, 327, 420;
+    high tableland of, 409, 414, 424, 454;
+    loyal to Spain, 432-434, 442, 444;
+    rebellion in, 451
+
+  Paul, Rojas, 396
+
+  Paya Pass, the, 377
+
+  Peaches, 66
+
+  Pearl fisheries, 348
+
+  "Pelucones," 192
+
+  Peons, impressment of, 394-396
+
+  Perez, President of Chile, 202, 206
+
+  Perez, Santiago, President of Colombia, 466
+
+  Peru, early inhabitants of, 3, 4, 357;
+    antiquity of civilisation in, 3;
+    fertility of, 4, 8, 41, 44, 80;
+    climate of, 4, 285;
+    Inca empire established in, 5-20, 296;
+    system of irrigation in, 5, 6, 10;
+    copper mines of, 8, 117;
+    military roads in, 9, 10, 12, 28, 33, 36, 38, 59;
+    battles in, 11, 13, 16, 17, 19, 39, 43, 50, 56, 78, 88, 92, 93, 96,
+          97, 101, 105, 107, 110, 124, 125, 213, 272, 324;
+    Inca cities of, 20, 59, 60;
+    Spanish conquest of, 20-40, 58, 67, 297;
+    mineral wealth of, 24, 25, 27, 32, 36, 53, 65, 66, 69, 109, 113,
+          114, 116, 127, 128;
+    extent of, 28, 41, 44, 58, 67, 71;
+    Spanish cities in, 36, 44, 59, 60;
+    Indian rebellions in, 38, 72, 77;
+    governors of, 44, 49, 50, 52;
+    viceroyalty of, _see_ Lima;
+    viceroys of, 50-52, 58, 60-63, 70, 72, 74, 78-80, 82, 84, 261, 301,
+          304, 308;
+    slavery prohibited in, 50, 57, 111;
+    industrial development of, 53, 108, 111, 113, 114, 127-129, 132;
+    revenue to Spain from, 53, 60, 64-66, 69, 77;
+    civil wars in, 57, 99-103, 106-108, 110, 113, 127;
+    Spanish colonial system established in, 61-66;
+    taxation in, 64, 66, 69, 109;
+    population of, 65;
+    university in, 67;
+    Spanish language in, 68;
+    religious conditions in, 68, 69, 132;
+    discovery of virtues of quinine, 70;
+    earthquakes in, 71;
+    Jesuits expelled from, 71;
+    creoles of, 72, 74, 76, 77, 84, 110, 123, 130;
+    revolutionary spirit in, 72-76, 81, 82;
+    navy of, 78, 101, 104, 109, 118, 197, 325;
+    war of independence in, 80-97, 185, 186, 261, 316;
+    Spaniards evacuate capital of, 84;
+    proclaimed a republic, 85;
+    financial conditions in, 89, 110, 114, 115, 130, 132;
+    congress of, 98, 99;
+    Bolivar, Dictator of, 98, 322, 447;
+    Bolivarian constitution imposed on, 99, 322;
+    revolts from Bolivar's government, 99-101, 270, 323, 324, 448;
+    state of anarchy in, 101-103;
+    further constitutions of, 102, 111;
+    at war with Chile, 104, 119-125, 190, 197, 198;
+    capital of, captured by Chileans, 125, 126, 212, 213;
+    at war with Bolivia, 104, 273;
+    treaty of peace with Bolivia, 105;
+    commerce in, 108;
+    railways in, 109, 113, 122, 128;
+    debt of, 109, 114, 128;
+    insurrections in, 110, 113, 114, 116, 123, 130-132;
+    immigration into, encouraged, 111;
+    treaty of alliance with Chile, against Spain, 112;
+    naval battles of, 112, 119-121, 212;
+    at war with Spain, 112, 203, 204, 337;
+    revenue from nitrates, 113, 114;
+    first civilian president of, 114;
+    guano deposits of, 116, 127, 128;
+    currency of, 116;
+    treaty of alliance with Bolivia, 118, 119;
+    nitrate region owned by, 117, 119, 121, 122, 212;
+    loses nitrate province, 123, 125;
+    losses of, in Chilean war, 125, 127;
+    mediation of United States between Chile and, 125;
+    treaty of peace with Chile, 127;
+    reorganisation of, 128;
+    British creditors of, 128;
+    rubber industry in, 129;
+    political conditions in, 130-132;
+    hopeful signs of the times for, 131;
+    cause of revolutions in, 132;
+    Upper, formed into republic of Bolivia, 240, 266-268;
+    re-establishes independent existence, 272;
+    at war with Colombia, 324, 451;
+    surrenders southern provinces, 324
+
+  Peru-Bolivian Confederation, the, 101-103, 105, 197, 197, 270-273, 281
+
+  Peruvian bonds, 114, 116
+
+  Peruvian Corporation, the, 128, 129
+
+  Pezet, President of Peru, 111, 112
+
+  Pezuela, General, 82, 260
+
+  Philip II. of Spain, 53, 54, 61
+
+  Piar, negro chief, 372, 374
+
+  Pichincha, battle of, 86, 444
+
+  Pierola, General, 116, 123, 126, 130;
+    President of Peru, 131
+
+  Pigeons, 66
+
+  Pigs, 66
+
+  Pinto, Anibal, President of Chile, 209, 213
+
+  Pinto, General, President of Chile, 193
+
+  "Pipiolas," 192
+
+  Pisagua captured, 122
+
+  Pisco, 80, 81
+
+  Piura (city) founded, 60, 297
+
+  Piura (province), 288
+
+  Piura, valley of, 291
+
+  Pizarro, Francisco, the conqueror of Peru, early life of, 21, 22;
+    with Ojeda and Balboa, 22, 404, 405;
+    partners of, 23;
+    failure of first exploring expedition, 23;
+    second expedition of, 23-25;
+    authorised by Charles V. to conquer Peru, 25, 26;
+    third expedition of, 26, 27;
+    reinforced by de Soto, 27;
+    lands in northern Peru, 27, 28, 297;
+    meets Inca emperor, 29;
+    treachery of, 28-34, 238;
+    establishes Spanish government, 35, 44;
+    founds cities, 36, 44;
+    territory awarded to, 36, 41;
+    crushes Indian rebellion, 38-40;
+    Almagro quarrels with, 41-43;
+    treachery of, towards Almagro, 42, 43, 48, 136, 239;
+    extends Spanish conquest throughout Inca empire, 44, 136, 240, 407,
+          408;
+    conspiracy against, 46;
+    murder of, 47-50, 300;
+    character of, 48
+
+  Pizarro, Gonzalo, valour of, 26, 56;
+    at siege of Cuzco, 38;
+    capture of, 42;
+    Governor of Quito, 44, 299-301;
+    Governor of Peru, 50-53, 240, 301;
+    defeat and death of, 56, 240, 301
+
+  Pizarro, Hernando, joins expedition to conquer Peru, 26, 38;
+    capture and release of, 42, 43;
+    capture and death of Almagro by, 43, 136;
+    develops mining industry of Bolivia, 44;
+    establishes feudal lordships, 239, 240
+
+  Pizarro, Juan, 26, 38
+
+  Plantain introduced into Ecuador, 303, 308
+
+  Plate provinces, the, 71
+
+  Plate River, the, 67, 245, 251;
+    Valley, 155, 236
+
+  Platinum, 424
+
+  Plaza, Leonidas, President of Ecuador, 341
+
+  Poll-taxes, 64, 243, 427
+
+  Popayán (city) founded, 409
+
+  Popayán (province), 49, 53, 301, 312, 314, 408, 409, 417, 424, 432,
+          433, 444, 454;
+    part of presidency of Quito, 324-327, 420;
+    lost to Ecuador, 327
+
+  Portales, Chilean statesman, 194, 196, 197;
+    death of, 197, 198
+
+  Porto Bello captured, 429
+
+  Portuguese, the, 67, 261, 316
+
+  Potatoes, native to South America, 3, 4, 8, 238, 248, 287, 290, 303,
+          332, 343, 352;
+    introduced into Europe, 66
+
+  Potosí, silver mines of, 44, 53, 65, 99, 240, 241, 258;
+    yield of silver from, 278
+
+  Poultry introduced into South America, 66, 151
+
+  Prado, General, President of Peru, 112, 116, 123
+
+  Presidencies, 71, 418, 420, 426
+
+  Preston, Amyas, 351
+
+  Prieto, General, President of Chile, 194, 196-198
+
+  Printing-press, the, 245
+
+  Promancians, the, 138
+
+  Puerreyedon, Argentine dictator, 183
+
+  Puerto Cabello, 347, 359, 360, 366, 372;
+    British attacks on, 356;
+    captured by patriots, 382, 383, 385
+
+  Pumacagua, Indian leader, 77
+
+  Puna, bleak plateau of, 36, 236, 239, 268
+
+  Puna, island of, 27, 292
+
+  Puno, 97
+
+  Purus River, the, 280
+
+  Puzuela, General, Viceroy of Peru, 78
+
+
+  Q
+
+  Quartz mining in Bolivia, 246
+
+  Quesada, Jimenez de, conquest of, 410, 412-414;
+    founds Bogotá, 413;
+    exiled, 417;
+    names New Granada, 419
+
+  Quiapo, Spanish victory at, 144
+
+  Quichua language,
+    official medium of Inca empire, 9, 10, 238, 295, 306;
+    reduced to a written language, 306
+
+  Quicksilver, discovery of, in Peru, 241
+
+  Quillin, treaty of, 150
+
+  Quillota, 224
+
+  Quindio mountain range, 409, 411
+
+  Quinine, Europe indebted to Peru for, 66;
+    discovery of virtue of, 70;
+    origin of name, 70
+
+  Quinoa grain, the, native to South America, 3, 4, 238, 290, 303
+
+  Quintana, Dictator of Chile, 173, 174
+
+  Quinua, village of, 95
+
+  Quito (city), the Cara capital, 12, 307, 341;
+    Incas possess, 13, 14, 59, 238;
+    Spanish occupation of, 44, 49, 53, 406, 413, 416;
+    revolutionary spirit in, 76, 313, 314, 334, 335, 339, 383, 430, 432;
+    city of convents, 306;
+    population of, 307, 308;
+    French scientific monuments in, 309
+
+  Quito (province), Cara kingdom of, 11, 286-288;
+    the shiri of, 12, 14, 290;
+    Inca conquest of, 12, 18, 293, 294;
+    Spanish conquest of, 28, 36, 38, 299;
+    erected into a presidency, 71, 308, 309, 323, 324, 326, 327, 418,
+          426;
+    under jurisdiction of New Granada (Bogotá), 308, 420;
+    audiencia of, 308;
+    declared independent, 324;
+    provinces attached to presidency of, 420
+
+  Quizquiz, Indian general, 17;
+    defeats Huascar, 19, 20, 35, 238, 296;
+    defeated by Pizarro, 33, 34, 297
+
+
+  R
+
+  Rada, Juan de la, 46, 49
+
+  Railroads in Bolivia, 279, 280;
+    in Chile, 203;
+    in Peru, 54, 113, 277
+
+  Ramirez, Spanish general, 77, 78
+
+  Rancagua, battle of, 167-170
+
+  Reyes, General, President of Colombia, 471, 472
+
+  Reyes, Lake of, 92
+
+  Rice, 66, 303
+
+  Riesco, German,  President of Chile, 228
+
+  Rimac, valley of the, 36
+
+  Riobamba, 12, 288, 292, 293, 298
+
+  Rio Negro, battle at, 457
+
+  Riva Aguëro, President of Peru, 76, 88, 89
+
+  Rivas, patriot commander, 370
+
+  Riveralta, 279, 280
+
+  Robledo, Jorge, 408
+
+  Robles, Colonel, 221
+
+  Robles, President of Ecuador, 334, 335
+
+  Roca, Ramon, President of Ecuador, 333
+
+  Rocafuerte, Vicente, President of Ecuador, 328-330;
+    wise administration of, 330-332
+
+  Romana, President of Peru, 131
+
+  Rosas, Doctor, Governor of Chile, 154;
+    title of, 154;
+    founds university, 154;
+    establishes radical junta, 162, 163
+
+  Rubber, forests, exploitation of, 129;
+    Bolivia furnishes large per cent. of, 280
+
+
+  S
+
+  Saenz, Manoela, 450
+
+  Sagamoso, valley of, 377
+
+  St. Vincent, battle of, 311
+
+  Salabarrieta, Policarpo ("La Pola"), fate of, 439
+
+  Salaverry, Dictator of Peru, 102, 103
+
+  Salgar, President of Colombia, 465
+
+  Salt, 353, 424
+
+  Salta, gauchos of, 259
+
+  Samano, General, 316, 433, 437, 439-441
+
+  Sanclemente, President of Colombia, 469, 482
+
+  San  Felipe,  university  of, founded, 154
+
+  San Felix, battle of, 374
+
+  San Fernando, fortress of, 374, 375
+
+  San Francisco hill, battle at, 122
+
+  San Francisco, mining camp at, 350
+
+  San Juan, valley of, 149
+
+  San Luiz, valley of, 149
+
+  San Martin, General, equips "Army of the Andes," wins battle of
+          Chacabuco, and liberates Chile, 78, 168-171, 184, 261, 317;
+    creates a fleet, 79, 172-174, 183, 184;
+    raises armies for conquest of Peru, 80-82, 84, 171-174, 176, 178,
+          185, 186, 262;
+    proclaims independence of Peru, 85;
+    President of Peru, 85;
+    resigns presidency, 88, 263, 321;
+    famous interview of, with Bolivar, 86, 321;
+    declines governorship of Chile, 171;
+    defeat of, 176-173;
+    wins battle of Maipo, 179-181;
+    one of the greatest of South American patriots, 318
+
+  San Miguel founded by Spanish, 36, 297
+
+  San Roman, General, President of, Peru, 111
+
+  Santa Cruz (city), 249, 258, 279
+
+  Santa Cruz, General, commands Peruvian army, 88;
+    defeat of, 89, 90, 262, 263;
+    Dictator of Bolivia, 101, 102;
+    President of Peru-Bolivian Confederation, 103, 104, 197, 270, 271;
+    overthrow of, 105, 198, 272
+
+  Santa Maria, President of Chile, 213
+
+  Santa Marta (city), 326, 406, 414, 436
+
+  Santa Marta Mountains, 403
+
+  Santander, 442-444, 446-448;
+    first legal President of Colombia (New Granada), 450, 452;
+    title of, 454
+
+  Santander (city), "Rebellion of the Communes" in, 427
+
+  Santander, State of, 460, 461, 467
+
+  Santiago (city), 11, 126, 135, 142, 145, 186, 223-225;
+    revolutionary junta installed in, 76, 160, 161;
+    founded, 137;
+    discovery of gold near, 138;
+    population of, 151;
+    universities established in, 154, 198;
+    social centre of Chile, 158
+
+  Sarsaparilla, 303
+
+  Sayri Tupac, Inca emperor, 61, 62
+
+  Sebastian founded, 404
+
+  Segoria, battle of, 460
+
+  Seville junta, the, 314, 360, 362
+
+  Sheep introduced into South America, 66, 242, 243, 248
+
+  Shiris, the, of Quito, 12, 14, 16, 287-296
+
+  Silver, in Bolivia, 44, 239-242, 245, 246;
+    in Chile, 199, 208;
+    in Colombia, 424;
+    in Ecuador, 307;
+    in Peru, 24, 25, 53, 65, 66, 69, 117
+
+  Sinu River, the, 408
+
+  Slavery, Indian, 38, 69, 71, 242-244, 348, 406;
+    negro, 273, 394, 416, 422, 425
+
+  Smallpox, ravages of, 142, 426
+
+  Smuggling, 70, 71, 152, 251, 353, 354, 394, 425
+
+  Socorro (city), revolutionary junta in, 431, 432
+
+  Socorro, plateau province of, 312, 376, 413, 416, 437
+
+  Solar, Vice-President of Peru, 130
+
+  Sorata (city), the rival of Potosí, 246;
+    destroyed, 247
+
+  de Soto, Hernando, 27
+
+  Soublette, General, 390
+
+  South America, animals native to, 3, 4, 238;
+    tribes of, 4, 5, 9, 13, 66, 238, 248, etc.;
+    productions of, 3, 5, 8, 66, 70, 238, 303;
+    Spanish law in, 61, 66, 200, 253, 304;
+    animals introduced into, 66, 242, 243;
+    benefits to, from Spanish occupation, 66, 151, 303;
+    commerce except with Spain forbidden to, 66, 69-71, 152, 251, 355,
+          356;
+    Lima the political, commercial, and social centre of, 67;
+    negroes imported into, 70, 416;
+    spread of revolutionary ideas in, 73, 74, etc.;
+    character of revolution in, 84;
+    plan for constitutional monarchy in, 84;
+    success of wars of independence in, 97, 188, 265, 318, 322, 383;
+    Argentine preponderance among republics of, 155;
+    description of Andean plateau of, 235, 285;
+    theatre of the war of independence in, 255;
+    revolution in, saved from extinction, 258;
+    plan for one great confederacy in, 269, 322;
+    countries of, 322;
+    harbours of, 341;
+    oldest city of, 348;
+    first independent republic in, 362;
+    oldest fortress in, 407, 428, 436;
+    manner of founding Spanish cities in, 424
+
+  South Sea, the, 405
+
+  Spain, conquest of South America by, _see_ Peru, Chile, etc.;
+    royal commissioners sent from, 46, 49, 54, 417, 427;
+    colonial system of, 62 _et seq._, 70, 243, 307, 351-356, 424, 427,
+          428;
+    colonial government of, 57, 59, 249, 301, 303, 353;
+    commercial monopoly of, 66, 69-71, 152, 250, 251, 352-356, 424;
+    war of succession in, 70, 152, 159, 250, 256, 311, 312, 354, 360,
+          370;
+    at war with France, 77, 159, 256, 311, 312;
+    revolution in, 82, 359, 370, 430, 443;
+    at war with Peru and Chile, 111, 112, 203, 204, 337;
+    reforms in system of colonial government of, 154, 253, 254, 301,
+          349, 417;
+    at war with England, 158
+
+  Spanish, adventurers 21, 22, 26, 27, 53, 58, 67, 242, 300, 301, 348,
+          404, 407, 413, 414;
+    armies in South America, 29, 39, 50, 52, 80, 81, 141, 142, 144, 146,
+          147, 150, 155, 168, 170, 174, 181, 239, 253, 258-261, 263,
+          264, 298, 301, 315-318, 350, 366, 367, 371, 375, 376, 380,
+          413, 436, 437, 440, 443;
+    constitution, the, 370;
+    constitutional law, 304
+
+  Spanish crown, revenue of, from Peru, 32, 53, 60, 64-66, 69, 77;
+    from South America, 417, 425
+
+  Spanish fleet, 79, 80, 142, 174;
+    seizes Chincha Islands, 112, 203;
+    at Callao, 112, 186;
+    at Valparaiso, 204;
+    defeated, 360, 383;
+    at Cartagena, 436
+
+  Sucré (Charcas), 44
+
+  Sucré, General, Bolivar's great lieutenant, destroys Spanish army, 86;
+    takes Colombian army to Peru, 89, 264, 321;
+    wins battle of Ayachucho, 93-97, 266, 321, 322;
+    numbers and quality of army of, 95, 318;
+    first President of Bolivia, 99, 268, 322;
+    administration of, 269;
+    overthrow of, 270, 323;
+    wins battle of Pichincho, 318, 444;
+    murder of, 326, 452
+
+  Sugar-cane, introduced into South America, 66, 303;
+    cultivation of, 111, 113, 308, 352, 355, 390, 428
+
+  Sugar Loaf, the battle of, 105
+
+  Suipacha, battle of, 256, 257
+
+  Sun-god, worship of the, 5, 13, 298
+
+
+  T
+
+  Tacna (city), revolutionary expedition to, 82;
+    result of campaign, 123, 213
+
+  Tacna (province), 122, 123;
+    yielded to Chile, 127
+
+  Talca (city), captured, 166;
+    independence of Chile proclaimed at, 176
+
+  Talcahuano (city), 163, 164, 171, 174
+
+  Tambo, battle of, 316, 437
+
+  Tarapacá, province of Peru, 106;
+    nitrate deposits of, 212
+
+  Tarija (city), 249
+
+  Tarqui, decisive battle of, 324, 325
+
+  Taxation, 64, 66, 69, 118, 152, 158, 211, 243, 269, 270, 276, 301,
+  307, 328, 336, 353, 424
+
+  Teques Indians, the, 350
+
+  Tiocajas nudo, 291;
+    battles of, 291, 293, 294, 298
+
+  Titicaca, Lake, 8, 39, 54, 71, 78, 256, 258;
+    placer gold around, 240, 246;
+    Jesuit mission at, 245;
+    basin, 4, 11, 236, 239;
+    plateau, 8, 41, 99, 240;
+    copper and silver mines of, 8, 240
+
+  Titu Yupanqui, 62, 63
+
+  Toa, Cara Princess, 288
+
+  Tobacco, Europe indebted to Peru for, 66;
+    in Chile, 159;
+    in Colombia, 424, 427;
+    in Venezuela, 352, 353, 355
+
+  Tocaima (city), 416
+
+  Tocuyo founded, 349, 350
+
+  Toledo, Don Francisco de, founder of Spanish colonial system, 62-67;
+    arrives at Lima, 62;
+    puts to death last Inca emperor, 63;
+    _Libro de Tasas_ of, 63
+
+  Tolima, plateau of, 411, 419
+
+  Tolima, State of, 467
+
+  Tolu founded, 408
+
+  "Toquis," 139, 144, 150
+
+  Torata (city), 124
+
+  Torico, General, 106
+
+  Toro, Captain-General, 160, 161
+
+  Torres, Camilo, Dictator, 437
+
+  Trafalgar, battle of, 311
+
+  Treaties, 117, 118, 150, 151, 206, 209, 210, 280, 281, 327, 470, 471,
+  480, 485-489
+
+  Trinidad, Island of, captured by British, 356, 359
+
+  Trujillo, birthplace of Pizarro, 21
+
+  Trujillo (city) founded by Pizarro, 36, 60, 350
+
+  Trujillo, province of Venezuela, 362, 363, 366
+
+  Trujillo, President of Colombia, 468
+
+  Tucuman (province), subject to viceroyalty of Lima, 67;
+    attached to viceroyalty of Buenos Aires, 78;
+    thinly populated, 78;
+    cattle-raising in, 243;
+    subject to audiencia of Charcas, 250;
+    battle of, 258
+
+  Tumbez (city), 25, 53, 301;
+    Spaniards land at, 20, 28
+
+  Tumibamba, Huascar captured at, 20
+
+  Tumusla, 265
+
+  Tundama, plateau of, 413
+
+  Tunjá (city), founded, 414;
+    captured by Bolivar, 378
+
+  Tunjá (province), 312, 376, 377, 413, 416
+
+  Tupac Amaru, last Inca emperor, 62;
+    death of, 63
+
+  Tupac Amaru, lineal descendant of Inca emperors, 72, 251;
+    heads Indian rebellion, 72, 251, 252;
+    cruel death of, 72, 253
+
+  Tupac Yupanqui, Inca emperor,
+    conquests of, 10, 11, 14, 18, 135, 289-292, 295;
+    death of, 12, 292
+
+
+  U
+
+  Uira Cocha, Inca emperor, 8, 9
+
+  Ulloa, ----, 308
+
+  "Ulmens," 139, 150
+
+  Umachiri, battle of, 78
+
+  _Union_, the, 120, 123
+
+  United States, the, threatened rupture between Great Britain and, 398;
+    recognises independence of Colombia, 446;
+    undertakes Panama Canal, 470, 471, 482, 485;
+    negotiations of, with Colombia, 470, 471, 488;
+    appealed to by Colombia, 471, 480;
+    neutrality and free transit guaranteed to Panama by, 480, 487, 488;
+    Colombia rejects treaty with, 486, 487;
+    recognises republic of Panama, 488;
+    treaty of, with Panama ratified, 488, 489
+
+  United States of Colombia, the, 98, 99, 322, 378.
+    _See_ Colombia.
+
+  Universities, 67, 154, 198
+
+  Urbina, General, 334, 338
+
+  Urco, Inca emperor, 9
+
+  Urdaneta, General, 452
+
+  Uruguay in possession of Portuguese, 261, 316
+
+
+  V
+
+  Valdez, General, 88, 96, 262
+
+  Valdivia (city), besieged, 141, 142, 145;
+    taken by Dutch, 150;
+    size of, 151;
+    strength of, 171, 187;
+    possessed by Spanish, 171, 185;
+    captured by patriots, 187
+
+  Valdivia, Pedro de, conqueror of Chile, 43, 44, 137-139, 240;
+    cities founded by, 137, 139;
+    capture and death of, 141
+
+  Valencia, founded, 350;
+    loyal to Spain, 363, 364, 439;
+    patriots in, 367, 369, 372
+
+  Valmy, battle of, 359
+
+  Valparaiso (city), 104, 119, 120, 262, 285, 317, 341;
+    size of, 151;
+    bombarded, 204;
+    battle at, 223-225
+
+  Valparaiso Bay, 220
+
+  Valverde, Friar, 30
+
+  Varas, Chilean Minister, 200, 201
+
+  Vargas, Doctor, President of Venezuela, 389
+
+  Veintemilla, General, President of Ecuador, 339
+
+  Vela, Blasco Nuñez de, Viceroy of Peru, 50-53
+
+  Velez (city) founded, 410, 414
+
+  Venezuela, sighted by Columbus 347;
+    named, 348;
+    cities founded in, 348-350, 352;
+    colonisation of, 348;
+    governors of, 349, 426;
+    fertility of, 349, 350, 352, 395;
+    granted to Welser family, 349;
+    settlement of, 349-351;
+    savage tribes of, 350;
+    subject to viceroyalty of Lima, 67;
+    under jurisdiction of Bogotá and Caracas, 71, 356, 419, 426;
+    revolutionary spirit in, 76, 358-361, etc.;
+    revolts against Bolivar, 79, 101, 323, 378;
+    war of independence in, 86, 261, 316, 317, 362, 364, 366-370,
+          378-383, 388, 434, 437, 451, 452;
+    in Colombian confederation, 98, 322, 376, 378, 384, 443;
+    Bolivarian constitution of, 99, 385;
+    separates from confederation, 99, 324, 385, 387, 388, 451;
+    cattle-raising in, 345, 355, 395;
+    topography of, 351, 352;
+    negro labour in, 351, 352, 357;
+    agricultural products of, 352, 358, 390, 395;
+    exports from, 352, 390;
+    commercial conditions of, 352-358, 390-392, 395, 396, 398, 399;
+    gold placers of, 352;
+    taxation in, 353, 389, 391, 392, 395;
+    education in, 353;
+    trading posts in, 354;
+    made a captaincy-general, 355, 419;
+    captains-general of, 356, 360, 361;
+    boundaries of, fixed, 356;
+    population of, 357, 390;
+    characteristics of population of, 357, 358;
+    Bonaparte claims allegiance of, 360;
+    first independent republic of South America, 362;
+    constitution of 1811, 362;
+    financial conditions in, 362, 394-396, 398;
+    earthquake in, 363;
+    important battles of war of independence in, 369, 374, 375, 378,
+          381-383;
+    impoverished by wars, 384, 394;
+    constitution of 1831, 389, 391, 394;
+    civil wars in, 387-392, 396-398;
+    political conditions in, 389-392;
+    roads built in, 390;
+    bank established in, 390;
+    slavery abolished, 391;
+    liberty of the press permitted, 392;
+    religious conditions in, 392, 395;
+    smuggling in, 394;
+    stable currency of, 395;
+    railroads built in, 395, 396;
+    debt of, 396;
+    boundary dispute with British Guiana, 398;
+    foreign relations of, 398;
+    navy of, destroyed, 398;
+    progress of, 399;
+    provinces under jurisdiction of, 426
+
+  Vernon, Admiral, 428
+
+  Viceroyalties, of Bogotá, 71, 250, 356, 420, 426;
+    of Buenos Aires, 71, 251;
+    of Lima, 50, 67, 250, 375;
+    of Quito, 86, 418, 420
+
+  Vicuña, Claudio, President of Chile, 193, 194, 219, 226
+
+  Vicuñas, 238
+
+  Vidal, Dictator of Peru, 102, 106
+
+  Vilcabamba, 40, 61, 63
+
+  Vilcañota nudo, the, 4, 8
+
+  Villapugio, battle of, 170, 258
+
+  Villarica, gold-mines of, 144-146
+
+  Viluma, battle of, 256, 260
+
+  Vista Florida, Dictator of Peru, 102
+
+  Vivanco, Peruvian general, 106
+
+
+  W
+
+  Welser family, the, Venezuela granted to, 349
+
+  Wheat introduced into South America, 66, 151, 211, 303, 332, 343, 352,
+  421, 428
+
+  Wheelwright, William, establishes first Pacific steamship line, 198
+
+  Windward Islands, the, 347
+
+  Wool, 8
+
+
+  Y
+
+  Yahuarcocha Lake, 294
+
+  Yahuar Huaccac, Inca emperor, 8
+
+  Yngavi, decisive battle of, 105, 107, 273
+
+  Yucay, valley of, 61
+
+  Yungay, battle of, 105, 198, 272
+
+  Yupanqui, Inca emperor, 9
+
+
+  Z
+
+  Zaldua, President of Colombia, 479
+
+  Zaruma, plateau of, 288, 291
+
+  Zenufana (Antioquia), 407
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+The Story of the Nations.
+
+
+  In the story form the current of each National life is distinctly
+  indicated, and its picturesque and noteworthy periods and episodes are
+  presented for the reader in their philosophical relation to each other
+  as well as to universal history.
+
+  It is the plan of the writers of the different volumes to enter into
+  the real life of the peoples, and to bring them before the reader as
+  they actually lived, labored, and struggled--as they studied and
+  wrote, and as they amused themselves. In carrying out this plan, the
+  myths, with which the history of all lands begins, will not be
+  overlooked, though these will be carefully distinguished from the
+  actual history, so far as the labors of the accepted historical
+  authorities have resulted in definite conclusions.
+
+  The subjects of the different volumes have been planned to cover
+  connecting and, as far as possible, consecutive epochs or periods, so
+  that the set when completed will present in a comprehensive narrative
+  the chief events in the great STORY OF THE NATIONS; but it is, of
+  course, not always practicable to issue the several volumes in their
+  chronological order.
+
+    Nos. 1-61, each                                  $1.50
+    Half leather                                      1.75
+    Nos. 62 and following Nos., each (by mail,        1.50)
+                                                  net 1.35
+    Half leather (by mail, $1.75)                 net 1.60
+
+  _For list of volumes see next page._
+
+
+  THE STORY OF THE NATIONS.
+
+    GREECE. Prof. Jas. A. Harrison.
+    ROME.  Arthur Gilman.
+    THE JEWS. Prof. James K. Hosmer.
+    CHALDEA. Z. A. Ragozin.
+    GERMANY. S. Baring-Gould.
+    NORWAY. Hjalmar H. Boyesen.
+    SPAIN. Rev. E. E. and Susan Hale.
+    HUNGARY. Prof. A. Vámbéry.
+    CARTHAGE. Prof. Alfred J. Church.
+    THE SARACENS. Arthur Gilman.
+    THE MOORS IN SPAIN. Stanley Lane-Poole.
+    THE NORMANS. Sarah Orne Jewett.
+    PERSIA. S. G. W. Benjamin.
+    ANCIENT EGYPT. Prof. Geo. Rawlinson.
+    ALEXANDER'S EMPIRE. Prof. J. P. Mahaffy.
+    ASSYRIA. Z. A. Ragozin.
+    THE GOTHS. Henry Bradley.
+    IRELAND. Hon. Emily Lawless.
+    TURKEY. Stanley Lane-Poole.
+    MEDIA, BABYLON, AND PERSIA. Z. A. Ragozin.
+    MEDIÆVAL FRANCE. Prof. Gustave Masson.
+    HOLLAND. Prof. J. Thorold Rogers.
+    MEXICO. Susan Hale.
+    PHOENICIA. George Rawlinson.
+    THE HANSA TOWNS. Helen Zimmern.
+    EARLY BRITAIN. Prof. Alfred J. Church.
+    THE BARBARY CORSAIRS. Stanley Lane-Poole.
+    RUSSIA. W. R. Morfill.
+    THE JEWS UNDER ROME. W. D. Morrison.
+    SCOTLAND. John Mackintosh.
+    SWITZERLAND. R. Stead and Mrs. A. Hug.
+    PORTUGAL. H. Morse-Stephens.
+    THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE. C. W. C. Oman.
+    SICILY. E. A. Freeman.
+    THE TUSCAN REPUBLICS. Bella Duffy.
+    POLAND. W. R. Morfill.
+    PARTHIA. Geo. Rawlinson.
+    JAPAN. David Murray.
+    THE CHRISTIAN RECOVERY OF SPAIN. H. E. Watts.
+    AUSTRALASIA. Greville Tregarthen.
+    SOUTHERN AFRICA. Geo. M. Theal.
+    VENICE. Alethea Wiel.
+    THE CRUSADES. T. S. Archer and C. L. Kingsford.
+    VEDIC INDIA. Z. A. Ragozin.
+    BOHEMIA. C. E. Maurice.
+    CANADA. J. G. Bourinot.
+    THE BALKAN STATES. William Miller.
+    BRITISH RULE IN INDIA. R. W. Frazer.
+    MODERN FRANCE. André Le Bon.
+    THE BRITISH EMPIRE. Alfred T. Story. Two vols.
+    THE FRANKS. Lewis Sergeant.
+    THE WEST INDIES. Amos K. Fiske.
+    THE PEOPLE OF ENGLAND. Justin McCarthy, M.P. Two vols.
+    AUSTRIA. Sidney Whitman.
+    CHINA. Robt. K. Douglass.
+    MODERN SPAIN. Major Martin A. S. Hume.
+    MODERN ITALY. Pietro Orsi.
+    THE THIRTEEN COLONIES. Helen A. Smith. Two vols.
+    WALES AND CORNWALL. Owen M. Edwards. Net $1.35.
+    MEDIÆVAL ROME. Wm. Miller.
+    THE PAPAL MONARCHY. Wm. Barry.
+    MEDIÆVAL INDIA. Stanley Lane-Poole.
+    BUDDHIST INDIA. T. W. Rhys-Davids.
+    THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Thomas C. Dawson. Two vols.
+    PARLIAMENTARY ENGLAND. Edward Jenks.
+
+
+
+Heroes of the Nations.
+
+
+  A series of biographical studies of the lives and work of a number of
+  representative historical characters about whom have gathered the
+  great traditions of the Nations to which they belonged, and who have
+  been accepted, in many instances, as types of the several National
+  ideals. With the life of each typical character will be presented a
+  picture of the National conditions surrounding him during his career.
+
+  The narratives are the work of writers who are recognized authorities
+  on their several subjects, and, while thoroughly trustworthy as
+  history, will present picturesque and dramatic "stories" of the Men
+  and of the events connected with them.
+
+  To the Life of each "Hero" will be given one duodecimo volume,
+  handsomely printed in large type, provided with maps and adequately
+  illustrated according to the special requirements of the several
+  subjects.
+
+    Nos. 1-32, each                                  $1.50
+    Half leather                                      1.75
+    No. 33 and following Nos., each
+                                  (by mail $1.50, net 1.35)
+    Half leather (by mail, $1.75)                 net 1.60
+
+  _For full list of volumes see next page._
+
+
+  HEROES OF THE NATIONS.
+
+    NELSON. By W. Clark Russell.
+    GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. By C. R. L. Fletcher.
+    PERICLES. By Evelyn Abbott.
+    THEODORIC THE GOTH. By Thomas Hodgkin.
+    SIR PHILIP SIDNEY. By H. R. Fox-Bourne.
+    JULIUS CÆSAR. By W. Warde Fowler.
+    WYCLIF. By Lewis Sergeant.
+    NAPOLEON. By W. O'Connor Morris.
+    HENRY OF NAVARRE. By P. F. Willert.
+    CICERO. By J. L. Strachan-Davidson.
+    ABRAHAM LINCOLN. By Noah Brooks.
+    PRINCE HENRY (OF PORTUGAL) THE NAVIGATOR. By C. R. Beazley.
+    JULIAN THE PHILOSOPHER. By Alice Gardner.
+    LOUIS XIV. By Arthur Hassall.
+    CHARLES XII. By R. Nisbet Bain.
+    LORENZO DE' MEDICI. By Edward Armstrong.
+    JEANNE D'ARC. By Mrs. Oliphant.
+    CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. By Washington Irving.
+    ROBERT THE BRUCE. By Sir Herbert Maxwell.
+    HANNIBAL. By W. O'Connor Morris.
+    ULYSSES S. GRANT. By William Conant Church.
+    ROBERT E. LEE. By Henry Alexander White.
+    THE CID CAMPEADOR. By H. Butler Clarke.
+    SALADIN. By Stanley Lane-Poole.
+    BISMARCK. By J. W. Headlam.
+    ALEXANDER THE GREAT. By Benjamin I. Wheeler.
+    CHARLEMAGNE. By H. W. C. Davis.
+    OLIVER CROMWELL. By Charles Firth.
+    RICHELIEU. By James B. Perkins.
+    DANIEL O'CONNELL. By Robert Dunlop.
+    SAINT LOUIS (Louis IX. of France). By Frederick Perry.
+    LORD CHATHAM. By Walford Davis Green.
+    OWEN GLYNDWR. By Arthur G. Bradley. $1.35 net.
+    HENRY V. By Charles L. Kingsford. $1.35 net.
+    EDWARD I. By Edward Jenks. $1.35 net.
+    AUGUSTUS CÆSAR. By J. B. Firth. $1.35 net.
+    FREDERICK THE GREAT. By W. F. Reddaway.
+    WELLINGTON. By W. O'Connor Morris
+
+  Other volumes in preparation are:
+
+    CONSTANTINE. By J. B. Firth.
+    MOLTKE. By Spencer Wilkinson.
+    JUDAS MACCABÆUS. By Israel Abrahams.
+    SOBIESKI. By F. A. Pollard.
+    ALFRED THE TRUTHTELLER. By Frederick Perry.
+    FREDERICK II. By A. L. Smith.
+    MARLBOROUGH. By C. W. C. Oman.
+    RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED By T. A. Archer.
+    WILLIAM THE SILENT. By Ruth Putnam.
+    CHARLES THE BOLD. By Ruth Putnam.
+    GREGORY VII. By F. Urquhart.
+    MAHOMET. By D. S. Margoliouth.
+
+
+  G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS, PUBLISHERS,
+  NEW YORK, LONDON.
+
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+1. Passages in italics are surrounded by _underscores_.
+
+2. Images have been moved from the middle of a paragraph to the closest
+paragraph break.
+
+3. Certain words use the oe-ligature in the original.
+
+4. The punctuation in the idex was made consistent.
+
+5. The following misprints have been corrected:
+    "COLUMBIA" corrected to "COLOMBIA" (page x)
+    "slaughterd" corrected to "slaughtered" (page 43)
+    "agressive" corrected to "aggressive" (page 286)
+    "recalcitant" corrected to "recalcitrant" (page 296)
+    "stategist" corrected to "strategist" (page 375)
+    "familes" corrected to "families" (page 422)
+    "succeded" corrected to "succeeded" (page 460)
+    "surborned" corrected to "suborned" (page 464)
+    "Gautemala" corrected to "Guatemala" (page 491)
+    "Bogatá" corrected to "Bogotá" (page 508)
+
+6. Other than the corrections listed above, printer's inconsistencies
+in spelling, punctuation, hyphenation, and ligature usage have been
+retained.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS, PART
+II (OF 2)***
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+
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+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, The South American Republics, Part II (of 2),
+by Thomas C. Dawson</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: The South American Republics, Part II (of 2)</p>
+<p>Author: Thomas C. Dawson</p>
+<p>Release Date: November 7, 2011  [eBook #37950]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS, PART II (OF 2)***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4>E-text prepared by Adrian Mastronardi, Jana Srna,<br />
+    and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
+    (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br />
+    from page images generously made available by<br />
+    Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries<br />
+    (<a href="http://www.archive.org/details/toronto">http://www.archive.org/details/toronto</a>)</h4>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10">
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top">
+      Note:
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      Project Gutenberg has Part I of this work. See
+      <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/37920">http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/37920</a><br />
+      <br />
+      Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries. See
+      <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/p2southamericanr00dawsuoft">
+      http://www.archive.org/details/p2southamericanr00dawsuoft</a>
+   </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<div class="bbox">
+<h2>Story of the Nations</h2>
+
+<p class="nblockquot"><b>A Series of Historical Studies intended to present in
+graphic narratives the stories of the different
+nations that have attained prominence in history.</b></p>
+
+<hr class="half" />
+<p>In the story form the current of each national
+life is distinctly indicated, and its picturesque and
+noteworthy periods and episodes are presented for
+the reader in their philosophical relations to each
+other as well as to universal history.</p>
+
+<hr class="half" />
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="" width="100%">
+<tr><td align='left'><b>12&ordm;, Illustrated, cloth, each</b></td><td align='right'><b>$1.50</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><b>Half Leather, each</b></td><td align='right'><b>$1.75</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><b>No. 62 and following Nos.</b></td><td align='right'><b>net $1.35</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <b>Each</b></td><td align='right'><b>(By mail) $1.50</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><b>Half Leather, gilt top, each</b></td><td align='right'><b>net $1.60</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'> &nbsp; &nbsp; </td><td align='right'><b>(By mail) $1.75</b></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<hr class="half" />
+<p class="center"><small>FOR FULL LIST SEE END OF THIS VOLUME.</small></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="Frontispiece" id="Frontispiece"></a>
+<img src="images/frontispiece.jpg" width="600" height="775" alt="CHURCH OF SAN FRANCISCO IN LIMA." title="" />
+<span class="caption">CHURCH OF SAN FRANCISCO IN LIMA.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4>THE STORY OF THE NATIONS</h4>
+<hr class="half" />
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h1>THE SOUTH AMERICAN<br />
+REPUBLICS</h1>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h5>BY</h5>
+<h2>THOMAS C. DAWSON</h2>
+<h5>American Minister to Santo Domingo</h5>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4>IN TWO PARTS<br />
+<br />
+<i>PART II</i><br />
+<br />
+PERU, CHILE, BOLIVIA, ECUADOR, VENEZUELA,<br />
+COLOMBIA, PANAMA</h4>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4><big>G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS</big><br />
+NEW YORK AND LONDON<br />
+The Knickerbocker Press<br />
+<br />
+1904</h4>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1904</span><br />
+
+<small>BY</small><br />
+
+THOMAS C. DAWSON<br />
+<br />
+Published, September, 1904</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center">The Knickerbocker Press, New York</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-4.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p>This history begins when Pizarro and Almagro,
+Valdivia and Benalcazar, led their desperadoes
+across the Isthmus to the conquest, massacre, and
+enslavement of the prosperous and civilised millions
+who inhabited the Pacific coast of South America.
+It ends with the United States opening a way
+through that same Isthmus for the ships, the trade,
+the capital of all the world; with American engineers
+laying railroad iron on the imperial highway of the
+Incas; with British bondholders forgiving stricken
+Peru's national debt; with their debtor bravely
+facing the fact of bankruptcy, and turning over to
+them all its railways.</p>
+
+<p>The American people, alert, practical, keen, possessing
+in their press and congress admirable organisations
+for the collection and dissemination of exact
+knowledge, already fully appreciate the advantages
+that will accrue to the United States itself from the
+building of the Panama canal. Hardly less thoroughly
+do they understand the probable effect upon
+eastern Asia and the great commercial nations of
+western Europe. Few, however, have yet reflected
+upon the canal's vital importance to the peoples of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</a></span>the Pacific coast of South America&mdash;to four at least
+of the six countries whose stories I have tried to tell
+in this volume.</p>
+
+<p>Cut off from all practicable communication with
+the rest of the continent by those yawning ravines
+which lead down the inner declivities of the Andes,
+gullied by gigantic torrents, and choked by impenetrable
+forests, the narrow strip of territory stretching
+along the mountain tops and shore plain from Quito
+to Central Chile, connects with the outside world
+solely through ports on the Pacific Ocean. Throughout
+colonial times the stream of greedy Spanish
+office-holders flowed down the coast from the Isthmus,
+and a scanty trickle of trade followed the same
+channel. For three centuries Panama was the
+<i>entrep&ocirc;t</i> and Lima the metropolis of all Spanish South
+America except Venezuela and eastern New Granada.
+Magellan's famous discovery did not divert
+these currents because the stormy straits that bear
+his name are practically useless for sailing ships, and
+even Schouten's rounding of the Horn only blazed
+a path which proved too perilous for the vessels of
+the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. But with
+the nineteenth century improvements in navigation
+and especially with the use of steam and the freighter
+built of iron, all was changed. Valparaiso became
+nearer to London or New York than Guayaquil, and
+during the last seventy-five years the ports of Bolivia,
+Peru, Ecuador, and Pacific Colombia have been
+little more than remote and unimportant stations
+on a trade route that stretches its interminable
+length from the commercial emporiums in the North<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span>
+Atlantic through Pernambuco, Rio, Buenos Aires,
+and around the southern end of the continent. For
+centuries Spanish tyranny denied the world access
+to those countries, and hardly had they shaken off
+the political system that strangled their development,
+when geographical considerations and the
+invention of iron steamships placed them at a disadvantage
+compared with their competitors. Their
+commercial, and therefore their industrial and political
+progress, has been ten-fold slower than it
+should have been.</p>
+
+<p>The moment the first vessel floats through from
+the Caribbean to the Pacific the course of commerce
+will reverse its direction. Buenaventura, Esmeraldas,
+Guayaquil, Callao, Mollendo, Iquique, and even
+Valparaiso and Talcahuano will send their ships by
+the short route of Panama instead of around the
+continent and through the Straits of Magellan.
+Western Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and
+Chile herself will be tied by rapidly strengthening
+bonds of mutual interest and intercourse to each
+other and to the great commercial nations; and a
+transformation will begin whose extent no man can
+foresee. Every patriotic American must hope that
+his own countrymen will devote the money, energy,
+and attention essential to secure that share of influence
+and trade justly due the United States' geographical
+proximity and political sympathy; that
+French literature, language, and ideas, British capital,
+and German commerce now so dominant in all South
+America, will be supplemented by American schools,
+money, and commercial enterprise; and that such<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span>
+influences will spread from Panama through Colombia,
+Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia down the coast
+to prosperous Chile and across into the fertile plains
+of Argentina and southern Brazil.</p>
+
+<p>The author wishes to acknowledge his especial
+indebtedness to Sir Clement Markham's scholarly
+<i>History of Peru</i>, one of the very few complete and
+intelligent histories of a South American country
+available in the English language. The reader who
+commands Spanish will be interested in Torrente's
+<i>Revolucion Sud Americana</i>, Mackenna's <i>Historiade
+la Independencia</i>, Paz Soldan's <i>Narracion Historica</i>,
+Mitre's <i>San Martin</i>, and Bulnes's <i>Expedicion
+Libertadora</i>.</p>
+
+<p>For Chile excellent books in both Spanish and
+English abound, among which are worth special
+mention, Barros Arana's <i>Historia General</i>, Mitre's
+<i>San Martin</i>, Ba&ntilde;ados's <i>Balmaceda</i>, Hancock's <i>History
+of Chile</i>, and Hervey's <i>Dark Days in Chile</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Few authorities exist for Bolivia. Valdes's
+<i>Estudio Historico</i> is admirable for the period which
+it attempts to cover. Sanjines's <i>Historia</i>, Mitre's
+<i>San Martin</i> and <i>Belgrano</i>, Torrente's <i>Revolucion</i>,
+and D'Ursel's <i>S&eacute;jours et Voyages</i>, as well as Fernandez's
+recent <i>Campa&ntilde;a del Acre</i> have been found
+valuable.</p>
+
+<p>Wolf's <i>Geografia del Ecuador</i> is more than a
+geography, and no one interested in that country
+can afford not to study this work carefully. Suarez's
+<i>Historia General</i>, and Cevallos's <i>Compendio</i> give a
+good account of military and political affairs but do
+not bring them down to recent years.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>For Venezuela Tejera's <i>Manual de Historia</i> has
+been of much use, as also Scruggs's <i>Colombian and
+Venezuelan Republics</i>, Jenny Tallenay's <i>Souvenirs</i>,
+and in the war of independence Mitre's great work
+on the life of <i>San Martin</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Perez's wonderfully condensed book, <i>Geografia
+Politica</i>, has been the main reliance for Colombia,
+but Mitre's <i>San Martin</i>, Torrente's <i>Revolucion</i>,
+Holton's <i>New Granada</i>, and Scruggs's <i>Republics</i>,
+have supplied much information on points not
+covered by Senor Perez's work.</p>
+
+<p>Intelligible details about comparatively recent
+times are proverbially the hardest to obtain, and the
+author feels that whatever of accuracy these pages
+may boast is due principally to his friends among
+present South American diplomats&mdash;men who understand
+South American history because they have
+been a part of it. Salvador de Mendon&ccedil;a, Joaquin
+Godoy, Oliviera Lima, Claudio Pinilla, Estanislao
+Zeballos, Manoel Gorostiaga, and Carlos Tobar have
+kindly tried to help him thread his way through the
+tangled mazes of Latin-American politics, and his
+principal reluctance at giving these pages to the
+public now is that he has not had the good fortune
+as yet to know and converse with men of like ability
+from Colombia and Venezuela.</p>
+
+<p style='text-align: right'>T. C. D.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Petropolis, Brazil</span>, March 29, 1904.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-5.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left' colspan='2'><small>CHAPTER</small></td><td align='right'><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><a href="#PERU"><i>PERU</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>I.</td><td align='left'>THE INCA EMPIRE</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>II.</td><td align='left'>THE SPANISH CONQUEST</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>III.</td><td align='left'>CIVIL WARS AMONG THE CONQUERORS</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>IV.</td><td align='left'>THE COLONIAL PERIOD</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>V.</td><td align='left'>THE WARS OF INDEPENDENCE</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>VI.</td><td align='left'>FROM INDEPENDENCE TO CHILEAN WAR</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>VII.</td><td align='left'>THE CHILEAN WAR AND LATTER-DAY PERU</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><br />
+<a href="#CHILE"><i>CHILE</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>I.</td><td align='left'>THE SPANISH CONQUEST</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>II.</td><td align='left'>THE COLONIAL PERIOD</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_148">148</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>III.</td><td align='left'>THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>IV.</td><td align='left'>THE FORMATIVE PERIOD</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>V.</td><td align='left'>CHILE'S GREATNESS AND THE CIVIL WAR</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><br />
+<a href="#BOLIVIA"><i>BOLIVIA</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>I.</td><td align='left'>THE CONQUEST AND THE MINES</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_235">235</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>II.</td><td align='left'>THE COLONIAL SYSTEM AND TUPAC'S REVOLT</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_248">248</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>III.</td><td align='left'>THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_255">255</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>IV.</td><td align='left'>BOLIVIA INDEPENDENT</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_266">266</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><span class='pagenum'>[Pg x]</span><br />
+<a href="#ECUADOR"><i>ECUADOR</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>I.</td><td align='left'>THE CARAS</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_285">285</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>II.</td><td align='left'>THE SPANISH CONQUEST</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>III.</td><td align='left'>THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_311">311</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>IV.</td><td align='left'>THE FORMATION OF ECUADOR</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_320">320</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>V.</td><td align='left'>MODERN ECUADOR</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_330">330</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><br />
+<a href="#VENEZUELA"><i>VENEZUELA</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>I.</td><td align='left'>CONQUEST, SETTLEMENT, AND COLONIAL DAYS</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_347">347</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>II.</td><td align='left'>THE REVOLT</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_357">357</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>III.</td><td align='left'>MODERN VENEZUELA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_384">384</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><br />
+<a href="#COLOMBIA"><i>COLOMBIA</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>I.</td><td align='left'>CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_403">403</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>II.</td><td align='left'>COLONIAL TIMES</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_419">419</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>III.</td><td align='left'>THE WAR AGAINST SPAIN</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_430">430</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>IV.</td><td align='left'>MODERN COLOMBIA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_446">446</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><br />
+<a href="#PANAMA"><i>PANAMA</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>THE EVENTS LEADING TO INDEPENDENCE</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_475">475</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left' colspan='2'><br />INDEX</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_491">491</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-3.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>CHURCH OF SAN FRANCISCO, LIMA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Frontispiece"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>ANCIENT PERUVIAN MONUMENT</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>CHURCH OF THE JESUITS IN CUZCO ON THE SITE OF THE PALACE OF HUAYNA CAPAC</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>OBSEQUIES OF ATAHUALLPA
+<br />&nbsp; &nbsp; <i>From a painting by the Peruvian artist Monteros.</i></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>STONE BRIDGE OVER THE RIMAC RIVER, LIMA, PERU</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>RUE MERCADERES, PROCESSION DAY, LIMA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>LITTLE "INFERNILLO" BRIDGE ON THE OROYA RAILWAY. ALTITUDE 10,924 FEET</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>PROMENADE OF THE ALAMEDA, LIMA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>GENERAL VIEW OF LIMA, SHOWING THE CATHEDRAL</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>BAKER ON HORSEBACK, LIMA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>THE MOLE AND HARBOUR OF CALLAO</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>CHURCH OF SAN FRANCISCO LIMA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>MILK-WOMAN OF LIMA ON HORSEBACK</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>VILLAGE OF CHICLAY ON THE OROYA RAILWAY, 12,200 FEET ABOVE THE SEA<span class='pagenum'>[Pg xii]</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>DON RAMON CASTILLA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>STATUE OF BOLIVAR, LIMA, PERU</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>GENERAL DON ANDRES A. CACERES</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>MAP OF PERU</td><td align='right'><i>Facing</i> <a href="#Page_132">132</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>BRIDGE ON THE ROAD BETWEEN SANTIAGO AND MENDOZA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>INDIAN ENCAMPMENT</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>HOUSE OF CONGRESS, SANTIAGO</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>PLAZA DEL ARMAS, SANTIAGO</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>BERNARDO O'HIGGINS</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>RAILROAD BRIDGE BETWEEN SANTIAGO AND VALPARAISO</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>TALCAHUANO</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>NATIVE COSTUMES IN CHILE ABOUT 1840</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>VIEW OF SANTIAGO, CHILE, ABOUT 1835</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_195">195</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>VIEW OF VALPARAISO</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>JOSE MANUEL BALMACEDA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_221">221</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>THE PLAZA, VICTORIA, VALPARAISO</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_229">229</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>MONOLITHIC DOORWAY AT TRAHUANACO</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_237">237</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>BALSAS ON LAKE TITICACA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_259">259</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>LOADED LLAMAS</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_279">279</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>ECUADOR INDIANS</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_302">302</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>CHURCH OF SANTO DOMINGO AT GUAYAQUIL<span class='pagenum'>[Pg xiii]</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_305">305</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>GUAYAQUIL, ECUADOR</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_325">325</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>COSTUMES OF NATIVES NEAR QUITO</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_327">327</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>ECUADOR PEON'S HOUSE</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_332">332</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>PRINCIPAL STREET IN GUAYAQUIL</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_340">340</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>ANCIENT INDIAN ROCK FOR GRINDING MAIZE</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_358">358</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>THE PASS OF ANGOSTURA, BOLIVAR CITY</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_373">373</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>ROAD NEAR MACUTO</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_379">379</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>ENTRANCE OF PUERTO CABELLO IN 1870</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_386">386</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>VENEZUELAN SOLDIER OF 1870</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_393">393</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>VENEZUELAN GUERILLAS</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_397">397</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>MAP OF ECUADOR, COLOMBIA, AND VENEZUELA</td><td align='right'><i>Facing</i> <a href="#Page_398">398</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>OLDEST FORTRESS IN AMERICA, AT CARTHAGENA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_407">407</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>TRAVELLERS DESCENDING A MOUNTAIN ROAD</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_411">411</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>NATIVE BOATS, MAGDALENA RIVER</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_415">415</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>THE NATURAL BRIDGE AT GUARANDA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_421">421</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>FALLS OF TEQUENDAMA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_423">423</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>NATIVE HOUSES IN COLOMBIA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_427">427</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>ROPE BRIDGE OVER THE MAGDALENA RIVER</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_434">434</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>THE HOME OF BOLIVAR</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_440">440</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>PANAMA FROM THE BAY</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_445">445</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>SCENE IN THE ANDES, EN ROUTE TO BOGOT&Aacute;</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_449">449</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>CATHEDRAL, PANAMA<span class='pagenum'>[Pg xiv]</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_453">453</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>CROSSING THE MOUNTAINS IN 1850</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_456">456</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>TYPES OF COLOMBIAN NATIVES</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_459">459</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>POST-OFFICE AT BOGOT&Aacute;</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_463">463</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>RAFAEL NU&Ntilde;EZ, PRESIDENT OF COLOMBIA IN 1879-1883, 1885-1891</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_467">467</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>VIEW OF PANAMA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_477">477</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>STEAMERS ON THE MAGDALENA RIVER</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_479">479</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>NATIVE VILLAGE ON THE PANAMA RAILWAY</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_483">483</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA SHOWING PROGRESS OF THE MOVEMENT FOR INDEPENDENCE</td><td align='right'><a href="#AtEnd"><i>At End</i></a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;">
+<img src="images/dec-a.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class="bbt">
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+<h1><a name="PERU" id="PERU"></a>PERU</h1>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-6.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+<h3>THE INCA EMPIRE</h3>
+
+<p>For many centuries before the Spanish conquest
+and before the rise of the Incas a succession of
+great empires existed in Peru. Ruined edifices of
+unknown date prove that at some remote period
+advanced civilisations and powerful nations were
+developed in the coast valleys and on the Andean
+plateau. In tombs which vastly antedate even
+these megalithic palaces and fortresses, cotton twine,
+woven cloth, and cobs of maize have been found.
+The domestication and breeding to perfection of
+the llama as a beast of burden, and the alpaca as a
+fleece-bearer, the development of potatoes, maize,
+and the quinoa grain, must have consumed untold
+cycles of time. There is no doubt of the remote
+antiquity of the civilisation of the Indians who inhabit
+the Andean plateau south of the equator, nor
+that their culture was wholly self-developed, owing
+nothing to outside influences.</p>
+
+<p>About the year 1000 the Incas were merely one of
+several tribes living on the high, beautiful, and fertile
+plateau of Cuzco, which lies on the eastern edge<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>
+of the gigantic uplift of the Andes. Down the precipitous
+gorges into the steaming and impenetrable
+forests of the Amazon plain the civilised Indians
+never cared to go. The maize, quinoa, and potatoes
+upon which they depended for food could not flourish
+in the intense heat and heavy rainfall of those
+regions. Neither themselves nor their llamas and
+alpacas could thrive in the monta&ntilde;a or forested
+plain. Their natural habitat was the rough plateau,
+broken by numerous valleys, which lies between the
+Eastern and the Central Cordilleras, and extends
+from the Vilca&ntilde;ota "nudo," shutting it off from the
+Titicaca basin, to the transverse range of the "Cerro
+de Pasco," in the North. The ocean lies two hundred
+and fifty miles south-west, beyond the Central
+and Maritime Cordilleras and the bleak plateau
+which lies between them.</p>
+
+<p>This great central section, on whose eastern edge
+near its southern border we first find the Incas, is
+the heart of Peru. Although the climate of a few
+of its gorges is almost tropical, the valleys have the
+temperature of Italy or Spain; higher up the crops
+of northern Europe flourish; then are pasture lands,
+and above all bleak wilds and peaks covered with
+perpetual snow. At the dawn of authentic Peruvian
+history this favored region was thickly inhabited by
+many independent tribes; probably all speaking
+dialects of the same language, and certainly very
+similar in their industrial life and social customs.</p>
+
+<p>Tradition recounts that the Incas had migrated to
+Cuzco from unknown ancestral seats&mdash;by some conjectured
+to have been the shores of the prehistoric<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span>
+fresh-water sea of the Amazon plain&mdash;under the
+leadership of Manco Capac, the first of an unbroken
+line of sovereigns who claimed descent from the
+Sun-god and ruled the Incas until the Spanish
+conquest. The Incas developed a religion whose
+elaborate and rigid ritual, which regulated every
+act of their lives, finds its best parallel among the
+Hebrews. Each family had its household god;
+each sept worshipped an imaginary ancestor; the
+whole nation adored the sun as the progenitor of
+the reigning family, and the monarch's person was
+revered as divine. So profound was the religious
+feeling of this people that they finally rose to the
+conception of a supreme deity&mdash;a creator of the
+universe. His temple filled one side of the great
+square at Cuzco.</p>
+
+<p>Even more remarkable than their religious system
+was the social and industrial organisation of the
+Incas. Private property in land did not exist. It
+belonged to the septs and was from time to time
+allotted to the heads of families. Every person was
+obliged to work, all males being divided into classes
+according to age and strength, and suitable labour
+assigned to each. The produce, whether crops or
+livestock, was divided between the government, the
+priesthood, and the communes. Scarcity in one
+section was made up from the plenty in others;
+public officers annually revised the allotments, and
+turns at the irrigation works were taken in accordance
+with fixed rules. Not a spot of cultivable land
+was left unused. Habitations were built on rocky
+hills; deserts or the sides of barren cliffs were used<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>
+for cemeteries; whole mountain sides were terraced
+up thousands of feet, and land was literally created
+by years of patient labour employed in bringing
+earth in baskets and laying it on the bare rocks.
+By no people has irrigation been more extensively
+and successfully applied, and in spite of their ignorance
+of iron and steam, of labour-saving appliances
+and instruments of precision, the Incas constructed
+a system which in real effectiveness has never been
+surpassed. Many of their canals, reservoirs, and
+terraces were allowed to crumble by the Spanish
+conquerors, but modern Peru still lives upon the
+half-ruined fragments of the mighty works of the
+Incas.</p>
+
+<p>Secured from want by this intelligent socialism,
+their lives and rights safe under laws administered
+with inflexible severity, bound closely by family and
+governmental ties, trained from childhood in industry
+and obedience, the Incas seemed destined to
+dominate and absorb the more loosely organised
+tribes with whom they came in contact, provided
+that they did not become inert, stationary, and unwarlike,
+and cease to produce individuals possessing
+initiative. The dynamic elements indispensable to
+expansion were furnished by the ruling clan and by
+fanaticism. The offspring of Manco Capac partook
+of his divinity and each emperor left numerous sons,
+whose descendants constituted a privileged class.
+In the process of time there gathered around the
+emperor thousands of men of his own kindred, devoted
+from their birth to warfare and statecraft.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 640px;">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>
+<img src="images/i007.jpg" width="640" height="413" alt="ANCIENT PERUVIAN MONUMENT." title="" />
+<span class="caption">ANCIENT PERUVIAN MONUMENT.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Under the fourth emperor the Incas were successful
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>in a life and death struggle against a tribe with
+whom they had hitherto shared the valley that surrounds
+Cuzco. Under the two succeeding emperors
+they extended their dominions south to the transverse
+range of mountains which separates the Peruvian
+from the Titicacan plateau. Yahuar Huaccac,
+the seventh sovereign, conquered the tribes on the
+eastern slopes, and by the beginning of the fourteenth
+century the Inca domain included the southern
+third of the great valley of Peru&mdash;an area of
+fifteen thousand square miles, containing probably
+two millions of people. Uira Cocha, the eighth
+emperor, began that wonderful series of conquests
+which within a century and a half extended over
+half of South America. On the other side of the
+Vilca&ntilde;ota "nudo" lay the vast basin which takes its
+name from Lake Titicaca. Too high and too cold
+for cereals, the plateau was inhabited by tribes of
+shepherds, who made no prolonged resistance when
+attacked by the armies of the Inca. Their rapid
+and complete incorporation into the Inca system
+followed. Colonies swarmed from the over-populated
+provinces of old Peru into the newly acquired
+territories. The Titicacan copper mines furnished
+the material for weapons and tools, and a great commerce
+in exchanging the wool, potatoes, and livestock
+of the higher regions for the maize and cotton
+of the lower added to the prosperity of the whole
+empire. This conquest doubled the extent of the
+Inca domain and opened up a vast field for colonising
+expansion within their own territory. Once
+achieved, the nation turned its attention to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>
+conquest of the North. Beyond the gorge of the
+Apurimac&mdash;the Inca boundary in that direction&mdash;lay
+the rival nation of the Chancas, a vigorous and
+expanding people who were at the head of a great
+confederation of tribes which covered the northern
+two-thirds of the central plateau of Peru, and probably
+also included the Quichua-speaking tribes of
+the coast.</p>
+
+<p>The Chancas defeated Urco, Uira Cocha's oldest
+son and successor, and their army advanced toward
+Cuzco, subjugating the northern allies of the Incas.
+The victors came within sight of the capital, where
+meanwhile the energetic Yupanqui, Urco's younger
+brother, had gathered the whole force of the empire.
+The battle which decided the fate of Peru was
+fought on the heights above Cuzco; the Chancas
+were defeated, and fell back only to be pursued and
+overwhelmed by Yupanqui. He returned in triumph
+and was installed as emperor in place of his incompetent
+brother, assuming the title of Pachacutec, or
+"Reformer of the World." The Incas pressed their
+advantage relentlessly; all the tribes of the Chanca
+confederacy were subjugated; and Pachacutec's
+generals even extended their conquests north of
+Cerro de Pasco. The Incas had now conquered a
+practicable route to the Pacific, and the coast tribes
+about Lima soon also fell under their control. Pachacutec
+built a great military road from Cuzco
+north along the fertile plateau, through the smiling
+valley of Jauja, and down the short descent to the
+neighbourhood of Lima. Colonies were established
+at strategic points, and the new territory became so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
+rapidly welded to the Inca system that, when the
+Spaniards arrived a hundred and fifty years later,
+they found the whole of central and southern Peru
+occupied by a homogeneous people, perfectly loyal
+to the Inca dynasty.</p>
+
+<p>Pachacutec's successor, Tupac Yupanqui, proved
+even more successful than his father. The five
+hundred miles of rainless coast from Lima to the
+Ecuador border was inhabited by a mysterious race,
+in civilisation and origin entirely distinct from the
+Quichua-speaking mountain tribes to which the Incas
+belonged. Short rivers, rushing down from the
+Andes, each irrigated a portion of the desert, which
+only requires water to become extremely fertile.
+The irrigation works of this people were on a gigantic
+scale, one of their reservoirs having its lower end
+guarded by a dam eighty feet thick at the base.
+The valleys were cultivated to the highest degree of
+perfection, and filled with a swarming and industrious
+population housed in cities whose ruins still survive
+to attest the skill of their builders. Enervated by
+centuries of peace, the inhabitants had long confined
+their warlike operations to building defensive fortresses.
+Nevertheless, when Tupac advanced up the
+coast he met a desperate and prolonged resistance,
+until one after another the fortresses fell. The
+capital of the confederacy was laid in ruins and great
+numbers of the people were transported to distant
+provinces. Garrisons and Inca colonies were established
+and a military road was constructed along the
+coast. However, the country was really held only
+by force, and even in Spanish times Quichua had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>
+not displaced the Mochica tongue in half the northern
+coast valleys.</p>
+
+<p>Tupac next turned his attention to enlarging the
+southern limits of his empire. From Titicaca his
+armies advanced over hundreds of miles of bleak
+plateaux and barren deserts and down the steep
+Andean slopes into the fertile valleys of central
+Chile. His conquests extended as far south as the
+river Maule,&mdash;three hundred miles beyond Santiago,&mdash;but
+the tribes retained their autonomy and became
+rather allies than subjects. On the eastern side of
+the Andes he obtained the allegiance of the peoples
+living in the mountain valleys of north-western Argentine,
+and he completed the incorporation of the
+vast and fertile plateau which extends from the Titicacan
+basin to the present Argentine border.</p>
+
+<p>Returning to the northern frontier, he reduced
+the peoples who lived in the confused tangle of
+mountains and gorges which lies between the two
+Cordilleras north of Cerro de Pasco, thus extending
+his boundaries nearly to the present Ecuador line.
+The rest of northern Peru and all of southern Ecuador
+belonged to tribes who were loosely attached
+members of the confederacy headed by the Caras
+of Quito. They opposed only a short resistance to
+the arms and diplomacy of Tupac, and he made
+their territory the base for the great war which he
+proposed to undertake against the ancient kingdom
+of Quito. About the year 1455 he advanced with a
+great army, largely recruited from the tribes recently
+wrested from the Quito monarch, and defeated the
+Caras in a great battle. The whole plateau as far<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>
+north as Riobamba submitted, reducing the Shiri's
+domain to the neighbourhood of Quito itself and a
+small region north of that city. However, all of
+Tupac's efforts to force the last barrier which interposed
+between him and the Cara capital failed, and
+he was compelled to content himself with extending
+his conquests on the coast as far as the Gulf of
+Guayaquil. In 1460 he returned to Cuzco, where
+three years later he was enraged to hear that the
+Shiri was making a desperate and partly successful
+effort to recover the lost provinces. Tupac's preparations
+for a final campaign to wipe the Quito
+kingdom out of existence were interrupted by his
+own death.</p>
+
+<p>Huaina Capac succeeded to the throne and continued
+his father's preparations. Bad news, however,
+from the far southern provinces compelled him
+first to undertake a campaign into Chile, in which he
+was victorious. He then proceeded north and devoted
+the rest of his life to conquering and incorporating
+the Cara empire. He first constructed a
+military road from the northern Peruvian coast to
+the plateau in southern Ecuador; then he exterminated
+or reduced to obedience the tribes on the
+Gulf of Guayaquil, and the coast beyond, nearly as
+far as the equator. Returning south, he defeated
+the wild savages of the regions where the Amazon
+leaves the mountains. Having thus secured himself
+against an interruption of his line of communications,
+he advanced against Quito in overwhelming
+force. The Caras and their allies among the brave
+tribes of northern Ecuador made a desperate resist<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>ance,
+but were overthrown in battle after battle, and
+Huaina Capac entered Quito in triumph. All the
+tribes of the confederacy submitted except the Caranquis,
+a warlike people who lived north of Quito.
+These achieved some minor successes, but were
+finally overwhelmed and exterminated.</p>
+
+<p>The Inca empire, now at its greatest extent, included
+all the inhabitable portions of Ecuador, Peru,
+and Bolivia, three-fourths of Chile, and a large part
+of the Argentine, stretching two thousand two hundred
+miles north and south, and from the Pacific to
+the eastern foot of the Andes. Except for the
+plateaux of Colombia practically the whole Andean
+region had been united under one government.
+The rest of South America was occupied by savage
+peoples, divided into small bands, who picked up a
+precarious existence along the streams; and the Inca
+empire was safe from any serious attack on its continental
+boundaries. But the later conquests of
+Tupac and Huaina Capac had incorporated peoples
+in civilisation and warlikeness hardly inferior to the
+Incas themselves. Indeed, in the light of subsequent
+events, it is clear that the later campaigns
+weakened the real military power and homogeneity
+of the empire. While the older parts, southern
+Peru and Bolivia&mdash;the heart of the Inca domain&mdash;formed
+a homogeneous and thoroughly loyal centre
+whose inhabitants all spoke the same language and
+where socialism and the worship of the sun according
+to the Inca rites prevailed, from the latitude of
+Lima north the country had been too recently subdued
+to be counted upon. The northern coast still<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
+required to be kept down by permanent garrisons;
+the mountain tribes of northern Peru retained a
+certain measure of autonomy; and the vast territories
+where the Shiri of Quito had held sway for so
+many centuries were very loosely attached. Tupac,
+the first conqueror, found it advisable to remain
+there almost continuously during the last half of his
+reign, and Huaina Capac, his heir, was born in Ecuador,
+and devoted his whole life to that region. He
+married the daughter and heiress of the defeated
+Shiri, and was regarded rather as the legitimate
+successor of the ancient dynasty than as an alien
+conqueror.</p>
+
+<p>In 1525 Huaina Capac died at Quito, leaving a
+will by which he bequeathed the northern kingdom
+to Atahuallpa, a son born to him by the Shiri's
+daughter. Peru, with the southern provinces, fell to
+Huascar, his son by a princess of Inca blood. As
+the eldest and the legitimate heir according to the
+rules of succession which governed in the Inca
+dynasty, the latter was to be paramount, thus retaining
+a semblance of unity. Huascar and the
+Inca nobles who surrounded him at the old Peruvian
+capital were unwilling to acquiesce in this virtual
+division of the empire. The chief of the Ca&ntilde;aris, a
+tribe always hostile to Quito, sent a messenger to
+Cuzco offering to swear allegiance to Huascar. As
+soon as Atahuallpa heard of this derogation of his
+authority he ordered an army to march and unseat
+the recalcitrant prince, and despatched an ambassador
+to his brother with a conciliatory message, at
+the same time unequivocally asserting his claim to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>the lordship of all the ancient domain of the Shiris.
+Huascar insisted that southern Ecuador, a region
+which had been wrested from the Caras by their
+grandfather, and whose tribes had only been allies
+of Quito, should not be included. His bitter feeling
+against his brother was increased by reports that
+Atahuallpa had assumed Incarial insignia which only
+a legitimate emperor was entitled to use. He returned
+a harsh answer, demanding immediate and
+unconditional obedience. Seeing nothing was to be
+hoped for from Huascar, Atahuallpa began gathering
+the forces of the Quito kingdom.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<img src="images/i015.jpg" width="800" height="443" alt="CHURCH OF THE JESUITS IN CUZCO, ON THE SITE OF THE PALACE OF HUAYNA CAPAC." title="" />
+<span class="caption">CHURCH OF THE JESUITS IN CUZCO, ON THE SITE OF THE PALACE OF HUAYNA CAPAC.</span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Huascar was delayed by insurrections which broke
+out among the tribes of northern Peru, and at first
+could only send a few troops to the assistance of the
+Ca&ntilde;aris. The latter managed to hold Atahuallpa's
+generals in check until Huascar's main army advanced.
+Atahuallpa retired slowly up the plateau
+to within fifty miles of his capital, pursued by the
+Inca army. It seemed certain that he would quickly
+be defeated, and either slain or brought to his
+brother's feet to receive a rebel's sentence. But
+against this invasion, inspired by the ruling oligarchy
+of Cuzco, the warlike people of northern Ecuador
+stood nobly by the grandson of the last of their
+ancient line of monarchs. Though the southerners
+were victorious in the first encounter, Atahuallpa in
+person rallied his army and drew it up in an advantageous
+position at Naxichi. The Incas attacked
+confidently, but this time they were hopelessly
+routed and the chief generals slain with thousands
+of the common soldiery.  The remnant fled in dis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>order
+to the territory of the Ca&ntilde;aris. Atahuallpa
+could not immediately follow up his advantage, and
+by the time he had organised his forces for an offensive
+campaign, Huascar had sent another great
+army to the rescue under the command of his
+younger brother, Huanca Auqui. When Atahuallpa
+crossed the transverse barrier of Azuay and descended
+into the fertile plateau north of Cuenca, a
+terrific battle ensued which lasted two days. Both
+sides suffered severely, but the final advantage lay
+with the Northerners, and Huanca Auqui sullenly
+retreated, abandoning Ecuador to Atahuallpa. A
+fearful vengeance was taken on the Ca&ntilde;aris, while
+the other tribes joined the victor.</p>
+
+<p>Next year Atahuallpa sent a great force under the
+command of Quizquiz, the ablest Indian general of
+the time, into northern Peru. Huanca Auqui was
+again defeated, and abandoned the disputed territory,
+while Atahuallpa's troops poured into the
+northern coast provinces. Having met with no
+serious resistance there, they ascended the Cordillera
+to the neighbourhood of Cajamarca, where they
+met the reinforced Inca army. Again they were
+victorious and Huascar's forces retreated south of
+the Cerro de Pasco, followed by Quizquiz, whose
+army grew like a rolling snowball by enlistments
+among the warlike and half-independent tribes of
+northern Peru.</p>
+
+<p>Huascar's resources were, however, by no means
+exhausted by the crushing defeats he had suffered
+during the last four years. The great plateaux of
+Peru and Bolivia, the most populous and richest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>
+portion of the empire, remained faithful; the ruling
+classes regarded Atahuallpa's revolt not only as an
+impious rebellion against the legitimate emperor,
+but as a menace to their own continued supremacy
+in the state. Tens of thousands poured up from
+the southern provinces to reinforce the army which
+lay in the valleys south of the Cerro de Pasco in
+daily expectation of attack. But Tupac's and
+Huaina Capac's conquests had created a Frankenstein
+monster. When the ruder nations of the
+North were first attacked by the Inca armies they
+did not know how to organise and were easily reduced
+in detail. Three-quarters of a century of
+Inca rule had taught them what they lacked without
+destroying the spirit of individual initiative nourished
+by local autonomy. The older parts of the
+empire had been frozen by rigid socialism and ritual,
+and the people's energies sapped by long centuries
+of tutelage. The northern tribes who followed
+Atahuallpa's banner were superior in military prowess
+to the Incas who fought for Huascar, uniformly
+beating the latter with numbers constantly inferior.
+The balance of power had passed from Cuzco and
+the centre to Quito and the north.</p>
+
+<p>Quizquiz's forces finally crossed the Cerro de
+Pasco and poured down into the beautiful and populous
+valley of Jauja. Again they were victorious,
+and the Incas fled along the road leading toward
+Cuzco. Huascar and his partisans determined to
+make their last stand at the capital itself. Reinforcements
+were hurried up not only from Bolivia,
+but from Chile, and the Argentine, and an army<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>
+which is said to have numbered seventy thousand,
+the largest ever seen in South America, assembled
+at Cuzco. Meanwhile Quizquiz was relentlessly
+advancing along the plateau, and his main body
+reached the neighbourhood of the city intact. After
+some man&#339;uvres for position in which the able and
+experienced northern generals obtained a decisive
+advantage, Huascar's camp was surprised at early
+dawn. His soldiers could not form and a frightful
+carnage ensued, in the midst of which he himself
+was made prisoner. As soon as the capture became
+known his followers fled in all directions. Quizquiz
+advanced his camp to the heights overlooking the
+capital; all idea of further resistance was abandoned;
+the city submitted, and the principal partisans of
+Huascar perished in a cruel massacre.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;">
+<img src="images/dec-d.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-2.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<h3>THE SPANISH CONQUEST</h3>
+
+
+<p>During the long campaigns by which his general,
+Quizquiz, had conquered Peru, Atahuallpa
+had never left the North. He received the
+news of the crowning victory and the capture of
+Huascar, in his palace at Tumibamba on the Cuencan
+plain, and started at once for Cajamarca, the first
+great town on the plateau south of the Ecuador
+border, accompanied by only a small army. While
+waiting near Cajamarca, Atahuallpa heard the wonderful
+news that two hundred strangers had landed
+on the coast at Tumbez&mdash;a port on the southern
+side of the Gulf of Guayaquil. They were white and
+their faces were covered with hair; they had garments
+and arms different from any his informants had
+seen; and most extraordinary of all they were accompanied
+by outlandish gigantic beasts who carried
+them over the ground with a terrifying speed.</p>
+
+<p>The effect of this intelligence upon Atahuallpa
+and his advisers can only be conjectured. It was
+remembered that four years before a ship carrying a
+score or more of these same foreigners had sailed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>
+along the coast of Ecuador and northern Peru,
+landing at various places to beg provisions and ask
+questions. Two had been left behind, and were
+taken to the interior, where their fate is unknown.
+It is, however, probable that these unfortunate
+Spaniards had given to Atahuallpa's officers much
+information about the resources and intentions of
+their countrymen. The Inca emperor seems to
+have realised that the importance and power of the
+foreigners was out of all proportion to their numbers.
+The newcomers protested that their purposes
+were amicable, and sent friendly messages to Atahuallpa,
+who resolved to act cautiously and avoid
+offending them unnecessarily. He despatched his
+own brother as an ambassador with assurances of
+good-will and a polite inquiry as to their wishes and
+intentions. But unfortunately for himself and his
+country the Inca was dealing with a man whose profound
+and deceitful diplomacy was as much superior
+to his as a musket is to a cross-bow. The Spanish
+leader returned word that he appreciated the kind
+expressions of the emperor and would at once proceed
+to Cajamarca to pay his respects in person.</p>
+
+<p>This was Francisco Pizarro, one of the greatest
+practical geniuses whom modern Europe has produced.
+Born out of wedlock at Trujillo, a town in
+Estremadura, the province which during centuries
+was the great fighting ground of Castilian and
+Moor, he passed his youth as a swine-herd in the
+most abject poverty and illiteracy. Enlisting as
+a private soldier, he spent his young manhood
+in fighting under Gonzalo de Cordoba, in those<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
+campaigns which carried the renown of the Spanish
+infantry to the farthest confines of Europe. An
+admirable soldier, conscious that he possessed powers
+of the highest order, hopelessly handicapped in
+old Europe by his base birth and illiteracy, the discovery
+of the New World opened up a field for his
+talents. He eagerly embraced the opportunity,
+embarking in 1509 with Alonso de Ojeda for the
+Darien gold mines. Four years later he accompanied
+Balboa in that memorable journey across the
+Isthmus which resulted in the discovery of the
+Pacific Ocean. To the city of Panama, looking out
+over the mysterious sea, adventurers flocked like a
+pack of wolves eager for a share in the spoils of its
+unknown shores, and Pizarro was among them.
+The news of Cortes's conquest of Mexico brought
+to America a horde of soldiers of fortune. Recklessly
+brave, experienced in the most scientific
+warfare of the time, arrogantly proud of their
+nationality, utterly careless of odds, ready to risk
+their lives on the chance of sudden fortune, a set of
+men better qualified for the work which fate threw
+in their way could not be conceived.</p>
+
+<p>Panama had hardly been founded when rumours
+of the existence of a wealthy and civilised empire
+lying far to the south reached the ears of the Spaniards.
+In 1522, Pascual de Andagoya, a gentleman
+of distinguished family who occupied a high office at
+Panama, made an expedition for a short distance
+along the coast and obtained valuable confirmation
+of the vague reports. Obliged to abandon the
+enterprise by his own illness, he turned it over to a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>
+partnership formed for the purpose by Pizarro,
+Almagro, and a priest named Luque. The first
+enjoyed a great reputation for good judgment and
+fertility of resource, gained in expeditions along the
+Caribbean coast, and by mere force of his talents
+had come to be regarded as one of the ablest and
+luckiest captains on the Isthmus. The active command
+was to be his, while Almagro, a soldier of
+more advanced age and hardly inferior reputation,
+backed him up and sent supplies and reinforcements.
+Luque was the moneyed man of the concern.
+They bought a small vessel at Panama which
+Balboa himself had built eight years before, and in
+1524 Pizarro started down the coast. But his supply
+of provisions was inadequate, it was impossible
+to obtain more from the savage natives of the
+forested shores of Colombia, and the first effort
+ended in failure.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing discouraged, Pizarro and his partners
+persevered. They had great difficulty in raising
+money to fit out properly the next expedition, but
+happily they succeeded in interesting the mayor of
+Panama. Eighteen months later Pizarro sailed once
+more with a better equipment and one hundred and
+sixty men. For five hundred miles he found nothing
+except the hot and swampy seashore of Colombia,
+inhabited by miserable naked tribes, and his companions
+had begun to believe that the empire they
+were seeking was a myth, when the pilot who had
+been sent on ahead came back with word that he had
+penetrated south of the equator, and there had met
+a sort of large sea-going raft coming from the south<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
+manned by a clothed and civilised crew and laden
+with cloth, silver work, metal mirrors, vases, and
+various other goods.</p>
+
+<p>These Indians said they came from Tumbez, a
+city in a fertile valley on a dry and penetrable coast
+which lay not more than two hundred miles farther
+south. They were traders bringing up a stock to
+sell to the shore peoples of Ecuador&mdash;tribes who
+had long been compelled to acknowledge the suzerainty
+of the Incas, but who still lived in virtual independence
+under their own chiefs. The men on
+the raft told the Spaniards that the whole interior
+and the southern coast were inhabited by civilised
+peoples, subjects of an emperor whose capital was a
+great city in the mountains hundreds of leagues to
+the south. Having received this confirmation of
+their most extravagant hopes, Pizarro and his men
+pushed on until they nearly reached the northern
+boundary of Ecuador, not far from the limits of the
+Inca empire. It was clear, however, that their small
+force would never be able to cope with the armies of
+such a power. Almagro went back to Panama for
+reinforcements, while the indomitable Pizarro landed
+his already disheartened adventurers on a swampy
+island where their clothes rotted in the steaming,
+tropical heat and never-ceasing rain; fevers decimated
+them, mosquitoes tortured them, and eatable
+provisions were impossible to obtain. When Almagro
+reached Panama, the governor flew into a rage
+on hearing that Pizarro was holding his men against
+their will, and sent a ship to bring back all who
+wished.  Nine-tenths of the band deserted Pizarro,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>
+but he was indomitable and thirteen heroes stood
+by him in his determination to reach Peru or perish.
+For weary months he waited for provisions, but the
+moment they arrived he set off for the south.
+Within twenty days he and his little band of adventurers
+reached the Gulf of Guayaquil, four hundred
+miles farther on, and immediately landed at Tumbez.
+With their own eyes they saw full confirmation
+of what the Indians of the raft had told them.
+Irrigated fields, green with beautiful crops, lined the
+river bank; eighty thousand people, all comfortably
+housed, lived in the valley; commerce was flourishing;
+large temples profusely ornamented with gold
+and silver testified to wealth and culture; the government
+was well-ordered and stable; and the people
+received the visitors with open-handed hospitality.</p>
+
+<p>After refreshing his followers, Pizarro continued
+his explorations down the coast for a couple of hundred
+miles, finding a succession of fertile valleys interrupting
+the monotonous desert, each filled with
+villages and farms and a thriving, civilised, and
+prosperous population. In the fall of 1527 he returned
+to Panama, full of the idea of leading an expedition
+to conquer the great empire about which he
+had obtained such minute and exact information.
+He wisely resolved himself to go to Spain and secure
+the direct patronage and countenance of the government
+at Madrid. Taking with him natives brought
+from Tumbez and specimens of products, he set off,
+and on his arrival was granted an audience by
+Charles V. The Emperor was greatly impressed by
+the story which the adventurer told. Naturally of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>
+noble and commanding presence, the conscious dignity
+of Pizarro's manners corresponded to the high
+ambitions which filled his mind. In the doing of
+great things he had dropped all evidences of his base
+origin, and contact with men and the habit of command
+had given him an ease of address and clearness
+of thought which made his hearers forget the deficiencies
+of his early education. The concession he
+prayed for was granted. He himself was legitimatised
+and ennobled and received the title of "adelantado,"
+while the gallant followers who had refused
+to abandon him on the Colombian island were made
+gentlemen of coat-armour. Pizarro and his partners
+were formally authorised to conquer and settle Peru
+in the name of the Castilian sovereign and received a
+grant of money for the purchase of arms, agreeing
+to remit to the royal treasury one-fifth of all the
+gold that they should find.</p>
+
+<p>Pizarro knew just the kind of men needed to assist
+in this hazardous enterprise, and he took every precaution
+to select only those of whose valour and
+capacity he was well assured. His mother had
+bred up a family of lions in the little old Estremadura
+town, and his four brothers were hardly his
+inferiors in valour and audacity. Hernando, the
+oldest and only legitimate son of Francisco's father,
+agreed to go. So did Juan and Gonzalo, two illegitimate
+brothers who were younger, and also Francisco
+Alcantara, a half-brother on the mother's side.
+Hernando Cortes, the noble conqueror of Mexico,
+exerted himself to help Pizarro fill up his ranks with
+soldiers of the most approved courage, and the lat<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>ter
+finally sailed for the Isthmus with a small body
+picked from the very flower of the fighting men of
+the Peninsula.</p>
+
+<p>Pizarro believed that a few hundreds of good men,
+well provided with artillery and horses, would be as
+effective as thousands in striking terror to masses
+of Indians armed only with spears and swords.
+Arrived at Panama, it was arranged that he should
+proceed to Peru at once, while Almagro would
+follow later with reinforcements recruited among
+the unemployed adventurers in Nicaragua. All
+sorts of good fortune favoured the daring enterprise.
+For once the fitful winds which usually baffle sailing
+ships in the Gulf of Panama were kind, and Pizarro's
+clumsy, little caravels traversed in thirteen days the
+seven hundred miles of inhospitable coast which lay
+between the Isthmus and the first Inca provinces.
+Landing among the half-civilised tribes of Ecuador,
+he had the good luck to find a store of gold and
+emeralds. This he sent back, as an encouragement
+to Almagro, and marching down the Ecuador coast,
+he reached the Gulf of Guayaquil, on whose southern
+shore began the populous and civilised portions of
+the empire. He crossed to the island of Puna, overcame
+its fierce inhabitants with great slaughter, and
+there was joined by a large and welcome reinforcement
+of men and horses under the command of
+Hernando de Soto, afterwards so famous as the discoverer
+of the Mississippi, who had come on his own
+motion to get his share in the spoils.</p>
+
+<p>So far, Pizarro's operations had been among outlying
+provinces owning only nominal allegiance to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>
+the Incas, but he now felt strong enough to cross
+over to Tumbez and establish a footing in their real
+domain. From Tumbez he marched south to Paita,
+where he determined to establish his base. The
+quick eye of the master general appreciated the
+strategical advantages of this valley. At this point
+the great military road coming down from the plateau
+of Ecuador debouched on the coast plain. Communication
+to the south was easy by a road which
+connected all the coast valleys with branches climbing
+to the plateaux. An anchorage at the valley's
+mouth afforded a sure means of keeping open that
+communication with Panama which was so essential
+to success; reinforcements could reach him in whatever
+part of Peru he might venture, and a garrison
+left at Paita would command the main route connecting
+Quito and Cuzco, cutting the Peruvian
+empire in two.</p>
+
+<p>On receiving Pizarro's answer to his friendly message,
+Atahuallpa resolved to await the promised
+visit, apparently suspecting no evil. The audacious
+Spaniard had, however, conceived the design of
+capturing the victorious claimant of the throne of
+the Incas, well knowing that in its actual distracted
+condition the country would be left without a centre
+about which it could rally. Open war, no matter
+how overwhelming his first victory might be, could
+hardly be ultimately successful. Atahuallpa once
+safe at Cuzco or Quito and surrounded by the disciplined
+soldiers who had overthrown Huascar, a
+defensive campaign might be undertaken in which
+Pizarro would find every step toward either capital<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>
+bitterly disputed. Hundreds of thousands of Peruvians
+pouring up from the numberless provinces of
+the empire would be thrown in a never-ceasing succession
+of armies against his little band of Spaniards,
+and the latter would infallibly be driven back to the
+coast by starvation and fatigue if not by defeat in
+the field.</p>
+
+<p>Apparently foolhardy, in fact Pizarro's plan offered
+the only chance of success. Never dreaming that
+such a step was in contemplation, Atahuallpa took
+no precautions. Leaving fifty-five men at the little
+post of San Miguel in the Paita valley to secure his
+retreat, Pizarro marched south with one hundred
+and two foot soldiers, sixty-two horses, and two
+small cannon two hundred miles along the coast
+plain to a point opposite Cajamarca, and ascended
+along an Inca military road, meeting a friendly reception
+from the wondering natives, and being supplied
+with provisions by Atahuallpa's orders.</p>
+
+<p>On the 15th of November, 1532, Pizarro entered
+Cajamarca. He found an open square in the middle
+of the town surrounded by walls and solid stone
+buildings, which he received permission to occupy
+as quarters. From his camp outside, Atahuallpa
+sent word that the following day he would enter the
+town in state and receive the Spaniards. Marvellous
+good fortune favoured Pizarro's treacherous designs.
+The Indians had furnished a trap already made, and
+now Atahuallpa deliberately walked into it. On
+the morning of the 16th the Indian army broke
+camp and marched to Cajamarca, followed by the
+Emperor, who was borne in a litter and surrounded<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
+by his personal attendants, the great chiefs, and the
+nobles belonging to his own lineage. At sunset he
+entered the square, accompanied only by these
+unarmed attendants, and found Pizarro and a few
+Spaniards awaiting him. The rest were hidden in
+the houses around the square with their horses
+saddled, their breast-plates on, and musketry and
+cannon ready charged.</p>
+
+<p>From among the group which surrounded Pizarro
+stepped forward Friar Valverde and approached the
+Inca monarch, who, reclining in a litter raised high
+above the crowd on the shoulders of his attendants,
+waited with dignity to hear what those strangers had
+to say. The priest advanced with a cross in one
+hand and a Bible in the other and began a harangue
+which, clumsily translated by an Indian boy, the Inca
+hardly understood. But in a few moments he realised
+that this uncouth jargon was meant to convey
+an arrogant demand that he acknowledge himself a
+vassal of Charles V. and submit to baptism. With
+haughty surprise he threw down the book which
+Valverde tried to force into his hand&mdash;the priest
+shouted, "Fall on, Castilians&mdash;I absolve you," and
+into the helpless crowd burst a murderous fire from
+the doors of the houses all around. Aghast and bewildered
+by this display of powers which to them
+seemed necromantic, the survivors nevertheless
+manfully stood to the attack of the mail-clad horsemen
+who rode into the huddled mass ferociously
+slashing and slaughtering. The Indians strove desperately
+to drag the Spaniards from the horses with
+their naked hands, and interposed a living wall of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>
+human flesh between the murderers and their beloved
+sovereign. At length Pizarro's own hands
+snatched Atahuallpa from the litter. The Indian
+soldiers outside, hearing the firearms and the noise
+of the struggle, tried to force their way into the
+square, but the Spanish musketry and cannon
+mowed them down by hundreds, and they fled before
+the charges of the cavalry, dispersing in the
+twilight.</p>
+
+<p>Pizarro took every precaution to prevent the
+escape or rescue of his prisoner, and for the first few
+weeks treated him kindly. The Spaniard was playing
+a profound diplomatic game. He well knew that
+Atahuallpa's generals would fear to endanger the
+latter's life by undertaking any aggressive measures,
+and that Huascar's partisans would take advantage
+of this providential opportunity to reorganise their
+forces. He conversed much with the captive emperor
+and at length began to hint to him the advisability
+of arbitration with Huascar. But the Inca
+took alarm and secretly sent off orders for his
+brother's execution. Seeing that the Indian was
+not to be cajoled, the Spaniard adopted a sterner
+attitude, pretended the greatest indignation at the
+fratricide, and soon had Atahuallpa willing to offer
+anything for his release. Shrewdly guessing that
+for gold the Spaniards would run any risk, the Inca
+negotiated for his ransom, saying: "I will fill this
+room with gold as high as I can reach if only you
+will liberate me." Pizarro agreed, insisting, however,
+that the ransom be delivered in advance at
+Cajamarca. A formal contract was drawn up and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
+executed before a notary, and the deluded emperor
+ordered all preparations for war on the Spaniards to
+be interrupted and that the temples be stripped of
+their gold ornaments to supply the enormous amount
+he had promised. Under protection of this truce
+Pizarro sent out expeditions to explore the country
+and to expedite the process of gathering the treasure,
+and while this was going on Almagro arrived
+with reinforcements which doubled the Spanish
+forces. Finally the agreed sum was all in Cajamarca.
+It amounted to four million five hundred
+sterling in modern money. One-fifth was sent to
+the royal treasury and the remainder divided, making
+even the private soldiers rich for life.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, Atahuallpa was not released. Large
+bodies of his troops were known to be on their way
+from Cuzco, and Pizarro realised that, once at the
+head of his forces, the Inca would wage an unrelenting
+warfare to expel the last Spaniard from Peru.
+If kept a prisoner his partisans would no longer
+hesitate to fight to release him, appreciating now
+the uselessness of relying on Spanish promises. He
+must be got rid of, and so after a mock trial in
+which he was charged with Huascar's murder and
+with conspiring against the Spaniards, the Inca emperor
+was strangled to death in the public square at
+Cajamarca. Pizarro knew better than to allow the
+Indians time to settle the disputed succession.
+With masterful sagacity he resolved to strike at
+Cuzco during the confusion. He suddenly evacuated
+Cajamarca and rapidly marched along the
+northern plateau, and over the Cerro de Pasco into<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>
+the fertile valley of Jauja. From this point a short
+road led down the Cordillera to the sea, making it
+an admirable base for a campaign against Cuzco.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<img src="images/i033.jpg" width="800" height="591" alt="OBSEQUIES OF ATAHUALLPA." title="" />
+<span class="caption">OBSEQUIES OF ATAHUALLPA.<br />
+[From a painting by the Peruvian artist, Monteros.]</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Leaving a garrison to protect his retreat to the
+ocean, Pizarro advanced by forced marches along
+the great central plateau toward Cuzco. Quizquiz
+and the army, which had defeated and captured
+Huascar two years before, tried to oppose his progress,
+but all the calculations of the Indian general
+were overthrown by the incredible speed of the
+Spanish cavalry. The horsemen reached the neighbourhood
+of Cuzco without encountering any considerable
+force of the enemy.  Here the advance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>
+guard was surprised, lost a fourth of its number,
+and was on the point of being overwhelmed, when
+the opportune arrival of the main body dispersed
+the Indians. Though only a small part of Quizquiz's
+army had taken part, this defeat badly demoralised
+his soldiers; it seemed impossible to make
+any headway against these strangers clothed in steel,
+mounted on great beasts, and armed with weapons
+which slew their opponents before the latter could
+got in a blow. Moreover, Quizquiz was in a hostile
+country, where sympathies were all with the Huascar
+party and where the executioners of Atahuallpa
+were regarded as deliverers.</p>
+
+<p>Manco Capac, Huascar's brother and legitimate
+successor, went in person to the Spanish camp to
+propose a formal alliance and a joint war of extermination
+against the Atahuallpa faction, Pizarro
+received him with every mark of honour and respect
+and renewed his assurances that the sole object of
+his march from Cajamarca was to crush the enemies
+of the rightful emperor. Quizquiz tried hard to get
+his forces into shape for resistance, but his position
+near Cuzco was untenable, and after a slight skirmish
+he was obliged to leave the way open to the
+capital. Just a year from the day he had reached
+Cajamarca, Pizarro entered Cuzco by the side of the
+legitimate emperor amid the acclamations of the
+people. Manco's inauguration was splendidly celebrated
+with all the ancient rites, but among the
+procession of rejoicing Incas rode an ominous cavalcade&mdash;the
+Spanish soldiers, who now numbered
+nearly five hundred.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The new emperor gathered an army, and, assisted
+by some Spaniards, set off in pursuit of Quizquiz,
+whom he defeated a short distance north of Cuzco.
+The old northern general, still indefatigable, made
+a rapid march on Jauja to surprise the Spanish garrison,
+but was repulsed in this well-considered effort
+to cut Pizarro's communications with the coast,
+and had to make his way, the best he could, back
+towards Quito. The central portion of the empire
+would now have been content to settle back into
+quiet allegiance to Manco. But the latter soon
+found that his allies regarded the country as their
+own. Under the pressure of necessity for help
+against Quizquiz he had acknowledged, as a matter
+of form, the titular supremacy of the Spanish king,
+and he was now required to carry out his obligation
+to the letter. A municipal council, framed on the
+Spanish model, was installed as the governing body
+of the ancient capital; the great temples were turned
+into churches and monasteries; other public edifices
+were seized to be used as residences or barracks for
+the Spaniards; tombs, temples, and private residences
+were searched for gold; and the authorities
+were required to furnish troops and carriers for the
+expeditions which their oppressors planned against
+the remoter parts of the empire. With the resignation
+characteristic of the race, the Indians submitted
+to these exactions, and Manco hesitated long
+before deciding to put himself at the head of a
+revolt.</p>
+
+<p>The transcendant military and diplomatic qualities
+Pizarro had displayed were equalled by the energy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>
+and foresight which he now showed as an administrator.
+Realising that his capital should be on the
+coast in order to secure direct communication with
+Panama, he made a careful examination of routes
+and possible sites and selected the valley of the
+Rimac, just below Jauja, where he founded Lima.
+From this point the military road by which the Incas
+had kept up communication from Cuzco with the
+coast and the northern provinces ascended to the
+plateau. Lima and Jauja were the strategical keys
+to central and southern Peru; San Miguel gave easy
+access to Quito, and Pizarro insured the region extending
+from Cerro de Pasco to the Ecuador border
+by establishing the city of Trujillo half-way up the
+coast.</p>
+
+<p>Their original agreement provided that Pizarro
+should have the northern half of the countries they
+might conquer, and Almagro the southern. Accordingly,
+about two years after Cuzco was occupied,
+Almagro started for Bolivia and Chile, accompanied
+by five hundred Spaniards and two brothers of the
+Inca emperor, leading a large native army. In Bolivia,
+where the Inca power had been established for
+centuries, he encountered no opposition, and crossed
+the bleak plateaux of the Puna, descended the
+Andes, and finally reached the fertile valleys of
+northern Chile. But so little gold was found that
+Almagro determined to return and set up a claim
+to Cuzco.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>
+<img src="images/i037.jpg" width="800" height="547" alt="STONE BRIDGE OVER THE RIMAC RIVER, LIMA, PERU." title="" />
+<span class="caption">STONE BRIDGE OVER THE RIMAC RIVER, LIMA, PERU.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the meantime the Incas of central Peru had
+awakened from the dream of a continuance of
+the ancient dynasty under Spanish protection.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>Pizarro himself seems to have been guilty of few acts
+of wanton cruelty, but he neither wished nor tried
+to restrain his followers from reducing the Indians
+to vassalage. The natives were fast crowded to the
+wall, and the Spaniards divided the fairest parts
+of the country into estates, treating the Indians as
+tenants from whom tribute was due. The sovereignty
+of the emperor soon became a mere fiction.
+In 1536 Manco escaped from Cuzco and raised the
+standard of rebellion. The moment appeared favourable.
+The Spanish forces were scattered; Pizarro
+was at Lima, and Almagro in the wilds of
+Chile, but as a matter of fact the Incas laboured
+under almost hopeless disadvantages. Their cities,
+fortresses, and roads were all in the hands of the
+Spaniards, and the kingdom of Quito, the most
+warlike part of the empire, had meanwhile been
+reduced by a Spanish expedition from San Miguel.</p>
+
+<p>The rebellion was confined at first to the tribes
+who lived in the neighbourhood of Cuzco. These
+rose <i>en masse</i> and besieged the two hundred Spaniards,
+who, under the command of Hernando Pizarro
+and his two younger brothers, Juan and Gonzalo,
+occupied the capital. The Indians captured the
+citadel overlooking the town, and poured an incessant
+rain of stones and burning darts on their
+enemies. The Spaniards soon ran out of provisions,
+and were forced to try to recapture the citadel
+or perish miserably by fire and starvation. Juan
+Pizarro led a desperate assault, ably assisted by Hernando
+and Gonzalo, and all three proved themselves
+worthy of the name they bore. Juan fell mortally<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>
+wounded in the moment of victory, but the Incas
+fled in confusion, giving the surviving Spaniards an
+opportunity to procure supplies of maize from the
+neighbouring farms. This defeat disheartened the
+Indians. Numbers and bravery seemed useless
+against the horses and firearms of these strangers,
+whose reckless courage was only equalled by their
+cruelty. The Incas kept up the siege for several
+months, but without artillery their swords and
+spears could make little headway against men provided
+with firearms and protected behind solid
+stone walls. While the Spaniards in Cuzco were
+thus fighting for their lives, the Incas near Jauja
+rose and descended on Lima, but Francisco Pizarro
+with his dreaded cavalry waited for them in ambush,
+and the Indians were surprised and cut to pieces.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of this success the governor's position remained
+most grave. He sent for help to Panama,
+Guatemala, and Mexico, but meanwhile had no
+means of relieving Cuzco. Its fall meant not only
+the death of his beloved brothers, but would almost
+certainly be followed by a general insurrection and
+the loss of all the advantages gained in three years
+of fighting and scheming. He hurried forward two
+hundred and fifty men,&mdash;all he could possibly spare,&mdash;but
+had little prospect of success until news came
+that Almagro and his five hundred followers had
+arrived at Arequipa on their way back from Chile.
+From Arequipa there is a pass to the north end of
+Lake Titicaca, and thence to Cuzco the way was easy.
+Manco would be caught between Pizarro's army
+coming up from Lima and Almagro's descending<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>
+from the south. The Inca gave up hope and with
+a few devoted followers retired into the wild region
+of Vilcabamba, lying north of Cuzco near the
+Amazonian plain. In those rugged and forested
+defiles he was safe from Spanish pursuit, but his
+retirement ended all hope of organised and general
+resistance. The Inca empire had fallen never to
+rise again. With stoical resignation the Indians
+made the best of their sad situation, while the conquerors
+were left free to fight among themselves
+over the division of the magnificent spoils which had
+so miraculously fallen into their hands.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;">
+<img src="images/dec-c.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-5.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<h3>CIVIL WARS AMONG THE CONQUERORS</h3>
+
+
+<p>The edict of Charles V. conceded to Pizarro the
+territory for two hundred and seventy leagues
+south of the river on the Ecuador coast where the
+conquest had begun, and to Almagro the next two
+hundred leagues. In his heart Almagro was dissatisfied
+with this award, and, even if he accepted
+the division, there was wide room for misunderstandings
+and disputes. No one knew the exact
+latitude of the river whence the measurement was
+to be made, nor had any one surveyed the distances
+along the winding roads. Almagro contended that
+Cuzco and Arequipa lay within his province, but
+this Pizarro vigorously and, as it turned out, correctly
+denied.</p>
+
+<p>Almagro's personal followers were disgusted with
+the rude poverty they had found in Chile, and saw
+little chance of valuable spoil unless their leader
+should secure the fertile plateaux of Titicaca, Cuzco,
+and Arequipa. They urged him to seize by force
+what he believed to belong to him. After the flight
+of Manco his army reached Cuzco before the force<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>
+which Pizarro was sending up had penetrated nearer
+than a hundred miles. Hernando Pizarro had two
+hundred men at Cuzco, but they were exhausted
+with long months of fighting against the Indian besiegers
+and could offer no effective resistance to the
+night attack by which Almagro surprised them.
+Hernando and his brother Gonzalo were captured
+and imprisoned, and Almagro advanced against the
+army from Lima and defeated it. "This," exclaimed
+Pizarro, when he heard the news, "is Almagro's
+return to me, after losing a beloved and
+gallant brother, and spending all I possess in pacifying
+the country. I mourn for the danger of my
+brothers, but still more that two friends in their old
+age should plunge into a civil war to the injury
+alike of the King's service and of Peru." From this
+moment all the powers of his great mind and the
+resources of his profound cunning were devoted to
+securing his brothers' safety first, and afterwards revenge
+upon Almagro. Willing to agree to anything
+rather than leave them in the hands of enemies
+whom he knew to be as coldly cruel as himself and
+far more bloodthirsty, he sent ambassadors to treat
+for the liberation of Hernando and Gonzalo. But
+Almagro thought he held the whip hand, and
+marched his victorious army across the Cordillera
+opposite Cuzco and up the coast nearly to Lima,
+declaring his intention of founding a capital for his
+government in the valley of Chincha, and announcing
+that he would be satisfied with nothing less than
+the cession of all Peru from Lima south. To obtain
+Hernando's release the governor was forced to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>
+consent that Almagro should remain in possession
+of the disputed territory pending the decision of the
+King, but Hernando was no sooner safe at Lima
+than Pizarro repudiated his promise. He declared
+war; his army, under the leadership of Hernando
+and Valdivia&mdash;afterwards famous as the conqueror
+of Chile&mdash;advanced down the coast. Futilely raging
+at Pizarro's treachery, the old man retreated,
+making his way toward Cuzco over one of the southern
+passes. His pursuers by a rapid march over a
+difficult and little used pass reached the neighbourhood
+of the Inca capital without resistance. Almagro
+was compelled to accept battle, or to shut
+himself up in Cuzco and let his enemies bring up artillery
+and batter him out at their leisure. His men
+outnumbered Pizarro's, and were assisted by a
+large contingent of natives, though inferior in discipline
+and arms. He chose the speedier alternative,
+but the flank attacks of his native auxiliaries
+made no impression on Hernando's carefully disposed
+infantry and his Spaniards fell into confusion
+when the main bodies met in the shock of battle.
+With a flank cavalry charge the rout became general;
+Hernando Pizarro dashed in, conspicuous with
+white plume and orange-coloured doublet; the most
+desperate partisans were slaughtered, bravely fighting,
+and the old man fled. He was soon captured
+and brought back to the very prison where he had
+so long confined Hernando. After languishing for
+a few months, orders were given that he be strangled.
+Francisco made no sign to save the life of his
+old comrade, and the sentence was inflicted.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>For the second time Pizarro entered Cuzco in
+triumph, wearing now an ermine robe presented to
+him by Hernando Cortes, and once more he devoted
+himself to organising his vast dominions and extending
+the Spanish power over the distant provinces.
+Gonzalo Pizarro went to Quito to make that
+expedition into the Amazon country in search of
+the Eldorado which so miserably failed in its immediate
+object, but resulted in Orellana's discovery of
+the great river. Hernando Pizarro proceeded to
+Bolivia to develop the mining industry&mdash;a labour
+soon to be rewarded by the finding of Potos&iacute;. Valdivia
+undertook the conquest of Chile, and Alvarado
+that of the mountains of northern Peru. The governor
+travelled himself over most of his dominions,
+founding cities at strategic points in the more populous
+and fertile valleys. He visited Charcas&mdash;now
+Sucr&eacute;&mdash;the old Indian capital of southern Bolivia;
+he founded one city at Arequipa, commanding the
+greatest valley of the southern coast, and another
+at Guamanga in a fertile plateau half-way between
+Jauja and Cuzco. The better parts of the country
+were divided into great feudal estates and distributed
+among his favourites and faithful followers,
+while the partisans of Almagro made their way as
+best they could out of Peru or hung around in helpless
+poverty, gnashing their teeth as they saw their
+luckier comrades rapidly enriching themselves by
+Indian tribute and mining.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 537px;">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>
+<img src="images/i045.jpg" width="537" height="800" alt="RUE MERCADERES, PROCESSION DAY, LIMA." title="" />
+<span class="caption">RUE MERCADERES, PROCESSION DAY, LIMA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Almagro's friends quickly carried the news of his
+illegal execution to Spain, crying for justice against
+the Pizarros. The Spanish government was not
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>
+unwilling to secure a selfish advantage from the disputes
+among the original conquerors, and sent out
+Vaca de Castro to investigate and report.</p>
+
+<p>When the royal commissioner arrived at Panama
+early in 1541, the latest news from Peru was tranquillising.
+Pizarro was busily engaged in enlarging
+and beautifying Lima, in regulating the revenue and
+the administration, in distributing "encomiendas,"
+and in restraining the rapacity of his Spaniards.
+However, Lima was full of the "men of Chile"&mdash;as
+Almagro's adherents were called&mdash;all bitter enemies
+of the governor. They passed him in the street
+without saluting, and their attitude was so menacing
+that Pizarro received repeated warnings and was
+urged to banish them. Absolutely incapable of personal
+fear, magnanimous when his passions had not
+been aroused, he only replied, "Poor fellows; they
+have had trouble enough. We will not molest
+them." He even sent for Juan de la Rada, the
+guide, counsellor, and guardian of the young half-breed
+who was Almagro's heir, and condescended to
+try to argue him into a better frame of mind, saying
+at parting, "Ask me frankly what you desire." But
+the iron had entered too deeply into Rada's soul;
+he had already organised a conspiracy to assassinate
+Pizarro.</p>
+
+<p>At noon on Sunday, the 26th of June, 1541, Pizarro
+was sitting at dinner in his house with twenty
+gentlemen, among them his half-brother, Francisco
+Alcantara, and several of the most illustrious knights
+who had taken part in the conquest. The great
+door into the public square was lying wide open.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>
+The conspirators, to the number of a score, had assembled
+in a house opposite. All of a sudden they
+rushed into the square fully armed and carrying
+their swords naked in their hands. A young page
+standing in front of the governor's house saw them
+and ran back shouting: "To arms! all the men of
+Chile are coming to kill the Marquis, our lord."
+The guests rose in alarm from the table and all but
+half a dozen fled to the windows and dropped into
+the garden. Pizarro threw off his gown and
+snatched up a sword, while the valiant Francisco
+Chaves stepped forward through the ante-room to
+dispute the passage at the staircase. The ferocious
+crowd of murderers rushed up and laid him dead on
+the stairs. Alcantara checked them for a few moments
+with his single sword, but was soon forced
+back into the dining-room and fell pierced with
+many thrusts. The old lion shouted from the inside,
+"What shameful thing is this! why do you wish to
+kill me?" and with a cloak wrapped round one arm and
+his sword grasped in the other hand, he rushed forward
+to meet his assassins and strike a blow to avenge
+his brother before he himself should fall. Only two
+faithful young pages remained at his side. Though
+over seventy years of age, his practised sword laid
+two of the crowd dead before he was surrounded.
+The two boys were butchered and in the m&ecirc;l&eacute;e
+Pizarro received a mortal wound in the throat, and
+falling to the floor, made the sign of the cross on
+the boards and kissed it. One of the ruffians had
+snatched up an earthen water jar and with this
+pounded out the old man's brains as he lay prostrate,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>
+disdaining to ask for mercy and murmuring "Jesus"
+just as the fatal blow fell.</p>
+
+<p>Thus perished by the sword this great man of
+blood. The measure he had meted out to Atahuallpa
+and Almagro was measured to him again.
+He who had shamelessly broken his oath times without
+number to gain his own high ends was slain by
+treacherous, cowardly assault. But his great vices
+should not blind us to his greater virtues. Courageous,
+indomitable, far-sighted, patriotic, large-minded,
+public-spirited, possessing a God-given
+instinct for seeing straight to the centre of a problem
+and the energy to strike at the psychological moment,
+he was equally great as an explorer, a soldier,
+a general, a diplomatist, and an administrator. Even
+his shocking moral delinquencies lose something of
+their turpitude when we consider the greatness of
+his aims and the baseness of his origin. A bastard,
+a common soldier, a penniless adventurer, a man
+who had to fight his way up by his own wits, courage
+and parts, in the worst of schools, it was not to
+be expected that he would be scrupulous. But that
+his real nature was magnanimous, generous, and
+truthful is proven by the many instances in which
+he forgave his enemies and kept his word to his serious
+loss, and that his ambition was not sordid is
+shown by his self-sacrificing devotion to the public
+good during the later years of his life. Formed in
+nature's grandest mould, circumstances and environment
+had much deformed his character, but the
+original lineaments are plain.</p>
+
+<p>The news of the murder threw Peru into confu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>sion.
+In Lima the governor's friends hid themselves
+or fled; a hundred sympathisers joined the
+assassins; the rudders and sails of the ships in port
+were taken away so that no word could be sent to
+Panama; and all the treasure in the city was plundered.
+Young Almagro assumed the title of governor
+of Peru, but he and Rada soon realised that
+the vast majority at Lima regarded them with execration,
+while threatening messages came from the
+commanders in other towns. Rada and the boy
+usurper started up the road for Jauja and Cuzco.
+At the former place Rada died, but his prot&eacute;g&eacute;,
+though only twenty-two years old, now showed
+unexpected ability and resource. Suppressing with
+bloody severity a quarrel among his captains, he
+took the road to Cuzco, where his father's party was
+strongest.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime the royal commissioner, now
+become legal governor of Peru, had sailed from
+Panama. Shipwrecked off the coast of southern
+Colombia, he resolved to proceed by land, and disembarking
+at Buenaventura, made his way with infinite
+difficulty through the tangled forests and steep
+defiles of the Maritime Cordillera to the valley of
+the Cauca River. Thence to Quito over the highlands
+of Popay&aacute;n and Pasto was easier. As soon
+as the news of Pizarro's murder reached him he
+hastened south, receiving many offers of help from
+the friends of the dead governor. At Jauja he
+found a considerable army ready to his orders, so he
+proceeded promptly to Guamanga, to which point
+Almagro was advancing from Cuzco. The soldiers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>
+of the young half-breed knew that they were fighting
+with halters round their necks, and the battle
+was the bloodiest since the Spaniards had landed in
+Peru. Of the twelve hundred white men who went
+into the fight only five hundred escaped unwounded.
+The rebels were practically annihilated. Two days
+after the battle Pizarro's murderers were executed
+in the great square at Guamanga. Young Almagro
+managed to escape to Cuzco, but he was quickly
+captured and relentlessly put to death.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the death of Francisco Pizarro the right to
+nominate a governor reverted to the Spanish Crown.
+Though some disappointment was felt that Gonzalo
+Pizarro had not been appointed, Vaca de Castro
+succeeded without opposition. Gonzalo's selection
+would not have suited the new policy of the Spanish
+government. Las Casas had written his famous
+book exposing the unspeakable iniquities of the
+earlier conquerors toward the West Indian natives.
+It produced a tremendous effect on public opinion,
+and the authorities at Madrid decided to root up
+Indian slavery, and gradually abolish the existing
+"encomiendas." Manifestly, such a step would excite
+bitter dissatisfaction among the adventurers in
+Peru, and it seemed best to name a viceroy, who
+would be <i>ipso facto</i> vested with absolute power, and
+not subject to the influence of the "conquistadores."</p>
+
+<p>This dangerous post was entrusted to Blasco
+Nu&ntilde;ez de Vela, an old bureaucrat of the Escurial,
+whose integrity, piety, and rigid obedience to orders
+had pushed him into high positions. Arriving in
+Peru early in 1544, he was received with outward<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>
+courtesy and respect, thinly veiling real alarm and
+distrust. The "New Laws" abolished personal service
+by Indians; the grandees of estates must hereafter
+be content with a moderate tribute from their
+tenants; encomiendas might not be sold nor even
+descend by inheritance; and&mdash;worst of all&mdash;public
+officials and all Spaniards who had taken part in the
+wars between Almagro and Pizarro were to be deprived.
+The provisions were drastic and rumour exaggerated
+them. In his journey down the coast the
+viceroy had sternly ordered that no Indian be forced
+to carry a burden against his will. To the Spaniards
+this seemed an outrageous violation of the
+natural order of things. The whole fabric of their
+fortunes rested upon forced Indian labour. Without
+it they could not work their mines, farm their estates,
+or transport their goods, and these "New
+Laws" enforced by a conscientious and stubborn
+old bureaucrat, would virtually rob them of all that
+their swords had won.</p>
+
+<p>Dismayed "encomienderos" wrote to Gonzalo
+Pizarro, urging him to espouse their cause; his own
+vast estates would infallibly be wrenched away by
+the viceroy, and he was told that his head was to be
+cut off as soon as Nu&ntilde;ez Vela could lay hands on
+him. With the Pizarro instinct of running to meet
+a danger, he hastened from southern Bolivia to
+Cuzco, where he was proclaimed "procurator general"
+of Peru; soldiers flocked to his camp; he
+seized the artillery and stores at Cuzco, and soon
+was at the head of four hundred desperate men, well
+armed and provided. Many, however, shrank from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>
+open rebellion against the representative of the
+Castilian king, and the Pizarros had enemies. The
+result was still doubtful, when the viceroy himself
+turned the scale by his own violent measures. He
+imprisoned Vaca de Castro on suspicion of favouring
+the revolt; quarrelled with the judges of the royal
+court; and finally in an altercation with the popular
+factor of Lima, stabbed his opponent with his own
+hand, and then attempted to conceal the murder.
+Frightened at the burst of public indignation, he
+fled to Trujillo, while the royal judges took the direction
+of affairs into their own hands. They ordered
+the arrest and deportation of the viceroy, and
+sent a conciliatory message to Gonzalo. But he
+knew better than to rely upon the unauthorised
+promises of the judges. His answer was to send a
+detachment to Lima, which seized three deserters
+and hanged them on trees outside the town. The
+judges having no troops upon whom they could rely,
+were forced to recognise Pizarro as governor. A
+few days later he made his triumphal entry, riding
+at the head of twelve hundred men. There was no
+mistaking the sincerity of the acclamations with
+which the Spaniards welcomed the devoted champion
+of their privileges. Nevertheless in the minds
+of most there lurked an uneasy consciousness that
+all this was in fact flat treason against the lawful
+sovereign, and that no government could in the
+long run prevail without recognition from Madrid.</p>
+
+<p>The sea-captains to whose custody the blundering
+old viceroy had been entrusted did not know what
+to do with their embarrassing prisoner, and set him<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>
+ashore at Tumbez, whence he proceeded to Quito
+to get help from the anti-Pizarro faction. The governor
+of southern Colombia joined him and he soon
+had five hundred men under his orders. Gonzalo
+flew to the point of danger; the viceroy retreated to
+Popay&aacute;n, but being joined by more recruits, rashly
+returned to the neighbourhood of Quito to offer
+battle. He was defeated and killed; Pizarro went
+back to Lima, while his lieutenant, Carbajal, hunted
+down and put to death every loyalist who remained
+under arms in southern Peru.</p>
+
+<p>Gonzalo's administration lasted three years' and
+they were golden ones for the Spanish adventurers.
+The marvellous silver mines of Potos&iacute; and the gold
+washings of southern Ecuador were discovered.
+Encomiendas were lavishly granted; the Indians
+went back to their fields; the mining industry began
+that marvellous development which soon made Peru
+the treasure box of the world and Potos&iacute; a synonym
+for limitless wealth. But the dazzling sunlight
+of prosperity was dimmed by the shadow of
+Pizarro's scaffold slowly creeping across the Atlantic
+and down the coast. His chief lieutenants, knowing
+they had sinned past forgiveness, urged him to
+declare himself king of Peru, but he was at once too
+proud and too patriotic to fling away his right to
+die a loyal Spaniard.</p>
+
+<p>Philip, the leaden-eyed, close-mouthed despot,
+was regent of Spain. Bitterly chagrined that the
+stream of Peruvian gold had ceased to flow into the
+royal treasury, his vindictive heart held no mercy
+for the gallant soldier whose sword had helped win<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>
+the riches now temporarily diverted. He selected
+a man after his own heart&mdash;Pedro de la Gasca, an
+ugly, deformed little priest, hypocritically humble,
+though astute and untiring, whose success as an inquisitor
+was a guarantee that he would be as pitilessly
+cruel as even Philip could wish. Gasca landed
+at Panama in the character of a modest ecclesiastic,
+a humble man of peace who had been commissioned
+to investigate the sad situation of Peru and re-establish
+peace. He said he would recommend the repeal
+of the obnoxious New Laws, and had authority
+to suspend them. Gonzalo refused to put his head
+into the noose and demanded substantial assurances.
+But many Peruvians were more easily beguiled, and
+welcomed the excuse to renew their allegiance to
+lawful authority. While Gasca remained at Panama,
+gathering troops from the neighbouring provinces,
+Pizarro's fleet deserted, leaving the coast open
+to attack. An advance guard came sailing down the
+coast, sending letters ashore at every port promising
+amnesty and rewards. Desertions were so numerous
+that Gonzalo was forced to give up the hope of defending
+Lima and retreated toward Arequipa. Gasca
+ascended to Jauja, while Pizarro's old enemies in
+the Titicacan region rose, gathered a thousand men,
+and sent word to Gasca that they could overwhelm
+without help the five hundred soldiers who remained
+faithful. But a Pizarro never waited to be attacked.
+By forced marches he crossed the dizzy pass where
+the Mollendo and Puno Railway now runs, and fell
+upon his enemies near the southern end of Lake
+Titicaca. Though outnumbered two to one, the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>superior discipline of his men, his admirable dispositions,
+Carbajal's skilful handling of the artillery,
+and his own cool and intrepid leadership of the cavalry
+charges, gave him a decisive though dearly
+bought victory.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i055.jpg" width="600" height="747" alt="LITTLE INFERNILLO BRIDGE ON THE OROYA RAILWAY. ALTITUDE
+10,924 FEET." title="" />
+<span class="caption">LITTLE &quot;INFERNILLO&quot; BRIDGE ON THE OROYA RAILWAY.<br />
+ALTITUDE 10,924 FEET.</span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Gasca was coming up the road from
+Jauja to Cuzco, his army increasing by accessions
+from every direction until it numbered over two
+thousand. The wisest of Gonzalo's counsellors advised
+him to retire to southern Bolivia and make a
+defensive campaign in that remote region, but he
+preferred bold methods. For once, however, he
+could not inspire his men with his own confidence.
+They followed with heavy hearts his eager march
+against Gasca's overwhelming army. He drew them
+up for the attack and the battle was about to begin
+when, to his despair, he saw several captains desert
+to the enemy and his soldiers surrendering without
+a blow. Knowing that all was over, he turned to
+Juan Acosta, who rode at his side, saying, "What
+shall we do, brother Juan?" "Sir, let us charge
+them and die like Romans." "Better to die like
+Christians," replied Pizarro, and he rode across the
+plain and gave himself up. The exulting priest
+grossly insulted the fallen warrior, and called a court-martial
+to condemn him and his captains to immediate
+execution. Though only forty-one years old
+when he went to the scaffold, Gonzalo had for sixteen
+years taken a leading part in nearly every
+one of the battles and expeditions of Peru, and is
+justly regarded as the best fighting man among the
+"conquistadores."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The property of Pizarro's friends was confiscated;
+the prisons filled with wretched victims; many were
+put to death; many more mutilated or flogged; even
+the staunchest loyalists were not safe. Gasca evaded
+and delayed as long as possible the distribution of
+land-grants among those who had earned and been
+promised such rewards, and when he had to announce
+the list he sneaked to Lima by an unfrequented
+route in cowardly fear of his miserable life.
+He never dared to try to put the New Laws into
+effect, and when a peremptory order came from
+Spain that enforced Indian labour must cease, he kept
+it secret until he could resign the government to
+the royal judges, leaving instructions that it should
+be published immediately he was at sea.</p>
+
+<p>Peru was left in confusion. The prohibition of
+Indian slavery added to the dissatisfaction felt over
+Gasca's awards. The <i>ad interim</i> governments could
+make little progress in securing its enforcement.
+Rebellion after rebellion broke out, and civil war
+continued to desolate Peru, with a few intervals of
+quiescence during which the government allowed the
+proprietors to do as they pleased, until the arrival of
+the Marquis of Ca&ntilde;ete, the "good viceroy," on the
+29th of June, 1556.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;">
+<img src="images/dec-b.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-8.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<h3>THE COLONIAL PERIOD</h3>
+
+
+<p>The Spanish occupation of Peru was a conquest,
+not a colonisation. The narrow plateau from
+Colombia to Chile and the adjacent dry valleys on
+the Pacific and in north-western Argentina had been
+found fully populated by civilised races. The work
+of subjugating them was practically accomplished
+within eight or ten years after Pizarro landed in
+Ecuador, and this marvellous result was achieved by
+private adventurers who, though they held commissions
+from Madrid, really acted on their own responsibility.
+A very few appreciated the advisability of
+well treating the Indians and thereby preserving the
+effective industrial organisation, but the vast majority
+concerned themselves only with immediate profit.
+For eighteen years the original conquerors and the
+adventurers who followed in their track fought over
+the spoils. When the Marquis of Ca&ntilde;ete was appointed
+viceroy he found eight thousand Spaniards
+in Peru alone, four hundred and eighty-nine of
+whom had grants of lands and Indians.</p>
+
+<p>We can never know the sufferings of the Indians<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>
+during these civil wars. The chronicles tell us
+minutely the stories of the battles, marches, sieges,
+surprises, assassinations, and deeds of military
+prowess, but little of the destruction and abandonment
+of the irrigating canals and terraces, the ruin
+of the magnificent roads, the breaking up of the
+ancient socialistic system, the impressment of natives
+into the rebel bands, the death by exhaustion of
+thousands dragging artillery over the steep mountain
+paths, the starvation of whole villages robbed
+of their crops. But the sturdy physique of the
+Andean Indians and their perfect adaptation to the
+climatic conditions saved them from extermination.
+In the midst of the devil's dance of Spanish carnage,
+the Inca officers reported minutely the crops stolen
+or destroyed, and the deficiencies were made up as
+far as possible from the villages which had escaped
+for the time being.</p>
+
+<p>Naturally the Spanish government was anxious to
+put an end to such a state of affairs. Considerations
+of self-interest reinforced the eloquent indignation
+of Las Casas, but the New Laws could
+not be put into effect, notwithstanding the sentiment
+of fidelity to the Castilian king and the growth
+of considerable cities in which Spanish law and custom
+were dominant. The only real cities which the
+Incas had built were Cuzco in central Peru, Quito
+in Ecuador, and Charcas in Bolivia, and after the
+conquest they continued a village-dwelling people,
+but the Spaniards, true to the instinct inherited
+from Roman times, preferred to live in
+cities. Within a few years they had established<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
+municipalities not only at the three Inca capitals,
+but at Piura, Lima, Trujillo, Loja, La Paz, Guamanga,
+Jauja, and numerous other places.</p>
+
+<p>The enlightened advisers of Charles V. came to
+the conclusion that Peru could never become a loyal
+and profitable appanage of the Crown until freedom
+of action was granted to its government. Don
+Andres Hurtado de Mendoza, Marquis of Ca&ntilde;ete,
+accepted the difficult post of viceroy. He was a
+scion of the noblest House of Spain, distinguished
+alike in arms and letters, capable and resolute, of
+mature years and wide experience. His salary was
+fixed at the then fabulous sum of forty thousand
+ducats in order to enable him to maintain regal
+state, and, accompanied by his vice-queen and an
+imposing retinue, he assumed power with ceremonial
+splendour. He prohibited further immigration from
+Spain and ordered that no Spaniard in Peru should
+leave his district without permission. Though the encomienderos
+were left in possession of their estates,
+they were made to understand that they must cease
+the more outrageous forms of oppressing the natives.
+He sent for the most notorious disturbers, and they
+came joyfully expecting to receive grants, but were
+summarily disarmed and banished. He employed the
+more adventurous in expeditions to the interior and
+in completing the conquest of Chile. All the artillery
+in the country was gathered under his eye, and the
+corregidors were required to dismiss most of their
+soldiery. Finally, the viceroy continued Pizarro's
+policy of founding cities into which were gathered the
+Spaniards who remained scattered over the country.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>He did much to alleviate the lot of the natives,
+though he dared not venture on giving them all the
+rights guaranteed by Spanish law. No efforts were
+spared to Hispaniolise the Inca nobles, and native
+chiefs who could prove their right by descent were
+formally allowed to exercise jurisdiction as magistrates.
+Even the rightful emperor, Sayri Tupac,
+who had maintained his independence in the wilds
+of Vilcabamba, was induced to swear allegiance and
+accept a pension and estates in the valley of Yucay.
+When the Inca had attested the documents by which
+he renounced his sovereignty, he lifted up the gilded
+fringe of the table-cloth, saying: "All this cloth and
+its fringe were mine, and now they give me a thread
+of it for my sustenance and that of all my house."
+Retiring to Yucay, he sank into a deep melancholy
+and died within two years.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime Charles V. had been succeeded
+by Philip II. The Marquis of Ca&ntilde;ete's liberal and
+enlightened policy did not wring money from the unhappy
+country fast enough to suit the greedy despot.
+He listened to the slanders against the "good
+viceroy" brought home by disappointed Spaniards,
+and Ca&ntilde;ete's reward for five years of brilliant service
+was a recall. Only his death saved him from hearing
+with his own ears the reproaches of his ungrateful
+sovereign.</p>
+
+<p>Several years elapsed before Philip found a man
+who possessed the courage, capacity, mercilessness,
+and obstinacy to devise and apply a system which
+would make Peru a mere machine to produce gold
+and silver for the Spanish Crown.  Such a one was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
+Don Francisco de Toledo, a member of the same
+ancient house to which the Duke of Alva belonged.
+To him belongs the distinction of founding the infamous
+colonial system&mdash;the origin of the misery
+and disorder from which Spanish South America
+has suffered ever since, and a potent if not the principal
+cause of the decline of Spain herself and the
+loss of her magnificent colonial empire. Toledo
+reached Lima 1569, leaving Spain just after the
+news had been received that William the Silent and
+his Hollanders had risen in revolt against the cruelties
+of Alva and gained the victory of Gr&ouml;ningen.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<img src="images/i062.jpg" width="800" height="538" alt="PROMENADE OF THE ALAMEDA, LIMA." title="" />
+<span class="caption">PROMENADE OF THE ALAMEDA, LIMA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The new viceroy first devoted himself to the destruction
+of the native dynasty. Sayri Tupac's
+younger brothers, Titu Yupanqui and Tupac Amaru,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>
+still roamed free in the forests of Vilcabamba. The
+Spaniards had hitherto not interfered with the Indians'
+celebrating their national festivals with the
+ancient solemnities, and Toledo came to Cuzco to
+be present at one which he had determined should
+be the last. As soon as it was over he sent for Titu
+to come in and take the oath of allegiance. Titu
+died of an illness, but the chiefs swore fealty to the
+boy Tupac Amaru, and refused to put him in the
+power of the Spaniards. The exasperated viceroy
+sent a force which captured the young emperor.
+Brought to Cuzco, Toledo ordered him to be decapitated,
+and the head was stuck upon a pike and set
+up beside the scaffold. One moonlight night a
+Spaniard went to the window of his bed-chamber,
+which overlooked the great square, and saw the
+whole vast space packed with a crowd of kneeling,
+silent people, their faces all turned to the Inca's
+grisly head; it was the Indians devoutly worshipping
+the last relic of their beloved and unfortunate sovereign.
+But there was no spirit left in them for rebellion&mdash;and
+no centre for them to rally around.
+Toledo's executions exterminated the leading Incas
+and half-castes; the celebration of Indian rites was
+forbidden, and everything which might remind the
+people of the fallen <i>r&eacute;gime</i> destroyed or removed.</p>
+
+<p>Toledo's "Libro de Tasas," or code of regulations,
+is the basis of the system under which the
+Spanish colonies were governed for more than two
+centuries. The Spaniards were practically recognised
+as belonging to a privileged and governing
+caste. The country was divided into about fifty<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
+districts, called "corregimentos," each under the
+rule of a corregidor. This official was substantially
+absolute so far as the Indians were concerned, although
+an effort was made to keep up parts of the
+ancient Inca organisation, and in practice the hereditary
+village chiefs administered justice and exercised
+considerable power.</p>
+
+<p>Every male Indian between the ages of eighteen
+and fifty was compelled to pay a certain tribute or
+poll-tax, for whose collection their chiefs were responsible.
+About one-sixth of the Indians belonged
+to estates already granted, and these paid their
+tribute to the proprietors, the Crown deducting one-fifth.
+The other five-sixths paid directly to the
+representatives of the government. In consideration
+of this tribute, general and indiscriminate personal
+service was declared to be abolished, but the
+commutation was not in full. One-seventh of the
+Indians were required to work for their masters, and
+the wretched victims of this "mitta" were sent by
+their caciques to the nearest Spanish town, where
+they could be engaged by any one who required
+their services. But these were not all the burdens.
+The natives of the provinces near the mines were
+compelled to furnish the labour necessary to work
+them, and the poor creatures to whose lot it fell to
+go might never hope to return. Oppressive as was
+the letter of these laws, their practical application
+was made infinitely worse by evasions practised with
+the connivance of the corregidors. Hundreds of
+Indians were hunted down and carried away to work
+on farms and in factories under the pretext that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
+"mitta" returns had not been honestly made, and
+though the population decreased, the survivors were
+required to furnish the same number of victims
+every year.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of the slaughter during the civil wars, the
+Peruvian Indians numbered eight millions in 1575.
+Including the outlying provinces, the population of
+the Inca empire must have reached twenty millions
+in the heyday of its prosperity. Horrible as had
+been the decrease of the first forty years of Spanish
+domination, it was a trifle to that which followed the
+establishment of Toledo's system. In 1573 the impressment
+for the Potos&iacute; mines produced eleven
+thousand labourers; one hundred years later only
+sixteen hundred could be found. In the non-mining
+provinces the destruction was not so stupendous,
+but some encomiendas, originally containing a thousand
+adults, were reduced to a hundred within a century,
+and the miserable survivors were compelled to
+pay the same sum as had been assessed to their
+ancestors. The total population of Peru proper
+had fallen to less than a million and a half within
+two centuries and that of the whole empire to not
+more than four millions. So great had been the
+mortality among the feebler inhabitants of the warm
+coast valleys that they had practically died out, and
+their places were taken by negro slaves whose importation
+began shortly after the conquest.</p>
+
+<p>The Indians were the worst but not the only sufferers.
+The Creole descendants of the early Spanish
+settlers, though they nominally enjoyed the same
+rights as the later arrivals, in reality had small chance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>
+to participate in the offices and fat concessions.
+Each new viceroy brought a new swarm of needy
+noblemen, who regarded the Creoles with lofty disdain.
+Commerce except with Spain was forbidden,
+and even that was burdened with almost intolerable
+burdens. As time went on new taxes were devised
+until it seemed the deliberate purpose of the Spanish
+government to transfer all the gold and silver in
+Peru's mountains to the royal treasury. Not only
+were both imports and exports taxed, but also every
+pound of provisions sold in the markets and shops.
+One-fifth of the products of the mines and one-tenth
+of the crops went directly to the Crown. All kinds
+of businesses had to pay licences; quicksilver and
+tobacco were monopolies; and offices were regularly
+sold to the highest bidder.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless the Spanish occupation brought
+many incontestable benefits to South America. To
+say nothing of the civilised system of jurisprudence,
+the letters and the religion which have made the
+peoples of the continent members of the great western
+European family, the introduction of new and
+valuable animals, grains, and fruits raised the level
+of average well-being among the surviving inhabitants.
+Horses, asses, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs,
+chickens, pigeons, wheat, barley, oats, rice, olives,
+grapes, oranges, sugar-cane, apples, peaches and
+related fruits, and even the banana and the cocoa
+palm were introduced by the Spaniards. In return
+Europe owes to Peru maize, potatoes, chocolate,
+tobacco, cassava, ipecacuanha, and quinine.</p>
+
+<p>Toledo had put his colonial system in full opera<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>tion
+by 1580, and from that time to near the close
+of the Spanish epoch the story of Peru offers little
+of interest. Expansion ceased; the colonists made
+no effort to spread over the Amazon plain, or to
+prevent the Portuguese on the Atlantic coast from
+occupying the interior of the continent almost to
+the foot of the Andes. On the seacoast of Venezuela
+and the plains of the lower Plate the Spanish
+race still showed a scanty fraction of that vigour and
+enterprise which had enabled the early conquerors
+to spread over half the continent in a few short
+years, but in Peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia the country
+slowly decayed. Though the viceroys who followed
+each other in rapid succession were selected
+from among the greatest grandees of Spain, they
+were held to an increasingly rigid account, and the
+smallest concession to commerce or a failure to send
+home the utmost farthing which could be wrung
+from the people was severely and peremptorily
+punished. Their jurisdiction extended over all
+Spanish South America; the captains-general of
+New Granada, Venezuela, and Chile, the royal
+audience of Bolivia, the president of Ecuador, and
+the governors of Tucuman, Paraguay, and Buenos
+Aires being all nominally subject to their orders.
+But in practice these widely separated divisions of
+the continent were largely independent. Lima
+was, however, the political, commercial, and social
+centre of South America. To its port came from
+Panama the goods destined for Peru, Chile, Bolivia,
+and even Paraguay and Buenos Aires. Many of the
+viceroys were lovers of letters, and the university<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>
+produced scholars and authors not unworthy comparison
+with those of the Old World. The continual
+influx of Spaniards of distinguished Castilian ancestry
+and gentle training made the language of even
+the common people singularly pure, and the sonorous
+elegance of the Spanish tongue as spoken during
+the classical period has been best preserved in
+the comparative isolation of Peru. The influence
+of the bishops and priests, the Jesuits and the
+Franciscans, was hardly inferior to that of the
+officials. The clergy controlled education; every
+village had its parish priest who compelled the
+Indians to go to mass and made them pay heavily
+for the privilege; the Inquisition was early introduced
+and performed its dreadful functions without
+let or hindrance.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 774px;">
+<img src="images/i068.jpg" width="774" height="600" alt="GENERAL VIEW OF LIMA, SHOWING THE CATHEDRAL." title="" />
+<span class="caption">GENERAL VIEW OF LIMA, SHOWING THE CATHEDRAL.</span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The regulations which attempted to confine the
+oppression of the Indians within bearable limits were
+persistently violated, not only by private individuals,
+but by the corregidors themselves. Kidnapping was
+reduced to a system, and often all the male adults of
+a village were dragged off to work in the mines,
+leaving only the women and children to till the
+fields. The corregidors went into partnership with
+merchants, and the poor Indians were compelled to
+purchase articles for which they had no use, and
+thrown into slavery to work out the debt if they
+failed to pay. The wiser viceroys did not waste
+their energies in vain efforts to mitigate the profitable
+abuses. They devoted their attention rather
+to the exaction of the last penny of taxes, to be
+spent in maintaining the horde of office-holders, or to
+be remitted to Spain. So rigidly was taxation enforced
+and so successful were the Spaniards in finding
+rich mines of silver, gold, and mercury, that
+early in the seventeenth century the revenue had
+reached the sum&mdash;enormous in those days of low
+prices&mdash;of nearly five hundred thousand pounds, of
+which about half was regularly sent to Madrid.
+Foreign nations could not effectively interfere with
+Spain's commercial and fiscal monopoly. The
+Isthmus was in her hands, and the voyage through
+Magellan's Straits or around Cape Horn was too
+stormy and uncertain for the slow, clumsy ships
+of that age, and only a few English and Dutch<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>
+expeditions, half-trading, half-piratical, ravaged the
+coast towns in the seventeenth century.</p>
+
+<p>The most memorable event of Peru's history during
+the seventeenth century was the revelation of the
+sovereign virtues of quinine. The Lima physicians
+were unable to cure the Countess of Chinchon, the
+viceroy's wife, of a stubborn attack of malarial fever,
+but the rector of the Jesuit college had received
+some fragments of an unknown bark from a Jesuit
+missionary to whom they had been given by an Indian
+in the mountain wilds of southern Ecuador.
+Doses of this quickly restored the vice-queen, and
+when Linn&aelig;us named the world's plants in scientific
+order, he called the genus to which the tree belongs
+chinchona, from the viceroy, through whom its
+virtues had come to notice.</p>
+
+<p>The succession of the Bourbons to the Spanish
+Crown, at the beginning of the eighteenth century,
+brought about a considerable change of colonial
+policy. To England was conceded the privilege of
+exporting negroes to South America, and French
+vessels were permitted to come round the Horn and
+trade at Peruvian ports. The latter concession was
+soon revoked and the commerce of the Pacific coast
+again became a monopoly for the ring of merchants
+at Cadiz. The Atlantic, however, by this time
+swarmed with ships of all the European maritime
+Powers, and it was impossible to prevent smuggling
+at the Caribbean and Argentine ports. The Madrid
+government reluctantly came to the conclusion that
+it was impossible to administer effectually from Lima
+the provinces which were commercially tributary to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>
+the Caribbean Sea. In 1740 Bogot&aacute;, on the populous
+plateau of eastern New Granada, was made the
+capital of a new viceroyalty, under whose jurisdiction
+were placed the captaincy-general of Venezuela
+and the presidency of Quito. Buenos Aires was a
+resort for contraband traders under non-Spanish
+flags, and smuggling through that port so increased
+that goods coming from Spain by the Panama route
+were undersold in the markets of Argentina, Paraguay,
+Chile, Bolivia, and even Peru itself. In 1776
+the southern Atlantic region was detached from
+Lima, and to the new viceroyalty of Buenos Aires
+were attached not only the Plate provinces&mdash;Buenos
+Aires and Paraguay&mdash;but also that part of Chile
+which lay east of the Andes, as well as Tucuman
+and the audiencia of Charcas as far north as Lake
+Titicaca. By these changes Peru was reduced to
+its present dimensions, except that Chile remained
+attached as a semi-independent captaincy-general.</p>
+
+<p>Three times since its foundation had Lima been
+nearly destroyed by earthquakes, but none of them
+was to be compared with the convulsion which in
+1746 reduced the whole city to a shapeless mass of
+ruins. More than a thousand people perished; a
+great wave engulfed Callao, drowning half the population
+and carrying great ships far inland.</p>
+
+<p>The expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767 was effected
+without difficulty. In the neighbourhood of Lima
+alone they owned five thousand negro slaves and
+property to the value of two million dollars, and
+every penny of their immense accumulations was
+confiscated by the government.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The great Indian rebellion which had so long been
+expected broke out in 1780 under the leadership of
+Tupac Amaru, the lineal descendant of the last of
+the reigning Inca emperors. In Peru proper it did
+not spread beyond the southern frontier provinces
+and the story of its suppression belongs to Bolivia.
+The authorities were so alarmed that the reforms,
+to procure which Tupac had risked and lost his life,
+were shortly after voluntarily adopted. The vitality
+and fighting qualities of the half-breeds now
+stood revealed, and the Creoles, jealous of imported
+officials and dissatisfied at their exclusion from places
+of honour and profit, realised that a weapon lay
+ready to their hand when they should determine
+upon revolution.</p>
+
+<p>General Theodore de Croix, a Fleming, was entrusted
+with the reorganisation and reform made
+necessary by the Indian rebellion. The corregidors,
+petty tyrants over whom no effective control could
+be maintained, were abolished; the country was
+divided into a few great provinces, each ruled by
+an intendente to whom were responsible the subdelgados
+who had charge of local affairs, and measures
+were taken for the enforcement of the laws
+intended to protect the Indians.</p>
+
+<p>By the year 1790 these valuable reforms had been
+put into effect, but they came too late. Ideas of
+liberty had begun to infiltrate into the educated
+classes, and among the Creoles the abstract right of
+Peru to autonomous government became the subject
+of secret though widespread discussion. A succession
+of able and liberal viceroys, however, averted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>
+the danger for the time, and the outbreak of the
+revolution in the rest of South America found Peru
+ruled by Abascal, whose energy, foresight, and
+determination not only prevented an insurrection
+at Lima, but nearly saved all South America to
+Spain.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;">
+<img src="images/dec-g.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-3.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<h3>THE WARS OF INDEPENDENCE</h3>
+
+
+<p>The storm soon to burst over South America
+was gathering when Viceroy Abascal assumed
+the reins of power in 1806. He made no pretensions
+to statesmanship, but it did not escape his shrewd
+soldier's eye and common sense that French revolutionary
+ideas would soon make trouble. Her very
+existence threatened in the titan conflict then devastating
+Europe, Spain could not be relied upon
+to spare any of her soldiers to guard her colonies.
+He must take care of himself. Wasting no time in
+seeking to propitiate the revolutionary elements, he
+quietly set to work to organise and arm an efficient
+army while vigilantly watching the course of events.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>
+<img src="images/i075.jpg" width="600" height="730" alt="BAKER ON HORSEBACK, LIMA." title="" />
+<span class="caption">BAKER ON HORSEBACK, LIMA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Although less infected than any other province,
+being the one where the Spanish bureaucracy was
+most numerous and powerful, even in Peru Creole
+society was honeycombed with revolutionary sentiment.
+The plots to secure autonomy came to
+Abascal's notice, and with the first overt act he
+pounced upon the plotters. Two republican visionaries,
+named Ubaldo and Aguilar, were the first
+martyrs for liberty.  A few learned and respected
+professors in Lima dared to speculate on the future
+of America as affected by recent events in Europe,
+but the viceroy summoned them to his presence
+and his stern warnings silenced them.  Two young
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>lawyers held evening parties where politics were discussed
+by the rising youth of the capital. One of
+the ringleaders was condemned to ten years' imprisonment
+and the other sent to Spain, while
+several more were shipped off to southern Chile.
+Although the liberals continued to meet and conspire,
+and the priests were particularly active, for
+the present nothing definite came of all this.</p>
+
+<p>Even the news of the deposition of the Spanish
+authorities at Quito, La Paz, and Charcas, in 1809,
+met with no response from the liberals at Lima.
+Abascal banished Riva Agu&euml;ro, their leader; his
+expeditions quickly suppressed the insurrections in
+Bolivia and Ecuador; and he redoubled his exertions
+to strengthen his army, recruiting among the
+Indians and half-breeds, and casting cannon. That
+his apprehensions were justified was proved by the
+events of the following year. In rapid succession
+Buenos Aires, northern New Granada, Caracas, and
+Santiago installed revolutionary juntas in place of
+the Spanish governors. The flames of revolution
+spread rapidly from these centres. Soon the Spanish
+officials were overthrown throughout Argentina,
+Chile, New Granada, and Venezuela; Bolivia and
+Ecuador were divided; and only Peru remained
+steady. But Abascal, resolute and unshaken, sent
+his armies against the triumphant revolutionists.
+The story of these campaigns is elsewhere told in
+connection with the countries where they were conducted.
+Though the patriots won some important
+victories, the loyal arms steadily advanced.</p>
+
+<p>The redemption of Ecuador, Chile, and Bolivia<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
+had been mainly achieved with the resources which
+Abascal had picked up in South America. Until
+1813 the people of the Peninsula were fighting desperately
+for national independence against the armies
+of the great Napoleon. No money or men could
+be spared for South America, and Abascal even managed
+to remit two million dollars to Spain in a single
+year&mdash;that of 1811. The armies with which his generals
+won their early victories were recruited almost
+entirely from the native population of Peru, Bolivia,
+and Ecuador. In this struggle between Spaniard
+and Creole, the sturdy Indian of the plateau, who
+was dragged reluctant from his home, took no great
+interest, but any sympathy he felt was anti-Spanish.
+Nevertheless, so ingrained was the habit of obedience
+that when drilled and commanded by Spanish
+officers the half-breeds and Indians made excellent
+soldiers. During these six years, only one insurrection
+touched the territory of Peru proper. In 1814
+the Indians of the Cuzco region rose under the
+leadership of one of their own caciques. The whole
+population of this, the most southern province of
+Peru, seems to have sympathised with the insurrection,
+and the same feeling extended over the Bolivian
+border. When Pumacagua, the Indian leader,
+advanced into Bolivia the people about La Paz
+joined him. But his army was an undisciplined,
+unarmed mob, only eight hundred of the twenty
+thousand who followed him possessing muskets.
+The Spanish general, Ramirez, hastened up from
+southern Bolivia; the Indians retreated over the
+Cordillera to Arequipa, where they were followed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>
+by the Spaniards. When Ramirez approached they
+again retired to the Bolivian plateau and the game
+of hide-and-seek ended with the horrible slaughter
+of Umachiri near Lake Titicaca.</p>
+
+<p>In 1816 Abascal thought that his work was virtually
+completed and that he had earned the right to
+retire. Resistance was confined to Buenos Aires,
+to the thinly populated provinces of Tucuman and
+Cuyo, and to the banks of the Orinoco. The Argentine
+revolutionists were fighting among themselves,
+and that they must succumb before an advance in
+force from the Bolivian plateau appeared certain.
+The last act of his administration was to send out
+a fleet that compelled four Argentine ships which
+Admiral William Brown had brought around the
+Horn to withdraw to the Atlantic. He was succeeded
+by General Pezuela, a strategist of no mean
+abilities, who had borne a brilliant part in the Bolivian
+campaigns. The new viceroy straightway set
+about final preparations for a decisive advance across
+the pampas to Buenos Aires, but like a thunderbolt
+from a clear sky came the news that San Martin had
+made a sudden descent on Chile and won the battle
+of Chacabuco, annihilating the Spanish forces in that
+country. Pezuela saw himself obliged to begin a
+war to reduce Chile to obedience&mdash;an undertaking
+sure to be long and arduous, and in which he must
+encounter a general whose technical mastery of the
+profession had enabled him to create an army equal
+in discipline and effectiveness to any the viceroy
+might hope to throw against him. Pezuela abandoned
+the idea of an immediate Argentine campaign,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>
+and contented himself with maintaining a defensive
+attitude on the Bolivian frontier. He managed to
+repulse the armies which the Buenos Aireans sent
+against Bolivia, but it was in vain that he poured
+into Chile all the troops he could possibly spare.
+They were overthrown and annihilated in the decisive
+battle of Maipo. The viceroy sent for help
+to Spain and New Granada, but Venezuela had
+risen in insurrection under Bolivar and Paez; and it
+was impossible to spare any considerable number of
+troops from the Caribbean.</p>
+
+<p>So long, however, as Spanish ships commanded
+the Pacific, Peru itself was safe from attack and the
+viceroy could securely await the arrival of reinforcements,
+and then attack Chile where he chose.
+Happily for the cause of South American independence,
+the war-ship of the beginning of the nineteenth
+century was not the expensive, complicated, slow-built
+machine it has since become. San Martin subordinated
+everything to the creation of a fleet. He
+forced the Argentine and Chilean governments to
+furnish him money, and his agents hastened to Europe
+and North America to buy ships and engage British
+and American captains. The Spaniards had four
+frigates and thirteen smaller ships, mounting in all
+three hundred and thirty guns, while San Martin
+was able to improvise only three frigates and as
+many brigs, mounting about one hundred and
+eighty cannon. This disparity of force was more
+than made up by the superior skill and experience
+of the foreign seamen. His admiral was Lord Cochrane,
+a Scotchman of noble family, but radical<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>
+principles and adventurous disposition. A daring
+and reckless fighter, inventive and fertile in resource,
+he excelled in leading cutting-out expeditions and
+surprises. His marvellous activity and the capture
+by Blanco Encalada of their largest frigate dismayed
+the Spanish captains. When Cochrane sailed up the
+coast he found the Spaniards huddled under the guns
+of Callao castle. Returning to Valparaiso, he reported
+to San Martin that he could guarantee the
+unmolested transport of an army to any point on
+the Peruvian coast, and again sailed away for Callao.
+Though his attempt to destroy the Spaniards with
+fire-ships and rockets was unsuccessful, he captured
+and sacked several towns and terrorised the
+Spanish authorities all along the coast. San Martin
+after many disappointments and interruptions succeeded
+in preparing an army of invasion. For ten
+years war had desolated every other part of Spanish
+South America, while Peru had remained untouched.
+At length the conflict was to be transferred to the
+very centre of Spanish power.</p>
+
+<p>On September 7, 1820, Lord Cochrane's fleet
+dropped anchor in a bay near Pisco, one hundred
+and fifty miles south of Lima. San Martin's army,
+numbering four thousand five hundred Argentines
+and Chileans, disembarked without opposition and
+occupied the fertile, vine-covered valleys. To undertake
+a campaign for the conquest of Peru with such
+a force seemed absurd. The viceroy's troops were
+five times as numerous; at Lima alone he had nearly
+nine thousand men; as many more were quartered at
+Cuzco, Jauja, and Arequipa, besides the six thou<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>sand
+veterans who guarded the Bolivian frontier
+against an invasion from Buenos Aires. The contest
+was, however, really not so unequal as it appeared.
+The Spanish armies were made up of
+native Peruvians and Bolivians, with some Venezuelans;
+sympathisers with the patriot cause
+swarmed in their ranks; many were waiting an opportunity
+to desert; the viceroy had little control
+over his generals, and the arrival of the Argentine
+army stimulated the activity of the patriot societies
+in the Peruvian cities.</p>
+
+<p>From Pisco San Martin detached a force of twelve
+hundred men under the command of General Arenales,
+which ascended the Cordillera, roused the
+population of the plateaux immediately back of
+Lima, and defeated a detachment under General
+O'Reilly near Cerro de Pasco. The Indians rose,
+but when the Spaniards came up in force Arenales
+retired to the coast, leaving his allies to be mercilessly
+slaughtered. Meanwhile San Martin with the
+main body had taken ship at Pisco and, sailing north,
+landed at Huacho, seventy miles beyond the capital.
+His three thousand men could not hope to succeed
+in a direct attack on the city, defended by thrice
+that number of disciplined troops. On the other
+hand, the Spanish army was shut off from the sea;
+its base was now far back in the interior; its line of
+communication might be cut at any moment by
+other expeditions like that of Arenales. Lima and
+the coast towns were decidedly disaffected. San
+Martin's plan was to wait patiently until a rising
+should compel the Spaniards to retire to the interior,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>
+and then to organise the country and gather an army
+for the final campaign on the plateau. He kept,
+therefore, at a safe distance from the Spaniards;
+sent out detachments which scoured the country up
+to the walls of Lima; and entered into communication
+with the conspirators in the city. Crowds of
+young enthusiasts hastened out to join him; Cochrane
+daringly cut out the frigate <i>Esmeralda</i> under
+the very guns of Callao castle; an expedition sent
+to Tacna, on the extreme southern coast, was enthusiastically
+received; and numerous desertions
+from the Spanish army culminated in a battalion of
+Venezuelans coming over in a body. The viceroy
+was sorely puzzled. He hesitated to send his army
+to attack San Martin, fearing an insurrection or surprise
+during his absence, and knowing that defeat
+meant irretrievable ruin. Really only two courses
+of action lay open to the Spaniards&mdash;they must
+either fight San Martin, and the sooner the better,
+for he was becoming stronger every day&mdash;or they
+must abandon Lima and concentrate on their base
+in the mountains. The viceroy could not make up
+his mind to abandon the ancient capital, and he was
+reluctant to expose his family to the hardships of a
+guerilla warfare in the mountains.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>
+<img src="images/i083.jpg" width="800" height="549" alt="THE MOLE AND HARBOUR OF CALLAO." title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE MOLE AND HARBOUR OF CALLAO.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>San Martin drew closer and closer, the attitude of
+the Lima liberals became more and more threatening,
+and still Pezuela made no move. News came
+of the revolution in Spain and of the overthrow of
+absolutism, and all the principal commanders united
+in demanding his resignation. He had no alternative,
+and retired to Spain, while the generals selected
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
+one of their number, La Serna, to succeed him.
+The new viceroy entered into negotiations looking
+toward an amicable accommodation of the whole
+question at issue between Spain and her colonies.
+The Argentine was nothing loath, well knowing
+that every month strengthened the patriot feeling
+among the coast Peruvians and brought him nearer
+his goal. San Martin proposed that South America
+become a constitutional monarchy and accept a
+Bourbon prince as its king in return for a recognition
+of its independence&mdash;a concession which even
+the revolutionary Spanish government could not
+confirm. The suggestion reflects little credit upon
+the political acumen of the great Argentine general.
+San Martin, in fact, seems never to have appreciated
+the motives and instincts which had pushed the
+Creoles into rebellion. The revolutionary movement
+in South America was in its essence separatist
+and republican; no monarch, whether the scion of a
+European House, or a Bolivar trying to play the
+r&ocirc;le of a Napoleon, could ever have kept the
+Spanish colonies together.</p>
+
+<p>The first six months of 1821 were consumed in
+these fruitless negotiations, and by this time the position
+of the Spaniards at Lima had become untenable.
+It was necessary for them to retire to the plateau,
+where the sturdy natives furnished a supply of excellent
+recruits and the mines, fields, and pastures
+would maintain an army. On July 6, 1821, La
+Serna evacuated the capital and retired to Jauja,
+leaving a well-provisioned garrison at Callao against
+the hoped-for arrival of a fleet from Spain.  Even<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>
+then a dozen well-fought frigates might have undone
+all San Martin's work and changed the fate of South
+America. Three days later the Argentine general
+entered the city, and on the 28th of July, 1821, Peru
+was proclaimed an independent republic, with San
+Martin as temporary dictator under the title of Protector.
+During the rest of the year he was occupied
+with trying to secure the adhesion of the whole
+coast, and made no effort to undertake the redemption
+of the interior. When the Frenchman
+Canterac, the most enterprising of the Spanish commanders,
+made a descent on Lima, San Martin
+merely maintained the defence, being well assured
+that the enemy must soon retire on account of want
+of provisions. But he found himself hampered in
+consolidating coast Peru by the fact that he was a
+foreigner. The Peruvians were jealous and suspicious,
+and he feared that troops recruited among
+them might turn their arms against him, while his
+Argentine officers regarded the country as their own
+property, and monopolised the positions of honour
+and profit to which the Peruvians thought themselves
+more justly entitled.</p>
+
+<p>Matters remained virtually at a standstill until the
+summer of 1822. San Martin had been unable to
+make his position stable enough to justify his devoting
+himself to military operations, nor had he
+succeeded in gathering and equipping an army with
+which he was willing to undertake a decisive campaign.
+Canterac even took the offensive, although
+he made no effort to re-occupy permanently the
+coast plain.  Outside help was necessary, and San<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>
+Martin, despairing of obtaining it from Chile or the
+Argentine, turned his eyes to the north. Bolivar's
+battles of Boyac&aacute; and Carabobo had redeemed northern
+Granada and Venezuela in 1819 and 1821, and he
+was now advancing toward Quito to complete the
+expulsion of the Spaniards from that viceroyalty.
+With a force of Colombians Sucr&eacute; went to Guayaquil
+by sea and climbed to the Ecuador plateau. Defeated
+and driven back on his first attempt, he was
+reinforced by a division sent by San Martin, and
+renewed the effort with better success. Although
+Bolivar had in the meantime been checked in his
+southward march on Quito by the loyalists of southern
+Colombia, Sucr&eacute; alone destroyed the Spanish
+army which had held Ecuador for so many years.
+The battle of Pichincha, fought in May, 1822, left
+Bolivar and Sucr&eacute; free to employ their numerous
+and well-disciplined troops in completing the liberation
+of Peru and Bolivia.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>
+<img src="images/i087.jpg" width="600" height="784" alt="CHURCH OF SAN FRANCISCO IN LIMA." title="" />
+<span class="caption">CHURCH OF SAN FRANCISCO IN LIMA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Bolivar joined his victorious lieutenant at Quito,
+incorporated Ecuador with his new republic of Colombia,
+and proceeded overland to Guayaquil, where
+San Martin lost no time in going to meet him for a
+conference. The Argentine expected to find as unselfish
+a patriot as himself, but the "liberator" was
+not single-minded. He had formed plans for his own
+glory and aggrandisement to the accomplishment
+of which San Martin might be an obstacle. When
+the latter broached the subject of a joint campaign
+against the Spaniards in Peru and Bolivia, Bolivar
+gave him no satisfaction, and evaded the Argentine's
+noble offer to serve in a subordinate capacity. The
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
+silent soldier made no protest and uttered no reproaches.
+Confiding not even in his closest friends,
+he calmly considered his plight on his way back to
+Lima. His situation in Peru, bad already, would
+be made ten times worse by Bolivar's intrigues.
+Seeing that he could be of no further service to the
+cause of South American independence, he formally
+resigned his authority to a national congress, deliberately
+sacrificing his own future for the cause he
+loved, but leaving behind him a name untarnished
+by any suspicion of self-seeking or personal ambition.</p>
+
+<p>Bolivar waited in vain for the expected invitation
+to come with his veterans. The leaders in Peru did
+not propose to jeopard their own supremacy. They
+thought they were strong enough to whip the Spaniards
+by themselves, and made great efforts to drill
+and equip an efficient army. By the end of the year
+four thousand men under the command of Alvarado
+were sent to the southern coast to make an attempt
+to reach Lake Titicaca and thereby get between the
+Spanish armies. It failed before the astonishing energy
+of the Spanish general, Valdez, who by forced
+marches reached the pass which the Peruvians were
+trying to climb, and taking up a strong position,
+beat them back with great slaughter. Alvarado retreated,
+but was caught by Valdez and completely
+routed; hardly a third of the army escaped to the
+seashore. The news of this defeat brought about a
+change of government at Lima. A revolution,
+headed by the principal officers, made Riva Agu&euml;ro,
+the leader of the Peruvian liberals, president, while
+General Santa Cruz, a Bolivian, received chief com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>mand
+of the forces, in place of Arenales. Word
+was sent to Bolivar that his offer of help would be
+accepted; and another Peruvian army was recruited.
+Before the six thousand men promised by Bolivar
+had arrived, the Peruvians had regained confidence.
+With the aid of a London loan, the patriots got seven
+thousand soldiers ready for service, and in May,
+1823, five thousand men under the command of
+Santa Cruz sailed from Callao for southern Peru.
+This time they advanced so promptly that the Spanish
+generals could not get to the passes in time to
+dispute the way. Santa Cruz entered La Paz and
+defeated the first army which came against him. But
+the two main Spanish bodies hastened up from Cuzco
+and Charcas, outman&#339;uvred Santa Cruz, united their
+forces, and routed his army in a panic, not a fourth
+ever reaching the seaboard.</p>
+
+<p>Shortly after Santa Cruz's departure on this ill-fated
+expedition, Sucr&eacute; arrived at Lima with the first
+instalment of the promised Colombian auxiliaries.
+The Spanish general, Canterac, had concentrated a
+large army at Jauja and descended on the capital;
+Lima was denuded of Peruvian troops; the government
+helpless against the Spaniards or Sucr&eacute;. The
+Colombian was made commander-in-chief, and
+retiring to the fortifications of Callao before Canterac's
+overwhelming numbers, procured Riva Agu&euml;ro's
+deposition and the nomination of one of his
+own tools as nominal president, while he sent off an
+urgent message to Bolivar to come in person. Canterac,
+after holding Lima for a few weeks, went back
+to the mountains, and Bolivar himself landed at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
+Callao on the 1st of September, almost at the very
+moment when Santa Cruz's army was getting involved
+in that snarl out of which it never extricated
+itself. The news of its destruction left Bolivar undisputed
+master of the situation, and in February
+the submissive rump of the Peruvian parliament
+conferred upon him an absolute dictatorship. He
+now devoted all the wonderful energy with which
+nature had endowed him to preparation for a campaign
+which he meant to be final; and united ten
+thousand men under his command, two-thirds of
+whom were Colombian veterans and the rest Peruvians,
+Argentines, and Chileans who fought for the
+sheer love of fighting. His officers were the pick of
+South America, men who had proven their bravery
+and skill on all the hundred battle-fields from Venezuela
+to Chile. With such a force he did not hesitate
+to attack the Spaniards, although the latter
+were nearly twice as numerous.</p>
+
+<p>Suddenly, however, his plans were seriously disturbed
+by a revolt of the garrison in Callao castle&mdash;Argentines
+and Chileans who had not received their
+pay. The mutineers hoisted the Spanish flag and
+sent word to Canterac that he might come in and
+take possession. This event produced a great sensation
+at Lima. Many citizens who distrusted Bolivar
+or were fearful of the final result vacillated in their
+allegiance. Even men who had been prominent
+liberals went over to the royalists. Bolivar abandoned
+the capital and removed his base of operations
+to Trujillo, three hundred miles north. But
+discouragement gave place to confident enthusiasm<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>
+when news came that the Spanish generals were
+fighting among themselves. Ola&ntilde;eta, the renegade
+Argentine, who commanded in Bolivia, had quarrelled
+with La Serna, whom he regarded as a pestilent
+liberal and an enemy of the absolute pretensions
+of the Spanish king. The viceroy sent Valdez
+against him, and some hard fighting had taken
+place, when this fratricidal war was interrupted by
+the news of Bolivar's preparations.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i091.jpg" width="600" height="602" alt="MILK-WOMAN OF LIMA ON HORSEBACK." title="" />
+<span class="caption">MILK-WOMAN OF LIMA ON HORSEBACK.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Though just recovering from a dangerous illness,
+Bolivar lost no time in taking advantage of Ola&ntilde;eta's
+revolt. His army numbered nine thousand men; it
+was well supplied with cavalry, and the troops received
+their liberal pay punctually. The patriots
+advanced rapidly and unopposed over the Maritime
+Cordillera, covered by a cloud of Peruvian guerillas,
+under whose protection Sucr&eacute; marked out the daily
+route and brought in provisions. The city of Pasco,
+just south of that transverse range which forms the
+northern limit of the great Peruvian plateau, was
+reached and Bolivar's army hastened south along
+the western shore of the lake of Reyes to the marshy
+plain of Junin at its southern end, where he met
+Canterac hurrying up from Jauja with a slightly
+inferior force.</p>
+
+<p>When Bolivar caught sight of the royalist army he
+held his infantry back in a defensible position, and
+sent his cavalry toward the enemy. Canterac
+rashly charged in person at the head of all his cavalry,
+but instead of the easy victory he expected,
+his squadrons were thrown into some disorder when
+they encountered the patriot lancers. The latter,
+however, were compelled to retreat, and fled into a
+defile, followed by the royalists. The royalists did
+not notice that a Peruvian squadron had been drawn
+aside, and scarcely were they in the defile than they
+were charged from the rear. The fugitive patriots
+in front rallied, and the disordered and huddled
+royalists, caught between two fires, could make no
+effective resistance. They were quickly cut to
+pieces and driven from the field. The whole affair<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>
+had not lasted three-quarters of an hour; the numbers
+engaged did not much exceed two thousand;
+the royalist loss was only two hundred and fifty,
+yet this battle of Junin produced almost decisive
+results. As the fugitive cavalry rode up to the
+protection of the muskets of the infantry, the latter
+retreated. Though Canterac was not pursued, he
+did not stop in his precipitate flight until he had
+nearly reached Cuzco, five hundred miles away,
+losing two thousand men by desertion on the
+road.</p>
+
+<p>Leaving Sucr&eacute; in command of the army, which
+now threatened Cuzco itself, Bolivar returned to
+Lima to look after his political interests, collect
+money, and urge the sending of reinforcements from
+Colombia. La Serna called in all his outlying divisions,
+while Sucr&eacute; confidently scattered his forces.
+He underestimated the strength of the royalists,
+for to his consternation La Serna suddenly broke
+out of Cuzco at the head of ten thousand men, and
+before Sucr&eacute; could concentrate, his opponent was
+threatening his rear and man&#339;uvring to cut him
+off from his base. Happily, the royalists were compelled
+to march in a semicircle, and Sucr&eacute;, by
+desperate exertions, united his forces and cut along
+the radius, coming in sight of La Serna just as the
+latter had succeeded in getting between him and the
+road to Jauja. Sucr&eacute;'s position was desperate.
+The valleys to the north were rising in favour of the
+royalists; a patriot column advancing from that
+direction to reinforce him was driven back; his provisions
+and ammunition were beginning to fail.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>
+Sucr&eacute;'s army was La Serna's real objective. Even
+if he could shake off the pursuit, another march to
+Lima would be as barren of results as Canterac's last
+descent, and to leave the Colombian army at Guamanga
+would expose Cuzco and Bolivia to invasion.
+During three days the opposing armies marched and
+counter-marched among the ravines on the west
+bank of the Pampas River, and finally Sucr&eacute; took
+the desperate resolution of crossing the deep gorge
+in which the river runs in order to reach the high
+grounds on the other side. He managed to get his
+main body over safely, but the Spaniards fell upon
+his rearguard, killing four hundred men and capturing
+one of his two cannon. The two armies were
+now opposite each other on the high, narrow, and
+broken plateau which lies between the Eastern and
+Central Cordilleras, separated only by the gorge of
+the Pampas. They marched in plain sight of each
+other, the royalists along the slopes of the Central
+Cordillera, while the patriots skirted the foothills
+of the Eastern. Sucr&eacute; hoped to outrun the enemy
+and reach the main road to Jauja, but La Serna
+again outflanked him; he offered battle, but the
+viceroy had determined to engage under conditions
+where not a patriot could escape, and by skilful
+man&#339;uvres the royal army succeeded in getting into
+the protection of the eastern range at a point north
+of Sucr&eacute;. Irretrievably cut off from the Jauja road,
+convinced by his previous failures that he could not
+better his position by any further man&#339;uvres, the
+Colombian general resolved again to offer battle, although
+this time upon a field chosen by La Serna.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
+He ceased marching and allowed the enemy to dispose
+their forces at will.</p>
+
+<p>On the 8th of September, 1824, La Serna's army,
+numbering eight thousand five hundred men&mdash;of
+whom only five hundred were Spaniards&mdash;encamped
+on the high grounds overlooking the little plain of
+Ayacucho, which sloped gently eastward to the little
+village of Quinua. To the left the level ground was
+bounded by a deep and precipitate ravine, and on
+the right by a valley which, though less difficult,
+was impracticable for fighting. Sucr&eacute;'s army lay at
+the eastern extremity of the plain, at the edge of
+the slope which rises from Quinua. Behind was no
+cover to re-form in if defeated. His forces were a
+little less than six thousand, and he had only one
+cannon against the enemy's eleven, but three-fourths
+of his men were the pick of the Colombian veterans
+and the rest Peruvians of the highest spirit. Tired
+of interminable marching through the mountains,
+isolated in a hostile region, starvation staring them
+in the face, confident of their superiority, man for
+man, to the royalists, and led by fiery young generals,&mdash;Sucr&eacute;
+was only thirty-one and his chief lieutenant
+twenty-five,&mdash;they welcomed the opportunity to
+fight it out once for all, face to face and man to man.</p>
+
+<p>The morning sun of the 9th rose radiant behind
+the mountains where the Spaniards lay encamped.
+Sucr&eacute; deployed his army in the open plain, riding
+down the line exclaiming, "Soldiers, on your deeds
+this day depends the fate of South America," while
+the Spanish columns descended in perfect order from
+the heights. La Serna realised that his men would<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>
+not fight with the same spirit as the patriots and
+that defeat might be followed by wholesale desertion,
+but he counted on his artillery and the reserve
+he had left on the high ground as a sure refuge in
+case of a reverse.</p>
+
+<p>The story of the battle is soon told. The patriots
+advanced to meet the Spanish attack; musketry
+volleys on both sides did terrific execution, and the
+two armies met bayonet in hand. On the left the
+Spanish columns were unable to make any impression
+on the Colombian infantry, and while the conflict
+was still undecided the royalist cavalry rashly
+charged, hoping to strike a deciding blow. But they
+were met by a counter-charge of the patriot squadrons
+and rolled back in defeat. The whole left of the
+royalist army dispersed, and such was the confusion
+that the impetuously pursuing Colombians reached
+the Spanish camp and spiked the artillery, defeating
+on their way the enemy's centre. In the meantime
+the Spanish right under Valdez had outflanked the
+Peruvians who held that part of the line and driven
+them back, but before he could reach the patriot
+centre the battle had been decided. Attacked by
+the victorious cavalry, Valdez's men were cut to
+pieces, and by one o'clock in the after noon the
+Spanish army, except the reserve under Canterac,
+had ceased to exist as an organised body. Of the
+royalists fourteen hundred were dead and seven
+hundred wounded, while the patriots had lost six
+hundred wounded and three hundred dead. The
+viceroy was wounded and a prisoner, his men deserting
+and dispersing by hundreds. Canterac sued<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>
+for terms, and that afternoon fourteen generals, five
+hundred and sixty-eight officers, and three thousand
+two hundred privates became prisoners of war.
+Never was a victory more complete and decisive
+than Ayacucho. The war for independence was
+over. Only under Ola&ntilde;eta in far southern Bolivia
+and at Callao castle did a Spaniard remain under
+arms. Sucr&eacute; marched to Cuzco, where he rested
+and refitted and then went on to Puno and La Paz.
+Ola&ntilde;eta's troops deserted as the Colombian approached,
+and the last of the Spanish generals fell at
+the hands of his own men as he was bravely trying
+to suppress a mutiny. Callao castle held out for
+thirteen months, and with its surrender was hauled
+down the last Spanish ensign which floated on the
+South American mainland.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;">
+<img src="images/dec-d.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-3.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+
+<h3>FROM INDEPENDENCE TO THE CHILEAN WAR</h3>
+
+
+<p>If ever country began an independent existence
+without any basis for a strong, ordered, and
+stable government, that country was the Peru of
+1826. The interior inhabited by Indians long held
+in abject subjection by the Spanish generals, the
+long strip of coast divided by local and factional
+jealousies, the nation had already miserably failed
+to unite in face of defeats suffered from the Spaniards,
+or of the military preponderance first of the
+Argentines and then of the Colombians.</p>
+
+<p>In 1825 all thought of open resistance to Bolivar
+was manifest folly. Peru was his to do with as he
+pleased. He went through the farce of summoning
+a congress and offering to resign his dictatorship,
+but with thousands of Colombian troops encamped
+at Lima, it was natural that he should be begged
+to retain the direction of affairs on his own terms.
+The "liberator" devoted all his energies to laying
+the foundations for a great military confederation
+with himself as its life head. Venezuela, New
+Granada, and Ecuador were already united under<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>
+the name of the United States of Colombia, of
+which he was president. He hoped to make his
+tenure permanent by imposing an aristocratic and
+centralising constitution providing for a life president.
+The submissive Peruvian congress agreed to
+adopt his system, and the dictator set out on a
+triumphal tour to put it in application in upper
+Peru. Travelling along the coast to Arequipa, he
+crossed the Cordillera to La Paz, and thence proceeded
+over the Titicacan plateau to Charcas and
+Potos&iacute;. There he created a new nation which, in
+his honour, was named Bolivia; wrote its Constitution
+with his own hand; and, having installed Sucr&eacute;
+as life president, returned to Lima at the beginning
+of 1826.</p>
+
+<p>Apparently Bolivar's system was dominant from
+the Caribbean to the Argentine pampas, and he regarded
+himself as certain soon to be virtual emperor
+of all South America. But the instinct of local
+pride was growing; the signs of Peru's wish to be
+rid of him could not be ignored, and the new congress
+he had summoned was abruptly dismissed. In
+September the news of disturbances in Venezuela,
+which foreshadowed the breaking up of Colombia,
+made it necessary for Bolivar to hasten north. He
+left General Lara at Lima, but that officer failed to
+keep the unruly mercenaries upon whom his power
+depended in good humour. A mutiny broke out;
+Lara was arrested and deported, and the mutineers
+entered into negotiations with the Peruvian leaders.
+The money demanded was soon raised and the Colombian
+soldiers shortly embarked, leaving the field
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>free for the local chiefs to fight among themselves
+for supreme power. General Santa Cruz, though by
+birth a Bolivian, had great influence anions the few
+Peruvian troops, and tried to forestall his competitors
+by seizing the direction of affairs and summoning
+a congress, but General La Mar, himself born
+at Cuenca in Ecuador, was stronger. The latter
+secured the selection of his friends, and when congress
+met he had a two-thirds majority and became
+president. So long as Sucr&eacute; remained in control of
+Bolivia there could, however, be no certainty that
+Colombian rule might not be re-established, but he
+was already in trouble on account of the mutinous
+disposition of his troops. When the Peruvians sent
+against him a hastily gathered force he was compelled
+to withdraw, the Bolivarian Constitution was
+abolished, and Santa Cruz made himself supreme in
+Bolivia.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 734px;">
+<img src="images/i100.jpg" width="734" height="600" alt="VILLAGE OF CHICLAY ON THE OROYA RAILWAY, 12,200 FEET ABOVE
+THE SEA." title="" />
+<span class="caption">VILLAGE OF CHICLAY ON THE OROYA RAILWAY, 12,200 FEET ABOVE
+THE SEA.</span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Encouraged by this success, La Mar determined to
+wrest Guayaquil and Cuenca from Colombia. Bolivar,
+already furious over the defection of Peru and
+Bolivia, made a formal declaration of war, although
+he was too much occupied with his own troubles
+in New Granada and Venezuela to go in person to
+the frontier. General Flores, whom he had put in
+charge of Ecuador, made preparations to resist La
+Mar, Sucr&eacute; came to direct the operations, a Peruvian
+naval expedition captured Guayaquil, and La
+Mar's main army of four thousand men occupied
+the province of Loja and penetrated within forty
+miles of Cuenca, only to be defeated. The Peruvian
+president signed a treaty giving up his conquests,
+but he was no sooner safe in his own country than
+he repudiated it and refused to surrender Guayaquil.
+His defeat had, however, cost him his prestige at
+home, and one of his generals, Gamarra, revolted
+and declared himself dictator.</p>
+
+<p>Gamarra had been chief of staff at Ayacucho; he
+was a good soldier, but, like most of his companions,
+had no conception of constitutional government,
+and thought the men whose bravery had redeemed
+Peru from the Spaniards' <i>ipso facto</i> entitled to govern.
+Force was the only method he knew to secure
+obedience, and under his administration taxes were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>
+arbitrarily increased, citizens exiled without trial,
+and the country virtually governed by martial law.
+Until the last year of his administration Gamarra
+held the country fairly quiet, but as the end of his
+legal term in 1833 approached, the question of the
+succession plunged Peru into an indescribable anarchy.
+Gamarra's enemies got control of the assembly
+called to frame a permanent Constitution
+and illegally named a president, while Gamarra proclaimed
+one of his own partisans. Every military
+chief who could command the support of a few
+soldiers acted on his own responsibility. Dictators
+and <i>soi-disant</i> presidents were put up and pulled
+down one after another in a bewildering succession.
+Orbegoso, La Fuente, Vista Florida, Nieto, San
+Roman, Vidal, Gamarra, and Salaverry were each
+proclaimed supreme within the next year. Combinations
+of the different chiefs formed, dissolved,
+and re-formed with perplexing rapidity. Two bands
+would fight a bloody battle one day and the next
+would fall into each other's arms and swear eternal
+friendship.</p>
+
+<p>Salaverry, a chief only thirty years old and remarkable
+for his dash and energy, succeeded in
+establishing himself pretty firmly at Lima, while
+Gamarra held Cuzco. Orbegoso, who had received
+a majority of votes in congress, entered into negotiations
+with Santa Cruz, the strong dictator of Bolivia,
+agreeing to everything to get help against
+Salaverry and Gamarra. The wily Bolivian had
+planned to divide Peru and unite the fragments
+with Bolivia into a confederation.  At the head of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>
+five thousand men he advanced on Cuzco and wiped
+out Gamarra. The fiery Salaverry did not wait to
+be trapped at Lima, but left the capital with his
+whole force and hastened south. Not daring to attack
+Santa Cruz's vastly superior army, he slipped
+around to Arequipa, laying that unhappy town
+under contribution and impressing its citizens into
+his army. The Bolivians followed; he evacuated
+Arequipa, and evaded them for a time, but they
+finally caught him as he was making a daring attempt
+to cut their line of communication. His army
+was dispersed and destroyed and he and his principal
+officers were taken prisoners and mercilessly
+shot.</p>
+
+<p>It seemed as if Peru might now, under the strong
+rule of Santa Cruz, enjoy the peace and order with
+which he had blessed Bolivia. The country was
+partitioned, Orbegoso becoming sub-president of
+North Peru, which included Lima, and General
+Herrera of South Peru. Santa Cruz was proclaimed
+protector of the Peru-Bolivian confederation and the
+new government formally inaugurated in the fall of
+1836. He was an able and laborious administrator,
+zealous for economy and purity in public affairs, a
+friend of orderly government, a ruler who knew
+how to organise an efficient army while maintaining
+it in due subordination. But from the beginning it
+was evident that he held supremacy by a very
+uncertain tenure. The Peruvian military classes, so
+long and so absolutely dominant, were unanimously
+against him and his methods. The mercantile, professional,
+and moneyed classes were bound by a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>
+hundred ties to the officers, and the agricultural
+peasantry, composed of Indians and negroes, took
+no part in public affairs. Sooner or later he must
+have come again into conflict with men of the
+Gamarra-Salaverry type, but the immediate peril
+was from Chile, whose power and energy&mdash;great
+even then, but so far unknown and underestimated&mdash;were
+thrown into the balance against him. The
+civil war of 1831 had resulted in the defeat of the
+Chilean liberals, and Freire, their leader, had fled
+to Peru and there received aid and comfort. The
+Chilean remonstrances remained unnoticed, and
+Santa Cruz's commercial policy was adverse. The
+defeated Peruvian generals swarmed into Chile and
+promised to aid an invasion.</p>
+
+<p>The Chilean aristocracy could not resist this
+temptation to make their country the dominant
+power on the Pacific coast, and without any warning
+their ships sailed up from Valparaiso and captured
+the Peruvian fleet at Callao. This left the
+way clear to land troops on the Bolivian or Peruvian
+coasts. The first expedition went against the province
+of Arequipa. It landed without resistance
+and climbed to the city, while Santa Cruz's army
+maintained a defensive attitude. Lack of provisions
+soon compelled the Chilean general to promise that
+the war should not be renewed if he were allowed to
+depart. His government refused to ratify this agreement,
+and sent another expedition to the neighbourhood
+of Lima, which was accompanied by Gamarra
+and a large number of Peruvian exiles. Orbegoso
+declared his independence of Santa Cruz and gave<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>
+battle to the Chileans on his own responsibility, but
+was defeated and fled to Guayaquil.</p>
+
+<p>A year elapsed before Santa Cruz could march an
+adequate army to the neighbourhood of Lima. As
+he approached, Gamarra and the Chileans evacuated
+the capital, retiring up the coast, whither the Bolivians
+followed. Repulsed in an attack on the rearguard
+of the fleeing allies, and feeling that he could
+not rely upon the Peruvians in his army, he took the
+defensive and posted his forces near the town of
+Yungay, occupying a hill called the Sugar Loaf.
+The allies stormed this hill by a brilliant assault in
+which they suffered greatly, but their unexpected
+success completely demoralised Santa Cruz's army.
+His men scattered in all directions, and though
+he escaped with his life, his prestige was destroyed.
+Gamarra became president of Peru, Bolivia revolted,
+and Santa Cruz made his way to a European exile.</p>
+
+<p>During two years Gamarra kept his turbulent
+rivals in check, but he then rashly undertook a
+campaign against Bolivia, giving as a pretext the
+refusal of its government to expel the old adherents
+of Santa Cruz. The Peruvian army advanced into
+Bolivian territory, only to be overthrown in the
+bloody battle of Yngavi. Gamarra was killed and
+his best officers taken prisoners. The Bolivians
+made a counter-invasion, but a treaty of peace was
+soon signed. The removal of the common danger
+was the starting signal for a race to power among
+the Peruvian generals. Each of them had raised
+troops on his own account and now proposed to use
+them for his own benefit.  They ignored the claims<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>
+of Gamarra's constitutional successor. La Fuente,
+Vivanco, and Vidal formed an alliance and proclaimed
+the latter dictator; Torico seized Lima and
+declared himself supreme chief; Vidal hastened
+down from Guamanga and defeated him; then
+Vivanco rebelled against Vidal and in his turn
+descended on the capital.</p>
+
+<p>Twenty years of independence had brought Peru
+no nearer a stable government. Anarchy and civil
+war had been her lot, and the situation seemed to
+grow more desperate year by year. The country's
+only hope was a man in whom military talent would
+be combined with such strength of will and pertinacity
+of purpose that he would crush out lesser
+despots and restore and maintain order by the strong
+hand.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 544px;">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>
+<img src="images/i107.jpg" width="544" height="480" alt="DON RAMON CASTILLA." title="" />
+<span class="caption">DON RAMON CASTILLA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Porfirio Diaz of Peru was at hand, a little,
+quiet, rough, and unpretentious soldier, who for
+twenty years had been modestly doing his duty,
+observing events and slowly maturing in character.
+All Peruvians knew him as one of the heroes of
+Ayacucho, but none appreciated his latent possibilities,
+and he had been passed by while his more
+showy companions of that historic day had pushed
+themselves to the front. Ramon Castilla had been
+a colonel on Gamarra's staff at Ayacucho, and was
+rewarded by being appointed prefect of his native
+province&mdash;Tarapaca, the most southern part of
+Peru. About 1830 he began to take part in the
+civil wars, but he never started a revolution on his
+own account, and always seems to have chosen the
+side that best promised stability and respect for the
+Constitution. To Orbegoso. Castilla was long faithful
+but abandoned him when he made alliance with
+the Bolivians. He went into exile when Santa Cruz
+was victorious, and returned with Gamarra and the
+Chileans. At the battle of Yungay he commanded
+the Peruvian contingent of the allied cavalry, and
+when Gamarra became president gave him his adhesion;
+but was taken prisoner at the fatal battle of
+Yngavi, where his chief was killed. Returning from
+captivity he found Peru torn to pieces by the armed
+rivalry of contending generals, and Menendez, the
+legal president, a fugitive. Unhesitatingly he threw
+himself into the conflict against those whose claims<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>
+rested on their own pronunciamentos. Landing at
+Arica with only five men, his cool audacity saved
+his life in the first attack; his little band increased;
+Vivanco's partisans were confounded by the rapidity
+of his movements; their opponents hastened to join
+him. Castilla obtained control of Arequipa and
+Cuzco, and finally, in July, 1844, completely overthrew
+Vivanco's army, putting an end to the civil
+war. The first use he made of his victory was to
+declare a general amnesty; the second to restore
+Menendez to the position of acting president. The
+latter called a convention, and ten months later
+Castilla was elected president of Peru without
+opposition.</p>
+
+<p>The country realised at once that it was in the
+hands of a master&mdash;a man strong enough to be
+generous, but with whom it was not safe to trifle.
+Almost instantaneously commerce felt the impulse
+which assured peace always gives. The turbulent
+military leaders found their occupation slipping
+away, while the orderly elements of the community
+grew in power. At heart the vast majority of the
+people were law-abiding, and the class which promoted
+revolutions was numerically an insignificant
+element of the population. But it was not alone
+Castilla's personal force of character, his shrewdness
+as a politician, his prestige as a general, his popularity
+so nobly won by generosity and moderation,
+which made his position secure. At the moment
+he assumed supreme power bountiful Providence
+placed in his hands riches untold. Holding the
+strings of a purse into which poured the millions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>
+from the guano and nitrate deposits, he could reward
+his friends, keep his troops contented by regular
+pay, relieve agriculture of taxation, place the
+disordered finances on a sound footing, and promote
+general prosperity by works of public utility. Europe
+suddenly realised the value of the bird manure
+found on the desert islands of the Peruvian coast,
+and soon hundreds of ships were coming annually
+to load the precious fertiliser.</p>
+
+<p>Instead of squandering this fairy gift on the enrichment
+of his creatures, or on the creation of a
+vast, useless, and wasteful swarm of office-holders,&mdash;the
+hardest of all temptations for a South American
+politician to resist,&mdash;Castilla paid interest on the
+foreign debt which Peru had incurred during the war
+of independence, and refunded it, with the accrued
+interest, that already amounted to more than the
+principal. The internal debt was also consolidated,
+care being taken to admit no fictitious claims; telegraphs
+and railways were constructed; steam vessels
+added to the navy; and all legitimate branches of
+the administration adequately provided for. But
+the moment Castilla's strong hand was removed,
+extravagance and corruption grew to alarming proportions.
+Under General Echenique, his successor,
+public offices and pensions were multiplied; concessions
+were granted not to promote honestly new
+industries, but to favourites to be sold for what
+they would bring; and finally a measure was rushed
+through congress to extend the time fixed by
+Castilla for presenting claims to be funded in the
+internal debt.  It was openly charged that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>
+ministerial ring had arranged to put themselves on
+the roll of national creditors. Public opinion was
+scandalised, and the discontent and jealousy soon
+showed itself in open revolt. The first insurrection
+was suppressed, but in the beginning of 1854 Castilla
+decided to put himself at the head of the movement
+against Echenique. Though the government regulars
+were better armed and provided than the militia
+which rallied around Castilla, the latter advanced
+from one position to another and finally overthrew
+the president in the decisive battle of La Palma.
+Echenique fled the country and Castilla assumed
+the reins of power once more, not to lay them down
+until 1862, when he voluntarily retired to private
+life. His second administration was as orderly as
+his first except for a local insurrection at Arequipa.
+He was not, however, so successful in restraining
+the predatory disposition of the Peruvian politicians
+and was unable to restore the administration to its
+old economical basis. The eighteen years of almost
+uninterrupted peace which elapsed between the beginning
+of Castilla's first administration and his
+retirement changed the face of Peru. A generation
+had grown up to whom the early years of independence
+were only a tradition. War, age, banishment,
+discouragement had thinned the ranks of the Ayacucho
+veterans, and the days were gone when one of
+them had merely to issue a pronunciamento to be
+forthwith hailed as president, dictator, supreme
+chief, protector, regenerator, by a turbulent soldiery
+and a fickle, ambitious Creole aristocracy. Peru's
+subsequent troubles have been financial, not military.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In 1860 the Constitution which still governs the
+country was adopted. Framed under Castilla's influence
+it retains the centralised system of provincial
+government through prefects appointed from Lima,
+and gives the executive preponderant powers, although
+it is liberal and humane in its guaranties to
+the citizen. Slavery and Indian tribute, which
+continued to exist until 1855, are forbidden; forced
+recruiting, the scourge of old revolutionary days, is
+a crime; all Peruvians who can read and write, who
+own property or pay taxes, are entitled to vote.</p>
+
+<p>Castilla was succeeded by his old friend and companion
+in arms, General San Roman, a straightforward
+soldier who resembled his chief in his
+unquestioning obedience to lawful authority, but
+whose unfortunate death six months after his inauguration
+prevented him from demonstrating whether
+he possessed the same statesmanlike qualities.
+Vice-President Pezet peacefully took his place.
+Castilla had encouraged foreign immigration into
+the coast valleys, so admirably adapted to cotton
+and sugar, but where labour was scarce.
+Chinese coolies had come in large numbers, and the
+flattering offers had also attracted some Europeans.
+Among the latter were seventy Basque families,
+who shortly claimed that they were badly treated.
+Making a protest against a breach of contract committed
+by the proprietor of the estate on which
+they were working, they were attacked and some of
+them killed. The criminals escaped punishment,
+and the Spanish government made an international
+question of the affair, finally demanding an apology<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>
+and three millions of dollars as indemnity. This
+being refused Spain broke off diplomatic relations
+and sent a powerful fleet, which seized the Chincha
+guano islands. Too weak alone to bid defiance to
+the Spanish ships, Pezet temporised, meanwhile
+asking Chile for help, and hoping for the early
+arrival of war-ships ordered in Europe. But the
+Spaniards pressed him so hard that he thought himself
+forced to yield to their demands. He concluded
+an agreement derogatory to the national honour,
+and a terrific outburst of public indignation followed.
+Prado, prefect of Arequipa, made preparations to
+march on Lima and depose the pusillanimous president;
+the Chileans, who had meantime determined
+to join in resistance to Spanish aggression, supported
+the insurrection; the terrible old Castilla
+went himself to the presidential mansion and gave
+Pezet a sound rating. The latter gave in and
+offered his resignation. Prado became supreme
+chief, issued a declaration of war against Spain, and
+signed a treaty of alliance with Chile. During the
+absence of the Spanish fleet the batteries at Callao
+were heavily reinforced, and an immense force of
+volunteers flocked to man the guns. When the
+Spanish ships appeared and, gallantly running into
+range, opened fire on the 2d of May, 1866, they
+were met by a determined resistance. Though the
+Peruvians suffered most severely&mdash;two thousand
+being killed and wounded&mdash;their opponents were
+unable to effect a landing or obtain the slightest
+concession, and their ships were so badly damaged
+that they abandoned further hostilities.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Prado now found that the unconstitutional character
+of his position had only temporarily been
+ignored when he attempted to hold the power
+against General Canseco, second vice-president, who
+was Pezet's lawful successor. Castilla, now over
+seventy years old, landed in his native province, determined
+to unseat him. But the enfeebled frame
+of the aged warrior was unable to withstand fatigues
+and he died of exposure on the march. Canseco,
+however, roused Arequipa. Prado failed to take
+the place by assault, and gave up further opposition.
+Meanwhile Colonel Balta had headed a formidable
+insurrection in the north, and though Canseco
+was allowed to fill out his legal term, Balta's friends
+controlled the electoral college, and he was inaugurated
+president in August, 1868.</p>
+
+<p>With his accession Peru entered definitely upon
+a new era. The race for fortune absorbed the energies
+of the ruling class; cane and cotton planting,
+nitrate mining, railroad building under foreign direction,
+opened up vistas of profit without labour;
+social and civil intrigue replaced fighting and pronunciamentos.
+Castilla's liberal refunding of the
+old debt, the scrupulous regularity with which international
+obligations had been met, and the immense
+and increasing revenue from nitrate and
+guano, gave Peru credit in the money markets of
+Europe. Balta and his advisers were full of schemes
+for the material progress of the country and their
+own enrichment. A great railway system was
+projected and more than two thousand miles constructed
+at a cost of near forty million pounds.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>
+Enormous sums were spent on port works; expensive
+moles and piers built in the wave-lashed roadsteads
+which are Peru's only harbours; for the first
+time serious efforts were made to explore and develop
+the forested plain east of the Andes; the city
+of Iquitos was built at the head of deep-water
+navigation on the Amazon; office-holders multiplied;
+and new parks and public buildings embellished
+the cities. English capitalists eagerly took
+the bonds which the Peruvian government recklessly
+issued, and the foreign debt increased from five
+millions sterling to forty-nine millions before the end
+of Balta's term&mdash;a sum upon which two-thirds of
+the gross revenue would hardly suffice to pay interest.
+Such a debt was truly stupendous for a country
+most of whose population of scant two millions and
+a half was poor, non-commercial, non-industrial, and
+without other resources than a rude agriculture.
+Leaving out the proceeds of the guano monopoly
+and the nitrate royalties, the total revenues could
+not pay the interest.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>
+<img src="images/i115.jpg" width="800" height="527" alt="STATUE OF BOLIVAR" title="" />
+<span class="caption">STATUE OF BOLIVAR&mdash;LIMA, PERU</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Don Manuel Pardo, Peru's first civilian president,
+had already been constitutionally selected as Balta's
+successor, and the latter was within a few days of
+the end of his term, when a terrible catastrophe
+happened. Among the poor relations whom the
+luckless president had preferred to positions in the
+army were four brothers named Gutierrez&mdash;the sons
+of a muleteer near Arequipa. Suddenly one brother
+appeared at the head of his battalion and took possession
+of the great square in the centre of the capital,
+while another forced his way into the president's
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>
+study, revolver in hand, arrested the chief of state,
+and locked him up. Warned in time the president-elect
+escaped on board a man-of-war, and the eldest
+Gutierrez was proclaimed supreme chief. The people
+of Lima soon recovered from their stupefaction
+and a scene of terrific street-fighting followed. One
+of the conspirators was shot by the mob as he went
+to the railway station on his way to Callao. His
+brothers retaliated by murdering the captive president,
+but they soon fell before the rifles of the
+populace. Their bodies were hung up in the cathedral
+by the infuriated people, while the president-elect
+returned and assumed his functions.</p>
+
+<p>Pardo's four years were one continual struggle
+against impending bankruptcy. Though he brought
+some order into public accounts, it was only by all
+sorts of expedients that he managed to keep up interest
+payments. He easily suppressed an insurrection
+led by Pierola in 1874; his intellectual and
+moral force united about him the educated and
+property-holding classes in a party which survives
+to this day; and he left the reputation of having
+been the best president who ever ruled Peru. However,
+no efforts could avail more than merely to put
+off the evil day of reckoning. The rapid exhaustion
+of the guano deposits precipitated the disaster.
+Payment of interest was suspended in 1876 and the
+same year Pardo turned over the government to
+General Prado with the currency at fifty-per-cent.
+discount and Peruvian bonds selling in London at
+twelve.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-9.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+<h3>THE CHILEAN WAR AND LATTER-DAY PERU</h3>
+
+
+<p>The nitrate region extends along the narrow
+desert coast of the Pacific for three hundred
+and fifty miles. Peru owned the northern one hundred
+and fifty, and prior to 1866 Bolivia claimed the
+remainder. After the discovery of the precious
+mineral the industrious and energetic Chileans
+crowded up the coast, while the Bolivians were shut
+in behind their high Andes. Chile insisted that her
+true boundary lay as far north as the 23d degree,
+and took vigorous measures to safeguard the interests
+of the Chilean nitrate companies. In 1866
+Bolivia reluctantly made a treaty by which the
+24th degree was agreed upon as the formal boundary,
+although the Chilean miners were allowed to
+continue their operations in the productive regions
+north of that line and their taxes were not to be increased
+without their government's consent. This
+treaty gave rise to constant disputes, and as the
+nitrate, silver, and copper business of the neutral
+zone became more profitable, the Bolivian government
+pressed harder for a larger revenue. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>
+Peruvian government had planned to secure a control
+of the output by the state purchase and operation
+of nitrate properties, and such a trust would
+prove ineffective unless the Bolivian government had
+a free hand with the Chilean companies. In 1872
+Peru and Bolivia made a secret treaty of alliance.
+Its provisions soon became public, and Chile not
+unreasonably believed it to be aimed especially
+at her miners' operating on Bolivian soil. She
+promptly began purchasing iron-clads. It was a
+favourite saying of old Marshal Castilla that when
+Chile bought a battle-ship Peru should buy two, but
+the Lima government was too poor to follow the
+good advice, and the fatal year of 1879 found her
+naval force inferior to that of her rival.</p>
+
+<p>At this juncture the Bolivian congress voted not
+to ratify a treaty negotiated with Chile four years
+before, and passed a law imposing heavy taxes on
+the nitrate business. The Chilean companies protested
+and resisted; their government backed them
+up, and sent a fleet to protect their interests. Enraged
+at the seizure of her ports, Bolivia declared
+war in March, 1879. Peru could not be expected
+to remain quiet. Not only was she bound by the
+solemn agreement of the treaty of alliance, but she
+had an imperative selfish interest in preventing the
+disputed nitrate territory from falling into Chile's
+hands. She began to gather an army on the southern
+frontier, but she was illy prepared for war and
+Chile knew it. Her offers of arbitration were
+promptly rejected; the Chilean government had
+determined to strike both allies at the same time,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>
+and presented an ultimatum, demanding that Peru
+abrogate the secret treaty, cease warlike preparations,
+and remain neutral in the war with Bolivia.
+Failing immediate and categorical compliance war
+was declared in April.</p>
+
+<p>What had proven true in the time of Pizarro, San
+Martin, and Santa Cruz, was still true&mdash;the successful
+invasion or defence of Peru depended on the
+control of the Pacific. Whichever power should
+obtain a naval preponderance would surely get the
+nitrate territory&mdash;a rainless, cropless region where
+an army must be sustained by supplies brought by
+sea&mdash;and then could attack the other at its capital.
+Chile had two new iron-clads, the <i>Cochrane</i> and the
+<i>Blanco</i>, besides two good cruisers and several gunboats.
+The two Peruvian iron-clads, the <i>Huascar</i>
+and the <i>Independencia</i>, were older, though their
+speed was superior. The Chileans opened the war
+on the ocean by blockading the Peruvian ports in
+the extreme south, but Miguel Grau, the able seaman
+and intrepid fighter who commanded the Peruvian
+fleet, at once attacked the Chilean cruisers
+which were lying off Iquique. The <i>Huascar</i> rammed
+and sank the <i>Esmeralda</i>, but while his other iron-clad
+was pursuing the <i>Covadonga</i>, she ran upon the
+rocks and was lost. This was in reality a deathblow
+to Peru, but the gallant Grau devotedly determined
+to see what his single ship, rapidly man&#339;uvred,
+could do to make unsafe the embarkation of a Chilean
+army. For four months he terrorised the coast
+from Antofagasta to Valparaiso. Chile could not
+take a step until she had disposed of Grau and his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>
+dreaded <i>Huascar</i>. The blockade of Iquique was
+abandoned as useless; the iron-clads ordered back
+to Valparaiso to be cleaned and repaired so that
+they might match the <i>Huascar</i> in speed; new officers
+were put in command; and on October the first the
+Chilean fleet set sail from Valparaiso on a systematic
+chase for the Peruvian iron-clad. On reaching Antofagasta
+it was divided into two squadrons, the
+<i>Cochrane</i> leading one and the <i>Blanco</i> the other, and
+they immediately began patrolling the coast.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Huascar</i>, accompanied by a consort, the
+<i>Union</i>, was cruising in the neighbourhood, and at
+daylight on the 8th of October the first Chilean
+division sighted her. Grau fled, and was gradually
+drawing away from his pursuers when, to his horror,
+three columns of smoke appeared on the horizon
+directly forward. He was caught between the two
+Chilean squadrons. The <i>Union</i> had speed enough
+to slip by the enemy, but the <i>Huascar</i> was too slow.
+Grau's only chance was to close with the <i>Cochrane</i>
+before the <i>Blanco</i> could come up astern, and he
+went straight for the former. At half past nine the
+<i>Huascar</i> fired the first shot, the distance being about
+three thousand yards. It fell short and only the
+fourth shot took effect. The <i>Cochrane</i> then replied,
+and though the practice on both sides was wild, the
+two ships soon came so close that the machine guns
+were brought into effective play. A shot disabled
+the <i>Huascar's</i> turret, and in desperation Grau tried
+repeatedly to ram, but was foiled by the quick turns
+which the <i>Cochrane's</i> twin screws enabled her to
+make. Just half an hour after the action began a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>
+shell struck his conning-tower, blowing the heroic
+Peruvian into atoms. A few minutes later the
+<i>Blanco</i> came up and added her missiles to the storm
+of shots which the <i>Cochrane</i> and the smaller consorts
+were pouring upon the doomed <i>Huascar</i>. Nevertheless
+no one thought of striking. Hardly had
+Grau been blown to pieces than the executive officer
+had his head taken clean off by a shell from the
+<i>Blanco</i>, and the officer next in seniority was severely
+wounded. A few moments later the lieutenant who
+succeeded to the command was killed, and his successor,
+in turn, was wounded before the end of the
+action. When the ship finally struck, an hour and
+a half after the first shot was fired, one of the juniors
+was in command, and sixty-four of the complement
+of one hundred and ninety-three officers and men
+lay killed or wounded on the deck.</p>
+
+<p>The Chileans were now in absolute control of the
+sea, and could land an army when and where they
+pleased. The Bolivian sea-coast, inhabited almost
+exclusively by Chilean miners, and inaccessible overland
+from Bolivia proper, had fallen into Chile's
+hands at the opening of the war, but Grau's success
+in immobilising the Chilean navy had been taken
+advantage of by the Peruvians to ship nine thousand
+troops to their own nitrate province, where they
+could conveniently attack the Chileans who occupied
+the Bolivian territory to their south, or defend
+their own most valuable piece of property. But
+although this army was in Peruvian territory the
+naval victory of the Chileans isolated it almost completely.
+A hundred miles of rough, rainless desert,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>
+intercepted by deep ravines transverse to the coast,
+separated it from Tacna, where fertile valleys begin
+and communication with the rest of Peru becomes
+possible.</p>
+
+<p>By the end of October the Chilean army embarked
+at Antofagasta ten thousand strong and well provided
+with cavalry and the most modern artillery.
+Of Iquique and Pisagua, the two principal ports of
+the Peruvian nitrate country, the latter, which lies
+forty miles north of the former, was chosen as the
+less likely to be defended in force. Only a thousand
+men were found, who, in spite of a gallant resistance
+from their two small batteries and their rifle
+pits, were unable to prevent the landing of the
+Chileans protected by a tremendous fire from the
+fleet. Driven from the town the Peruvians could
+not even hold the top of the precipitous bluff until
+the arrival of reinforcements from Iquique. The
+Chileans relentlessly pushed their advantage and
+soon were in possession of the railroad for fifty miles
+into the interior and had six thousand men entrenched
+on a hill called San Francisco. Abundantly
+supplied with provisions and water they
+could afford to wait, while the allies, cut off from
+communications, must either attack at once or
+abandon the province. The Peruvian general chose
+the former alternative, but his troops arrived in
+front of San Francisco exhausted and thirsty after
+a twenty-miles' march across the dry desert. Only
+a small part of the army took part in the assault,
+and it was easily repulsed. Disheartened the allies
+fell back to the foot of the giant range which in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>exorably
+barred their way to the east, and after a
+few days of suffering from hunger and thirst, took
+their way north among the barren foothills. The
+enemy sent a detachment to harass their march, but
+they turned on their pursuers and defeated them,
+and reached Tacna province hungry, ragged, half-armed,
+and generally demoralised.</p>
+
+<p>Not only was the great nitrate province, the treasury
+of Peru, irretrievably lost, but every point on
+the coast, including Lima itself, laid open to attack.
+President Prado left the army at Tacna, went to
+Lima, and thence sailed for Europe, announcing
+that he was going to buy iron-clads. Hardly was
+he on board ship when a revolution broke out in the
+capital, and the restless Pierola, who had headed
+the latest attempts at insurrection, declared himself
+supreme chief. The Bolivians also deposed their
+unsuccessful president. Peru's revolutionary government,
+rushed into power on a wave of wounded
+national pride, embodied the more than Spanish
+haughtiness of the Creole aristocracy, and refused
+all concessions. The allies still had a large army at
+Tacna, not too demoralised to make a creditable
+resistance, although it was cut off from easy communication
+with the rest of Peru and Bolivia, and
+stood badly in need of arms, clothing, and ammunition.
+The Chilean ships blockaded Arica, the
+Tacna port, but the fast <i>Union</i> again showed her
+heels to the enemy's whole fleet, ran the blockade,
+and landed stores which put the allied army on a
+fighting footing.</p>
+
+<p>Late in February, 1880, the Chileans disembarked<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>
+a fine army of fourteen thousand men at a seaport
+sixty miles north of the allies' main position, and
+lost no time in occupying the interior as far as Moquegua
+at the foot of the Andes. Their first object
+was to cut the allied armies off from any communication
+with their respective countries. A small
+Peruvian force made an attempt to hold Torata, a
+point strategically important because it commanded
+the entrance into the Andes from Bolivia and Peru,
+but was unsuccessful. The allied armies were now
+bottled up in a little valley where provisions would
+surely shortly fail. The Chileans advanced south
+across the desert upon Tacna, and the allies took a
+strong defensive position on a ridge, flanked by
+steep ravines, with a sloping glacis in front. Vastly
+superior in artillery, though only slightly outnumbering
+the allies, the Chileans thought themselves
+justified in assaulting the position. They opened
+the battle by a cannonade in which their magnificent
+Krupp guns did terrific execution, and under cover
+of the fire the infantry advanced in four columns of
+twenty-four hundred men each. Approaching the
+trenches they were met by a storm of rifle bullets
+through which they charged bayonet in hand.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the allies on the crest of the sand-hills
+suffered terribly from the plunging artillery fire.
+The Bolivians, holding the weakest part of the line,
+bore the brunt of the attack. Once the Chileans
+wavered, but a supporting cavalry charge quickly
+drove back the advancing enemy, and after two
+hours of desperate fighting the sturdy Bolivian Indians
+gave way, their position was carried, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>
+allied army fled all along the line. Though the
+Chileans had lost over two thousand, the losses of
+the allies were greater. No way of retreat lay open;
+they scattered in confusion; and their army virtually
+ceased to exist. A couple of thousand Peruvians
+held out in Arica for a month, deliberately
+devoting themselves to certain death, but the place
+was carried by an assault in which quarter was
+neither given nor asked.</p>
+
+<p>Peru now lay helpless at the mercy of the Chilean
+armies and fleet. The ports were blockaded and
+bombarded, while expeditions ravaged the fertile
+coast valleys. Nevertheless the Peruvians would
+not yield. The United States offered her mediation,
+and plenipotentiaries met to see if terms of peace
+could be arranged. Chile demanded the formal
+cession of the nitrate territory and an indemnity.
+The Peruvians refused such hard terms, hoping
+against hope for foreign intervention. This passive
+obstinacy enraged the Chilean government, and
+after a delay of several months it was determined to
+capture the capital and dictate terms at Lima. Late
+in December, 1880, a splendidly equipped army of
+twenty-six thousand men landed a short distance
+south of Lima and marched on the city. Only a
+few fragments of the Peruvian regular army had
+survived the defeats in the south, but the population
+rallied <i>en masse</i> to resist the invaders. At
+Chorrillos, a few miles south of Lima, the militia
+waited behind a hastily constructed line of defence.
+The assault of the Chilean regulars was irresistible;
+four thousand Peruvians perished, and as many<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>
+more were taken prisoners. The survivors fell back
+on a second line of defence, only six miles from
+Lima, and were there defeated in a second battle in
+which two thousand were killed and wounded. The
+Chilean losses in the two fights reached five thousand.
+On the following day the mayor of Lima
+formally surrendered the city, and on the 17th of
+January the Chilean army took possession. The
+helpless citizens were required to make up a contribution
+of a million dollars a month; the customs
+duties were confiscated, and the Chileans violated
+all the rules of civilised warfare by wantonly destroying
+the great and valuable public library&mdash;the
+best in South America.</p>
+
+<p>Pierola escaped to Guamanga, but succeeded in
+rallying no forces. He gave it up and went to
+Europe. It became necessary to organise a government
+which could treat for peace. The citizens of
+Lima, with the consent of Chile, made Garcia Calderon
+provisional president, but when the discussion
+of terms began the Chileans repeated their demand
+for the unconditional cession of the nitrate territory,
+and Calderon did not dare assent. The enemy sent
+him prisoner to Santiago, while Iglesias in the
+northern departments, Caceres in the centre, and
+Carrillo in the south each kept up an independent
+resistance with a few militia. The Chileans made
+no serious attempt to conquer the interior, contenting
+themselves with pocketing the Peruvian customs
+revenues. This situation lasted two years and a
+half, until Iglesias came to the conclusion that peace
+could only be obtained by complete submission.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>
+Caceres was, however, resolved upon further resistance
+and quarrelling with Iglesias, advanced into
+the latter's territory. He was intercepted by a
+Chilean expedition and his forces destroyed. This
+left Iglesias a clear field; he declared himself president
+and entered into negotiations with the Chileans,
+arranging a treaty of peace which was signed
+on the 20th of October, 1883. Five days later the
+Peruvian flag was once more hoisted in the capital.
+Sporadic risings against Iglesias were easily suppressed
+by Chilean bayonets; four thousand men
+remained to see that the treaty was ratified, and a
+convention finally ratified it in March. Its provisions
+differed little from the demands made by
+Chile three years before. The money indemnity
+was waived and half the guano proceeds were left to
+Peru's creditors. On the other hand, the provinces
+of Tacna and Arica were to be held by Chile for ten
+years, and at the end of that time a popular vote
+would decide who should retain them, the losing
+country receiving ten million dollars from the other.
+Better far for the interests of permanent peace had
+the fate of the provinces been definitely determined.
+Chile and Peru have never been able to agree upon
+the terms under which the plebiscite should be conducted;
+the former still retains the provinces and the
+latter still agitates for their recovery.</p>
+
+<p>No sooner had the Chilean army left than Caceres
+began a civil war to oust Iglesias. For eighteen
+months the fighting continued with varying fortunes,
+but in December, 1885, Caceres surprised Lima
+when undefended; Iglesias resigned; a general<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>
+amnesty was proclaimed, and peace was restored to
+the distracted country. A junta assumed power and
+in the election which followed Caceres was chosen
+president, and in the middle of 1886 he entered
+upon the dreary task of re-organising Peru. The
+treasury was empty, the population had been decimated
+by a horribly destructive war during four
+years, the flourishing coast valleys with their cotton
+and sugar plantations had been laid under contribution,
+the mines had ceased to be worked, the guano
+and nitrate revenue was gone, the country was
+weighed down with a debt which could never be
+paid, and foreign creditors pressed for a settlement
+utterly beyond the abilities of the impoverished
+country. Rigid economies were enforced in all departments
+of the administration, but the most that
+could be hoped was to meet ordinary expenditure.</p>
+
+<p>Peru had nothing to offer towards the immense
+foreign debt except her railways, and the British
+creditors finally agreed to the Grace contract, by
+which she was released from all responsibility for a
+sum amounting to over fifty millions sterling, in
+return for the cession of the state railways, the payment
+of eighty thousand pounds annually, and certain
+rights to the guano deposits, mines, and public
+lands. British pressure induced Chile to give up a
+large proportion of the guano proceeds, and in 1890
+the contract was ratified and the "Peruvian Corporation"
+took over the vast properties conceded.
+Though disputes have arisen from time to time, the
+corporation has made some progress in extending
+lines to open up the mineral wealth on the plateau,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>
+and a successful beginning has been made toward
+the exploitation of the rubber forests of the Amazon
+plain. It cannot be doubted that the industrial development
+of Peru must be greatly aided by the
+existence of this gigantic private enterprise which
+will apply the energy and economy characteristic of
+individual enterprise to undertakings governmental
+in magnitude.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 569px;">
+<img src="images/i129.jpg" width="569" height="480" alt="GENERAL DON ANDRES A. CACERES" title="" />
+<span class="caption">GENERAL DON ANDRES A. CACERES</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Caceres made no change in the centralised system
+of government by prefects,&mdash;and the adminis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>trative
+fabric survived, substantially untouched, the
+horrors of the Chilean war and the fighting between
+rival chiefs. Liberal tendencies were shown in efforts
+to place the Indians on an equal political
+footing with the Peruvians of Spanish descent,
+although naturally the Creole aristocracy still dominates
+by reason of its intelligence. Considerable
+dissatisfaction was felt with Caceres' management
+of finances, but in 1890 he was succeeded by
+his friend, Colonel Bermudez, who continued his
+policy. Unfortunately for the peace of the country
+the latter died in 1893. His legal successor
+was Solar, first vice-president, but an intrigue
+in the cabinet prevented the latter's peaceable
+recognition. Caceres' influence was dominant in
+the administration, and a semblance of an election
+recalled him to power. General Pierola, who had
+led two unsuccessful insurrections&mdash;those of 1874
+and 1878&mdash;and who had got power in 1880, only to
+lose it after the fall of Lima, saw his opportunity.
+Solar joined forces with him and revolt broke out
+against Caceres. The latter had completely lost
+the popularity won as the most determined champion
+of the national rights against Chilean aggression;
+his administration was bad; the public employees
+were unpaid; the meagre resources of the country
+were wasted on his favourites. Though his troops
+were at first successful against Pierola's and Solar's
+hasty levies, the revolution recovered from each defeat
+until finally the insurrectionists entered Lima
+itself. The enemies of Caceres within the town
+arose and for two days its streets were the scene of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>
+bloody barricade fighting. Rarely does a civilised
+city pass through such a frightful experience as
+Lima on the 18th of July, 1895. There had been
+no time to extinguish the street lamps, and all night
+long the bands of revolutionists advanced, fighting
+by the lights which brightly illumined the carnage
+except where extinguished by rifle balls. Though
+his forces were gradually driven back, Caceres stubbornly
+refused to resign, and at last only yielded to
+the urgent representations of the foreign ministers,
+leaving power in the hands of a junta.</p>
+
+<p>With his withdrawal peace was restored, except
+for the resistance which his partisans kept up for a
+short time in Arequipa, and this peace has never
+since been disturbed. The junta served until an
+election could be held, in which Pierola was chosen
+president by an overwhelming and really popular
+majority. In 1899 he was succeeded by Romana,
+an engineer who had been a member of the outgoing
+ministry, and he, in his turn, had as successor,
+Se&ntilde;or Candamo, who took his seat in 1903. Historically
+the new president represents the old aristocratic
+party founded by Pardo&mdash;a party which had
+been pushed to one side in the financial confusion
+which preceded and the civil disorders which succeeded
+the terrible Chilean war by the more radical
+and democratic elements known as Pierolistas and
+constitutionalists. The return to a participation in
+affairs of elements which include so large a proportion
+of the intelligence, self-respect, and wealth of
+the nation is one of the most hopeful signs of the
+times. The Peruvian aristocracy has learned its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>
+lesson in the hard school of adversity, and vies with
+the commercial classes in sober, serious attention to
+industrial and governmental matters. Each division
+of the people seems to wish to bear its share in the
+financial, political, and moral regeneration of their
+country.</p>
+
+<p>Peruvian politics are conducted <i>en famille</i>. Economic
+and social questions are discussed and settled
+amicably among the ruling coteries and do not as in
+Europe and North America form the basis for the
+organisation of political parties. Though the country
+is steadfastly Catholic, clericalism is not, as in
+Ecuador, Colombia, and Bolivia, regarded as a menace
+by those who hold liberal views, and the provinces
+have never made any insistent demand for
+a larger share of autonomy, as in Argentina and
+Colombia. As a rule the elections are free and
+translate the popular will. Peru has long since
+passed the stage of pronunciamentos and military
+government; since Castilla's time the successful
+revolutions have been few, and have always been
+undertaken for the maintenance of the regular constitutional
+order&mdash;not its overthrow&mdash;or have been
+inspired by national feeling when the fatherland was
+in danger.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;">
+<img src="images/dec-a.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/s-132.jpg" width="600" height="727" alt="PERU" title="" />
+<span class="caption">PERU</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/map-132.jpg">Click here for a larger image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="bbt">
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span></p>
+<h1><a name="CHILE" id="CHILE"></a>CHILE</h1>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-6.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+<h3>THE SPANISH CONQUEST</h3>
+
+
+<p>About a century before Pizarro landed, Tupac
+Yupanqui, the greatest of the Inca conquerors,
+crossed the rough mountains, bleak plateaux, and
+waterless deserts which lie between the habitable part
+of Bolivia and the irrigable valleys of northern Chile,
+and rapidly overran the coast for six hundred miles.
+As one goes south the plain broadens, the short
+rivers flowing from the mountains grow larger, the
+rainfall and the area available for cultivation increase,
+and from Santiago a wide valley, the heart
+of Chile, stretches between the Andes and the coast
+range, sustaining a dense population. As far south
+as the river Maule, the limit of Tupac's conquests,
+irrigation is necessary for crops. In all these valleys
+dwelt various tribes whose system of agriculture
+and civilisation was similar to that of the Incas.
+Only the southern peoples inhabiting the rainy and
+forested regions beyond the Maule refused to submit.
+Huaina Capac, Tupac's son, was once obliged to
+undertake a campaign to consolidate the Inca power,
+but Chile north of the Maule became thoroughly
+attached to the Cuzco dynasty.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Little resistance was encountered when Almagro
+invaded this country just after Pizarro's entry into the
+Peruvian capital. He advanced as far as the Maule,
+finding everywhere a population probably as dense
+as that of the present day. Agriculture was highly
+developed; the people were clothed in substantial
+stuffs of their own manufacture; they mined copper,
+tin, and lead, and possessed excellent arms and tools.
+The tribes all spoke the same language, but each
+enjoyed a degree of autonomy under its own chiefs.
+Their habits were democratic; they loved freedom
+and independence; the Inca socialistic system did
+not prevail; and each farmer owned his own field
+and could transmit it to his children. The race was
+large and vigorous, the selected survivors from
+among immigrants who had been greatly improved
+by countless generations of struggle in the more
+rigorous climate. As one approached the cold and
+rainy mountains of southern Chile their characteristics
+became more pronounced and south of the Maule
+warlike, half-savage tribes proudly maintained their
+independence. Almagro's sole pre-occupation was
+gold, but he vainly searched the valleys as far as the
+southern boundary of the Inca empire. Here he
+encountered serious resistance from the independent
+tribes, and though victorious in his fights, concluded
+that it was not worth while remaining in such a cold
+and goldless country. He abandoned Chile and returned
+to Peru, there to meet his death at Pizarro's
+hands.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 640px;">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>
+<img src="images/i137.jpg" width="640" height="409" alt="BRIDGE ON THE ROAD BETWEEN SANTIAGO AND MENDOZA." title="" />
+<span class="caption">BRIDGE ON THE ROAD BETWEEN SANTIAGO AND MENDOZA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Pizarro soon took measures to extend the Spanish
+conquests to all parts of the Inca empire, and for
+Chile he selected his quartermaster, Pedro de Valdivia,
+an active and experienced soldier. Late in
+1540&mdash;the summer season in those latitudes&mdash;Valdivia,
+with two hundred Spaniards and a large number
+of Indian auxiliaries, crossed the Andes and
+arrived at Copiapo, the northernmost inhabited valley.
+Like Almagro he met no opposition as he
+pushed his way south for four hundred and fifty
+miles. Arriving at the great valley of Chile, in that
+favoured region he founded the city of Santiago,
+which has ever since remained the capital and most
+important place in the country. The people of the
+neighbourhood attacked the settlement and burned
+half the houses, but they were soon decisively defeated.
+Nevertheless, the invaders position was
+critical; many of them wished to return; a mutiny<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>
+was on the point of breaking out; but at this juncture
+the fortunate discovery of valuable gold mines
+near Santiago hushed all talk of abandoning the
+country.</p>
+
+<p>Firmly established at Santiago, Valdivia next
+turned his attention to the northern provinces, and
+founded a city at Coquimbo, about two hundred
+and fifty miles north of the capital, which became
+the centre of Spanish power in that region. In 1545
+he advanced into the country south of Santiago,
+where the Promaucians welcomed him as an ally
+against their hereditary foes, the Araucanians, a
+fierce and powerful confederacy dwelling beyond
+the river Biobio, which flows into the Pacific in latitude
+37&deg;. By the following year Spanish influence
+was dominant north of that river. Valdivia, with
+many of his men, temporarily returned to Peru to
+aid in the suppression of Gonzalo's revolt, but as
+soon as civil war was over he came back to Chile
+with his title of governor confirmed by viceregal
+authority. He had found Lima swarming with
+hungry adventurers who eagerly followed him,
+hoping for grants of lands and Indian slaves, or to
+make their fortunes in mining. With their help the
+conquest and settlement of all Chile as far south as
+the Maule was effectually completed. The land was
+apportioned among the cavaliers, each becoming a
+sort of feudal baron, and in effect creating a landed
+aristocracy which has continued to rule the country
+to the present day.</p>
+
+<p>The process of incorporation did not stop at the
+Maule, but included the Promaucians and most of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>
+the other tribes between that river and the Biobio.
+Beyond the latter stretched the Araucanian territory
+for two hundred miles, and Valdivia now undertook
+the conquest of the southern forests where the Inca
+arms had never been able to penetrate. His first
+step was to found Concepcion near the mouth of
+the Biobio. The neighbouring territory belonged
+to allies of the confederacy, and the Araucanians
+felt great alarm at such an aggression. The grand
+council was summoned, composed of the head-chiefs
+of the four nations, and the chiefs&mdash;called ulmens&mdash;of
+the provinces and tribes into which these nations
+were divided and subdivided. In accordance with
+immemorial custom, the deliberations lasted three
+days, and the humblest warrior was permitted to
+give his opinion before war was voted. Once the
+determination reached and a general, or "toqui,"
+elected, each soldier put on his leather cuirass,
+picked up his heavy war club, and, four thousand
+strong, the tribesmen sallied forth to attack the
+Spaniards. Musketry volley and cavalry charge
+compelled the Araucanians to retreat, after a hotly
+contested combat which lasted several hours. These
+Indians, strong and sturdy dwellers in an invigorating
+climate, were more formidable foes than the
+Spaniards had yet encountered in South America.
+Though amazed at the deadly effect of the strange
+weapons which the invaders used, they were not
+demoralised. Like the Saracens they believed that
+death in battle was a passport to paradise, war was
+their principal business, and the youth were trained
+up to the trade of arms. At close quarters they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>
+were almost irresistible; their clubs and spears,
+wielded with reckless bravery, matched the swords
+of the Spaniards, and as soon as they learned how
+to take advantage of cover in approaching an enemy
+provided with firearms, the result of a battle between
+them and the Castilians became doubtful.</p>
+
+<p>During the year 1551 Valdivia occupied himself in
+fortifying Concepcion and making preparations for
+an invasion of Araucania. Heavy reinforcements
+came and he advanced encountering at first no
+serious opposition. He founded the city of Imperial,
+one hundred and fifty miles south of Concepcion,
+and thence pushed a hundred miles farther
+on, where he established a seaport, calling it by his
+own name. Returning north in 1553, on his way
+he built several forts in the Araucanian territory,
+and at Santiago found a fresh body of troops, and,
+what was even more important, a supply of horses.
+Two hundred men were despatched across the Andes
+to begin the conquest of what is now known as the
+province of Mendoza in the Argentine Republic.
+Fancying that he had practically completed the
+subjection of Chile, Valdivia sent a messenger to
+Spain to sue for the title of Marquis and a perpetual
+governorship, and fitted out an exploring expedition
+to the Straits of Magellan in the vain hope of opening
+up direct sea communication with the mother
+country.</p>
+
+<p>The Araucanians had, however, not relaxed their
+determination to rid themselves of the white invaders.
+News came that the confederacy had put an
+army of ten thousand men in the field, and that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>
+outlying forts had been stormed. Valdivia at once
+advanced from Concepcion at the head of his forces,
+numbering two hundred Spaniards and five thousand
+Indian auxiliaries. A hundred miles south of the
+city he came in sight of the Araucanian army. For
+some time the Indian commander man&#339;uvred cautiously,
+endeavouring to draw the Spaniards into a
+position where he could charge without suffering
+too much from the dreaded artillery. Finally battle
+was joined, and despite the destructive fire the Indians
+managed to come to close quarters. As soon
+as these fierce warriors reached the enemy's line all
+was up with the invaders. The Spanish army was
+literally annihilated. Valdivia himself fled, but was
+pursued and quickly captured. Brought before the
+Indian general he begged for his life, agreeing to
+quit Chile with all the Spaniards, but his protestations
+were cut short by the war club of an old chief
+standing near.</p>
+
+<p>The Spanish settlers south of Concepcion fled for
+refuge to the ports of Imperial and Valdivia, abandoning
+the other towns and forts. A young chief
+named Lautaro, who had been captured and baptised
+years before by Valdivia, but who had escaped
+to his own people, led a considerable army to the
+Biobio, destroyed an expedition sent against him,
+and drove the enemy out of Concepcion. If the Indians
+had understood the art of besieging fortified
+places, Imperial and Valdivia and probably Santiago
+itself would now have fallen, and the Spaniards would
+have been expelled from the southern and better half
+of Chile. Lautaro led north two thousand Araucan<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>ians,
+ravaged the lands of the Promaucians beyond
+the Maule, and penetrated to the neighbourhood of
+the capital. Repeated expeditions sent against him
+were defeated; the dismayed Spaniards urgently
+called for help from Peru and recalled the adventurers
+from Argentina. Happily the civilised tribes
+of northern and central Chile remained faithful, and
+the bulk of the Araucanian forces was occupied besieging
+Valdivia and Imperial,&mdash;a fruitless undertaking
+so long as provisions could be thrown in by sea.
+Worst of all for the Indians smallpox broke out
+among them. At last the Spaniards surprised Lautaro's
+encampment near Santiago; the Araucanian
+leader fell dead, pierced by a dart; and his companions
+fought like wild beasts until every man was
+slain. This victory secured the safety of Santiago,
+and the Araucanians retired behind the Biobio.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Mendoza, the great pacificator and organiser,
+had come out to Lima and assumed the
+viceroyalty. Turbulent adventurers swarmed into
+Peru whom he thought could be better employed
+elsewhere. Southern Chile seemed just the place
+for these reckless, needy cavaliers, who were so anxious
+to carve out fiefs for themselves. Early in
+1557, Garcia de Mendoza, son of the viceroy, was
+appointed captain-general and enjoined to reduce
+the Araucanians to obedience. He came accompanied
+by ten ships and a considerable force of
+Spaniards. Still larger forces were on their way
+overland from Peru. Cautiously landing troops and
+artillery at the deserted city of Concepcion, he had
+finished his defences before the confederacy could<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>
+mobilise its army. Though the Araucanians attacked
+with desperate fury, their charges were beaten back
+by the artillery fire. Re-forming on the other side
+of the Biobio, the Indians waited until Mendoza, who
+had meanwhile received a large reinforcement of cavalry,
+advanced. In the battle which followed they
+were defeated, but they had learned a lesson of prudence
+and they fought in front of forests into whose
+depths the Spanish cavalry could not pursue. Retreating
+slowly, they again gave battle, and, though
+again defeated, inflicted great losses on the Spanish
+infantry. Mendoza hanged his prisoners, and once
+more advanced, this time to the place where Valdivia
+had met his death. Here he founded a fortified
+town, naming it Ca&ntilde;ete, after the hereditary
+title of his family. Leaving it heavily garrisoned,
+he went on to Imperial for provisions. In his absence
+the Indians unsuccessfully tried to carry
+Ca&ntilde;ete by assault, and seeing the hopelessness of
+aggressive movements, they withdrew to the wooded
+districts and mountains, abandoning the open country
+and the sea-coast to the Spaniards. Mendoza
+pushed on beyond the southern limits of the Araucanian
+territory and discovered and explored the
+populous archipelago of Chilo&euml;. On his way back
+he founded, on the mainland a hundred miles south
+of Valdivia, the city of Osorno.</p>
+
+<p>The Araucanians were now shut in between the
+Andes and a semicircle of towns and forts; it
+seemed as if their final subjection would only be a
+question of time. Mendoza returned to Santiago,
+leaving a lieutenant to undertake a campaign of raids<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>
+and surprises. A few of the Araucanians remained
+in the field, and it was not until their veteran chief,
+Caupolican, was betrayed and pitilessly shot to
+death with arrows, that the whole confederacy again
+flew to arms under the command of his son. Marching
+on Concepcion, the Indians cut to pieces first
+one Spanish force of five hundred men and then
+another; and blockaded the city from the land side.
+The Spaniards, holding the sea, had no difficulty in
+pouring in reinforcements from Peru and Valparaiso,
+and the Indian army finally retreated. At Quiapo,
+between Concepcion and Ca&ntilde;ete, it was defeated and
+nearly annihilated, its most celebrated chiefs and
+heroes perishing in the slaughter. Once more the
+Araucanians retired to their forests and mountains
+while the Spaniards rebuilt and improved the line of
+fortifications and took possession of the valuable
+gold mines of Villarica. But they could make no
+further impression on these indomitable Indians.
+For forty years the war continued, sometimes active,
+sometimes desultory, and with constantly varying
+fortunes. Year after year the Spaniards poured
+in reinforcements, and their expeditions more than
+once ravaged the remotest parts of the Araucanian
+territory. But as soon as the armies retired the unflagging
+Indians would return to the attack, cutting
+off isolated bands of settlers and surprising forts and
+towns.</p>
+
+<p>About 1593, the able chieftain Paillamachu was
+toqui of the confederacy. The incessant wars
+against the Araucanians had made the province such
+a continual drain on the Peruvian treasury, that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>
+Mendoza, who had been promoted to the viceregal
+throne, determined to end this impossible situation
+in one way or another. A general was sent to Chile
+with full powers either to treat or fight, but the
+haughty and intractable Indians rejected with scorn
+his overtures for peace. He then fortified the line
+of the Biobio and erected new fortresses to serve as
+bases for a campaign of extermination to be undertaken
+as soon as reinforcements arrived. These
+came slowly and the Indians themselves took the
+offensive, considerable bands invading the Spanish
+settlements, storming some forts and blockading
+others. The Spanish general exerted himself to
+concentrate his scattered forces, but while making a
+hasty journey, accompanied only by a small escort,
+from Imperial toward Concepcion, he was surprised
+and killed by a band of Indians. Forty-eight hours
+later not only the whole of Araucania, but also the
+provinces south of Valdivia, rose in arms. All the
+Spanish towns south of the Biobio&mdash;Osorno, Valdivia,
+Villarica, Imperial, Ca&ntilde;ete, Angol, Coya, and
+Arauco&mdash;were simultaneously besieged. Paillamachu
+crossed the river and burned first Concepcion and
+then Chillan, a town a hundred miles north of the
+Araucanian boundary, ravaging the country to the
+river Maule. Alarmed for the safety of Santiago,
+the Lima viceroy sent a new governor with a well-equipped
+army, but it was as much as he could do
+to force the Indians back into their own territory.
+The Indian general suddenly assaulted the city of
+Valdivia, carried it by storm, slaughtered or captured
+the inhabitants, and seized two millions of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>
+booty with many arms and cannon. Villarica and
+Imperial managed to hold out for three years but
+finally they, with Osorno, were reduced by starvation.
+When Paillamachu died in 1603 the Spaniards
+had no foothold on the mainland south of the Biobio
+except the Valdivia citadel.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<img src="images/i146.jpg" width="800" height="548" alt="INDIAN ENCAMPMENT." title="" />
+<span class="caption">INDIAN ENCAMPMENT.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Two or three years later the government made a
+last effort to reduce the Araucanians. An army of
+three thousand Spaniards besides a large contingent
+of natives advanced across the Biobio. To such an
+overwhelming force the Araucanians dared not offer
+open battle, but they hung on its flanks, skirmishing
+and harassing, and the host was compelled to return
+without having accomplished anything decisive.
+From the protection of the forts on the Biobio, the
+Spanish general sent expeditions to lay waste the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>
+Indian country, but these smaller bodies were
+roughly handled and the first period of Araucanian
+wars closed with the nearly complete destruction
+of the Spanish forces operating in southern Chile.
+The authorities at Lima and Madrid gave it up as a
+bad job. Thenceforward the Biobio remained the
+southern boundary of the Spanish possessions. An
+army of two thousand men and a line of forts
+guarded the frontier, and though hostilities were
+frequent, for centuries no real progress was made
+toward depriving the Araucanians of their independence.
+In the progress of time the slow infiltration
+of Spanish blood and Spanish customs
+modified their characteristics, but it was not until
+1882 that they became real subjects of the Chilean
+government.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;">
+<img src="images/dec-b.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-1.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<h3>THE COLONIAL PERIOD</h3>
+
+
+<p>The Araucanian wars made Chile a school of
+arms for all South America. The appointment
+to its captaincy-general was eagerly sought by
+ambitious soldiers, and the place, especially after
+the seventeenth century, was a stepping-stone to
+the magnificent and lucrative position of viceroy at
+Lima. Preoccupied with the southern wars, passing
+most of their time on the frontiers, the governors
+paid little attention to central and northern Chile.
+The Indians peacefully cultivated the great estates
+of their feudal masters; and although the mining
+industry was considerable it never threatened the
+extinction of the neighbouring population. The
+few towns were mere villages, built of one-story,
+thatch-covered houses, commerce was insignificant,
+portable wealth small, money almost unknown.
+However, the landed proprietors of Chile mostly
+lived upon their estates, and came into more intimate
+contact with their Indian tenants than in the
+richer and more tropical provinces, a circumstance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>
+which has had a profound effect upon the character
+and racial composition of the modern Chilean.</p>
+
+<p>Although unsuccessful in Araucania, the governors
+prospered in their efforts to extend the Spanish
+dominion east of the Andes and before the end of
+the sixteenth century the fertile valleys of the province
+of Cuyo&mdash;Mendoza, San Juan, and San Luiz&mdash;as
+far as the central desert which separates them
+from the grass-covered pampas of Buenos Aires,
+were incorporated with Chile. At the same time
+the green and populous island of Chilo&euml;&mdash;the Ireland
+of the Pacific&mdash;was added to the captaincy-general.</p>
+
+<p>The first comers were adventurous soldiers looking
+for sudden riches, but Chile furnished these
+gentlemen small returns for hard knocks. The
+reasons which led the Spanish government to discourage
+emigration to Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador,
+did not apply to Chile, and when, early in the seventeenth
+century, the Madrid authorities abandoned
+the useless and expensive effort to conquer Araucania,
+they permitted a considerable number of real
+colonists. A heavy immigration followed&mdash;composed
+mostly of Basques and Aragonese&mdash;hardy and
+industrious settlers who made thrifty farmers and
+merchants. These people were no mere army of
+occupation&mdash;a privileged class living parasitically
+upon the Indians; they set about developing the
+real resources of the country, and their blood, mixing
+into the fine and strong aboriginal strain, vastly
+improved it. The lower classes in Chile are industrious,
+enduring, and brave, and though at times<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span>
+they show a touch of that primitive ferocity characteristic
+of young peoples, their innate energy and
+great physical strength have been of incalculable
+value to the nation.</p>
+
+<p>Little worth detailing is recorded in the annals of
+Chile during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
+For many years the Araucanians refused to
+make any treaty with the Spaniards. The chronicles
+are filled with accounts of the incursions made
+by the Indians into Spanish territory&mdash;often successful,
+more often repulsed, with sieges, ambushes&mdash;tales
+of reckless valour and unspeakable cruelty.
+Sometimes the Europeans carried the war over the
+Biobio, and during the ten years prior to 1640 they
+were so successful in carrying fire, slaughter, and
+pillage to the homes of the Araucanians, that the
+latter finally consented to an armistice and a formal
+treaty of peace. The Spanish governor went to the
+plain of Quillin, escorted by more than ten thousand
+persons, and the Araucanian general appeared in
+state at the head of all the toquis, ulmens, and chief
+warriors of the confederacy. Into the open space
+between the high contracting parties was led a
+llama for sacrifice, whose sprinkled blood remained
+a pledge that the historic Biobio would henceforth
+be respected by both nations as the boundary, and
+that the Araucanians would never permit colonists
+of third nations upon their shores, or aid the English
+and Dutch buccaneers. The Indians faithfully
+adhered to this pact of friendship and refused to furnish
+the Dutch with provisions when the latter took
+possession of Valdivia in 1643. But in 1655 the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span>
+cupidity of Spanish officers caused trouble, and war
+devastated both sides of the border for the next ten
+years. In 1665 a new treaty, identical in terms, was
+negotiated, which continued in force until 1722.
+However, Spanish priests pushed their evangelising
+among the Indians, and officers, called "Capitanos
+de los amigos," appointed to guard the interests of
+the missionaries, assumed authority highly offensive
+to the Araucanians. The great council was summoned,
+a general selected, and the missionaries expelled.
+When the Spanish governor marched to the
+frontier with five thousand men the Indians offered
+battle which the Spaniards dared not accept. The
+former continued firm in their demands, and peace
+was only re-established by abolishing the obnoxious
+officials.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile nothing of moment had disturbed the
+slow and even current of colonial progress in northern
+and central Chile. The country was poor, its
+exports small and its imports smaller. Great fortunes
+were not accumulated as in other South
+American countries, though the national life rested
+on a broader, surer basis. The wheat and cattle,
+the fruits and poultry introduced by the Spaniards
+raised the standard of alimentation and the vitality
+of the people, while the continual admixture of
+Spanish blood augmented individual initiative and
+intelligence. The towns at first grew very slowly.
+Santiago itself had only eight thousand inhabitants
+at the end of the seventeenth century, while the
+other so-called cities, Coquimbo, Castro, Valparaiso,
+Chillan, Concepcion, and Valdivia, were in fact little<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>
+more than villages. The rural districts were populous,
+for the soil was fertile, the climate healthful,
+and the means of a simple subsistence abounded.
+Imported vices and diseases, and the oppressions
+suffered at the hands of the first Spanish proprietors,
+had somewhat thinned out the native population,
+but these losses were largely made up by a rapid increase
+of the element which boasted white descent,
+and in the latter part of the eighteenth century
+Spanish Chile was more densely populated than the
+Atlantic seaboard of North America.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>
+<img src="images/i153.jpg" width="800" height="489" alt="HOUSE OF CONGRESS, SANTIAGO." title="" />
+<span class="caption">HOUSE OF CONGRESS, SANTIAGO.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Spanish legislation gave a monopoly of South
+American commerce to a favoured ring of merchants
+at Cadiz, forbidding any communication with Chile
+except by the circuitous Isthmian route. Freights
+were enormous, profits and taxes exorbitant, and in
+spite of the repressive measures of the Spanish authorities,
+smuggling was carried on by way of the
+route over the Andes to Buenos Aires and Colonia.
+The war of the Spanish Succession, following the
+death of the last of the descendants of Charles V.,
+disorganised Spanish administration, and during the
+confusion of the first few years of the eighteenth
+century illicit trading increased apace. The triumph
+of Louis XIV., and the seating of a French prince
+on the throne of Madrid, resulted in a temporary
+permission to French ships to trade with South
+America. For a time French manufactures were
+brought directly to Chile by way of Cape Horn.
+The customs receipts&mdash;hitherto merely nominal&mdash;rapidly
+increased, and although the license was soon
+revoked at the demand of the Cadiz monopolists, a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>permanent impetus had been given to commerce.
+Improving conditions gave a fresh start to immigration,
+and the comparatively rational policy of the
+Bourbon dynasty removed many of the more crying
+abuses of colonial administration. A little before
+the middle of the eighteenth century Governor
+Manso, with the approval of Madrid, founded a
+dozen cities scattered through all the provinces as
+far south as the Biobio, and settlements spread to
+the frontier of Araucania. Manso's successor,
+Rosas, was even more diligent in establishing new
+towns and received the title of "Conde de Poblaciones."
+He founded the University of San Felipe
+at Santiago, and stimulated commerce by opening
+a mint. In his administration occurred the great
+earthquake of 1751, which engulfed and destroyed
+Concepcion by a tremendous wave from the sea, and
+inflicted great damage upon Santiago and many
+other towns. These convulsions are very frequent
+in Chile and in early times people supposed that it
+was not safe to build houses of more than one story.
+It has since been ascertained that two-story edifices
+are as secure as lower ones and Chilean cities contain
+many handsome buildings.</p>
+
+<p>Rosas' successor was Don Manuel Amat. Under
+his administration the erection of new cities
+continued, and he is remembered as the captain-general
+who helped suppress the robbers and bandits
+who had infested the country. Vigilance committees
+were organised, volunteer patrols guarded the
+city streets and country roads, and a coast militia
+fought the pirates who infested the seashore. Chile<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>
+in the middle of the eighteenth century presents the
+characteristics of a frontier country&mdash;rapid founding
+of towns, disorders and lawlessness effectively suppressed
+by lynch law, and a childish display of newly
+acquired wealth.</p>
+
+<p>The encroachments upon the Araucanians finally
+grew irksome to those indomitable and intractable
+savages. What the Spanish armies and priests had
+failed in, the settlers who poured into the fertile
+plains and valleys of southern Chile seemed about
+to achieve. The next captain-general even tried to
+incorporate the independent tribes into the Spanish
+system, but when he attempted to gather them into
+towns the spirit which had animated their forefathers
+proved too strong. A war broke out which lasted
+several years and ended only when the Spanish
+government renewed the treaties guaranteeing them
+practical independence, and allowing them to keep
+an ambassador at Santiago. Just about this time
+the trans-Andean province of Cuyo was separated
+from Chile and transferred to the newly created
+Buenos Aires viceroyalty. Taken purely for reasons
+of administrative convenience, this measure resulted
+in shutting off Chile from expansion over the vast
+plains of the Plate Valley, confining her between the
+Andes and the sea, and ultimately securing to the
+Argentine a territorial and numerical preponderance
+among Spanish-American republics.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-4.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<h3>THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE</h3>
+
+
+<p>The last years of Spanish rule were the most
+prosperous Chile had known. A brisk coasting
+trade sprang into being; a small merchant marine
+grew up; the removal of the prohibition against
+free commerce with the rest of Spanish South
+America raised prices. The opening of Buenos
+Aires reacted upon her western neighbour, and
+Chile ceased to depend on the Isthmus route. A
+spirit of enterprise was awakened by a freer intercourse
+with the outside world and by the immigration
+of hardy adventurers who came through Buenos
+Aires, the great South American rendezvous of that
+day.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span>
+<img src="images/i157.jpg" width="800" height="524" alt="PLAZA DEL ARMAS, SANTIAGO." title="" />
+<span class="caption">PLAZA DEL ARMAS, SANTIAGO.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Among these immigrants was the famous Ambrose
+O'Higgins, a poor Irish lad, who landed at
+Buenos Aires, made his way to Chile, started as a
+peddler, became an army contractor, made a fortune,
+got a commission in the army, distinguished
+himself in an expedition against the Araucanians,
+ingratiated himself with everybody by his wit, courage,
+and good-natured shrewdness, and finally was
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span>
+selected as captain-general. He ruled the country
+wisely and well until promoted to be viceroy at
+Lima. His successors were mostly able and honest
+men, and under their government the natural
+causes making for the prosperity of Chile had free
+scope. Wealth increased, and with it love of display,
+honours, and letters. Santiago became a real
+capital, the favourite residence of the landed aristocracy
+and a social centre where fashions were prescribed.
+The English war into which France pushed
+Spain in 1796 much damaged Chilean commerce, but
+not sufficiently to stop the impulse already received.
+The old ignorant content with Spanish rule gave
+place to a growing demand for the removal of all
+restrictions, and the appetite for commercial freedom
+grew with what it fed on.</p>
+
+<p>Chile was still comparatively poor and backward.
+The rude population were engaged in a harsh struggle
+with fierce savages and in laying the foundations
+of material prosperity. Most of these people were
+the descendants of Indians accustomed for centuries
+to implicit obedience to a rustic, unlettered aristocracy.
+The genius of the race was rather practical
+than ideal, and the long, careless government by
+men invariably chosen for their military abilities
+rather than their qualities as civil administrators had
+not tended to make Chile a fertile soil for the development
+of revolutionary ideas. Chilean society
+was less favourably constituted for sudden changes
+than that of Buenos Aires&mdash;the boom town of the
+time, with its active commerce, its restless recently
+arrived population,&mdash;or that of the northern viceroy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>alties,
+controlled by professional and office-holding
+classes and parish priests.</p>
+
+<p>Two or three hundred families held most of the
+lands of Chile, and the power of this aristocracy was
+especially predominant in the provinces around
+Santiago. In the southern provinces long wars had
+thinned the native population and dispossessed the
+original grantees. Estates were more widely distributed
+and opinion more radical, but in the rest of
+the country the newer immigrants had been forced
+to accept the system, and the comparatively few
+families who owned the land and thereby controlled
+the means of subsistence of the whole people, enjoyed
+unquestioned ascendancy. But conservative
+as this aristocracy was, among its members there
+rankled a profound jealousy of the Spanish officials
+who wrung excessive taxes from their reluctant
+fingers; who enforced the Spanish regulations forbidding
+the culture of grapes, olives, and tobacco;
+who until recently had closed the ports, cutting off
+the profitable sale of crops, and compelling the payment
+of extravagant prices for manufactured goods;
+and most irritating of all, who still monopolised the
+lucrative offices.</p>
+
+<p>The news of Ferdinand's imprisonment and the
+invasion of Spain by Napoleon's armies reached
+Chile in the late summer of 1809, creating great excitement
+among the Spanish office-holders and the
+Creole aristocracy. Sentiment was universal against
+submission to the French usurpation and discussion
+at once began of how the government should be carried
+on during the King's captivity. Carrasco, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span>
+captain-general, hesitated and vacillated between the
+conflicting suggestions.</p>
+
+<p>In preparation for an emergency, whose exact
+nature no one could foresee, the city authorities
+gathered arms, drilled troops, and levied extra
+taxes. The property-owning and governing classes
+divided into two currents of opinion. The government
+officials, with their friends and hangers-on, saw
+that their interests would best be served by the
+recognition of the revolutionary juntas which had
+assumed the <i>ad interim</i> direction of affairs in Spain.
+The leading Creole families proposed the establishment
+of an independent junta, pending Ferdinand's
+return, or the definite defeat of the national cause
+in Spain. Although the latter party warmly protested
+their faithfulness to the mother-country, at
+bottom they designed to secure for Chile and Chileans
+virtual independence while Spain's troubles
+lasted, and the Spanish officials did not hesitate to
+characterise their opponents as rebels. Feeling rapidly
+grew intense, and in May, 1810, the captain-general
+ordered the arrest of several prominent
+Creoles. This arbitrary measure aroused such a
+fierce clamour that Carrasco lost his nerve, and consented
+to the release of the prisoners. This indication
+of weakness encouraged the agitators, and when
+news came across the Andes that the people of
+Buenos Aires had deposed their viceroy, Santiago
+broke into revolution.</p>
+
+<p>The captain-general had summoned an open cabildo
+to enjoin obedience to certain orders received
+from Spain, but this assembly tumultuously de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>manded
+his resignation. Helpless against the popular
+outcry and the hostile attitude of the city
+government, he turned over his authority to Toro, a
+wealthy nobleman, whose venerable age and pacific
+disposition seemed likely to preserve the peace.
+Nevertheless, the Creoles persisted in their demand
+for an independent Chilean junta. Another meeting
+of all the qualified electors was called; the arrival
+of a representative of the new junta at Buenos Aires,
+who strongly urged Chile to follow Argentina's example,
+had its influence; and on the 18th of September,
+the date observed as the anniversary of
+Chilean independence, Toro resigned his authority
+to the cabildo. The office of captain-general was
+abolished and power passed to a junta of seven.
+Chile's ports were opened to all nations, quadrupling
+the customs receipts in a single year, and the
+country began a virtually separate existence, although
+the acts of the junta ran in the name of the
+Spanish King.</p>
+
+<p>However, the junta's power rested upon a basis
+too narrow for stability. Representing only the
+Santiago aristocracy, there was no certainty that its
+orders would be respected in the provinces, or that
+independent juntas would not be set up in other
+cities. To remedy this difficulty a national congress
+was summoned, but the junta allotted to Santiago
+almost as many members as to all the other municipalities
+together. The elections took place in April,
+1811, and while they were going on the Spanish
+officer in command of a detachment at Santiago revolted.
+A member of the junta, Jos&eacute; Carrera by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>
+name, an active and ambitious young man, who belonged
+to one of the most influential Creole families,
+distinguished himself by attacking and defeating the
+Spaniard with an improvised force of armed patriots.
+When congress met it voted many reforms; abolishing
+slavery, reorganising the judiciary, freeing
+commerce of vexatious restrictions, decreeing the
+payment of the clergy out of the public treasury instead
+of by tithes, and conferring on the elective
+bodies of the municipalities the right to elect their
+own city officers. However, divisions soon arose
+among the members. The representatives of the
+outside provinces bitterly complained of the unfairness
+of the apportionment; the radicals wished to
+reorganise everything, while the conservatives insisted
+on preserving many of the old institutions.
+The Santiago representatives, chosen from the
+landed aristocracy, were mostly conservative, while
+the members from the South were largely radical.
+Under the leadership of Doctor Rosas, the latter
+withdrew. The Santiago conservatives, left in undisputed
+control of congress, displaced the old junta,
+but Carrera and his two brothers had made themselves
+all powerful in the army by cleverly seizing
+its Spanish officers. He determined to ally himself
+with the radicals and assume supreme power.
+Marching to the hall of congress at the head of his
+troops, he compelled the selection of a new junta
+with himself as chief, and expelled the members
+upon whom he could not rely. Rosas had meanwhile
+established a radical junta at Concepcion, and
+Carrera offered to associate him in the government.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span>
+Rosas declined, and the Santiago leader, now frankly
+a military dictator, advanced with an army to reduce
+the South to obedience. But the news that the
+Spanish party had gained the ascendancy in Valdivia
+and Chilo&euml; intimidated him, and he made peace
+with Rosas, retiring to Santiago. His emissaries
+nevertheless continued to intrigue in Concepcion
+and finally stirred up a riot which resulted in
+Rosas' expulsion.</p>
+
+<p>For nearly two years Carrera and his brothers remained
+in power, governing by military force, confiscating
+the property of their enemies, allowing
+their friends to loot the public funds, and committing
+many enormities. Conspiracy after conspiracy
+was formed against them, only to be detected and
+suppressed, while the patriots divided into hostile
+factions each selfishly ambitious for control. Meanwhile
+Abascal, the able and resolute viceroy at
+Lima, had succeeded in keeping Peru submissive, in
+crushing out the revolution in Ecuador and Bolivia,
+and in repelling the northward march of the Argentine
+patriots. He now prepared to send an army to
+re-establish royal authority in Chile. Early in 1813
+a large force landed at Talcahuano and, advancing
+to Concepcion, was joined by the garrison of that
+place. Reinforcements came up from Valdivia and
+Chilo&euml;, and the Spanish general took the road for
+Santiago at the head of four thousand men. In
+the face of this imminent danger the bickerings of
+the patriots were hushed. Carrera advanced to the
+South in command of twelve thousand men, poorly
+armed and disciplined. On the Spanish side the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>
+officers were, however, suspicious, and had little
+confidence in their raw levies. A sudden and successful
+attack on an outpost near the river Maule
+was followed by a panic among the royalists, and
+they retreated in disorder, but with no great loss, to
+the fortifications of Chillan, only fifty miles from
+Concepcion. Detachments of patriots pushed on to
+Concepcion and captured that place and Talcahuano.
+The Spanish army was completely isolated in Chillan,
+but had found there an abundant supply of
+provisions, and successfully resisted Carrera's efforts
+to take the place. His hastily gathered levies, without
+means of sheltering themselves from the rain
+and cold, melted away by desertion. Finally he retired
+toward Concepcion followed by the Spaniards
+and the remnants of his army were only saved from
+total rout by the gallantry and steadiness of Bernardo
+O'Higgins. This military chief, a natural son
+of the old Irish captain-general, and heir to his
+Chilean estates, had made common cause with the
+patriots at the beginning of the revolution, and attached
+himself to the fortunes of Rosas, the leader
+of the Concepcion radicals. When the latter was
+banished by Carrera, O'Higgins retired from the
+army. The Spanish invasion had roused him; he
+offered his sword to Carrera, and his dashing military
+talents sent him quickly to the front.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 454px;">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span>
+<img src="images/i165.jpg" width="454" height="640" alt="BERNARDO O'HIGGINS." title="" />
+<span class="caption">BERNARDO O&#39;HIGGINS.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Carrera's failure at Chillan cost him his prestige,
+his rivals at Santiago took advantage of his absence
+to expel him from the junta, his violent measures at
+Concepcion exasperated its people to revolt, and his
+own troops became mutinous. The new Santiago
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span>
+junta formally nominated O'Higgins to the chief
+command and Carrera was compelled to withdraw.
+The new general inspired some vigour into the patriot
+operations, but the arrival of reinforcements
+from Lima gave the royalists an overwhelming preponderance
+in cavalry and artillery. The junta had
+recalled a large part of his forces to defend Santiago,
+when an unexpected movement by one of the
+Spanish divisions resulted in the capture of the important
+city of Talca, half-way between the capital
+and Concepcion. Though O'Higgins and the troops
+left in the South managed to repulse an attack of
+the main Spanish army, an army sent from Santiago
+failed to retake Talca and its destruction left the
+capital unprotected. O'Higgins by forced marches
+succeeded in beating the Spaniards to the Maule,
+saving the city for the moment. Meanwhile, a revolution
+had overthrown the junta responsible for the
+fatal Talca expedition and the new dictator entered
+into negotiations with the Spanish commander.
+The latter, confronted by O'Higgins' army, and
+anticipating a desperate resistance, thought it best
+not to press his advantage too far. He agreed to
+an armistice, and Chile offered to acknowledge
+allegiance to Spain, send members to the Cortes
+shortly to assemble, and accept any Constitution
+which might be promulgated by that body, if the
+viceroy would recognise <i>ad interim</i> the present Santiago
+government and withdraw the Spanish army
+within two months.</p>
+
+<p>One result of the armistice was the liberation of
+the Carreras from the Spanish prison in which they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>
+had been confined since their deposition the year
+before. They hastened to Santiago and started an
+intrigue for the overthrow of Lastra and O'Higgins.
+Such was their popularity with the troops in Santiago
+and the extent of their family influence that
+they got possession of the city and were preparing
+to dispute the supreme control of Chile with O'Higgins
+by force of arms when news arrived that the
+viceroy refused to sanction the compromise, and
+that an army of peninsular veterans was on its way.
+Though Carrera and O'Higgins pretended a reconciliation,
+each distrusted the other, and took the
+field virtually independent. Under such conditions
+Chilean success was impossible. O'Higgins' division
+was annihilated at Rancagua, Carrera abandoned
+the capital, and fled with a few hundred
+followers over the Andes, where he was joined by
+O'Higgins and the more determined patriots. This
+influx of the pick of the fighting men of Chile was a
+valuable reinforcement for the army which San
+Martin was already organising behind the shelter of
+the eastern foothills. Between the rival Chilean
+leaders, Carrera and O'Higgins, he chose the latter,
+gave him his confidence, and made him his chief
+lieutenant, while Carrera, finding no place in San
+Martin's entourage, went on to Buenos Aires, never
+again to return to his native country.</p>
+
+<p>Both aristocracy and people in Chile were tired of
+the military misrule which they had suffered during
+the dominance of the patriot chiefs. A deputation
+of the most prominent citizens went to welcome
+General Osorio as he advanced to Santiago after the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>
+battle of Rancagua. Within a month the Spanish
+power was securely re-established throughout the
+country. The leading revolutionists who remained
+in Chile were executed or banished, more than a
+hundred being exiled to the desolate island of Juan
+Fernandez. During two years and a half&mdash;from
+1814 to 1817&mdash;Osorio and his successor, Marco del
+Ponte, ruled Chile with a rod of iron. So far as
+possible everything was restored as it had been before
+1810. The Spanish judges were reinstated,
+elective municipal councils abolished, the newspapers
+suppressed, and all the liberal reforms
+revoked.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile San Martin, behind the screen of the
+Andes, and only a hundred and fifty miles from
+Santiago, was forging a thunderbolt destined to
+shatter into fragments the edifice which Abascal had
+been so skilfully constructing through seven laborious
+years. The story of how the silent Argentine
+gathered and equipped the "Army of the Andes"
+has already been told. In the chapter devoted to
+Argentina the reader will find a meagre description
+of his marvellous march over the cloud-high passes,
+the descent into the plain of Aconcagua made so
+suddenly that the Spanish forces could not hurry up
+to bar his way, the prompt advance over the low
+transverse range which forms the northern boundary
+of the plain where Santiago stands, and the overwhelming
+victory in the gorge of Chacabuco against
+the pick of the Spanish veterans, who confidently
+stood to the attack, never dreaming until San Martin
+was right upon them that his main body had had
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span>time to reach the spot. The Spanish authorities at
+Madrid and Lima had made the irretrievable mistake
+of underestimating the efficiency of his army.
+They thought the troops in Chile amply able to take
+care of any four thousand men the patriots could get
+together, but San Martin's army was differently provided
+and organised than the undisciplined masses
+which had been routed at Huaqui, Villapugio, and
+Rancagua. The Spanish generals were not so much
+surprised at his crossing the Andes as at finding the
+troops which reached the Chilean plains to be well
+furnished with artillery, cavalry, and ammunition,
+perfectly ready for an aggressive campaign, and a
+match man for man for any force that could be
+brought against them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<img src="images/i169.jpg" width="800" height="522" alt="RAILROAD BRIDGE BETWEEN SANTIAGO AND VALPARAISO." title="" />
+<span class="caption">RAILROAD BRIDGE BETWEEN SANTIAGO AND VALPARAISO.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span>The royalists lost twelve hundred of their best
+men at Chacabuco; only a thousand escaped from
+the field to fly in disorder toward Santiago. On the
+way they met the Spanish cavalry riding to join
+them, but Captain-General Marco, instead of rallying
+the three thousand men who remained under his
+orders, hurried out of town toward Valparaiso, anxious
+for his personal safety. San Martin had expected
+to be obliged to fight another battle and kept
+his army together, instead of pursuing and annihilating
+the dismayed Spaniards. More than half the
+latter managed to escape to Valparaiso, where they
+embarked for Peru. Santiago received the conqueror
+with no great enthusiasm. The moneyed
+classes feared another prolonged civil war with its
+attendant confiscations, forced contributions, and
+general disorder; the common people cared little<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span>
+whether a Spaniard or an Argentine occupied the
+governmental palace. However, no one dreamed
+of resistance; the partisans of the proscribed patriots
+and the votaries of independence and liberalism
+were delighted; San Martin with his host of
+hardy gauchos and Chilean exiles assumed full control
+of the capital. He summoned an assembly of
+notables who promptly and unanimously elected
+him "Governor of Chile with plenary powers."
+But this was not what the far-sighted and patriotic
+soldier wanted. He realised that Chile could never
+give that unquestioning support so vital to the success
+of his cherished campaign against Peru so long
+as any stranger, even himself, governed by force.
+San Martin peremptorily declined the honour, but
+intimated that he would be glad to see his staunch
+friend, O'Higgins, selected dictator, and accordingly
+the enemy of the Carreras was placed at the head of
+the new Chilean government.</p>
+
+<p>With eyes fixed on a Peruvian campaign it was
+only natural that San Martin should leave immediate
+details in Chile to others. Though all central
+Chile submitted with good grace, the South remained
+a stronghold of the Spanish sympathisers. Among
+its warlike people the royalist armies had been recruited,
+and there lay the two strongest fortresses&mdash;Talcahuano
+and Valdivia&mdash;both of them still in possession
+of the Spaniards. After two months' delay,
+Las Heras, with a thousand men, was despatched,
+but his force was inadequate and his advance slow.
+Before he arrived near Concepcion, an able Spanish
+general, Ordo&ntilde;ez, who had fought side by side with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span>
+San Martin in Spain, had organised a division equal
+in numbers, with which he retired to Concepcion
+and there was joined by the sixteen hundred troops
+who had escaped after the rout at Chacabuco, and
+who had been ordered back to Chile the moment
+they made their appearance at Callao. The Spanish
+general now thought himself strong enough to annihilate
+Las Heras, but the sortie which he led was
+beaten back in the battle of Gavilan. However,
+this victory was in no way decisive, and the patriots
+were not able to make any impression on the fortifications
+at Talcahuano or to advance south of the
+Biobio. Southern Chile remained hostile and Talcahuano
+and Valdivia were open doors through
+which the Spaniards could send reinforcements and
+supplies as long as they held command of the sea.</p>
+
+<p>San Martin remained in Santiago only a short
+time after Chacabuco. Prepossessed with the idea
+that Chile could never be safe or Peru won until he
+had organised a fleet to wrest control of the Pacific
+from the Spaniards, he hastened across the Andes
+to arrange with his friends in the Argentine government
+for the necessary money. The Chilean campaign
+had saved Buenos Aires from impending
+invasion; the Argentine patriots would certainly be
+crushed if Chile should fall back into Spanish hands;
+they could never feel secure so long as Peru and
+Bolivia remained royalist. The promises which he asked
+were readily given, on his agreeing that Chile
+should contribute three hundred thousand dollars
+toward the purchase of a squadron on the Pacific,
+and forty thousand for the support of the Argentine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span>
+army on the Bolivian frontier, besides taking the
+responsibility of the pay and maintenance of the
+Army of the Andes. Argentina was to aid in purchasing
+the fleet and hold back the Spaniards on the
+Bolivian border.</p>
+
+<p>San Martin returned to Chile, where he was
+shortly followed by an official representative of
+the Argentine government and the alliance created
+by Chacabuco received formal sanction. He found
+Chilean affairs in a very unsatisfactory condition.
+O'Higgins was hated by the powerful partisans of
+the Carreras, and distrusted by Chileans generally
+as too much under Argentine influence. His
+power really rested upon Argentine bayonets; his
+appointment of Quintana, an Argentine and San
+Martin's aide-de-camp, as acting dictator at Santiago
+was bitterly resented. San Martin's presence
+did something to allay the feeling, but as a matter
+of fact he had little sympathy for the Chilean people,
+being a man who despised the arts by which
+popularity is gained, and who made few friends.
+Meanwhile the three Carreras were actively plotting
+from their exile at Buenos Aires for the overthrow
+of O'Higgins and San Martin. Their friends and
+agents swarmed in Chile and preparations were
+made for a rising as soon as they should set foot in
+the country. The two younger brothers attempted
+to cross the Andes in disguise, but were detected
+and arrested at Mendoza. Quintana ordered the
+imprisonment of many persons suspected of being
+Carrera partisans, but his severe measures raised
+national feeling to such a height that it was thought<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span>
+safest to carry out San Martin's suggestion and appoint
+a Chilean as acting dictator in his stead.</p>
+
+<p>In the Argentine the position of the patriot government
+was even worse. With civil war actively
+raging in the one country and only held in check by
+foreign bayonets in the other, and with both governments
+struggling against financial difficulties, it is no
+wonder that the war-ships which were expected to
+sweep the Spanish frigates from the Pacific did not
+arrive. The delay cost the patriots dear. In January,
+1818, four Spanish ships, mounting two hundred
+and thirty cannon sailed into Talcahuano, and
+landed three thousand four hundred well-equipped
+soldiers, most of them peninsular veterans. San
+Martin, a master of the art of recruiting, had raised
+a second army composed principally of Chileans and
+nearly equal in numbers to the original Army of the
+Andes, so that his total force amounted to nine
+thousand men, while the Spanish troops did not exceed
+five thousand. The Argentine general was in
+the dark as to where the enemy would land, and
+had already issued orders for O'Higgins, who was
+in command near Concepcion, to retreat, resolved
+on concentrating his forces near Valparaiso. Even
+after the Spanish army had disembarked at Talcahuano,
+San Martin was in doubt whether Osorio
+would not re-embark and strike at some unexpected
+harbour near Santiago. But the latter came up
+steadily by the land route, encountering no opposition
+though somewhat hampered by broken bridges
+and the bareness of the country of horses and supplies,
+for the retreating O'Higgins had left his track
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span>a desert. The farther the Spaniards penetrated toward
+Santiago the more difficult became the feeding
+of their army and the more certainly disastrous a
+retreat in case of reverse.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<img src="images/i175.jpg" width="800" height="495" alt="TALCAHUANO." title="" />
+<span class="caption">TALCAHUANO.</span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>O'Higgins stopped at Talca to await orders, and
+there, on the 20th of January, 1818, he defiantly
+made proclamation of Chile's absolute independence
+of Spain. Three weeks later the approach of Osorio's
+army forced him to abandon the place and he
+retired to form a junction with San Martin. The
+latter completed his concentration and advanced
+with an army of over seven thousand men, superior
+in all arms and especially in cavalry and artillery.
+About a hundred miles south of Santiago he met
+the Spaniards and won some cavalry skirmishes.
+The enemy retired toward Talca, unwilling with inferior
+forces to bring on a general action where defeat
+meant annihilation, and even contemplating a
+retreat to Talcahuano. But behind them lay the
+deep river Maule, and San Martin made a dash to
+reach it first. The two armies marched rapidly on
+parallel lines with the patriot cavalry harassing the
+Spanish rear. On the afternoon of the 19th of
+March the Spaniards wheeled into line in excellent
+position just outside the city of Talca, with their
+west flank protected by a stretch of broken ground
+called the Cancha-Rayada. San Martin was following
+close, but the partial attack which be immediately
+made was interrupted by darkness before any decisive
+results were obtained. Hastily going into camp too
+near the enemy's lines and all unprepared for battle,
+the patriots were surprised at about nine o'clock in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>
+the evening by the assault of the whole Spanish
+army. The alarm was given by the cavalry pickets,
+but only a few had time to get into line of battle
+before the enemy was upon them. San Martin over
+on the extreme right heard a few volleys and then
+the noise of confused flight, scattering shots, and
+the thundering hoof-beats of the pursuing cavalry.
+O'Higgins had been wounded while trying to get
+his men into order, and from that moment the
+patriots in his neighbourhood thought of nothing
+but escape through the darkness. The centre and
+left, including the cavalry, dispersed in the wildest
+confusion, abandoning the artillery. The right wing,
+composed of three thousand five hundred infantry,
+was not attacked and waited in stupefaction for two
+or three hours not clearly understanding what had
+happened. Its officers held a council, put Las Heras
+in command, and by daybreak the division was sixteen
+miles from the field of battle. In the meantime
+San Martin and O'Higgins had found each
+other, and soon were busily engaged in collecting
+the scattered cavalry. The patriot loss in killed
+and wounded had been small, but a third of their
+number had deserted and many of the remainder
+searched in vain for their regiments. However, the
+royalist army had been nearly as badly dispersed in
+making this night attack as the patriots in receiving
+it. No effective pursuit could be made, and San
+Martin retreated on Santiago practically unmolested.
+The first news of the disaster was carried to the
+capital by fugitive officers. They reported that San
+Martin was killed and O'Higgins mortally wounded,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span>
+and everything lost. Shouts of "Viva el rey" resounded
+through the streets; leading citizens opened
+communication with Osorio, and the republicans
+prepared for flight to Mendoza or Valparaiso. But
+the next day word came that San Martin himself
+was safe; and the day following a despatch saying
+he had four thousand men under his orders. With
+O'Higgins's arrival in the city the revolutionary disorders
+were suppressed, and soon San Martin rode
+into the city. Though half dead through loss of
+sleep, as he drew rein at his house he made the one
+speech of his life, laconically assuring the people
+that he expected to win the next battle, and that
+right soon.</p>
+
+<p>Not forgetting precautions which ensured a safe
+retreat to the northern provinces or the Argentine,
+he devoted himself to re-organising the army, and
+within ten days after its dispersal had five thousand
+men together, well provided and resolute to give a
+good account of themselves. He took a position
+on a low line of chalk hills seven miles south-west of
+Santiago, and waited for the enemy, whose numbers
+were now slightly superior to his own. Meanwhile
+the Spanish officers were greatly disappointed at
+the negative results of Cancha-Rayada; mutual reproaches
+flew back and forth in their council of war;
+many advocated maintaining the defensive and even
+retreating to the south to be nearer their base.
+Their indecision gave San Martin the needed opportunity
+to gather his dispersed forces and to inspire
+them with his own confidence. Finally, however,
+Osorio advanced cautiously on Santiago, hoping
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span>
+that the Argentine would not risk another battle for
+the defence of the capital, and man&#339;uvring to the
+west so as to get between the city and the sea. In
+front of San Martin's position lay another line of
+chalk hills, separated from the first by a narrow
+stretch of low ground. At their western end ran
+the road from Santiago to Valparaiso. Like the
+Union position at Gettysburg this line of hills was
+admirably adapted for a defensive battle, and Osorio
+resolved to occupy it, especially as he thought his
+left wing extended far enough west to command the
+Valparaiso road, thereby securing him a communication
+with a new and more convenient base on the
+coast and giving him a line of retreat in case of a
+reverse. But San Martin's quick eye saw that this
+opinion was mistaken; and that his opponent might
+easily be cut off.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 606px;">
+<img src="images/i179.jpg" width="606" height="480" alt="NATIVE COSTUMES IN CHILE ABOUT 1840." title="" />
+<span class="caption">NATIVE COSTUMES IN CHILE ABOUT 1840.</span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>San Martin's tactical dispositions were admirably
+made on the momentous morning of April 5, 1818.
+He divided his army into two divisions and a reserve,
+stationing the latter on the extreme east of
+his line. Under cover of a heavy artillery fire the
+west division rushed down the slope, across the bottom,
+and up the hills commanding the Valparaiso
+road. The counter-charge of the Spanish horsemen
+was repulsed by the superior patriot cavalry, and
+the Spanish west wing was isolated from the rest of
+the army. Meanwhile the patriots' east division,
+composed of the bulk of their infantry, had charged
+straight across the narrow part of the bottom and
+reached the high ground opposite without seeing an
+enemy, but there was met by a terrific charge from
+the royalist infantry, and rolled in confusion back
+down the hill. Regardless of the artillery fire, the
+Spaniards were pursuing triumphantly over the low
+ground, when suddenly their eastern flank received
+the charge of the patriot reserve, which had advanced
+obliquely from its original position on the
+extreme east. This movement decided the battle.
+The Spanish infantry could not re-form to meet it,
+and were rolled up in helpless confusion. The flying
+patriot infantry rallied and returned to the
+attack; their cavalry, already victorious at the other
+end of the line, turned and charged the west flank
+of the Spaniards, who, simultaneously taken at both<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span>
+ends and in front, were cut down by hundreds. A
+few managed to keep their formation and fell back
+to the farm of Espejo, behind whose extensive
+buildings and garden walls they entrenched themselves,
+determined to sell their lives as dearly as
+possible. Joined by their left wing, which, unable
+to reach the centre where the hard fighting had
+taken place, had suffered little loss, they withstood
+the attack of the victorious patriot army. But the
+artillery was brought up, the walls knocked to
+pieces, and the position carried in the midst of the
+most frightful carnage. The infuriated patriots gave
+no quarter until General Las Heras rode among
+them and begged them to desist from the inhuman
+slaughter.</p>
+
+<p>Maipo was the hardest fought battle in all the
+wars of South American independence. Of five
+thousand royalists, twelve hundred were killed,
+eight hundred wounded, and two thousand two
+hundred made prisoners. Only eight hundred
+escaped, flying south toward safety at Talcahuano,
+of whom less than a hundred held together until
+they reached the Spanish fortifications. Of the
+patriots more than a fifth were killed and wounded&mdash;the
+greatest sufferers being the freed negroes
+whom San Martin had recruited in the Argentine.
+Half of these brave fellows were left on the field.</p>
+
+<p>Juan and Luiz Carrera, imprisoned at Mendoza,
+had been an embarrassment and menace to San
+Martin and O'Higgins. The latter hated them too
+much to be willing to make terms, and yet he feared
+that their execution would cause an insurrection by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span>
+their family and party friends in Chile. A criminal
+prosecution had been trumped up against them and
+proceedings delayed on various pretexts. The news
+of the disaster at Cancha-Rayada was their death
+sentence. Dr. Monteagudo, O'Higgins's representative,
+acting as judge, sentenced them to death at
+three o'clock one afternoon and sent them to the
+shooting bench at five. Every Chilean who did not
+belong to the O'Higgins faction was profoundly
+shocked at this murder. Though the victims were
+agitators and revolutionists they belonged to one of
+the most respected families in Chile; with their
+older brother they had been the leaders in the first
+war against Spain; their devotion to the cause of
+independence was unquestioned, and they embodied
+the national sentiment which opposed the Argentine
+army's remaining on Chilean soil.</p>
+
+<p>Pursuit of the Spaniards flying from the field of
+Maipo was hardly over when open opposition to
+O'Higgins and his policy broke out. A cavalry
+corps&mdash;the "Husares de la Muerte"&mdash;composed of
+Carrera partisans had volunteered after the rout
+at Cancha-Rayada and rendered valuable service at
+Maipo. O'Higgins ordered it to disband. An open
+cabildo met which voted the dictator's deposition,
+but his soldiers arrested the Carrera leader, shot him
+in cold blood, and the citizens had no alternative
+but to disperse and submit. O'Higgins undertook
+to crush the opposition by ferociously persecuting
+his republican enemies and rapaciously confiscating
+the property of the royalists. This so occupied him
+that he was unable to pay much attention to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span>
+Spaniards in the south. Osorio gathered a small
+force at Talcahuano, easily beat off some desultory
+expeditions which the patriots sent against him, and
+from May until September held the whole country
+south of the Maule. But after the slaughter at
+Maipo the viceroy had all he could do defending
+Peru and Bolivia. Late in the year Osorio
+withdrew with most of his troops, leaving only
+meagre garrisons in the fortresses of southern
+Chile.</p>
+
+<p>San Martin had remained only a few days in Santiago,
+hurrying back to Buenos Aires to try to
+induce the Argentine government to carry out its
+promises of the year before and aid in the purchase
+of a fleet. Just before his departure an East Indiaman,
+carrying forty-four guns, had arrived at Valparaiso
+and the Chilean treasury was emptied to
+pay for her. When he reached Buenos Aires his
+friend Puerreyedon, the Argentine dictator, agreed
+to raise a loan of five hundred thousand dollars and
+send around two ships of the Argentine navy. San
+Martin immediately took the road for Chile, but
+at Mendoza a letter came forbidding him to draw
+on the Argentine treasury. He resigned, but the
+Argentine authorities, dismayed at the consequences
+of his withdrawal, finally gave him two hundred
+thousand dollars.</p>
+
+<p>The winter storms make the Andean passes impracticable,
+and it was October before the general
+reached Santiago, where to his delight he found that
+O'Higgins had already got together a considerable
+squadron.  The East Indiaman, bought just before<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span>
+Maipo, and manned by British and North American
+officers, had succeeded in capturing a Spanish brig.
+Two American privateers were shortly afterwards
+bought by the Chilean government, and their arrival
+was followed by that of an English vessel purchased
+by San Martin's agent in London. Others were on
+their way from the United States and two Argentine
+ships were reported to be coming around Cape
+Horn. A few days prior to San Martin's return to
+Santiago, Chile's two frigates with two smaller consorts
+had sailed south from Valparaiso in the hope
+of intercepting a fleet of transports, carrying two
+thousand troops and a great quantity of arms, which
+the Spanish government had sent around the Horn
+from Cadiz convoyed by a fifty-gun frigate. Stormy
+weather had, however, scattered the royalist fleet
+and more than half the transports gave up the
+attempt to weather the formidable promontory,
+though the frigate and the others succeeded. The
+transports evaded the Chileans and reached Callao
+in safety, but the frigate was caught lying at anchor
+in Talcahuano, and proved an important addition to
+the patriot navy.</p>
+
+<p>The object for which San Martin had been planning
+and working during two years was achieved.
+His naval force, manned by professional sailors
+picked from among the best sea-fighting people of
+the world, was too formidable for the enemy to dare
+to attack. Chile was safe from invasion and Peru
+lay open to a descent. San Martin's first care was
+to wrest southern Chile from the Spaniards. To
+leave them in control of a fertile and populous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span>
+territory where they could recruit troops, collect
+provisions, and menace Santiago was not safe.
+Toward the end of 1818 he sent his lieutenant, Balcarce,
+an Argentine, against them at the head of
+thirty-five hundred men. Such a force was irresistible;
+Chillan, Concepcion, and Talcahuano were
+abandoned and the Spanish commander shut himself
+up in the fortress of Valdivia.</p>
+
+<p>But when San Martin came to face the question
+of organising and equipping an army adequate for
+the invasion of Peru he found the Chileans cold and
+indifferent. The success of their fleet had insured
+them against assault, and they appeared to be chiefly
+interested in getting rid of the Argentine army of
+occupation. The soldiers had not received their
+pay, and though O'Higgins issued a proclamation
+announcing an expedition to Peru, San Martin
+waited around for months without receiving the
+promised aid. Finally he presented his resignation
+as general-in-chief of the proposed Peruvian expedition,
+and withdrew the Army of the Andes from
+Santiago, leading a part over the Andes to Mendoza
+and leaving the rest on the Chilean side near the entrance
+to the pass. This measure quickly brought
+the governments of both Chile and Argentina to
+terms. His presence east of the Andes intimidated
+the rebels against the authorities at Buenos Aires,
+leaving the latter's hands free to aid him, while the
+O'Higgins party in Chile realised that it could not
+maintain itself without his support. He required
+five hundred thousand dollars for the equipment
+of an army six thousand strong.  Chile agreed to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span>
+furnish three hundred thousand and Argentina the remainder,
+and he returned to Santiago in the middle
+of 1819 to complete his arrangements. While actively
+engaged in preparations word came that civil
+war had again broken out in the Argentine. San
+Martin was compelled to make his choice between
+deferring to an indefinite future his cherished expedition
+against Peru, or abandoning his native
+country to probable disintegration. He remained in
+Chile and though the Argentine government, under
+whose commission he was acting, had ceased to
+exist, he did not shrink from the responsibility of
+disposing of the Army of the Andes. His men
+cheerfully agreed to follow him, but months went
+by with little accomplished, and it was not until late
+in 1820 that he was able to sail for Peru, and then
+with only four thousand men instead of the six he
+had counted on. With his departure his influence
+on the affairs of Chile ceased.</p>
+
+<p>Lord Thomas Cochrane, a very able but very
+erratic British naval officer, who had gone into politics
+and got into trouble in his native country,
+arrived in November, 1818, to take command of the
+patriot navy. Under his dashing and restless leadership
+no time was lost in pushing naval operations.
+The year 1819 was spent in expeditions to the Peruvian
+and Ecuadorian coast; Callao was repeatedly
+bombarded, and the Spanish fleet took refuge under
+the guns of the fortresses, leaving the sea free to the
+patriots. Failing in a desperate attempt to cut out
+the Spanish ships from under the very guns of the
+Callao batteries, Cochrane sent all his vessels except<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span>
+his flag-ship to Valparaiso, and sailed with her for
+Valdivia, the last port held by the Spaniards on the
+Chilean mainland. The place was a very Gibraltar
+of natural strength, and had been well fortified.
+Nine forts and batteries disposed on both sides of
+the narrow estuary were garrisoned by over a thousand
+men; nevertheless Cochrane prepared to capture
+them by assault with his single ship. Stopping
+at Talcahuano he took on board two hundred and
+fifty Chilean soldiers, and was fortunate in finding
+two smaller ships. His flag-ship stranded; he transferred
+the marines to the other ships and went on;
+reaching the Valdivia bar, he landed without giving
+the Spaniards a moment's time to bring up reinforcements,
+and at the head of his soldiers and marines
+he attacked the outermost fort. Though
+defended by three hundred and sixty men its resistance
+was short. While Cochrane's main body advanced
+up a narrow path drawing the garrison's fire,
+a detachment found a neglected entrance in the rear
+through which they poured a volley on the defenders.
+Panic-stricken, the Spaniards fled to the next
+fort, but the patriots followed so close that no stand
+could be made. One after another all the forts on
+the south side of the estuary were rushed. Next
+day Cochrane's two smaller ships sailed into the
+harbour under the fire of the northern forts, and
+soon after the half-disabled flag-ship made her appearance.
+Seeing the long-boats filling with men
+and the cannons of the ships ready to open fire,
+the Spaniards fled to the city and surrendered
+the following day.  This capture deprived the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span>
+royalists of their last base of operations in Chile,
+and only the Chilo&euml; Islands and a few scattered
+guerilla bands among the Indians of Araucania
+remained faithful.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;">
+<img src="images/dec-e.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-2.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<h3>THE FORMATIVE PERIOD</h3>
+
+
+<p>The long struggle against Spain accustoming
+Chileans to military service and uprooting the
+system under which the country had been ruled for
+centuries, necessarily placed the control of government
+in the hands of the generals. Like all other
+Spanish-American countries Chile had to pass
+through a period of irresponsible pretorian rule and
+the sterilising horrors of wars in which one ambitious
+chief tried to displace another. But anarchy
+lasted only a short time; the civil element was
+powerful even at the beginning; and Chileans never
+acquired the revolution habit. Her government has
+been stable longest and her political history the least
+checkered of any Spanish-American country. To
+this result, so happy for the internal prosperity and
+external power of the nation, several causes have
+co-operated. First of all has been the existence of
+a powerful landed aristocracy whose interests lay
+rather in cultivating their estates in the security of
+peace and order than in trying to make fortunes
+by taxes wrung from a poverty-stricken, reluctant<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span>
+proletariat. The people are by climate and inheritance
+industrious, naturally inclined toward industrial
+progress, agricultural rather than pastoral, prolific
+and colonising, and though pugnacious, they are not,
+like the inert Indians of the Andean and Central
+American countries, to be bullied into following the
+first revolutionary chief who comes along. Further
+the country is geographically compact&mdash;a narrow
+strip of plain with easy communication between its
+provinces, and, unlike the Argentine and Colombia,
+not divided into widely distant districts, each with
+its isolated capital, its local chiefs, its ambition for
+hegemony and autonomy.</p>
+
+<p>In the throes of the first war for independence
+Carrera was hardly able to maintain himself, and a
+civil revolution had as much to do with his overthrow
+as his military misfortunes. O'Higgins, even while
+supported by San Martin's army of Argentine veterans,
+held control by a very precarious grip. During
+1819 and 1820 there were no serious troubles because
+attention was absorbed by the war against Peru and
+over Cochrane's naval victories, but no sooner had
+San Martin left, than symptoms of discontent again
+appeared on the surface. Complaints against the
+arbitrary and corrupt practices of O'Higgins's ministers
+were loud and unrestrainable; the aristocracy
+opposed his measures, and the very senate he had
+appointed to assist in the government openly obstructed
+him. Theoretically a radical, he called a
+national congress to establish the new nation on a
+democratic basis. However, even his own nominees
+moved slowly, while Coquimbo, the northern, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span>
+Concepcion, the southern capital, were hotbeds of
+opposition. In the latter part of 1822 General
+Freire, the hero of the campaign which had redeemed
+southern Chile, took the initiative at Concepcion.
+The southern provinces declared against O'Higgins;
+Freire prepared to advance on Santiago. Coquimbo
+followed&mdash;an old Carrera partisan assuming the
+governorship. The northern revolutionists invaded
+the centre, while news came that Freire was rapidly
+coming up from the south. In January, 1823,
+O'Higgins handed his resignation to a committee of
+Santiago citizens, who appointed a temporary junta
+and summoned a congress. A few days later General
+Freire landed at Valparaiso with sixteen hundred
+soldiers, and on his advancing to the neighbourhood
+of the capital, congress very prudently offered him
+the dictatorship. The aristocracy and the people
+soon found that they had gained nothing in this exchange
+of masters. After a short spasm of reform,
+the public finances fell into horrible disorder, while
+the ruling clique enriched itself at the expense of the
+treasury.</p>
+
+<p>Freire permitted congress to promulgate a Constitution
+which in effect recognised the aristocracy as
+the dominant political element, but at heart he was
+a radical and an absolutist, and the document soon
+proved to be only so much waste paper. He
+showed his anti-clerical tendencies by refusing to
+come to any agreement with the Pope's representative,
+who arrived in 1824 charged with the reorganisation
+of the Chilean hierarchy. He summarily banished
+the Bishop of Santiago because of his royalist<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span>
+leanings, and issued decrees confiscating Church
+property. In 1825 he dissolved congress and for
+some months ruled frankly as a dictator. When he
+issued writs for a new national assembly he solemnly
+promised not to interfere in the elections, but so
+little confidence was felt that, outside of Santiago,
+no one participated and from there only a few members
+were returned. Freire soon quarreled with this
+rump parliament, and its dissolution was followed
+by political confusion in which parties became daily
+more sharply defined and acrimonious. There were
+"federalists," who advocated provincial assemblies;
+"pipiolas," who followed the strong liberal chief,
+General Pinto; "o'higginistas," who favoured the
+return of the former dictator; and finally the conservatives,
+nicknamed "pelucones" from the perukes&mdash;pelucas
+in Spanish&mdash;which old-fashioned
+Chilean gentlemen wore. Only the military power
+and prestige of Freire, coupled with his real abilities
+and resolution, prevented attempts at forcibly displacing
+him.</p>
+
+<p>Early in 1826 the Spaniards who until then had
+held out on the island of Chilo&euml;, surrendered, and this
+signal service to the country somewhat strengthened
+the dictator. In July of that year a congress met,
+composed of men favourable to Freire, and a majority
+of the members were federalists, who divided
+Chile into eight autonomous provinces. But it
+soon became evident that such a system must
+encounter strong opposition. The provincial assemblies
+would pass laws at variance with the measures
+of the central government, and in the next<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span>
+moment adopt resolutions instructing their delegates
+in the national congress to oppose the permanent
+establishment of a federated republic, declaring emphatically
+in favour of national unity. Nevertheless,
+the liberals persisted in their efforts to impose
+on the reluctant country a brand new form of government.
+Doctrinaires and soldiers were still in the
+saddle, and only close observation of the signs of
+the times revealed the fact that discussion was becoming
+broader and the military elements in danger
+of losing their preponderance. By the beginning of
+1827 Freire had sunk to be little more than the
+doubtful leader of a fraction of a party. His administration
+was in horrible financial straits, the expenditures
+were twice the income, and in May he
+resigned in favour of the vice-president, General
+Pinto. The latter was an eminent lawyer as well
+as a brave soldier, who held very radical views.
+Continuing the policy of his predecessor he summoned
+a congress which swept away the old Constitution
+and framed one that was frankly federalistic,
+and during 1828 and 1829 he and his party struggled
+to put it into application. But the sullen resistance
+of the aristocrats and the rivalries among the jealous
+liberal leaders were too much for him. Party passion
+became so acute and politicians so irritated and
+aggressive that it became impossible to carry on any
+regular government. In November Pinto resigned
+and Vicu&ntilde;a, president of the senate, tried his hand
+at holding the liberals together and suppressing the
+now confident and aggressive conservatives.</p>
+
+<p>Not only political but also social anarchy obtained<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span>
+throughout the country. Disorders were prevalent,
+robberies occurred daily, life was unsafe, foreigners
+were fleeing to Valparaiso. General Prieto, commanding
+the army on the Araucanian frontier, revolted
+and began a march on the capital. Vicu&ntilde;a
+hurried to the northern provinces to try to hold
+them quiet, while General Lastra went against
+Prieto. Under the leadership of Portales, the
+ablest statesman Chile has ever produced, the conservatives
+at Santiago organised a junta and bade
+open defiance to the liberals. When Lastra and
+Prieto met there was no fighting. The two generals
+held a conference and arranged a compromise by
+which Freire was to be recalled. But affairs at Santiago
+were in more resolute hands than theirs. Portales
+absolutely refused to agree, and back of him
+stood the conservative party, well organised and
+knowing clearly what it wanted. The conservatives
+had the land, the wealth, the prestige of social position,
+the ardent support of the clergy; their influence
+ramified everywhere; they had been welded
+together during the long dominance of the liberals;
+and, best of all, they followed a strong leader.
+The army could not be united in unquestioning
+support of any one general. Prieto decided to cast
+his lot with the conservatives, and occupied Santiago.
+The congress which was hastily elected naturally
+proved frankly and aggressively conservative.
+The liberals flew to arms, calling on Freire to lead
+them, and two thousand Chileans perished in battle
+before the final and decisive conservative victory at
+Lircay (April 17, 1830). Freire fled to Peru, Prieto
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span>was elected provisional president, and Portales became
+vice-president.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<img src="images/i195.jpg" width="800" height="559" alt="VIEW OF SANTIAGO, CHILE, ABOUT 1835." title="" />
+<span class="caption">VIEW OF SANTIAGO, CHILE, ABOUT 1835.</span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Though he owed his elevation to his military successes
+the new president did not attempt to rule as
+a dictator, and co-operated cordially with the vice-president
+in organising a parliamentary civil government
+on an enduring basis. Prieto played not illy
+the r&ocirc;le of a Washington to Portales' Hamilton.
+Militarism, radicalism, and federalism had been tried
+and found wanting and the great conservative statesman
+took care that the new order should be tainted
+with none of them. Two years were spent in careful
+experiment and deliberation, and the Constitution
+framed in 1833 has remained, with a few amendments,
+the fundamental law of Chile to this day.
+The most aristocratic and centralised of American
+Constitutions, it has given Chile the strongest and
+stablest government in Spanish America. The
+foundation of political power is the property-holding
+class. No man may vote unless he possesses
+land, invested capital, or an equivalent income from
+his trade or profession, and congress may fix the
+amount of the qualification as high as it pleases.
+Political power originated in the oligarchy, and its
+exercise was delegated to a president whose functions
+are even more extensive than those of the
+chief magistrate of the United States. <i>Ipso facto</i>
+commander-in-chief of the armed forces, free to
+select his cabinet and the chief functionaries of state
+without the confirmation of a senate, not subject to
+impeachment, possessing an effective control over
+the judiciary, given a practically absolute veto, with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span>
+the intendentes of the provinces and the governors
+of the departments receiving from him their commissions
+and acting as his agents, it would seem that the
+president of Chile is little less than an absolute and
+irresponsible ruler. But from the beginning the executive
+was in practice dependent upon the oligarchy
+as represented in congress. The instances in which a
+president has tried to rule in defiance of the wishes of
+the aristocracy have been rare, and never successful.</p>
+
+<p>When Prieto's first term expired in 1836, many of
+the conservatives pressed Portales to accept the
+presidency, but he was satisfied with his place as
+chief minister. Under his vigorous and intelligent
+direction the courts and clergy had been reformed,
+the police organised, a national guard created, the
+budgets balanced, the executive and congress
+worked harmoniously together, peace and order had
+replaced confusion. Chile's feet had been placed
+on the path of social and industrial progress.</p>
+
+<p>The exiled Freire meanwhile was receiving aid
+from Santa Cruz who had recently created the Peru-Bolivian
+Confederation with himself as its chief, and
+whose ambitious designs included the installation
+of a government in Chile which would be his complaisant
+and obliged friend. With arms obtained in
+Peru, General Freire made a descent upon the island
+of Chilo&euml;, but the rebellion was quickly suppressed,
+war declared against Santa Cruz, and the Peruvian
+fleet surprised and seized. While the army of invasion
+was waiting for the order to embark a few
+companies engaged in a mutiny which brought
+about a horrible tragedy. Portales had come to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span>
+camp to watch the preparations. The mutineers
+seized him as hostage, and fleeing to the interior
+carried him along locked in a closed carriage. In
+the middle of the winter night they encountered a
+detachment of government troops, and with the
+first volley the guards stopped the carriage. A man
+got out, walked unflinchingly to the side of the
+road, a half dozen shots rang out in the still air, and
+he fell. When the first light of dawn illumined the
+field, the victorious national guards found a body
+lying pierced by four bullets&mdash;it was Portales. But
+his work had been too thoroughly done for even his
+own death to affect it. He had found his country
+feeble and divided, torn by feud and faction; he left
+her prosperous, united, possessing surplus vitality
+for a successful foreign war. Prieto and the conservatives
+were not shaken; the expedition to Peru
+proceeded, and though the first failed, the second won
+the battle of Yungay, overthrew Santa Cruz, and
+made Chile the dominant power on the Pacific coast.</p>
+
+<p>At the end of his two terms of five years each,
+Prieto was succeeded by General Bulnes, the hero
+of the war. Foreign commerce was increasing by
+leaps and bounds; the growth of the customs
+revenues put government finances on a sound footing;
+the expenses of the war against Santa Cruz had
+been provided for out of current income. William
+Wheelwright had established the first steamship line
+on the Pacific. The political policy of Bulnes was
+as repressive toward the liberals as his predecessor's.
+However, education and literary activity were encouraged;
+a new university was inaugurated at San<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span>tiago
+in 1843. The opera and the drama flourished,
+and society took on a more intellectual and cosmopolitan
+tone. Even religious doctrine and the
+relations of Church and State were discussed with
+considerable freedom and warmth, and everywhere
+were signs of an awakening&mdash;a flowering out of the
+industrial, commercial, and intellectual life of the
+nation. German colonists were induced to settle in
+the forested valleys and mountains of the South,
+and that part of Chile became and has remained
+more Teutonic than Latin. The discovery of gold
+in California opened a market for Chilean wheat and
+gave a fresh impetus to commerce and agriculture,
+while the mines of Copiapo began to yield their
+inexhaustible wealth.</p>
+
+<p>Bulnes was re-elected without opposition in 1846,
+but a new Chile had grown up in the fifteen years of
+peaceful order. Though the old liberals had disappeared,
+a new party had arisen all the more formidable
+because its principles were moderate and it
+sought not dictatorships, military government, or
+federalism, but only administrative reforms, such as
+restraining the clergy and widening the suffrage. By
+1849 the liberals had a majority in congress and an
+agitated session ensued. The conservative president
+was pushed into an attitude of uncompromising resistance
+to the liberal demands. Manuel Montt, the
+intellectual leader of the conservatives, a strong and
+ambitious man, who was known to have the courage
+and firmness to maintain himself against odds, was
+selected as Bulnes' successor. His elevation in the
+spring of 1851 was followed by an armed outbreak,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span>
+which the government troops suppressed, but in
+September the revolution flamed forth with redoubled
+fury.</p>
+
+<p>From Concepcion, the liberal headquarters,
+marched an army which gained several victories and
+even threatened the capital. But the conservatives
+rallied and in December the issue was decided by
+the bloody battle of Loncomilla. In Chile, a narrow
+plain shut in between the Andes and the sea,
+losers cannot hide; a single encounter in force is
+enough; civil wars cannot be prolonged in remote
+provinces or by the flight of the defeated to inaccessible
+deserts. Though the destruction of life and
+property had been frightful&mdash;four thousand Chileans
+perishing and commerce and industry being
+paralysed for the moment&mdash;peace was immediately
+re-established and the nation rapidly recovered. A
+general amnesty buried the doings of the insurgents
+in oblivion, and former liberals were welcomed as
+members of the party which Montt and Varas, his
+able minister, organised. Though their faces were
+set against political innovations they adopted many
+important administrative reforms. The admirable
+civil code prepared by Bello was given to the country,
+replacing the complicated and confusing mass
+of old Spanish laws by clear and systematic legislation.
+The tariff was lowered and differential duties
+as between foreign countries were abolished. Commercial
+courts were installed, decimal coinage
+adopted, church tithes converted into a moderate
+fixed tax, treaties of commerce and amity negotiated
+with the great commercial nations, missions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span>
+established among the Araucanians, and public
+libraries and schools were multiplied.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, Montt and Varas relentlessly
+pursued a policy of centralisation, subjecting even
+the affairs of the municipalities to the control of the
+Santiago bureaucracy. Re-elected as a matter of
+course in 1856, Montt's second term was even more
+intransigent than his first. Many leading liberals
+were driven from the country, and minor insurrections
+broke out more than once, only to be sternly
+suppressed. The landed aristocracy had, however,
+ceased to be unanimous against concessions; its
+more progressive members belonged now to the
+liberal party; and the "montt-varistas" in congress
+were compelled to ally themselves now with the
+clericals, now with the liberals, in order to secure a
+working majority. In 1858 Montt came to an open
+rupture with congress because it insisted on passing a
+law permitting the return of his banished political
+enemies. Meanwhile he had alienated the clergy by
+compelling the ecclesiastical authorities to submit to
+the decisions of the civil tribunals, and some conservatives
+united with the liberals against him in the
+elections in the fall of 1858. His measures became
+arbitrary and oppressive. Newspapers were suppressed,
+meetings dispersed, and agitators imprisoned.
+At the end of the year a great meeting
+was called at the capital to promote a reform of the
+Constitution. The government forbade it as a menace
+to public order, and the dissatisfaction was so
+wide-spread that Montt proclaimed martial law.</p>
+
+<p>The liberals in the southern and northern pro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span>vinces
+simultaneously rose in rebellion and for four
+months civil war raged furiously. Gallo, a young,
+rich, and powerful leader, was at the head of the
+insurrection in the North and at first he defeated
+the government forces and occupied Coquimbo.
+But his hopes were crushed by the news that the
+southern liberals advancing from Concepcion had
+been repulsed at Chillan, enabling Montt to concentrate
+the whole army against him. Four thousand
+regulars routed the two thousand men who
+followed Gallo, and the remnants fled across the
+Argentine border. Defeated and banished, the liberals
+in reality had won. The seriousness of the
+rebellion had convinced the aristocracy that concessions
+must be made or a renewal of the conflict
+would be inevitable. Montt did not seek a re-election,
+and it was necessary to unite on some
+man of high personal prestige, and of distinguished
+family, who had remained neutral in the recent
+struggle. Such a one was found in Perez, who accordingly
+received the unanimous vote of the electoral
+college and was inaugurated in 1861. That
+the new president's policy would be one of reconciliation
+and compromise was soon made evident by
+his procuring the passage of a law granting amnesty
+for political offences. A coalition of moderate liberals
+and conservatives threw Montt and Varas with
+their party of "nationalists" into opposition along
+with the radicals or "reds" under the leadership of
+Gallo. The curious spectacle was presented of two
+sets of men, united in an alliance against the administration,
+who only two years before had been fight<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span>ing
+in the field, and who now professed the most
+radically divergent political opinions. Fierce parliamentary
+struggles ensued, but they were confined
+to the floor of congress and to changes in the
+ministry.</p>
+
+<p>The country had now recovered from the commercial
+panic of the fifties and from the devastations
+of the brief civil war, and proceeded again on the
+even tenor of its prosperous commercial way. The
+railroad from Valparaiso to Santiago was completed
+in 1863; lines were extended up and down the great
+central valleys; the telegraph system was enlarged;
+Chilean capitalists began to push up the desert
+northern coast to engage in the guano business; the
+German immigration to southern Chile continued
+and European colonisation was fostered. Indeed,
+no South American country has incorporated such a
+large proportion of North European blood; and
+British, German, and French names are common
+not only in commerce and industry, but also in the
+political, naval, and military services&mdash;witness Mackenna,
+O'Higgins, Beauchef, Godoy, Montt, Walker,
+Edwards, MacIver, Tupper, Prat, Larrain, MacClure,
+Koenig, Mathieu, Stuven, Ross, Marchant,
+Cumming, Day, Stephan, and a hundred others.</p>
+
+<p>In 1865 a war with Spain interrupted domestic
+progress, political as well as commercial. Engaged
+in a dispute with Peru, the Spanish government had
+sent an overwhelming fleet to enforce its demands,
+and seized the Chincha Islands. The Spanish admiral
+was reported to have justified this high-handed
+act upon the ground that Peru was still subject to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span>
+Spain. If this was true of the one country it was
+of the other, and the Chileans believed their territorial
+integrity and even their independence menaced.
+Government and people manifested an active
+sympathy with Peru; Peruvian vessels were allowed
+to coal; newspapers were filled with abuse of Spain;
+and a riot occurred in front of the Spanish legation.
+In September, 1865, the Spanish fleet sailed into
+Valparaiso Bay and its admiral presented an ultimatum.
+Four days were given for a satisfactory
+explanation, an apology, and a salute to the Spanish
+flag. Failing this he would blockade the coast and
+procure indemnification by force. The Chilean government
+rejected the humiliating proposition; the
+blockade was established, and the administration,
+backed by the enthusiastic approval of the whole
+country, refused to make any concessions, though
+Chile's fleet consisted of one small vessel and her
+ports were at the enemy's mercy. The single Chilean
+steamer succeeded in capturing a Spanish gunboat,
+which so humiliated the admiral that he
+committed suicide, and when, in March, 1866, Chile
+refused even to disclaim an intention of insulting
+Spain, or to exchange salutes, the Spaniards proceeded
+to bombard Valparaiso. The town was
+totally without defences and open to cannon fire;
+ten millions of property were destroyed in the three
+hours and a half that the cannonading lasted, nine-tenths
+of it being on the water-front and belonging
+to foreign merchants. The Spanish fleet then withdrew,
+although the original question remained
+exactly as at the outset.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<img src="images/i205.jpg" width="800" height="490" alt="VIEW OF VALPARAISO." title="" />
+<span class="caption">VIEW OF VALPARAISO.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>An indirect result of the common danger of the
+Pacific nations was an agreement in 1866 between
+Chile and Bolivia as to their boundary on the coast.
+The line was fixed at the 24th degree, but Chileans
+were allowed to continue to exploit guano and nitrate
+as far north as the 23d&mdash;an arrangement which gave
+their country substantial claims in a region which
+shortly proved a marvellous producer of ready
+money. The German colonisation in the South
+continued on an increasing scale during the late
+sixties; free land was given to immigrants and their
+passage paid. The Araucanians, resenting the influx
+of whites so near their own territory, began to
+make trouble, and a war went on through 1868,
+1869, and 1870, which finally resulted in their suing
+for peace. A line of forts kept them in order and they
+ceased to be a disturbing factor in Chilean affairs.</p>
+
+<p>Perez had been re-elected in 1866, and his second
+term marks the beginning of a new era in Chilean
+politics. The dynamic elements had finally become
+stronger than the static, and the pressure for amendments
+to the Constitution could no longer be resisted.
+But in the forty years since Portales had
+fixed the form of the government in its aristocratic
+mould, political traditions had hardened into habits.
+No really radical changes had any serious chance of
+success. A measure forbidding the president to be
+re-elected was passed, and a desperate fight made to
+extend the suffrage to all who could read and write.
+Though favoured by President Perez the last failed
+to carry, and the most the liberals could obtain was
+a law reducing the property qualification.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The election in 1871 was warmly contested. The
+advanced liberals pressed hard on the conservatives,
+who resisted further changes desperately. The latter
+united with the moderate liberals upon Errazuriz
+as presidential candidate to succeed Perez, and receiving
+the support of the outgoing administration
+he was elected. At first the elements who had
+elected him controlled a majority in congress, but
+the aggressiveness of the liberals and rival ambitions
+in the government coalition soon overthrew the reactionary
+ministry. Errazuriz changed as congress
+did and soon found himself pushing liberal reforms.
+The great issue was the amenability of the clergy to
+the civil tribunals. Though fifteen years previously
+President Montt had compelled the reinstatement of
+two church dignitaries deprived of their places by
+the archbishop, the clergy had nevertheless persisted
+in their claims. The liberals now insisted on the
+adoption of a criminal code which would leave no
+doubt, and amid bitter opposition it was passed.
+The clericals were further outraged by concessions as
+to Protestant worship and the obligatory teaching of
+the Catholic religion in the state colleges. Though
+the bill establishing civil marriage failed, the anti-clerical
+movement went so far that the old-line conservatives
+withdrew in disgust from the alliance
+which had existed between them and the moderate
+liberals since the revolt against Montt. Thenceforth
+the conservative party ceased to be an important
+factor, and the predominant liberals divided into
+factions who intrigued among themselves to organise
+working congressional majorities, which supported<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span>
+ministries and controlled patronage. Political reform
+went on with increasing momentum. To curb
+the control of elections which the ministry in power
+exercised through the local officers who made up the
+voting lists, minority representation was provided
+for, but only after the moderates had forced the radicals
+to a compromise, which exempted presidential
+and senatorial elections.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile material prosperity was steadily increasing
+and population growing at the rate of one
+and a half per cent. a year. Coal mines had been
+discovered in southern Chile, railroad building continued,
+and the finding of the rich Caracoles silver
+mines in 1870, lying near the northern limit of the
+jointly occupied territory, not only opened up vistas
+of wealth, but brought to the front the troublesome
+question of the Bolivian boundary. Peru became
+alarmed at Chile's rapid progress in the nitrate and
+guano business, Bolivia feared aggressions on the
+part of her powerful neighbour, and in 1872 these
+two powers entered into a defensive alliance intended
+to protect their joint interests on the Pacific
+coast. The reaction inevitably consequent on rapid
+commercial expansion came in the middle of Errazuriz'
+term, and was aggravated by a fall in the
+prices of Chilean exports caused by the world panic
+of 1873. The already burdened government finances
+quickly felt the strain; outgo exceeded income, and
+it was necessary to reduce expenses. Happily the
+debt, though large, was not excessive. Chile had
+gone in for no such reckless carnival of borrowing
+as Peru and the Argentine, and her bonds<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span>
+had been opportunely refunded at a low rate of
+interest.</p>
+
+<p>As the time for the election approached the radical
+liberals put forward Mackenna on a programme
+which included not only religious freedom in its
+widest sense, the extension of the common schools,
+and the abolition of the tobacco monopoly, but also
+railways and internal improvements enough to bankrupt
+the treasury. The moderate liberals were
+opposed to Mackenna and his programme, so the
+party split. The convention of moderates was at
+first unable to agree on a candidate, but on a second
+attempt Anibal Pinto was nominated. Favoured
+by the outgoing administration, his election was a
+foregone conclusion.</p>
+
+<p>By this time the dispute with the Argentine over
+the possession of the southern extremity of the continent
+had become acute, and public feeling in both
+countries had risen to a height perilous to the maintenance
+of peace. The only boundary treaty between
+Chile and Argentina&mdash;that of 1856&mdash;provided
+that the limits should be as they had been during
+colonial times, but these were not certain because
+throughout the Spanish occupation the territory
+now disputed had been uninhabited, and neither the
+viceroy of Buenos Aires nor the captains-general of
+Chile had concerned themselves about it. Since independence
+Chile had always claimed to the Andes
+on the east and to Cape Horn on the south, including
+the region about the Straits of Magellan over to
+the Atlantic side. As early as 1843 she had established
+a post at the eastern end of the straits, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span>
+Argentina at first did not seriously dispute her possession.
+In 1870 guano was discovered in the
+region, and when Chile promptly proceeded to treat
+it as her own the Argentine government protested.
+For ten years the two countries bickered, but with
+the Peruvian war impending Chile thought it wiser
+to make some concessions, and the dispute was
+finally settled by a treaty in 1881 by which the territory
+was divided, Chile getting the more valuable
+part with the control of both ends of the straits,
+although this great interoceanic waterway was declared
+neutral and no fortifications may be erected
+there.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;">
+<img src="images/dec-b.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-5.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<h3>CHILE'S GREATNESS AND THE CIVIL WAR</h3>
+
+
+<p>Since 1873 the low prices of Chile's chief exports,
+wheat and copper, had turned the balance
+of trade against her. The government could
+not make both ends meet, and in 1878 the banks
+were compelled to suspend specie payments. They
+resorted to the issue of more notes, backed by the
+government's guaranty. Just at this juncture the
+Bolivian government levied a heavy royalty on
+the nitrate extracted by the Chilean companies
+operating in Bolivian territory. This threatened
+ruin to the most promising enterprise in which Chilean
+citizens were engaged, and was believed to be a
+manifest violation of the terms of the treaty of 1866.
+The government determined not to stop short of war
+itself if necessary to defend Chilean interests, though
+war on Bolivia also meant war on her ally, Peru.</p>
+
+<p>A meagre description of the stirring events of this
+contest will be found in that part of this volume devoted
+to Peru. Chile's overwhelming victory not
+only profoundly affected her international position,
+but also her internal condition. The preparations<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span>
+of the spring of 1879 plunged the government into
+expenditures which ordinary revenues were totally
+insufficient to meet. A new issue of paper money
+was resorted to, but the interest on the foreign debt
+was kept up. The first nine months of 1879 were
+an anxious time for Chileans. Pitted against two
+nations whose combined population was nearly
+double her own, her treasury empty, while that of
+Peru was supplied by the marvellous nitrate deposits
+of Tarapac&aacute;, the result appeared doubtful and the
+consequences of failure almost too horrible to face.
+When the Peruvians lost their iron-clad, <i>Independencia</i>,
+hope rose, but the ease with which the <i>Huascar</i>
+eluded the Chilean ships made the people again lose
+confidence in their navy, and the coast towns were
+terror-stricken. But the destruction of the dreaded
+iron-clad in the naval battle of the 9th of October
+changed in the twinkling of an eye fear into confidence,
+apprehension of national ruin into the joyful
+assurance that a Chilean army would soon be in
+possession of the Golconda of the Pacific. Within
+a month the Chilean forces were landed in the nitrate
+country, the Peruvians and Bolivians had been
+chased across the desert, and the Chilean collectors
+were receiving a million and a half a month from the
+royalties of the nitrate mines. A net sum nearly
+equal to the total revenue which Chile previously
+had been collecting from all sources was added to
+her income, and she was no longer driven to painful
+expedients in order to raise money to meet her military
+expenses. Although the issues of paper money
+were continued and prices consequently rose, busi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span>ness
+flourished and a period of abundance replaced
+the hard times which had reached a crisis in 1878.
+The government was able to abolish the odious tobacco
+monopoly, and the war rather lightened than
+increased the burdens of commerce. The centralised
+government of Chile proved an admirable instrument
+for times of war. The president and his
+ministry, backed by a compact congress, wielded the
+whole force and resources of the country like a
+weapon fitted to the hand, striking heavy and relentless
+blows until Peru lay prostrate.</p>
+
+<p>After the complete destruction of the allied army
+by the Tacna campaign in March, 1880, the government,
+confident that a treaty of peace would soon be
+signed, delayed further aggressive operations for
+several months. But the Peruvians were obstinate
+and later in the year it was resolved to carry the
+war to the centre of the enemy's country. Lima
+fell on the 17th of January, 1881, and the glorious
+news was received while the liberals were contending
+over whom they should select as a candidate to succeed
+Pinto. There was much striving among the
+rival chiefs and one convention had already adjourned
+without coming to any agreement. Pinto
+ventured to interfere in a more decided way than
+any previous president had done and his influence
+was sufficiently powerful to induce the liberal party
+to unite on his personal choice, Santa Maria. The
+opposition tried to rally around the candidacy of
+General Baquedano, the greatest general of the war,
+but the prestige of the administration was too
+powerful.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Although his nomination had been bitterly opposed
+by many prominent liberals, once in office
+Santa Maria found means to unite in his support a
+great majority of congress. The members who
+took their seats in 1882 were divided into three
+factions: the liberals proper, as the moderates were
+called, the radicals, and the nationals&mdash;few in number
+but counting in their ranks some of the ablest
+and wealthiest aristocrats in Chile. The conservatives,
+no longer an important factor, had abandoned
+their opposition to the civil reforms which the liberals
+pressed forward, concentrating their efforts on
+a hopeless but desperate resistance to religious innovations.
+Santa Maria was in full accord with his
+party, and his message of 1883 proclaimed that the
+time had come for the realisation of the oldest and
+dearest aspirations of Chilean liberals&mdash;civil marriage
+and registry, entire liberty of conscience, and the
+secularisation of the cemeteries. In the fierce discussion
+which followed, the eloquent prime minister,
+Balmaceda, took the lead. Although educated for
+the priesthood he had developed into an intransigent
+radical, a passionate advocate of the completest
+separation of Church and State.</p>
+
+<p>The civil-marriage law was pushed through in
+spite of the sullen resistance of the conservatives
+and clericals. The women of Chile, the old-fashioned
+elements of society, and the clergy would not
+accept the result. The priests refused to perform a
+religious ceremony for any one who had been married
+by the civil law, and excommunicated the president
+and his cabinet.  Devout Chileans of all classes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span>
+would not yield on this point of conscience, and
+cursed the liberal politicians as betrayers of their
+God. All other political questions were held in
+abeyance. Urged by their wives and the priests,
+the conservatives abandoned the attitude of abstention
+from politics which they had so long maintained,
+and went to the polls to do what they could
+to secure a majority for the repeal of the law. But
+ladies' entreaties and priests' absolutions availed
+little against the government's control of the election
+machinery, and the law remained on the statute
+books. Opposition centred against the presidential
+candidacy of Balmaceda&mdash;the radical, the Anti-Christ,
+the uncompromising. In vain Santa Maria
+tried to unite the four liberal groups&mdash;the government
+liberals, the radicals, the nationals, and the
+new division called dissidents. They refused to
+meet in a general convention. However, a majority,
+composed of the government liberals, the
+nationals, and a portion of the radicals, decided to
+support Balmaceda and he was triumphantly elected
+in 1886.</p>
+
+<p>The dissidents, conservatives, and opposition radicals
+formed a formidable minority, determined to
+obstruct his administration. In the closing days of
+1885 scenes were enacted on the floor of the Chilean
+congress which resembled recent sessions of the
+Austrian parliament. The revenue and appropriation
+bills were about to expire, and fresh ones for a
+new fiscal period had to be adopted. Under the
+regulations every member had a right to speak twice
+on each section, and the minority filibustered until<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span>
+the constitutional period for adjournment had expired.
+Santa Maria would have to finish out his
+administration and Balmaceda begin his without
+supply bills. Under a strict construction of the
+Constitution all government would cease, but Balmaceda
+was not the man to shrink from enforcing
+the right of self-preservation inherent in all governments.
+The executive calmly proceeded to collect
+taxes and pay expenses according to the provisions
+of the expired law until a new congress met shortly
+after Balmaceda's inauguration, and this solution
+was peacefully accepted by the country.</p>
+
+<p>Chile had never known a time of such material
+prosperity as the first three years of Balmaceda's
+administration proved to be. The revenues, well-nigh
+doubled by the nitrate and copper of the provinces
+wrested from Peru, were further increased by
+the flourishing condition of commerce and industry.
+The administration initiated and carried forward
+many important public works. Large sums were
+voted for railways, colonisation, and schools. Public
+salaries were raised, the Araucanian country
+colonised, and the Indians finally incorporated as
+real citizens of Chile. The clericals made the best
+of their defeat, and the liberal majority in congress,
+inspired by Balmaceda's energy, pushed forward
+rapidly on the road of reform and change. A new
+election law was passed and a beginning made
+toward making the Constitution more democratic.</p>
+
+<p>Balmaceda's first idea was to unite all the liberal
+factions, conciliate the conservatives, and devote
+himself to a policy of material development.  Al<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span>though
+owing his election to three political parties
+out of the six, he was unwilling and perhaps unable
+to govern solely by their assistance. Instead of
+regarding himself as the chief of a combination of
+parties, entrusted by it with the direction of affairs
+and under obligations to act in harmony with it, he
+did not hesitate to accept the help offered by his
+former political opponents when that help was
+needed to carry into effect his personal ideas of what
+was best for the public interest. On the other hand,
+the party which had elected him was really no party
+at all&mdash;it was only a temporary coalition of three
+discordant factions. It is not necessary to follow
+the many changes in his cabinet, the continual substitution
+of one group for another, the details of the
+efforts which he made during three years to govern
+as he pleased, and at the same time to govern in
+harmony with congress. His difficulties lay not so
+much in reconciling conflicts of opinion on matters
+of policy as with the personal rivalries and ambitions
+of the factions. Suffice it to say that toward the
+end of 1889 he found himself without a majority in
+congress and with no prospect of obtaining one.
+Heretofore the rival groups had been only too
+anxious to trade their votes in exchange for a share
+of patronage. Now, satisfied that the president
+was determined upon depriving them of their secular
+influence in public affairs, all the factions of
+the ruling aristocracy fought him bitterly. They
+feared that the president was plotting the formation
+of a personal party, cemented by hopes of office,
+responsible to him alone, and that the system of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span>
+parliamentary government which had grown up by
+tacit consent and long-continued custom, would
+be replaced by a real presidential government in
+which the executive would be the source of power
+and not merely its channel.</p>
+
+<p>Indeed, circumstances and his own characteristics
+were rapidly forcing Balmaceda into this position.
+Conscious of his own integrity and the disinterestedness
+and patriotism of his motives, his irritation
+against the stubborn self-seeking of the cliques ended
+in convincing him that the old interpretation of the
+Constitution must be abandoned, and the president
+in person in reality vested with all the powers given
+by the letter of the fundamental law. He devoted
+the remainder of his life to an effort to free the
+presidency from the practical control which congress
+had exercised since the days of Portales. In January,
+1890, he threw down the gauntlet by appointing
+a cabinet composed exclusively of personal supporters.
+The new ministers announced that, considering
+their power to be derived from the president, they
+would hold office so long as they continued to be
+satisfactory to him, regardless whether or not they
+were supported by a parliamentary majority. In
+May, Balmaceda went a step farther by selecting
+another cabinet at whose head he placed San Fuentes,
+his own intimate friend and a man regarded
+with particular hatred by the president's opponents
+because it was understood that he had been selected
+as the president's successor, pledged to the continuance
+of the same policy. Congress replied by passing
+a vote of censure. Balmaceda insisted that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span>
+cabinet should remain in power. Congress refused
+to pass any appropriation bills and summoned the
+ministers to the bar of the House. But the president
+was confident that he could carry the elections, and,
+sure of ultimate victory, felt he could afford to make
+present concessions. In August a compromise was
+agreed upon by which Balmaceda dismissed the San
+Fuentes cabinet and selected one composed of neutral
+men, while congress consented to pass the appropriation
+bills. The truce did not last long. The
+new ministers soon found that they were mere
+figureheads and that the Balmacedist executive committee
+was the real power in the administration.
+They resigned and Claudio Vicu&ntilde;a formed a ministry
+which was a re-edition of the May cabinet. The
+announcement of its appointment was in effect a
+notification that the armistice was at an end. Congress
+accepted the gage of combat and immediately
+began to organise for civil war.</p>
+
+<p>The wealth, social distinction, and professional
+classes of the country were mostly on the side of
+the congressionalists, and all who were conservative
+and fearful of disturbance in the established order
+rallied around them. The democratic elements, the
+reformers, the radicals, the dissatisfied, supported
+Balmaceda, but the great mass of the common people,
+used for centuries to political subordination to
+the upper classes, remained inert. His opponents
+met with no encouragement in their efforts to
+suborn the army and General Baquedano refused the
+leadership of the insurrection which they offered
+him.  However, the officers of the navy, recruited<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span>
+from among the aristocratic classes, enthusiastically
+assured their undivided support, and Jorge Montt,
+who held a high position in the navy, was chosen as
+chief of the revolution.</p>
+
+<p>The congressionalists resolved to make the issue
+upon the point whether the president had a right to
+maintain any military force, land or naval, after the
+31st of December, the day upon which the existing
+appropriation law expired. Balmaceda did not
+hesitate an instant, but issued a proclamation that
+he would follow the precedent established in 1886&mdash;collect
+taxes and maintain the public service by executive
+authority until the assembling of the next
+session of congress. He expressly disclaimed any
+designs of establishing a permanent dictatorship,
+while expressing his firm determination not to permit
+the refusal of congress to interrupt the functioning
+of government. The issue was sharply drawn;
+neither side would recede; either congress would
+cease to exercise its immemorial control of the
+executive or would depose him.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 480px;">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span>
+<img src="images/i221.jpg" width="480" height="628" alt="JOSE MANUEL BALMACEDA." title="" />
+<span class="caption">JOSE MANUEL BALMACEDA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Five days after Balmaceda's proclamation the
+congressionalist chiefs embarked on board the war-ships
+lying in Valparaiso Bay, and the civil war was
+on. The army remained faithful to Balmaceda and
+he was in undisputed possession of the whole country,
+although his opponents had powerful sympathisers
+everywhere. The latter's plan of campaign
+was simple. Once again power on the sea was to
+decide the fate of the Pacific coast. The navy sailed
+away to the nitrate provinces, a region separated
+from the rest of Chile by the impassable Atacama
+desert and to which, therefore, Balmaceda could not
+send re-inforcements. The small garrison under
+Colonel Robles made a desperate resistance, but was
+soon overpowered, and there the revolution established
+its base of operations. The population of
+sturdy miners, used to discipline under their bosses,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span>furnished an admirable supply of recruits, and a
+revenue of two millions a month fell at once into the
+hands of the congressionalists. Possessing the
+sinews of war, it was only a question of a few
+months to equip an army with the most modern
+weapons and have it thoroughly drilled and organised
+by experts. The blockade of the southern
+ports intercepted Balmaceda's supplies and the congressionalist
+partisans escaped by hundreds to make
+their way up the coast and join the revolutionary
+army. By August they were ready with a force of
+more than ten thousand men.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime Balmaceda had been making
+desperate efforts to get a navy, but iron-clads cannot
+be improvised, and the congressionalist agents in
+New York and Europe had money enough to outbid
+him and to command influences which effectually
+hindered prompt action. In Chile itself he adopted
+stern repressive measures against the plots of his
+enemies and vigorously recruited his army, putting
+into the field nearly thirty thousand soldiers. But
+the blockade prevented his procuring modern arms
+and they had to go into battle with old-style rifles
+whose range was only half that of those carried by
+their opponents. He was also at a disadvantage in
+that the enemy could strike where he pleased on a
+coast nine hundred miles long. Balmaceda was
+obliged therefore to keep his forces divided. Nine
+thousand were at Coquimbo, three hundred and fifty
+miles north of Santiago; as many at Concepcion,
+four hundred miles south of the capital; and five
+thousand at Valparaiso, a hundred miles north-west.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span>
+At Santiago he kept the remainder as a reserve to
+be sent to the assistance of whichever of the three
+divisions might be attacked.</p>
+
+<p>On the 20th of August the fleet of seventeen
+vessels carrying the whole revolutionary army suddenly
+appeared a few miles north of Valparaiso.
+Balmaceda had short warning and was not able to
+oppose the landing, which was skilfully conducted
+by Colonel Canto, the able strategist who commanded
+the congressionalist forces, with the valuable assistance
+of Colonel Koerner, a Prussion tactician of the
+first rank whose services had been hired. There
+was no time to get troops from Coquimbo and Concepcion.
+The congressionalist generals moved so
+rapidly that the best the president could do was to
+send the Santiago division, which, united with that
+at Valparaiso, made a force nearly equal in numbers
+to the enemy. The revolutionists landed with their
+rations in their haversacks and within a few hours
+were marching straight south along the seashore on
+Valparaiso. The Balmacedists tried to defend the
+passage of the Aconcagua River, which enters the
+ocean twenty miles north of the city, but they had
+hardly got into position on the heights which overlook
+its southern bank when the enemy was upon
+them. The latter's artillery was twice as strong
+and his infantry more numerous besides being armed
+with longer range rifles. In spite of the advantage
+of position and the fatigue of their opponents the
+Balmacedists were flung back in complete defeat by
+the volleys of the Mannlichers and the furious cannonading
+from both batteries and ships.  The battle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span>
+lasted the whole day and at its close two thousand
+of the government troops lay on the field, three
+thousand had been dispersed or deserted to the
+enemy, and scarcely three thousand held together
+for the retreat to the neighbourhood of Valparaiso,
+where three regiments of the Santiago division who
+had taken no part in the fight were waiting. Canto
+followed, but failing in a tentative attack on the
+strong northern defences of Valparaiso, he determined
+to make a circuit to the east, cut the railroad
+between Santiago and Valparaiso, and either take
+the latter place in the rear or march on the capital
+as seemed best. The movement, so masterfully conceived,
+was skilfully carried out without a moment's
+loss of time. The essential thing was to act so
+promptly that Balmaceda could not concentrate his
+forces. On the 25th the whole congressionalist
+army had reached Quillota, on the railroad twenty-five
+miles back of Valparaiso. But Balmaceda had
+also been active, and during those three days the
+Concepcion division had arrived at Santiago, and reinforcements
+had been got through to Valparaiso
+which raised the army to nearly ten thousand men.
+Four thousand troops defended Santiago and more
+were momentarily expected from Coquimbo.</p>
+
+<p>Canto resolved to give him no time for any further
+concentration, but to fall upon the Valparaiso army
+before the railroad could be repaired and, by destroying
+Balmaceda's largest force, end the war. A
+forced march across country brought him to the old
+carriage road which comes into Valparaiso from the
+south.  By the 27th his army had covered the in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span>credible
+distance of forty miles and was within six
+miles of the government forces, who occupied a
+strong position between the congressionalists and
+Valparaiso. Tired though the congressionalists
+were, they were forced to attack without delay.
+The only provisions which they could count on were
+the rations that they had brought in their haversacks;
+and Balmaceda might at any moment receive
+reinforcements from Santiago. So they advanced
+resolutely to the assault. The Balmacedists
+fought with little enthusiasm or hope; the desertion
+of part of their cavalry and the inactivity of
+the rest discouraged the infantry and artillery, but
+at first they met the charges with the steadiness
+characteristic of the race. The battle was decided
+by a flank movement executed by Koerner, who
+turned the Balmacedist left, while the cavalry charged
+recklessly up the hill. Thrown into confusion, the
+government troops were simply swept out of existence
+by furious volleys and determined charges.
+Some had stood steady long enough to kill and
+wound a sixth of the enemy who charged up the
+hill, but more than a quarter of their own numbers
+perished in the battle and the pursuit.</p>
+
+<p>The fight was over at half-past ten in the morning,
+but the news of the utter ruin of all his hopes did
+not reach Balmaceda until half-past seven. It was
+his wife's saint's day and friends were coming to
+dine at his house. Characteristically he did not recall
+the invitations, and not until the dinner party
+was over did he arrange to turn over the government
+of the city to General Baquedano.  Then he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span>
+quietly walked to the Argentine legation and received
+asylum. Vicu&ntilde;a, the recently elected president,
+who would have succeeded Balmaceda on the
+18th of September, was in Valparaiso and fled to a
+foreign warship followed by the principal Balmacedist
+chiefs. No further resistance was made and the
+congressionalist junta, with Jorge Montt at its head,
+assumed the supreme direction of affairs. Balmaceda's
+fall was followed by some riots, but the arrival
+of the responsible chiefs of the victorious party
+ensured the re-establishment of order. Like the
+Anglo-Saxon, the Chilean fights desperately on the
+field of battle, and when his blood is up he is relentless,
+but when beaten he phlegmatically accepts the
+consequences, and when victorious he is not cruel.
+The Chileans resemble their prototypes of the
+northern hemisphere in lacking the vivid imagination
+which makes the inhabitants of warmer climates
+vengeful. Slow, silent, serious, practical-minded,
+hard to themselves as well as to others, they turned
+at once to the work of reconstruction.</p>
+
+<p>No one suspected that the defeated president was
+at the house of the Argentine minister. It was
+supposed that he had escaped in disguise, but on
+the 18th of September, the day upon which his legal
+term as president expired, the country was astounded
+to hear that he had shot himself that very
+morning. The unhappy man feared that he might
+get his generous host into danger, and his theatrical
+temperament could not bear the humiliation of a
+public trial or the risk of being torn to pieces by a
+mob in case he were discovered.  He offered himself<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span>
+as an expiatory sacrifice, knowing that his death
+would save his friends from further persecution and
+hoping that it might do for the cause of democratic
+government in Chile that which his life had so signally
+failed to accomplish.</p>
+
+<p>An election had been called and Jorge Montt
+chosen president of Chile with all due regard to
+legal forms. The aristocratic and parliamentary
+form of government, under which Chile had so long
+lived in peace, order, and prosperity, growing at
+home in intellectual and moral graces and in material
+welfare, while abroad the nation had waxed
+great in the consideration of the world, was restored
+as it had been before Balmaceda attacked it. Not
+only the arbitrament of battle, but the verdict of
+the people, so far as the latter can be gathered from
+the convinced enthusiasm shown by the congressionalists
+and inferred from the passiveness of the
+masses, had decided that there should be no radical
+change; that the president should be advised by the
+congress and rule in harmony with its majority; that
+the ballot should be guarded by both an educational
+and a property qualification; that political evolution
+should proceed by slow amendment and not by radical
+innovation&mdash;by experiment, not by theory.</p>
+
+<p>The last twelve years of Chile's internal political
+history offers little of special interest to the foreign
+student. Jorge Montt, though raised to power by
+force of arms, proved a modest and non-aggressive
+president. For two years the anti-Balmacedist
+groups managed to keep a majority together, but
+incompatible ambitions rather than differences of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span>
+principle soon divided them. Balmaceda's old partisans
+quickly rallied and elected nearly a quarter of
+the members of the congress of 1894, holding the
+balance of power amid the warring factions. Curiously
+enough, it was with the conservatives that the
+Balmacedists formed a combination, and though
+they held no cabinet position in Montt's time, they
+were a principal factor in the coalition which elected
+Errazuriz to the presidency in 1896. The jealousies
+among the rival factions of the liberals were too bitter
+to permit the bulk of that party to make any
+effective combination against the conservative-Balmacedist-liberal
+alliance, and the latter remained in
+power during most of Errazuriz's administration.
+At its end, the liberals having failed to agree, German
+Riesco was nominated and elected by much the
+same influences over Pedro Montt, son of the old
+president.</p>
+
+<p>The present Chilean parties do not embody any
+definite and conflicting political principles. Each
+one derives its origin from some great conflict which
+took place under a former administration. Once
+welded together in battling for a common cause,
+friendship, gratitude, the hope of mutual aid in their
+ambitions have kept the members united. The
+latter-day Balmacedists are not enemies of parliamentary
+dominance; the nationals are now classed
+as liberals, though they started as ultra-conservatives
+under Montt; the conservatives do not especially
+oppose reforms, though they defend the Catholic
+universities against radical attacks. The property
+qualification for suffrage is liberally construed; any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span>
+one who has an income of a thousand pesos is legally
+entitled to vote, and if the elector can read and write
+he is not rigidly cross-examined as to the exact
+amount of the wages he receives. However, this
+wide extension of the suffrage has not brought about
+any material change in the personnel of congress.
+Discussion of the advisability of changing the present
+system is purely academic, and if dissatisfaction
+exists it ferments far beneath the surface. Like the
+English aristocracy that of Chile is truly representative,
+wielding its power with a keen sense of its responsibility
+to the nation, and rarely refusing to
+adopt a reform which is clearly demanded by the
+country.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<img src="images/i229.jpg" width="800" height="596" alt="THE PLAZA VICTORIA VALPARAISO." title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE PLAZA VICTORIA VALPARAISO.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Chile recovered with some difficulty from the industrial
+disorganisation and tremendous expenditures
+caused by the civil war. Balmaceda's vast
+issues of paper money disturbed government finances
+and made the returns of private enterprise uncertain.
+The world-wide fall of prices in the years following
+1893 hurt Chilean exports, and an era of economy
+made necessary by closely balanced budgets succeeded
+the flush times. Meanwhile, the marvellous
+material growth of the Argentine Republic began to
+make Chileans doubt if their country could retain
+that military and naval hegemony which she had
+possessed since her great victories over Peru and
+Bolivia. Shut in between the Andes and the sea,
+on the north an uninhabitable desert and on the
+south the bleak Antarctic waste, Chile naturally
+envied the limitless and fertile plains over which her
+neighbour might spread her population, and the Argentine
+navy was fast approaching her own in size
+and efficiency.</p>
+
+<p>By the year 1895 Argentina's revenue exceeded
+Chile's nearly twenty per cent., while the former's
+foreign commerce was seventy per cent. and her
+population fifty per cent. greater. Their rivalry,
+none the less real because tacit, explains the seemingly
+unreasonable bitterness of the dispute over
+the differing interpretations of the treaty of limits.
+That treaty fixed the boundary at the crest of the
+Andes, but when the joint commissioners appointed
+to make the surveys reached southern latitudes
+where the range becomes ill-defined and runs off into
+the sea they found it difficult to determine just<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span>
+where the crest was. The Argentines insisted on a
+line drawn between the highest peaks because that
+would give them more territory, while the Chileans
+contended for the watershed between the two oceans.
+Another dispute also arose about the line which
+ought to divide the Argentine from the province
+which Chile had taken from Bolivia. Though in
+both cases the disputed territory was comparatively
+valueless, national feeling rose to an extraordinary
+pitch and more than once war has been imminent.
+The northern dispute was at length settled in 1898
+by the arbitration of the American minister to
+Buenos Aires, but, though a similar method of
+settlement had been agreed upon as to the other and
+more important question, its final submission was
+delayed from year to year, and meanwhile each
+nation suspected the other of aggressions. Argentina
+ordered new iron-clads, which she could ill
+afford; Chile ordered still better ones, and Argentina
+kept pace. In 1898 and again in 1901 the two countries
+were on the brink of a war which certainly
+would have ruined either one or the other. Happily,
+better counsels prevailed and arbitration by
+the English government was hurried forward, resulting
+in 1902 in a settlement with which both
+parties are in reality satisfied, and the fine iron-clads
+building in Europe are now for sale.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;">
+<img src="images/dec-i.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="bbt">
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span></p>
+<h1><a name="BOLIVIA" id="BOLIVIA"></a>BOLIVIA</h1>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-7.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+<h3>THE CONQUEST AND THE MINES</h3>
+
+
+<p>Between latitudes fourteen and a half and
+twenty-three and a half, the mighty Andean
+chain is massed into a plateau five hundred miles
+wide, over twelve thousand feet high, and interspersed
+with a complex system of mountains and
+ridges, parallel, transverse, and interlaced. Geographers
+estimate that this central portion of the
+Andean system contains nearly five hundred thousand
+cubic miles of matter above sea level, and that
+it would, cover the entire area of South America to
+an average depth of four hundred feet. The great
+ranges which stretch north to the Caribbean and
+south to Cape Horn are mere arms of this massive
+elevation of the earth, the highest and largest in the
+new world. Within a few miles of the coast rises a
+lofty and continuous range of mountains which can
+be scaled only over a few passes, none of which fall
+far below fourteen thousand feet. From the top a
+vast plateau stretches to the lofty chain which forms
+the inland rim of the Andean massif. This plateau
+is Bolivia. The northern portion forms the Titicaca<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span>
+basin, the whole of which was formerly covered by
+an immense fresh-water sea, fed by the snows of the
+surrounding mountains, and draining south-east into
+the Plate Valley. Now, however, the rainfall has so
+decreased that the great lake is shrunk to a mere
+tithe of its original dimensions, and none of its
+waters escape out of the dry plateau. In its southern
+part the plateau is bifurcated by a high central
+range, which divides southern Bolivia into two portions,
+the western of which, called the Puna, is too
+high, cold, and dry for cultivation. To the east
+the plains are lower and moister, sloping very gradually
+toward the east until they plunge off abruptly
+into the great central valley of South America.</p>
+
+<p>The northern part of the Titicaca basin was the
+cradle of civilisation in South America. On the
+shores of the lake are ruins of great buildings erected
+by a race who occupied this plateau unknown centuries
+before the rise of the Inca power. One doorway
+exists in an almost perfect state of preservation,
+carved out of a single block of stone seven feet high
+and twice as long, covered with figures elaborately
+sculptured in high relief, while dozens of heroic
+statues, and walls containing hewn stones twelve
+yards long, remain to attest the skill of the old
+workmen.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span>
+<img src="images/i237.jpg" width="800" height="470" alt="MONOLITHIC DOORWAY AT TRAHUANACO." title="" />
+<span class="caption">MONOLITHIC DOORWAY AT TRAHUANACO.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Bolivian history emerges from the realm of conjecture
+with the invasion of the Incas, a warlike and
+civilised tribe who inhabited the slightly lower
+plateaux and valleys north-east of the Titicaca basin.
+The ancient Titicacan civilisation had long since
+fallen from its high estate and the Inca armies easily
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span>overcame the resistance of the scattered shepherd
+tribes. The conquered aborigines were incorporated
+with the Incas and Quichua became the principal
+although not the only language. Great colonies of
+the dominant race spread south and east over the
+massif into the fertile regions of Yungas, Cochabamba,
+and Charcas. Bolivia became one of the
+principal seats of the Inca power. There they built
+their most magnificent palaces; in the northern
+mountains they found the copper for their tools and
+weapons, and the gold which they used to ornament
+their temples. Over the higher plains roamed flocks
+of llamas and vicu&ntilde;as. The slightly lower parts of
+the plateau produced potatoes and quinoa, and the
+warmer valleys maize, cocoa, and cotton. The
+broad lake, the rivers, and the roads over the comparatively
+level country favoured intercommunication
+and social and industrial consolidation.</p>
+
+<p>In the terrible civil war which broke out about
+1525 between Atahuallpa and Huascar, Bolivia suffered
+less than the Peruvian and Ecuadorean provinces,
+but thousands of her sons were drafted into
+the armies which Huascar successively launched
+against Quizquiz and the horde of northern tribes
+which relentlessly marched from Quito to Cuzco,
+and after five years of slaughter captured the southern
+capital and the legitimate emperor. But before
+Quizquiz had had time to pursue his conquering way
+into Bolivia, news came that Pizarro had imprisoned
+and murdered Atahuallpa, and that the Spaniards
+were on their way to Cuzco to give battle to Quizquiz
+and restore the legitimate succession. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span>
+northern Indians were defeated and at the close of
+1533 Pizarro entered Cuzco in triumph riding at the
+side of Huascar's heir. The people of southern
+Peru, Bolivia, Tucuman, and Chile regarded the
+Spaniards as deliverers and allies. Within a few
+months after the occupation of Cuzco the strangers
+rode out of the city along the splendid stone-flagged
+Inca roads, crossed the transverse range into the
+Titicaca basin, and followed south-east to the extremity
+of the plateau, encountering little resistance
+and regarded as ambassadors from the Inca emperor.
+They found the country teeming with a
+docile and prosperous population, and the mountains
+on its borders were reported to abound in
+silver, gold, and copper. Almagro, Pizarro's partner
+and associate, to whose share had fallen the
+southern half of the empire, resolved not only to
+take possession of Bolivia, but also to conquer the
+great province which the Indians told him lay far to
+the south in fertile valleys on the western side of
+the Andes and hard by the Pacific Ocean.</p>
+
+<p>In 1535 Almagro marched from Cuzco with five
+hundred Spaniards and ten thousand Indians, the
+latter under the command of a brother of the Emperor.
+After crossing the Titicaca basin, he surmounted
+the difficulties of the bleak and icy Puna,
+the snowy passes, and the Atacama desert, and descended
+finally into Chile. But he found the people
+poor and warlike, and encountered little gold. Returning
+in 1538 to make war on Pizarro, he was
+defeated and died strangled in prison by his relentless
+rival. Hernando and Gonzalo Pizarro, Fran<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span>cisco's
+brothers, became dominant on the Titicacan
+plateau, and began establishing great feudal lordships,
+dividing the country among their followers
+and exacting tribute and forced labour from the
+Indians. In 1540 the great Marquis himself visited
+Charcas, the southern capital and only large Indian
+city in Bolivia.</p>
+
+<p>Late that same year his quartermaster, Pedro de
+Valdivia, led another expedition along the route
+over the Bolivian plateau into northern Chile.
+Meanwhile the Spaniards were diligently searching
+Bolivia for the Indian gold mines. Though the
+Incas were known to have extracted immense quantities
+of the metal from the placers around Lake
+Titicaca, the surface deposits had been pretty well
+exhausted, and the Spaniards were disappointed.
+Silver, however, existed in abundance and the
+strangers began to work the mines shortly after they
+reached the plateau. About 1545 the great deposits
+of Potos&iacute; were discovered on a bleak mountainside
+four hundred miles south-east of Titicaca and near
+Charcas, in the regions where Gonzalo Pizarro possessed
+immense estates. At that time Gonzalo was
+virtually independent monarch of the whole Inca
+empire, having headed a successful revolt against a
+viceroy sent out to reorganise the country and put
+a stop to Indian slavery. But he did not long enjoy
+his riches, for in 1548 he risked his all in a hopeless
+battle with a new Spanish governor and ended his
+stormy life on the scaffold.</p>
+
+<p>The discovery of Potos&iacute; revolutionised Upper
+Peru&mdash;as Bolivia was then called.  It is probable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span>
+that the high and inaccessible plateau would have
+largely escaped Spanish settlement if it had not
+been for the marvellous riches now offered to Spanish
+cupidity. Pizarro's original followers came as
+conquerors and not as settlers. They overran a
+great and civilised empire whose revenues they proposed
+to absorb and whose inhabitants they subjected
+to tribute, but after they had obtained all the
+gold accumulated in the hands of the Indians there
+would have been little to have induced them to remain
+in Bolivia. But as soon as the unprecedented
+extent of the silver deposit at Potos&iacute; was recognised,
+Bolivia became the greatest source of that
+metal in the known world and the most important
+province of the transatlantic dominions of the
+Castilian king. That one mountain has produced
+two billion ounces of silver. Even by the early rude
+processes which the Spaniards found in use among
+the Indians seventy million ounces were taken out
+in the first thirty years, and the discovery of quicksilver
+in Peru, with the invention of the copper-pan
+amalgamation process in 1575, quadrupled the output.
+A great mining camp sprang up on the Potos&iacute;
+mountainside; royal officials, contractors, and merchants
+flocked to this Eldorado; the mountain roads
+to Lima swarmed with mule trains, carrying down
+silver and painfully toiling back again laden with
+supplies; the routes of the Bolivian plateau became
+the greatest arteries of travel in Spanish America.</p>
+
+<p>The year of Gonzalo's execution the city of La
+Paz was founded in a valley lying in the open plains
+just south of Lake Titicaca, and soon became a great<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span>
+emporium of Spanish trade. On the fertile plateau
+to the east of Potos&iacute; the city of Charcas flourished
+and was made the political and ecclesiastical capital
+of Upper Peru, Potos&iacute; being too high for Europeans.
+Soon other great mines were found, among which
+those of Oruro, on the south-eastern edge of the
+Titicaca basin, proved especially rich. Nearly ten
+thousand abandoned silver mines testify to the activity
+of the Spaniards in hunting the precious metal,
+and the total production of silver in Bolivia during
+the colonial period exceeded three billion ounces.
+To work these mines the Spaniards ruthlessly impressed
+the helpless Indians. Each village was
+required to furnish a certain number of labourers
+annually. Lots were drawn as if for a proscription,
+and the unhappy creatures who drew the bad numbers
+went off to meet a certain death in the dark wet
+pits and galleries, bidding good-bye to their wives
+and children like men stepping on the scaffold. The
+destruction of life was frightful, the official returns
+made by the officials charged with the impressment
+demonstrating that in the neighbourhood of Potos&iacute;
+the Indian population fell within a hundred years to
+a tenth of its original numbers.</p>
+
+<p>The influx of Spanish adventurers and officials
+also stimulated the extension of the system of agricultural
+encomiendas&mdash;that is, the grants of large
+tracts of land with the privilege of enslaving the
+Indian occupants. Sheep were introduced from
+Spain within twenty years of the conquest, and immense
+herds belonging to the Spanish proprietors
+and tended by Indian slaves soon covered the vast<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span>
+pasture grounds which are found even on the higher
+and colder portions of the plateau. Horses had
+come with the first conquerors and the breeding of
+mules flourished, especially in Cochabamba, the
+great agricultural centre which was founded in 1573,
+as well as in Charcas and the far southern districts
+of Tucuman. Cattle spread quickly over these
+same regions, and their beef, maize, mules, and
+horses found a good market in the mining districts.</p>
+
+<p>By the year 1580 the Spanish colonial system
+affecting the natives had been perfected, codified,
+and put into general operation. The whole country
+was divided into about thirty districts, each governed
+by a corregidor who in theory was controlled
+by a complicated and carefully drawn system of
+regulations, but who in practice was a petty tyrant
+against whom the white Creoles had little chance of
+redress, and who held the Indians absolutely at his
+mercy. The regulations framed by the distant viceroy
+at Lima for the protection of the natives were
+evaded by the corregidors, intent solely on extorting
+money from the poor creatures committed to their
+charge. Encomiendas had nominally been abolished,
+but landed proprietors still exercised the right
+to exact tribute from the Indians on their estates
+and great numbers were forced to serve as life servants
+under various pretexts. Those Indians who
+retained a semblance of freedom obeyed their own
+caciques, who were often the descendants of the
+royal Inca family. The principal duty for which
+the Spaniards held these chiefs responsible was the
+collection of the head-tax in their respective villages.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The letter of the law required a seventh of the
+adult male population to work for the benefit of the
+Government, and in practice this resulted in an unlimited
+farming out of Indians as slaves to the rural
+proprietors. As much as possible the Indians retired
+to their villages to escape the notice of the
+officials, hoping to find under their own caciques a
+measure of security and a chance to live in modest
+poverty. Misrule, slavery, labour in the mines,
+neglect of that intensive and government-directed
+agriculture which had alone rendered it possible
+to sustain the dense population of Inca times, decimated
+the Indians.</p>
+
+<p>Few parts of the plateau escaped coming under
+Spanish rule, but the white conquerors, like their
+Inca predecessors, stopped short when they reached
+the dense forests and steep valleys, eroded by wildly
+rushing rivers, which cover the eastern slope of the
+great mountain region. Down these terrific gorges
+no progress was made, and only occasionally did
+some devoted priests manage to establish a mission
+among the intractable Indians who inhabit the
+open prairies interspersed among the beautiful forest-covered
+plains drained by the tributaries of
+the Madeira. The roads the Incas had built to the
+Pacific continued even in Spanish times to be the
+only practicable way of communication between
+Bolivia and the outer world. Transportation over
+the steep and tedious route from Potos&iacute; to La Paz,
+thence around Titicaca, and along the high valleys
+of southern Peru to the beginning of the tremendous
+descent to Lima, was too expensive to permit any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span>
+export except of the precious metals. To the south
+there was a somewhat easier route to the valleys of
+north-eastern Argentina, into which the Spaniards
+had spread within a few decades after the discovery
+of Potos&iacute;, and whence food and pack animals were
+drawn for the mining regions. Spanish law forbade
+the use of the Atlantic ports at the mouth of the
+Plate, and for more than two centuries Bolivia continued
+under both administrative and commercial
+subordination to Lima.</p>
+
+<p>Jesuit missionaries arrived in Bolivia within
+twenty-five years after Loyola had founded the
+order. They established an important mission on
+the banks of Lake Titicaca in 1577, and five years
+later introduced the printing-press in order to distribute
+among their proselytes grammars and catechisms
+in the native tongues. In the seventeenth
+century they succeeded in penetrating down the
+eastern slope of the Andes and across the great
+central plain to the outlying hills of the Brazilian
+mountain system where they established several
+missions among the Chiquitos Indians. They even
+reached the grassy prairies which lie three hundred
+miles north of the inner angle of the great plateau,
+converted the Mojos, and taught them to herd cattle.
+But in the forests and along the base of the Andes
+the fierce tribes held their own as they had against
+the Incas and as they have continued to do
+against the Spanish-Americans to this day.</p>
+
+<p>In 1619 another great silver find was made, this
+time near Lake Titicaca. A few years later civil
+war broke out among the Potos&iacute; miners caused by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span>
+the rancorous greed of the speculators who worked
+the mines under contract. Official authority could
+do little to suppress the bloody encounters, and the
+factions were only reconciled after three years of
+fighting. The discovery, in 1657, of another very
+rich silver mine near the lake brought on desperate
+fights among the miners who flocked to the place.
+The chief contractor enraged the other Spaniards
+by his exactions, and the situation became so serious
+that in 1665 the viceroy went in person and summarily
+tried and executed forty-two persons, among
+them the contractor's own brother.</p>
+
+<p>For one hundred and fifty years the Spaniards had
+failed to find gold deposits equal to those from which
+the Incas had drawn the fabulous treasures that paid
+Atahuallpa's ransom, but about the end of the
+seventeenth century rich placers were discovered in
+the mountains east of Lake Titicaca. The town of
+Sorata soon rivalled Potos&iacute; in opulence. Shortly
+thereafter other great gold deposits were found on
+the eastern slope of the inner Andes by adventurous
+Brazilians who had made their way across the continent
+to the eastern headwaters of the Madeira and
+ascended the Beni River as far as the escarpment
+of the great plateau. The news of the discovery
+brought a crowd of Spanish miners from Chile, and
+as the placers were rich and Indian labour abounded,
+fortunes were rapidly accumulated. The gold was
+sold in annual fairs which continue to be held to this
+day, but as is always the case in gold washings the
+first results were the best. The region is too difficult
+of access for quartz mining, and the production<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span>
+rapidly fell off. Activity in that part of Bolivia
+ceased in the eighteenth century and only a few
+Indians continued to wash a little gold in the remoter
+streams. In 1781 Sorata was destroyed and
+the gold country virtually abandoned.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;">
+<img src="images/dec-b.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-8.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<h3>THE COLONIAL SYSTEM AND TUPAC'S REVOLT</h3>
+
+
+<p>During the two hundred years which followed
+the Spanish conquest, life on the Bolivian
+plateau was vegetative and changeless except for
+the occasional excitement caused by the discovery
+of a rich new silver mine. The Indians lived in
+their villages, herding their masters' sheep or cultivating
+maize and potatoes, paid tribute to the encomenderos
+or the Crown collector, and submitted
+with dull patience to all the exactions. They reverenced
+their caciques, listened submissively to the
+parish priests, and meekly suffered the tyranny of
+the corregidors. The language of the conquerors
+was unintelligible to most of the people. When
+summoned to work in the mines they went to slow
+misery and certain death with the stoicism of their
+race. The South American Indian changes his attributes
+but slowly, and we find a moral resemblance
+in tribes differing widely in material culture. The
+Inca emperor exacted and received the same blind,
+unquestioning obedience which the Paraguayans
+gave to Lopez four centuries later, and the rude<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span>
+Guaranies on the banks of the Paran&aacute;, who had
+hardly entered the stone age, were no more readily
+submissive to the Spaniards than the Quichuas of
+Bolivia, whose engineering, agriculture, and architecture
+had reached a high degree of development.</p>
+
+<p>Except the floating population of miners, the
+Spaniards and their descendants lived in the cities&mdash;La
+Paz, Cochabamba, Oruro, Charcas, Tarija,
+Santa Cruz. Each city had its plaza, its townhouse,
+its officials, and its law-courts. Administrative
+centres for the surrounding districts, their
+inhabitants were mainly functionaries and hangers-on,
+who varied the sleepy monotony of their existence
+by factional quarrels and political intrigues.
+In these cities the slow process of amalgamating the
+white and red races began, and the dynamic restlessness
+of the Caucasian infiltrated by degrees into the
+static calm of the Indian. The lower classes of the
+towns became half-breed, while in the country districts
+pure Indians predominated. Late in the
+colonial period the Spaniards were still occupying
+the position of alien taskmasters, and the process of
+fusing the different races into a homogeneous mass
+had made little progress after two centuries and a
+half of contact. In a word, the social and political
+organisation of Upper Peru was largely a continuation
+of the Inca system, but that system had been
+deformed and deprived of its efficiency and was
+subject to constant arbitrary interference from the
+Spanish corregidors, while the cities were separately
+governed by military governors and their own
+cabildos.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Until the middle of the eighteenth century the
+authority of the Lima viceroy nominally extended
+over the whole of Spanish South America. However,
+boards of high judicial and civil functionaries
+called audiencias, responsible directly to the Crown,
+exercised very important and independent judicial
+and administrative functions, each over a great
+division of Spanish America. Hardly had the conquest
+been completed when an audiencia was established
+at Charcas and that city became the political
+and ecclesiastical capital not only of all Upper Peru
+but of the vast regions to the south. The viceroy
+was too far away to interfere, and in effect a great
+semi-independent province was created, whose
+boundaries extended indefinitely south and east
+from the transverse range which separated the Titicaca
+basin from the region immediately governed
+by the viceroy and known as Lower Peru. To the
+jurisdiction of this province the governors of Tucuman,
+Paraguay, and Buenos Aires were subject, as
+well as the missions among the Chiquitos and Mojos
+on the headwaters of the Paraguay and Madeira.</p>
+
+<p>The Bourbon kings, who succeeded the House of
+Austria early in the eighteenth century, were forced
+to abandon the effort to centralise the administration
+and commerce of the whole continent at Lima.
+The Atlantic and Caribbean coasts could not be
+effectively governed from the Pacific and the rising
+currents of trade and immigration must be allowed
+more liberty to follow their natural channels. The
+viceroyalty of Bogot&aacute; was created in 1740 including
+the northern and north-western portions of the con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span>tinent,
+and in 1776 the south-eastern parts were
+erected into the viceroyalty of Buenos Aires. The
+whole audiencia of Charcas was separated from Lima,
+and to its territory was added that portion of Chile
+which lay east of the Andes. Though the Bolivian
+plateau was the most populous and important
+division of the new viceroyalty, Buenos Aires, far
+away on the Atlantic and in a region then considered
+of little value, was chosen as the capital.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of prohibitive regulations goods had long
+been smuggled into Buenos Aires and thence carried
+over the Argentine plains up the comparatively easy
+passes leading to southern Bolivia, and the selection
+of the Plate city was a recognition by the Spanish
+government of the futility of longer trying to divert
+the trade of the Atlantic slope from its natural channels.
+But the greater length of the Atlantic route
+largely overcame the advantage of easier gradients,
+and social and commercial habits centuries old could
+not be revolutionised by statute. Most of Bolivia's
+small intercourse with the outside world continued
+to be conducted along the old Inca routes to the
+Pacific, and political union brought about no organic
+and commercial incorporation with the provinces
+near the mouth of the Plate.</p>
+
+<p>Before the new viceroyalty was in good running
+order, a great Indian insurrection broke out which
+involved a large proportion of the Indians of the
+plateau. Tupac Amaru, the legitimate heir of the
+Inca emperors, and a wealthy and influential cacique
+in one of the valleys between Cuzco and the Bolivian
+border, had received a good Spanish education and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span>
+possessed many friends among the whites. But his
+heart went out to his own people, and he had the
+courage to protest against the intolerable oppressions
+of the corregidors. Failing to obtain redress
+after repeated prayers to the Spanish authorities at
+least to enforce their own laws honestly, he resolved
+to appeal to arms, and in 1780 he captured and killed
+a particularly demoniacal corregidor, his own immediate
+superior, and summoned the Indians of southern
+Peru to fight for their rights under his banner.
+Tupac had secured some firearms and out of the
+vast multitudes which assembled at his call he
+equipped three thousand men. The Spaniards
+advanced from Cuzco with a force of twelve
+hundred men, but Tupac defeated them and hastened
+across the range to arouse the population
+around Titicaca. At every village he addressed the
+people from the church steps, saying that he was
+come to abolish abuses and punish the corregidors,
+and the Indians responded with acclamations for
+the Inca and redeemer. Meanwhile the Spanish
+officials were assembling a large force in Cuzco
+which, strange as it may seem, was mostly composed
+of Indians. The race possessed little instinctive
+capacity for organisation, was deficient in
+initiative, moral courage, and independence, and
+had not the resolution to refuse to follow the Spanish
+officers. There were only a few like Tupac who
+possessed the mental energy and originality to plan
+and to fight on their own account. Receiving news
+of the Spanish preparations, the Inca hurried back
+to his home province and attempted to negotiate.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span>
+He recounted to the Spanish authorities his own
+earnest endeavours to obtain a measure of justice
+for his people, the habitual violation of Spanish law
+by Spanish officials, and the intolerable oppression
+of the system of impressment. He proposed a
+negotiation by which reforms might be attained
+without further bloodshed. Tupac's fame as an
+enlightened and unselfish patriot rests securely on
+the contents of the noble and able despatch which,
+on this occasion, he sent to the Spanish authorities.
+But the latter refused all compromise and ordered
+an advance on Tupac's position. He was surrounded,
+his army destroyed, and he himself sentenced
+to be torn in pieces by horses after witnessing
+with his own eyes the fearful tortures and death of
+his innocent and harmless wife and children.</p>
+
+<p>The perpetration of such atrocities goaded even
+the dull and stoical Indians into a fury. They rose
+everywhere on the plateau and the Spaniards in
+northern Bolivia fled for refuge to La Paz and Puno.
+The Spanish army which had overcome Tupac advanced
+into the Titicaca basin, but was compelled
+to retreat before overwhelming numbers. Puno was
+evacuated and in 1781 the Spaniards had lost all
+foothold in northern Bolivia. But the habit of
+obedience was too strong; their first fury over, the
+Indians listened to promises of fair treatment and
+offers of compromise. Tupac's cousin, who had
+been made chief of the insurrection after the former's
+murder, was persuaded to submit on the promise
+of pardon, only to be arrested, tried, and executed
+as soon as his followers had laid down their arms.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span>
+The family of the Inca was extirpated, ninety of its
+members, including women and children, being sent
+on foot, loaded with chains, over the hundreds of
+miles of mountain road to Lima and thence conveyed
+to Spain, where they rotted away in prison.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the reforms to secure which Tupac had
+lost his own life and devoted his kin to destruction,
+were voluntarily put into effect by the Spanish government
+a few years later. The office of corregidor
+was abolished, and the district governors were made
+directly responsible to the governor of the province,
+who was in turn responsible to the viceroy and
+audiencia. Courts were established to protect the
+rights of the Indians and the higher authorities
+made a sincere effort to secure the enforcement of
+the laws. However, the reforms did not materially
+change the condition of the country, and the Indians
+apparently settled back into the same apathetic
+obedience to the whites. The anti-Spanish
+feeling took no active form for the present, but the
+events had proved that the Indian population had
+become a field well prepared for the springing up
+of a crop of bloody insurrections.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;">
+<img src="images/dec-a.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-3.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<h3>THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE</h3>
+
+
+<p>The South American war of independence began
+and ended on the plateau of Upper Peru. On
+Bolivia's soil the first blood of the great revolt was
+spilt and there the last Spanish soldiers laid down
+their arms. Lying on the great route from Lima to
+Buenos Aires, her territory inevitably became the
+battle-ground for the hardest and most continuous
+fighting on the continent, and her population, having
+been the most oppressed by Spanish misrule,
+showed itself the most tenacious in efforts to drive
+out the Spanish authorities.</p>
+
+<p>From 1809 to 1825, with scarcely an intermission,
+battle succeeded battle, campaign campaign, and
+insurrection insurrection, as the Spaniards and patriots,
+alternately victorious, marched and counter-marched
+along the great mountain road that winds
+through the plateau from Humahuaca on the Argentine
+frontier to the barrier north of Lake Titicaca.
+Not a village but what was captured and pillaged,
+not merely once but many times, and the tale of
+garottings and hangings, of massacres, burnings, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span>
+depredations, of heads and hands spiked up by
+hundreds along the highways, wearies in the telling.
+The Indians and half-breeds who formed the bulk
+of the Bolivian population joined by tens of thousands
+the bands that were continually being recruited
+by the patriot caudillos, or were impressed into the
+Spanish armies. Like Missouri in the American
+Civil War, Bolivia furnished more than her contingent
+to both sides, and her geographical position
+was similar to that of Virginia. The fighting on
+her soil was the longest continued and the severest,
+although the decisive battles were fought outside
+her territory. Suipacha, Huaqui, Ayohuma, Viluma
+correspond to Seven Pines, Chancellorsville,
+and Fredericksburg; while Chacabuco, Boyac&aacute;, and
+Ayacucho, like Donelson, Vicksburg, and Chattanooga,
+were the fights that brought the real results.</p>
+
+<p>The patriots from the Argentine wished to carry
+the war to the seat of Spanish power and made continual
+efforts to get to Lima by way of Bolivia, but
+though they often reached the plateau they could
+never long maintain themselves. The farthest that
+they ever penetrated was to the south end of Lake
+Titicaca, where they were still distant from their goal
+by more than a thousand miles of difficult mountain
+road. The Spanish generals were more successful,
+but any army in possession of the plateau was immediately
+impelled to dissipate its forces in keeping
+open lines of communication with the seaboard and
+in tedious marches.</p>
+
+<p>The news of the French usurpation in 1808 and
+the consequent civil disturbances in Spain demoral<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span>ised
+the Spanish authorities in the Bolivian cities,
+and the Creoles immediately conceived the hope
+that they might possess themselves of the offices
+and the revenues. Early in 1809 a few influential
+native Bolivians and disaffected Spaniards took forcible
+possession of the government buildings in Charcas
+and La Paz and deposed the Spanish officials. The
+insurgents managed to arm a few troops, but were
+able to make no effective resistance to the forces
+which the viceroys at Buenos Aires and Lima
+promptly sent to quell the movement. The rebellion
+was quenched in blood. Goyeneche, the Lima
+general, ordered wholesale executions among those
+who had taken part, and the news of his dreadful
+cruelties roused a bitter desire for revenge in the
+hearts of the Creoles of all South America.</p>
+
+<p>The deposition by Buenos Aires of her viceroy
+on the 25th of May, 1810, was shortly followed by
+the advance of an Argentine army into Bolivia, and
+the forces which the Spanish authorities at Potos&iacute;
+and Charcas had been able to collect were defeated
+at Suipacha, near the southern border of the plateau.
+All the cities of Bolivia fell into the hands of the
+patriots, while the villages rose in revolt against
+their Spanish tyrants. The Buenos Aireans wished
+to subject the Bolivian provinces to a centralised
+government and rule them from the capital on the
+Plate, but every town in Upper Peru had its ambitious
+Creole leaders who wished to control their own
+country. These disagreements had much to do
+with the crushing defeat which the Argentine army
+shortly suffered at Huaqui on the southern shore of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span>
+Lake Titicaca. The projected triumphal advance
+through Cuzco and Lower Peru to Lima was turned
+into a precipitate retreat through La Paz, Oruro,
+and Potos&iacute; into the Argentine. Alone the Bolivian
+patriots were not strong enough to prevent the re-establishment
+of the Spanish authority in the cities
+along the main route. But in the villages and the
+outlying cities like Cochabamba and Santa Cruz the
+insurgent bands kept up a desperate resistance.</p>
+
+<p>The main body of the victorious Spanish army
+pursued the fleeing Argentines into their own territory,
+only to be defeated by General Belgrano in
+the battle of Tucuman&mdash;a victory which probably
+saved Buenos Aires from capture and the South
+American revolution from extinction. In 1813 the
+Argentines again invaded Bolivia, but they had not
+proceeded far beyond Potos&iacute; when they were met
+and routed in the battles of Villapugio and Ayohuma.
+The Bolivian patriots were once more left
+to their own resources, and their country subjected
+to the most awful devastations. Though unable to
+concert a general plan of action or to assemble one
+large army, nevertheless they had courage to die in
+battle or on the scaffold. The most famous leaders
+in the south were Camargo and Padilla, whose daring
+forays helped prevent the Spaniards from advancing
+into the Argentine, while Arenales at Santa Cruz
+and other patriot leaders farther north continually
+threatened the line of communication to Titicaca,
+Cuzco, and Lima.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span>
+<img src="images/i259.jpg" width="800" height="483" alt="BALSAS ON LAKE TITICACA." title="" />
+<span class="caption">BALSAS ON LAKE TITICACA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Late in the year 1814 the region north of Lake
+Titicaca to and beyond Cuzco burst into insurrection
+under the lead of an Indian cacique and an indefatigable
+agitator of a priest named Munecas. The
+Indians rose <i>en masse</i> and the Spanish army in
+southern Bolivia was cut off from Lima. Twenty
+thousand insurgents assembled near the north end
+of Lake Titicaca, but they possessed neither arms,
+officers, nor organisation. Not one in twenty had
+a musket, and though their invasion down the
+Maritime Cordillera to Arequipa was at first successful,
+a comparatively small force of Spanish regulars
+chased them back over the passes to the region of
+the lake and there dispersed them at the battle of
+Humachiri. Meanwhile the guerilla bands in southern
+Bolivia and the Argentines in Salta had been
+more successful. The Spaniards were compelled to
+retire from the Argentine border back beyond
+Potos&iacute;. The Argentines again invaded the plateau<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span>
+and advanced in force on the road to La Paz and
+Lima. Once again the Spanish forces which concentrated
+to meet them were victorious and the
+allied patriots were completely overthrown in the
+battle of Viluma, November, 1815, which marks
+the end of the first period of the war of independence.
+Thenceforward for seven years the Spanish
+generals were dominant on the plateau, and the
+Bolivian patriots made only a desultory and scattered
+resistance.</p>
+
+<p>With admirable foresight the victorious Spanish
+general, Pezuela, went to work to subdue thoroughly
+the whole of Upper Peru. The viceroy, Abascal,
+backed him up in establishing in this natural fortress
+a strong military state, whence money and soldiers
+could be drawn for offensive operations against the
+insurrection in any part of the continent. The
+mines supplied the funds of which the viceregal
+government stood in such desperate need, and the
+hardy, sturdy Indians of Bolivia afforded a stock of
+excellent recruits whose fidelity might be enforced
+by white officers and severe discipline. Pezuela
+remorselessly pursued the patriot chiefs; Camargo
+was finally run to earth, captured, and garrotted;
+Padilla fell in the midst of his little band and was
+brutally beheaded as he lay wounded on the ground.
+Garrisons occupied all the towns and important
+positions, the irregular excesses of the Spanish soldiery
+were sternly forbidden, a measure of order and
+security replaced the confusion of the previous
+years, and the whole resources of the people were
+carefully husbanded and devoted to the upbuilding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span>
+of an army. Before the end of 1816 Pezuela had a
+well-equipped and efficient force of eight thousand
+men ready for an advance into the Argentine.</p>
+
+<p>The year 1816 was the blackest for the patriot
+cause since the beginning of the revolution. Chile
+had been reduced to obedience; the Argentine was
+convulsed by civil war; Uruguay had fallen into the
+hands of the Portuguese king; the Spaniards were
+triumphant in Venezuela, and New Granada, Ecuador,
+Peru, and Bolivia were making no resistance.
+Pezuela had been promoted to be viceroy at Lima
+and La Serna in the beginning of 1817 led the Spanish
+army into the Argentine and advanced far beyond
+the frontier. But he made his campaign
+according to the rules of regular European warfare,
+and though the gauchos of Salta did not venture to
+give him battle they kept up a harassing series of
+night attacks, ambushes, and daring forays into his
+very lines. Mounted on their fleet and hardy plains
+horses, living on wild cattle, and needing no baggage
+or provision train, their mobility was phenomenal,
+and they rendered the advance of the Spanish army
+through the long stretches of desert and pampa
+almost impossible.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile San Martin's great victory at Chacabuco
+in Chile completely changed the situation
+throughout the continent. It was necessary for
+the viceroy to drain the other provinces of troops
+to attempt Chile's recovery. Even if La Serna did
+succeed in pushing toward Buenos Aires, San Martin
+could recross the Andes and strike him in flank with
+a victorious army. So the Spanish general withdrew<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span>
+from the northern Argentine and took up the old
+position near the Bolivian border. The Argentines
+never attacked him in force, although they kept up
+a war with incursions over the frontier, and the
+indomitable Bolivian patriots rose in one local revolt
+after another during the next four years. The
+country was never pacified, although the relentless
+vigilance of the Spanish commanders prevented the
+insurrection from becoming general.</p>
+
+<p>In 1820 San Martin sailed from Valparaiso and
+landed his army of Argentines and Chileans on the
+Peruvian coast near Lima. His masterly dispositions
+soon compelled the Spaniards to evacuate the
+capital and thenceforth their power was confined to
+the Andean region which extends south-east from
+the Cerro de Pasco to the southern boundary of
+Bolivia. The patriots had the advantage of being
+able to land troops at any point on the coast, and
+the Spanish generals, to meet these invasions, were
+compelled to move their armies over the tortuous
+mountain paths. Late in 1822 an expedition attempted
+to reach the Bolivian plateau by the pass
+which leads directly up to La Paz. Valdez, the
+Spanish general, managed to get to the threatened
+point before the patriots had pushed their way up
+the mountain. They attacked at a disadvantage,
+and their army was destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>A year later a similar effort was made by an army
+of five thousand Peruvians under the command of
+Santa Cruz, a Bolivian half-breed of noble Inca
+lineage who had been engaged in the Spanish service
+until 1821, and then, deserting, had risen to supreme<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span>
+power in the patriot army after the retirement of
+San Martin. Northern Bolivia had been denuded
+of troops by the Spanish generals in the course of
+their operations near Lima. No army disputed the
+pass, and Santa Cruz penetrated to La Paz without
+opposition. Valdez hastened from Peru, and the
+Spanish army in southern Bolivia moved toward
+the threatened region. Santa Cruz's position lay
+directly between them; his forces were superior to
+either of the Spanish armies and apparently it would
+not be difficult for him to whip them in detail. But
+he made the mistake of dividing his own forces, and
+Valdez came up with such unexpected speed that
+he failed to unite his two divisions before the Spaniards
+reached La Paz. He retreated to the south
+in order to join his other division, closely followed
+by the enemy, and scarcely had he effected the junction
+when Valdez skilfully outflanked him and
+united his forces to the army of southern Bolivia.
+By this man&#339;uvre the patriot army found itself
+hopelessly outnumbered and fled north in disorder.
+By the time it reached the coast it had been practically
+annihilated. One body of Spaniards resumed
+at its leisure a position threatening Lima,
+while the Bolivian division occupied itself with
+crushing the insurgents who had risen at Cochabamba
+and other points during Santa Cruz's stay
+upon the plateau.</p>
+
+<p>This disastrous campaign seemed to destroy all
+hope of Bolivian freedom for years to come. But
+Ola&ntilde;eta, the renegade Argentine who commanded
+the Spanish army in Bolivia, quarrelled with La<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span>
+Serna and the northern generals. They sent a force
+to fight him, and while the Spaniards were thus
+warring among themselves word was received that
+Bolivar had arrived on the Peruvian coast, accompanied
+by his great lieutenant, Sucr&eacute;, and a large
+army of Colombian veterans. To meet this pressing
+danger the viceroy abandoned his efforts to reduce
+Ola&ntilde;eta to submission, recalled the troops he had
+sent into Bolivia, and sent north as large a force as
+he could muster. Bolivar climbed the coast range
+unopposed and met the Spanish army not far south
+of Cerro de Pasco. On the 24th of August, 1824,
+he won the cavalry action of Junin, and the Spaniards
+were compelled to retire to Cuzco. Bolivar
+went to Lima to consolidate his political position,
+leaving the command with Sucr&eacute;. Four months
+later the viceroy suddenly broke out of Cuzco, outman&#339;uvred
+Sucr&eacute;, and marched toward Lima closely
+followed by the Colombian forces. The two armies
+finally met at Ayacucho, December 9, 1824, and
+though the royalist army fought on a field of its
+own choosing and had the advantage in numbers
+and artillery, it was annihilated.</p>
+
+<p>The only Spanish troops which remained in the
+field were Ola&ntilde;eta's in southern Bolivia. He struggled
+desperately to hold his men together and make
+another stand, but the news of Ayacucho was the
+signal for an uprising of the patriots all around him.
+The royalist officers and troops had no heart for a
+hopeless fight, and as Sucr&eacute; approached the detached
+garrisons deserted. In March Ola&ntilde;eta received
+word that one of his lieutenants, Medina Celi, who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span>
+was in command at Tumusla near Potos&iacute;, had
+declared for the patriots. The Spanish general
+promptly marched with the few troops who remained
+faithful, and, on April 1, 1825, fought the
+last action of the war of independence. Ola&ntilde;eta
+was defeated and himself slain, probably by a ball
+fired by one of his own men.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;">
+<img src="images/dec-g.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-9.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<h3>BOLIVIA INDEPENDENT</h3>
+
+
+<p>After his great victory at Ayacucho, Sucr&eacute;
+advanced rapidly to Cuzco and thence into
+the Titicaca basin. By February he had reached
+Oruro in what is now central Bolivia, and Upper
+Peru rose as one man to welcome the deliverer.
+The next step was to decide upon the future government.
+For thirty years before the beginning of
+the revolution this country had been part of the
+viceroyalty of Buenos Aires, and when the city on
+the Plate had expelled its Spanish rulers the patriots
+there had expected that Upper Peru would continue
+to be connected with the new nation. Although in
+the early years of the war these provinces sent delegates
+to congresses which assembled in the Argentine
+cities, the Creoles of the plateau never showed
+any anxiety to incorporate their country with the
+Argentine, and the successes of the Spanish generals
+virtually renewed Bolivia's ancient connection with
+Lima. Now that the Spaniards were expelled, the
+Bolivian Creoles were no more willing to unite with
+Lower Peru than with Buenos Aires, and Bolivar<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span>
+encouraged this sentiment. The ambitious and
+lucky soldier had formed the Napoleonic conception
+of making himself supreme dictator of a confederation
+of small states, each of which was to be ruled
+by a subordinate dictator named from among his
+creatures. To organise Upper Peru into a separate
+country with Sucr&eacute; at its head would be a long step
+in this direction. Bolivar himself was president of
+the confederation of Venezuela, New Granada, and
+Ecuador, as well as dictator of Lower Peru, and
+at the head of a victorious army of Colombians.
+Argentina's influence was nullified by civil war.
+Chile's strength was as yet unsuspected. For the
+moment Bolivar was supreme in South America.
+At his dictation Peru and Buenos Aires promulgated
+decrees leaving to the provinces of Upper Peru the
+right "to decide freely and spontaneously as to
+what form of government would be most conducive
+to their prosperity and good government."</p>
+
+<p>When Bolivar himself reached the country he was
+received in a delirium of joy and gratitude, and the
+enthusiastic Bolivians acclaimed him father of their
+country. In a literal sense he deserved the title, for
+his intervention had conferred independence on
+Bolivia, and his decrees now fixed her boundaries.
+In general he followed the ancient limits of the
+audiencia of Charcas. Peru retained the seacoast
+directly to the west as well as all the Titicacan basin
+north and west of the lake, compelling Bolivian
+commerce to pass through foreign territory in order
+to reach the ocean. Far to the south Bolivia was
+conceded a little ribbon of coast, but the route<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span>
+thither lay over the bleak and barren Puna and was
+too long to be of any practical service.</p>
+
+<p>On the 11th of August, 1825, official proclamation
+was made that the new republic had begun its
+existence, taking the name "Bolivia," in honour of
+the liberator. Congress said in the act of independence
+that: "Upper Peru is the altar upon which
+the first blood was shed for liberty, and the land
+where the last tyrant perished. The barbarous
+burning of more than a hundred villages, the destruction
+of towns, the scaffolds raised everywhere
+for the partisans of liberty, the blood of thousands
+of victims that would make even Caribs shudder;
+the taxes and exactions, as arbitrary as inhuman;
+the insecurity of property, life, and of honour itself;
+an atrocious and merciless inquisitorial system; all
+have not been able to extinguish the sacred fire of
+liberty and the just hatred of Spanish power."</p>
+
+<p>Early in the following year Bolivar presented a
+Constitution all ready for the approval of congress.
+Written in his own hand, it stands a curious proof
+of his political ideas. After laying down the somewhat
+vague principle that liberty is a mere island
+which the waves of tyranny and anarchy alternately
+threaten to engulf, and establishing a legislative system,
+too complicated to be workable, he shows the
+cloven hoof by providing for a president elected for
+life and possessing the right to nominate a successor.
+Sucr&eacute; was made the president as a matter
+of course, but hardly had he begun his regular government
+when troubles broke out. His own character,
+the internal conditions of Bolivia, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span>
+international jealousies felt against him as the friend
+and representative of Bolivar, combined to make his
+position untenable. A general of the first order, a
+statesman of enlightened ideas, and a single-minded
+and unselfish patriot, Sucr&eacute; would not deign to impose
+himself by force of arms on a reluctant people,
+nor make undignified compromises with the turbulent
+caudillos. He had accepted the presidency
+only after it had been repeatedly pressed upon him
+by the Bolivian congress, and though he was probably
+influenced by his loyal wish to aid Bolivar in
+the latter's scheme of uniting all Spanish-America
+under a strong, semi-monarchical government, he
+was unselfishly anxious to restore peace and order.
+The heterogeneous population of about a million
+who lived upon the plateau was, however, demoralised
+by the terrible experiences through which it
+had passed in the previous fifteen years. Three-fourths
+were Indian, a stoical, docile race which
+would not make much trouble, but which was divided
+into two nations speaking different languages
+and possessing little capacity for organisation. The
+few whites and the more numerous people of mixed
+blood were the dominating elements, and these had
+been trained to lawlessness and ferocity by the long
+war.</p>
+
+<p>Sucr&eacute; vainly tried to replace anarchy by some
+semblance of orderly government. The revenues of
+the country had fallen from the two millions annually
+of colonial times to almost nothing. His attempt
+to substitute a rational system of direct taxation
+for the countless Spanish imposts failed. Money to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span>
+pay the Colombian troops could not be raised and
+the mercenaries became mutinous. At the same
+time symptoms of rebellion appeared among the
+Bolivian caudillos. Troubles in Colombia and Venezuela
+had forced Bolivar to retire from Peru and the
+troops he left behind almost immediately mutinied,
+and Santa Cruz pushed himself to the head of affairs
+at Lima. The Bolivarian Constitution of Peru was
+overthrown, and Santa Cruz and Gamarra advanced
+upon Bolivia to expel Sucr&eacute;. The latter's Colombian
+troops mutinied and bands of insurrectionists rose in
+various parts of the country to aid the Peruvian invaders,
+while Argentina and Chile plainly showed
+their desire for Sucr&eacute;'s overthrow. On the 28th of
+July, 1828, a little more than three years after his
+triumphant entry into Bolivia, Sucr&eacute; made a treaty
+with the leader of the Peruvian army agreeing to
+withdraw from Bolivia with all the natives of Colombia.
+General Santa Cruz was named president,
+and the Peruvians occupied many of the Bolivian
+provinces for several months, only to withdraw
+when it became evident that their continued presence
+would surely provoke a universal uprising.
+Santa Cruz soon triumphed over all opposition and
+established himself as master of the country.</p>
+
+<p>The new president was a man whose general intelligence
+and ability and knowledge of diplomacy,
+law, and economics gave the country a successful
+and rational government. Though he abandoned
+Sucr&eacute;'s premature attempt to reform the taxing
+system, he energetically applied and improved the
+old imposts and soon brought some order out of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span>
+financial chaos. His army was the best organised,
+disciplined, and equipped in South America. He
+also tried to attract European immigration and to
+improve agricultural, commercial, and social conditions
+and methods. The difficulties of communication
+and the conservative and industrially
+unenergetic character of the population, however,
+prevented any rapid development. Peru was distracted
+by civil commotions, and Santa Cruz pressed
+hard on the northern country. He probably could
+have forced the cession of adjacent seacoast to the
+inestimable and lasting benefit of Bolivia, but his
+ambition led him farther. Appealed to for help by
+one of the rival Peruvian factions, he gave it upon
+the condition that that country should be divided,
+the two parts uniting with Bolivia in a confederation
+of which he was to be the supreme head. In 1835
+he invaded Peru and made himself master of the
+country.</p>
+
+<p>The creation of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation
+was an especial menace to Chile and the Argentine.
+The latter country, still a prey to the most lamentable
+civil disorders, was in no position to undertake
+any effective intervention, but Chile's already strong
+and well-established government determined to restore
+the balance of power. Pretexts for war were
+soon found, and the more solid texture of Chile's
+social and political organisation, the energy of her
+people bred in cold regions, and her command of
+the sea, quickly made themselves felt. The first
+expedition sent to Arequipa in 1837 was compelled
+to retire by an army which Santa Cruz despatched<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span>
+down the Cordillera from La Paz. The factions in
+Peru, however, rose and in the following year Chile
+renewed the war. On the 20th of January, 1839,
+with the aid of the Peruvian auxiliaries, the Chileans
+overwhelmingly defeated an army of Bolivians and
+Peruvians under Santa Cruz at the battle of Yungay.</p>
+
+<p>The fragility of the foundations upon which Santa
+Cruz had rested his system was now apparent. The
+"Peru-Bolivian Confederation" disappeared from
+the map. Peru re-established her independent
+existence with her old boundaries. Santa Cruz's
+enemies in Bolivia rose in rebellion and he fell without
+a struggle. As a matter of fact the ten years of
+his more or less orderly government had not changed
+the character of the Bolivian Creoles and mixed-bloods.
+His government had been military, reactionary,
+and a mere makeshift; the Indians still
+occupied their inferior position, the lower classes
+regarded the ruling coteries as self-seeking aristocrats,
+a dull discontent fermented among the whole
+population, and the ambitious chieftains found little
+difficulty in seducing the soldiery. Bolivia, definitely
+cut off from the Pacific, helpless to defend
+her interests in the plains surrounding the plateau,
+unable to attract the fertilising and civilising currents
+of commerce and immigration, entered upon
+an epoch of civil war, pronunciamentos, and dictatorships
+which lasted nearly half a century. A recital
+of the literally countless armed risings, and of the
+various individuals who exercised, or claimed to
+exercise, supreme power, would throw little light
+on the progress of the country.  Foreign commerce<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span>
+and domestic industry were so small that the government
+was always poor and unable to meet its
+expenses. Peru's possession of the seaports held
+Bolivian commerce at her mercy, and the military
+and naval power of Chile was a continual menace.
+Either of Bolivia's larger neighbours could easily
+bring on a revolution by opportune aid to ambitious
+factions, and the turbulence of the Creole military
+classes was not restrained by any powerful and intelligent
+commercial and industrial population.</p>
+
+<p>In the midst of the fighting which followed the
+overthrow of Santa Cruz, a liberal Constitution was
+proclaimed which attempted to take from the executive
+his preponderance in the government. Negro
+slavery was abolished and the movement was altogether
+in the direction of democracy and against the
+property-holding classes. In 1840 General Ballivian
+overcame all his rivals and gained supreme power.
+In the following year the dictator of Peru, taking
+advantage of the continual disputes over questions
+of transit through Peruvian territory, and thinking
+that in Bolivia's enfeebled condition she would not
+be able to resist incorporation, led a large army over
+the border and occupied the province of La Paz.
+But the Bolivians rallied around Ballivian and defeated
+the Peruvians in the battle of Yngavi near
+the end of 1841, a victory which definitely assured
+the independence of Bolivia.</p>
+
+<p>Ballivian had risen to power by brute military
+force and crushed out the feeble attempt at popular
+government made after the fall of Santa Cruz.
+Despotic, irritable, and ambitious, he had not the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span>
+wide knowledge or administrative capacity of Santa
+Cruz, and he gave the country a much worse government.
+The pride of the turbulent half-breeds was
+roused by the victory over the Peruvians, and conspiracies
+and insurrections occurred more frequently.
+Ballivian ordered the liberal Constitution of 1839 to
+be repealed and the preponderance of the executive
+in the governmental system was restored by the
+Constitution of 1843. He ruled until 1848, but the
+partisans of Santa Cruz grew bolder and bolder. In
+spite of the president's efforts to surround himself
+with officials of talent and intelligence, the power
+of the government decreased. The irrational and
+artificial boundaries given to Bolivia by Bolivar continued
+to involve her in disputes with Peru, and in
+1847 the imposition of practically prohibitive duties
+nearly brought on war. Ballivian assembled an
+army, but Castilla, the Peruvian president, found
+means to foment an insurrection, and the Bolivian
+president was soon engaged in a desperate conflict
+with the very men whom he had expected to lead
+against the foreign enemy. Successful at first in
+his operations, one mutiny was suppressed only to
+be followed by others more formidable, and he
+finally gave it up in disgust and retired to exile.</p>
+
+<p>A year of confused struggling followed and at last
+General Belzu succeeded in establishing himself as
+dictator. Of low origin and uneducated, passionate
+and violent, the new ruler owed his elevation to his
+popularity with the common soldiery and the lowest
+classes of the population. His so-called policy of
+conciliation amounted in fact to permitting the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span>
+guerilla bands to do as they pleased. Rapine, robbery,
+and riot became almost the normal condition
+of the country, while the better elements never
+ceased their conspiracies. Doctor Linares, a man
+of probity and learning, though stubborn and uncompromising,
+persisted untiring in his efforts to
+rid the country of the dictator. For seven years,
+however, Belzu maintained himself, while Bolivia
+fell lower and lower into the pit of anarchy, disgraced
+abroad by the actions of an ignorant tyrant
+who broke treaties, refused to listen to the protests
+of foreign ministers, and finally bundled them all
+out of the country, secure that on his mountain-tops
+no army could reach him to avenge the insult.
+The British foreign office literally wiped Bolivia
+from the map, declaring that she could no longer be
+recognised as a civilised nation. At last the dictator
+tired of his place and voluntarily resigned it, leaving
+as his successor a bastard son-in-law, named Cordova.
+The latter suppressed nine revolutionary
+movements in three years before he was at last
+overthrown by the indefatigable Linares.</p>
+
+<p>The new dictator started in with the good wishes
+of the respectable elements, and earnestly tried to
+raise his country from the abyss into which she had
+fallen. But the nation had been so thoroughly
+demoralised that there was no foundation to build
+upon. The public offices were filled by political
+favourites, but when he threw them out and tried
+to put honest and competent men in their places he
+lost the good-will of the office-holding class. He
+tried to reform the army and dismissed the useless<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span>
+swarm of officers without commands, but this gained
+him the enmity of the military. The very ministers
+whom he had selected to aid him in putting reforms
+into effect plotted against him, and it was a conspiracy
+led by Fernandez, the member of his cabinet
+in whom he placed his greatest confidence, that
+brought about his fall after he had ruled three
+stormy and anxious years.</p>
+
+<p>A period of frightful confusion, known as the
+presidency of General Acha, ensued. The chiefs
+fought among themselves with such ferocity that in
+Chile and Peru the partition of Bolivia was seriously
+discussed. Finally, at the end of 1864, a remarkable
+man came to the front out of the tangle. This was
+the celebrated dictator, Melgarejo, who frankly
+abandoned all pretence of governing by any sanction
+except that of brute force and terror. He kept
+up a great army of spies, and the conspiracies which
+they reported were ruthlessly crushed by the well-paid
+ruffians who composed his army and blindly
+obeyed his capricious commands. One day the
+dictator, drunk, as was his habit, called the guard
+and ordered them to jump out of the windows in
+order to show a visiting foreigner the superior discipline
+of the Bolivian soldier. Several had broken
+their arms or legs, but he did not even look to see,
+and continued his demonstration by ordering his
+aide-de-camp to "lie dead" like a poodle dog.
+Taxes were arbitrarily levied; peaceable citizens
+were exiled and shot; around him circulated a
+crowd of parasitic functionaries. But in spite of his
+extravagances and cruelties Melgarejo gave some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span>
+solidity and consistence to the governmental structure.
+The production of silver had been declining
+until about 1850, but at the beginning of Melgarejo's
+administration had again reached ten millions annually,
+and thereafter rapidly increased with the
+encouragement given by him to the investment of
+foreign capital. Money was freely spent on public
+works, and the Mollendo railroad, extending to the
+head of Lake Titicaca, dates from this time. It is
+the principal route for Bolivia's foreign commerce,
+though it does not touch Bolivian territory. The
+isolated desert region on the coast began to be exploited
+and the guano, nitrate, copper, and silver
+found there vastly increased the country's revenues,
+although a considerable foreign debt was incurred.</p>
+
+<p>Melgarejo's enemies succeeded in overthrowing
+him in 1871, and their leader, General Morales, succeeded
+to the supreme power. There followed
+some relaxation of the system of personal tyranny,
+but in the main the form of the administration
+changed little, either under Morales or his immediate
+successors. The first named was able to negotiate
+a European loan to be employed in the building
+of railways, and in fact one was constructed&mdash;running
+from Antofagasta on the nitrate coast over the
+Cordillera and across the Puna table-land to the
+centre of the country at Oruro. Heavy gradients,
+the unproductive character of the region along the
+line, and its length, have prevented its furnishing
+the cheap and practical outlet to the sea which had
+been hoped for. Insurrections continued to break
+out from time to time, and in 1876 General Daza<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span>
+usurped supreme power. His rule lasted until the
+Chilean war of 1879, but the first decisive defeat
+was the signal for his fall.</p>
+
+<p>Narciso Campero became president, and the
+Bolivian nation, hopeless of recovering its coast
+provinces by force of arms, began the task of re-adjusting
+itself to the new conditions. The Constitution
+was re-written in its present form, and a
+succession of presidents have since ruled the country
+in a peace and security which forms a happy contrast
+with the anarchy that preceded Melgarejo's
+advent. The production of silver rapidly increased,
+reaching fifteen million dollars in 1885, when Pacheco
+was president, and growing to twenty millions in
+1888 with Arce in the executive chair. Potos&iacute; still
+yields three million ounces per annum, and the
+great Huanchaca mines far surpass Potos&iacute;, making
+Bolivia the third silver-producing country in the
+world. But her great resources can never be profitably
+utilised until a practical outlet to the sea has
+been found. On the Pacific she has been absolutely
+shut in since the Chilean war&mdash;Peru controlling the
+northern fourth of the coast which separates her
+from that ocean and Chile the remainder. Bolivia
+is without a seaport, though she retains a hope of
+receiving compensation for the loss of her nitrate
+territory in the cession of one such outlet, when
+Chile and Peru are able to come to an agreement
+about the province of Arica. But the explorations
+of Heath on the upper tributaries of the Madeira
+resulted in discoveries which may ultimately enable
+Bolivia to utilise the magnificent fertile plain lying<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span>
+just at the foot of the table-land, but so far well-nigh
+as inaccessible as the South Pole. Broad and
+navigable rivers meander through this vast region,
+needing only the construction of a railway around
+the Madeira rapids to communicate with the Amazon
+and the Atlantic.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<img src="images/i279.jpg" width="800" height="566" alt="LOADED LLAMAS." title="" />
+<span class="caption">LOADED LLAMAS.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Since the days of the Jesuit missionaries the
+Mojos Indians in the prairies on the Mamor&eacute; north
+of Santa Cruz have retained a measure of civilisation,
+breeding cattle and keeping up a connection with
+the Creoles at Santa Cruz. Lately the latter have
+pressed on into the rubber regions of the lower
+Mamor&eacute; and even crossed into the valley of the Beni
+and founded the town of Riveralta where the Orton
+joins the Beni.  From La Paz daring men painfully<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span>
+made their way down the roadless gorges of the
+great Cordillera and reached navigable water where
+the Beni emerges from the mountains. Thence to
+Riveralta the way was comparatively easy and little
+steamboats now ply those waters. This region is
+permanently inhabitable by civilised man, but to the
+north-east the country drops off into swampy plains
+drained by the Acre, a tributary of the sluggish
+Purus. Up the latter river the Brazilian rubber
+hunters had come from Manaos and found the banks
+of the Acre unprecedentedly rich in the finest gum.
+Thousands poured into the territory and by the
+early nineties it was furnishing a large percentage of
+the world's supply. Though the Bolivian boundary
+had long been believed to cross the Acre near the
+9th degree, the Brazilian rubber gatherers did not
+hesitate to enter an entirely unoccupied territory
+and even penetrated as far south as the 12th degree
+in a region undisputably Bolivian. The authorities
+at La Paz attempted to assert their political control,
+but since it was well-nigh impossible to get troops
+into the country except by way of the Atlantic, the
+rubber gatherers defied them. The Brazilian government
+intervened to protect the interests of its
+citizens; President Pando headed an expedition in
+1902 which was met at the borders of the Acre valley,
+and after some fighting with the insurgent
+Brazilians, which seemed likely to bring on a war
+between the two powers, a treaty was agreed upon
+by which Brazil takes the territory, paying a money
+indemnity, agreeing to build the railroad around the
+Madeira Falls, and ceding a port on the Paraguay.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Internally the condition of Bolivia has in the main
+been quiet since the Chilean war, and the contest
+between clericalism and radicalism has lost much of
+its bitterness. General Camacho led an unsuccessful
+insurrection in 1890 and afterwards fled to Valparaiso.
+Three years later he planned another
+insurrection and the government had great difficulty
+in obtaining arms and money for operations against
+him. Chileans finally furnished rifles and a loan,
+and shortly afterwards a treaty was negotiated by
+which Bolivia abandoned its alliance with Peru and
+came under Chilean influence. Peru resented this
+and the following year her restrictions on Bolivian
+commerce nearly brought the two countries to
+blows. The crisis, however, passed, and Bolivia
+has returned to the policy of avoiding entangling
+alliances, while pressing Brazil, Chile, or Peru to
+give her outlets to the ocean. In 1896, Alonso,
+leader of the conservatives, and that energetic general
+and explorer, Jos&eacute; Manuel Pando, chief of the
+liberals, contested the presidential election. In this
+contest the geographical jealousies which exist between
+northern and southern Bolivia played a considerable
+r&ocirc;le. Alonso was successful and served
+as president during three years, but early in 1899
+Pando began warlike operations and in April overthrew
+Alonso in a decisive battle. Under his vigorous
+administration the country has been quiet. The
+plain of the Madeira has been opened up to settlement,
+and the international position of the government
+is now vastly improved.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="bbt">
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span></p>
+<h1><a name="ECUADOR" id="ECUADOR"></a>ECUADOR</h1>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-6.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+<h3>THE CARAS</h3>
+
+
+<p>The irrigated valleys of Chile lie open to the
+ocean or are easily accessible over the low
+coast range. The sea-board of Peru is likewise defenceless,
+and though the Andean passes are high
+they are dry and practicable and offer a way of
+approach to the table-land behind. The want of
+rain from Valparaiso to Paita is explained by the
+Antarctic current whose waters cool the breezes so
+that the warmer land condenses no moisture. But
+at the northern boundary of Peru the coast bends
+abruptly to the east; the cold current follows its
+original north-east direction and lets the warm tropical
+waters wash the land. From the Gulf of Guayaquil
+to Panama the coast and mountainsides are
+covered with luxuriant vegetation and the ascent of
+the passes becomes well-nigh impracticable. Therefore
+the Andean plateau in Ecuador is accessible
+from the Pacific only on the south and the Colombian
+plateaux are virtually cut off from communication
+with the western ocean.</p>
+
+<p>Tradition relates that about the seventh century<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span>
+of the Christian era a nation of Indians, bearing the
+name of Caras, invaded the sea-board of central
+Ecuador. They were warlike, aggressive, conquerors
+by instinct, and their civilisation was superior to
+that of the barbarous tribes upon whom they descended.
+They came by way of the sea, most
+probably from the south, bringing a complicated
+religion to which they were fanatically devoted, and
+a military and tribal organisation which gave them
+an overwhelming advantage. In all probability the
+Caras were akin to those highly civilised nations who
+lived in the valleys of the northern Peruvian coast.
+Be this as it may, there is no doubt that the Caras
+were not long content with dominance along the
+coast, and succeeded in forcing their way up the
+slopes of the Cordillera through a zone uninhabitable
+on account of the perpetual rain, and only penetrable
+along defiles where the soaked clay of the steep
+mountainsides affords no footing and the tangle of
+vegetation leaves no path.</p>
+
+<p>At six thousand feet above sea-level the roads became
+better, the vegetation ceased to be tropical,
+and when they emerged through the passes to the
+comparatively level plains about Quito, some eight
+thousand feet above the sea, they found themselves
+in a country where the cereals and fruits of the
+temperate zone flourish and no forests interrupt
+communication. Two lines of great mountains
+stretched north and south and between them lay a
+plateau less than forty miles in width, and though
+much of it was bleak and arid, at least half lay below
+the elevation where the successful cultivation of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span>
+cereals and the potato becomes possible. At regular
+intervals transverse ranges of mountains, called
+"nudos," or knots, cut the plateau into separate
+divisions, each measurably protected from attack by
+its neighbours. Andean Ecuador has been aptly
+compared to a great ladder four hundred miles long,
+with the "nudos" forming its gigantic rungs.
+Beginning at the northern boundary of modern
+Ecuador, Quito lies in the second of the eight sub-plateaux,
+which is one of the largest and most
+fertile. Into it descended the Caras and began to
+conquer and absorb the aborigines. These inter-Andean
+valleys were inhabited by numerous tribes
+speaking distinct languages, who had developed considerable
+skill in agriculture. The compact and
+efficient military organisation of the Caras gave
+them a great advantage over more loosely organised
+peoples, but for three hundred years they were
+occupied in extending their power over the valley of
+Quito and thence over Latacunga and Ibarra, which
+adjoin it north and south.</p>
+
+<p>From the year 1300 the Cara traditions gather
+more clearness and precision. By a law handed
+down from immemorial times each Shiri was succeeded
+by his son, or if he had no son by the son
+of a sister, daughters and other female descendants
+being absolutely excluded. The eleventh Shiri,
+whose reign corresponded with the last years of the
+thirteenth century, had no male heir, and he asked
+the general council of the nation for permission to
+name as successor the husband he might choose for
+his daughter. Each one of the different chiefs,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span>
+hoping to be selected, voted for the proposition,
+but the Shiri diplomatically went outside of his own
+dominions and proposed to the monarch who ruled
+in Riobamba that his eldest son, Duchisela, marry
+the Princess Toa. The proposition was accepted
+and the Quito kingdom doubled its territory and
+power.</p>
+
+<p>Duchisela reigned seventy years, and upon his
+death was succeeded by his son Autachi, the thirteenth
+Shiri. This monarch raised the Cara power
+to its highest pitch, extending his dominions south
+over the plateaux of Alausi, Ca&ntilde;ar, Cuenca, Jubones,
+Zaruma, and Loja, and thence far beyond
+the present Ecuadorian boundary over the Peruvian
+provinces of Huanacabamba, Piura, and Paita.
+This vast increase of territory was due more to
+treaties of confederation and alliance than to conquest.
+None of the new provinces were ever thoroughly
+incorporated into the Cara confederacy, and
+their allegiance to the Shiri in far-away Quito sat
+lightly upon them. By the end of the fourteenth
+century the Cara influence was dominant along the
+Andean plateau from the first degree of north latitude
+to the sixth south, and extended to the arid
+coast plain of northern Peru. The humid and forested
+coast region north of Guayaquil remained in
+the hands of barbarous tribes, nor were the Caras
+ever able to extend their power down the wooded
+eastern slopes of the Andes into the Amazon plain.</p>
+
+<p>Cara expansion was suddenly checked by the
+Incas. In the latter part of the fourteenth century
+these fierce and indomitable Islamites of the western<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span>
+continent under the lead of Tupac Yupanqui conquered
+the coast nations from Lima to Paita, and
+the ruder tribes who lived in the mountains from
+Cerro de Pasco north to the Ecuadorian border.
+Tupac did not respect the southern confederates of
+the Caras, and the Shiri appears to have made little
+resistance when his allies were rapidly reduced. The
+Inca system was the far better adapted for conquest.
+The emperor could equip and lead to invasion armies
+numbering tens of thousands, well disciplined,
+blindly obeying their generals, marching over carefully
+prepared roads, and supplied by an admirable
+commissariat. The Caras had contented themselves
+with treaties of alliance; they were only the chief
+tribe in a confederacy, and warlike as were the members
+they could not combine to offer any effective
+resistance to the first onslaught of the great military
+empire.</p>
+
+<p>A fairly homogeneous civilisation had grown up in
+the Ecuadorian Cordillera during the four hundred
+years of Cara influence. Bringing with them from
+their unknown original home a capacity for military
+and political organisation far superior to that of
+most American aborigines, the Caras were like a ferment
+introduced into the heterogeneous and inert
+tribes of the plateau, which gradually transformed
+the latter into a vigorous people so well fitted to
+their surroundings that they survived the Inca conquest,
+even turning the tables and becoming the
+dominant element in the empire, and then outlived
+the decimating tyranny of the Spaniards, so that
+ninety-five per cent. of the present population is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span>
+composed of their descendants. That this civilisation
+was in the main self-developed can hardly be
+doubted. There is no evidence of any intimate
+contact with the Incas; with the peoples of Yucatan
+and Mexico the Caras had no connection, and the
+conjectures as to communication with the peoples
+of eastern Asia have no historical or arch&aelig;ological
+basis. Their civilising and consolidating mission
+was aided by exceptionally favourable surroundings.
+The climate was healthy, agreeable, and conducive
+to bodily and intellectual vigour; the soil reasonably
+fertile and well adapted to the production of eminently
+nourishing food crops, while requiring hard
+labour in its cultivation. The potato, the quinoa
+grain, and maize played no insignificant r&ocirc;le in the
+history of the Caras; they might never have risen
+above the level of Caribs if they had lived in a region
+where savoury and poorly nourishing esculents grow
+wild. Not less important was the physical configuration
+of Ecuador. Dry and open valleys, some of
+them large enough to sustain two hundred thousand
+people, and easily penetrable in every part, while
+surrounded by high mountains and bleak "paramos,"
+shut off from the outer world by the forest-covered
+declivities of the Cordilleras, were admirably adapted
+to favour the growth of compact little states, whose
+inhabitants would retain their individual initiative
+and local pride even after incorporation in a larger
+political system.</p>
+
+<p>Hualcopo, the fourteenth Shiri, ascended the
+throne of Quito in 1430. Tupac Yupanqui had
+completed the reduction of the coast tribes of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span>
+northern Peru and the mountain tribes as far north
+as the present Ecuador border had ceased to resist
+him. From the coast valleys of Piura and Paita, he
+marched up the easy pass which leads over the
+Cordillera into the fertile plateaux of southern Ecuador,
+and after a few victories all the tribes as far
+north as the nudo of Azuay submitted, and transferred
+their allegiance from Quito to Cuzco. Loja,
+Zaruma, Jubones, the great valley of Cuenca, and
+Ca&ntilde;ar were taken away, and Hualcopo was deprived
+of all but his hereditary dominions&mdash;the old kingdoms
+of Riobamba and Quito. The Shiri possessed
+no army capable of undertaking an offensive campaign
+against the Incas, but, although terrified at Tupac's
+rapid advance, the ancient possessions of the Shiri
+remained faithful. Tupac spent two years in the
+province of Ca&ntilde;ar, erecting fortifications and recruiting
+his army by new arrivals from the south and
+enlistment among the recently conquered tribes.
+Meanwhile Hualcopo was fortifying himself in the
+valley of Alausi, which lies north of Azuay, and in
+the passes that lead over the Tiocajas nudo into
+Riobamba. About the year 1455 the Inca army
+advanced in force. Defeated in several minor
+actions, the Shiri abandoned Alausi and concentrated
+his forces in the passes of Tiocajas. After
+three months of skirmishes and sieges in which the
+forts fell one by one, the Caras were compelled to
+accept a pitched battle. The conflict was well sustained,
+but with the death of the principal Cara
+general, victory declared for the Incas and the Caras
+fled from the field leaving sixteen thousand dead.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Hualcopo retired to Riobamba, but there it was
+impossible to maintain himself, and he was forced
+to retreat to the fortress of Mocha in the nudo
+which divides Riobamba from the valley of Latacunga.
+Here he made a determined and successful
+stand, and all Tupac's efforts to force his way over
+the last line of natural fortifications which kept him
+out of the northern valleys were in vain. The Inca
+emperor was forced to content himself with assuring
+his possession of the provinces already conquered.
+In 1460 he returned to Cuzco, leaving the territory
+garrisoned. Three years later the heroic Hualcopo
+died, and was succeeded by his son, Cacha, the fifteenth
+and last Shiri. The young man signalised
+his accession to the throne by an aggressive campaign
+for the recovery of the lost provinces. He
+passed south into the valley of Riobamba, surprised
+the Inca garrisons, and put them to the sword, revindicating
+all the country as far south as the nudo
+of Azuay. Beyond that range he was unable to
+go, for all his efforts failed before the obstinate resistance
+of the inhabitants of Ca&ntilde;ar. Tupac began
+preparations to lead an overwhelming army against
+Cacha, but his own death interrupted him, and it
+was not until 1475 that his son, Huaina Capac, surnamed
+the "great," was able to take the road for
+the north, determined to put an end to the Shiri
+dynasty. He first consolidated his power among
+the tribes on the coast south of Guayaquil, whom
+his father had left half independent, and then extended
+his conquests along the northern shore among
+the barbarians of Manabi. On the island of Puna<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span>
+he put to the sword all the male inhabitants, and
+one tribe in Manabi, notorious for its abominable
+and unnatural practices, he extirpated. Returning
+south, he crossed the mountains in northern Peru,
+and descending their eastern slopes, waged a bloody
+war against the Pacamor&eacute;s, who inhabited the forests
+where the Upper Amazon debouches into the plain.
+Having thus secured his line of communications he
+devoted himself to the main object of the campaign&mdash;the
+conquest of Quito.</p>
+
+<p>Disproportionate as appeared the resources of the
+contending nations, the war which ensued was well
+contested. The Caras had resumed their warlike
+habits and the imminence of the danger animated
+them and their allies to a desperate resistance. For
+months the Caras held the great Inca army at bay
+in the defiles of the Azuay, but finally they were
+defeated and retreated to the line of Tiocajas. The
+Incas followed and in a great battle vanquished their
+opponents so decisively that not only was Riobamba
+lost, as had happened after the former defeat, but
+likewise Latacunga and Quito itself. No stand
+could be made at Mocha, and the Shiri fled to
+Ibarra, through Quito, where the Caranquis, the
+most warlike members of the confederacy, were
+determined to resist to the last. A considerable
+number of Cara warriors had escaped the slaughter
+at Tiocajas, and a formidable army assembled to defend
+the last fortresses in the extreme north of the
+kingdom. Huaina himself laid siege to Otavalo,
+the principal stronghold of the Caranquis, but was
+not able to reduce it. Their successes encouraged<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span>
+them to take the offensive, and in a sortie the Inca
+emperor narrowly escaped losing his life. Compelled
+to retire to suppress a mutiny among his
+southern troops, he left the northern army under
+the command of his brother, Auqui Toma, and the
+latter was killed in an assault on the redoubtable
+fortress of Otavalo. This, however, was the last
+victory which the Shiri won. Huaina's reinforcements
+had come up and he advanced with an overwhelming
+army to avenge his brother's death.
+Otavalo was taken and its garrison put to the sword;
+the Shiri fled to another fortress, where he was defeated
+and slain. The victorious emperor took a
+fearful vengeance on the Caranquis, whose obstinacy
+had cost him so dear. Tradition tells that twenty-four
+thousand were massacred, and their bodies
+thrown into a lake which has ever since borne the
+name of Yahuarcocha&mdash;the "pool of blood."</p>
+
+<p>Thenceforth the provinces of the old Quito kingdom
+were integral parts of the Inca empire. The
+southern valleys had readily accepted the Inca rule,
+and the central ones appear to have abandoned
+the Shiri's cause promptly after the second battle
+of Tiocajas. Though the Caranquis had been exterminated
+and the Caras had suffered greatly, the
+other tribes remained intact. The Inca emperor
+saw that a policy of conciliation would best insure
+the obedience of these formidable peoples. He
+spent the remainder of his long life in Ecuador, married
+the daughter of the dead Shiri, and ruled rather
+as the legitimate successor of the ancient dynasty
+than as an alien conqueror. So far as possible the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span>
+religious, political, and social customs of the Incas
+were introduced, but it does not appear that the
+work of amalgamation had proceeded very far in
+the fifty years which intervened until the advent of
+the Spaniards. The Quichua had not displaced the
+native tongues to any great extent, and while the
+Ecuadorean tribes became loyal subjects, they did
+not regard themselves as in any way inferior to the
+older subjects of the empire. Rather had the balance
+of power passed to them; they had acquired
+the skill in regular warfare once the exclusive property
+of the Incas; and the issue of the civil war between
+Huascar and Atahuallpa seems to prove that
+they would have played the principal r&ocirc;le in the
+Inca system if the advent of the Spaniards had not
+altered everything.</p>
+
+<p>Huaina Capac died in Quito in 1525, and his body
+was taken to Cuzco to be laid with his ancestors.
+In order better to secure the northern kingdom to
+his descendants he named Atahuallpa, a son by
+his marriage with the Shiri princess, ruler of the
+old dominions of Quito. His eldest son, Huascar,
+was given the rest of the empire with the title of
+emperor and a suzerainty over Atahuallpa. But
+Huaina's wise provisions were rendered valueless
+by the dispute which arose between the two brothers
+about the boundaries of Atahuallpa's territories.
+The latter insisted that they included the provinces
+south of the Azuay, which had been wrested from
+Hualcopo by Tupac Yupanqui seventy years before,
+but Huascar would not admit that they extended
+beyond the hereditary dominions of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span>
+Shiri dynasty. The people of Ca&ntilde;ar, the most
+northerly of the disputed provinces, had always
+been bitter enemies of Quito, and their chief now
+refused to recognise Atahuallpa as overlord and
+sent a deputation to Huascar. Atahuallpa despatched
+his uncle Caluchima and his great general
+Quizquiz to occupy the province and dethrone the
+recalcitrant chief. Huascar hurried up some of his
+Inca regulars to aid the people of Ca&ntilde;ar, who won
+the first battles and advanced towards Atahuallpa's
+capital. The northerners rallied around the grandson
+of their old Shiri, and two great armies met on
+the banks of the Naxichi, only fifty miles south of
+Quito. Atahuallpa gained a complete victory, and
+followed it up by advancing over the Azuay into
+Ca&ntilde;ar, where he was again overwhelmingly victorious
+over a second army which Huascar had sent against
+him. The whole of southern Ecuador fell into his
+hands and he took a fearful vengeance on the
+Ca&ntilde;aris. Atahuallpa himself remained in Ecuador
+while Quizquiz went on into Peru to achieve that
+crushing series of victories which resulted in the
+taking of Cuzco and the capture of Huascar himself.
+By the year 1532 the whole empire as far south as
+Cuzco lay prostrate, and it seemed certain that the
+Cuzco dynasty would be displaced by the illegitimate
+Quito branch.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;">
+<img src="images/dec-i.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-2.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<h3>THE SPANISH CONQUEST</h3>
+
+
+<p>The fratricidal war lasting seven bloody years
+exhausted the resources of the northern and
+central provinces of the Inca empire, and raised the
+spirit of faction to a bitter pitch. Hardly had the
+last battle been fought when Pizarro landed on
+the northern Peruvian coast. The moment could
+not have been more favourable. The story of
+Atahuallpa's capture, of Pizarro's intrigues with the
+different Inca factions, and of his triumphal march
+to Cuzco through a country distracted by civil feud,
+belongs rather to the history of Peru than of Ecuador.
+With Atahuallpa's death and the defeat of
+Quizquiz near Cuzco, Quito was left without a master.
+The country had been drained of able-bodied
+men by Atahuallpa's levies, and bands of troops
+who found their way back from Peru fought among
+themselves. The indefatigable Ca&ntilde;aris rose again
+against the Quito authorities, and following the
+fatal example set by the Huascar party in Peru,
+applied to the Spaniards. From San Miguel, the
+colony which Pizarro had established at Piura, in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span>
+the valley where the road from the Ecuador table-land
+debouches into the coast plain, Sebastian de
+Benalcazar led a force of two hundred Spaniards to
+their assistance. Ascending the Cordillera he was
+joined by great numbers of Indians in Loja, Cuenca,
+and Ca&ntilde;ar, and crossed the Azuay before he encountered
+the meagre forces of the Quito generals.
+Horses and firearms gave the Spaniards an easy
+victory, and their enemies retreated to the defences
+of Tiocajas. This locality was once more fated to
+be the scene of a battle decisive of Ecuadorean history.
+Benalcazar and his allies were victorious, but
+at such a cost that he thought seriously of giving
+up the enterprise. Tradition recites that the giant
+volcano Cotopaxi burst forth into a terrific eruption
+after the battle, and that the midnight explosions
+were heard scores of miles along the plateau. To
+the Indians this was an infallible signal of the displeasure
+of the sun god. Trembling with superstitious
+fear they retreated in disorder; Benalcazar
+crossed Tiocajas without resistance, and overran
+the country as far north as Quito, taking possession
+of the city in December, 1533. Meanwhile Almagro
+had been hurrying up from Peru with reinforcements
+and on his way along the plateau fell in with
+a third expedition under Alvarado, governor of
+Guatemala. Coming from Panama on his own account
+and landing on the coast a long distance north
+of Guayaquil, Alvarado had succeeded in forcing his
+way through the dense forests and rain-soaked defiles
+and debouched on the plateau near Riobamba.
+Almagro paid him one hundred thousand dollars to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span>
+withdraw, and Benalcazar was entrusted with the
+completion of the conquest he had so well begun.</p>
+
+<p>Disappointed in the search for gold, Benalcazar
+divided the country into feudal lordships, enslaving
+the Indians and compelling them to pay tribute.
+His restless energy was not satisfied with the conquest
+of the old Cara kingdom, and he soon led an
+expedition of one hundred and fifty Spaniards and
+four thousand Indians against the coast provinces
+and founded the city of Guayaquil, whose magnificent
+and sheltered port, the best on the Pacific coast,
+gave independent access to the sea. Though the
+passes leading from Guayaquil to Riobamba were
+far more tedious than the southern ones from Piura
+to Loja, they brought Quito two hundred miles
+nearer the ocean, and their use made Ecuador independent
+of northern Peru. Hardly had Benalcazar
+returned to the table-land and gone north to
+conquer southern Colombia, when the tribes near
+Guayaquil attacked and destroyed the settlement.
+His lieutenant at Quito despatched another expedition;
+Pizarro sent reinforcements by sea; and the
+place was re-founded. Again was it destroyed, and
+only in 1537, when Pizarro sent up Orellana with
+an adequate force, was a permanent settlement made
+on the site where to-day is the largest and richest
+city of Ecuador.</p>
+
+<p>Benalcazar had conquered Quito in the name and
+under the authority of Pizarro, and the latter now
+named his brother Gonzalo governor. Confident of
+finding another Peru in the unknown regions to the
+east of his new domain, the young Pizarro enlisted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span>
+hundreds of adventurers, and in the beginning of
+1541 led the largest and best-equipped expedition
+yet assembled in South America down the declivities
+of the Andes. Difficulties began as soon as he
+reached the sweltering, steaming forest region.
+Rain fell unceasingly; the soft clay of the defiles
+afforded no footing; instead of finding stone highways
+like those over which they had marched in
+their conquest of the table-land, the Spaniards had
+to cut tracks along the mountainsides through the
+matted vegetation. Provisions ran short, clothes
+rotted, arms rusted, no villages or tribes possessing
+food were encountered. Finally Gonzalo was
+obliged to halt the main body, sending a detachment
+under Orellana, the second in command, on
+ahead to find provisions. Orellana followed down
+a stream which soon grew large enough to be navigable.
+He built boats and proceeded, but still
+found no signs of civilised inhabitants. Fearing
+that he could never ascend the river to the main
+body, he determined to keep on, confident that
+ultimately he must reach the ocean. The river he
+was descending is now called the Napo. After a
+course of nearly a thousand miles, it flowed into the
+Amazon, and down the latter's broad current Orellana
+and his little band floated to the Atlantic, there
+built a little ship, and finally made their way to Spain.</p>
+
+<p>Hearing nothing of Orellana, Gonzalo gave up
+and climbed back to Quito with a starving and
+naked remnant of his men. There he learned of the
+assassination of his great brother at Lima, and that
+Vaca de Castro, the royal commissioner appointed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span>
+to settle the disputes between the partisans of Almagro
+and Pizarro, had passed through Ecuador
+on his way south to Peru, appointing another governor
+for Quito. Gonzalo retired to Charcas in
+southern Bolivia, whence he emerged a year later
+to head the great rebellion. The viceroy was compelled
+to fly from Lima, and landing at Tumbez
+made his way to Quito. The Spaniards in Ecuador
+and southern Colombia were against Pizarro, but
+the latter chased the viceroy out of Quito and north
+into Popayan, where Benalcazar took sides with him.
+Four hundred Spaniards accompanied the viceroy in
+a counter-invasion, but near the city he was completely
+defeated and decapitated as he lay wounded
+on the field. Gonzalo, now undisputed lord of the
+whole Inca empire, returned at his leisure to Lima.
+The tale of how Gasca, shrewd old priest, by intrigue
+and conciliation, re-established royal authority and
+brought Pizarro to the scaffold, does not especially
+affect the history of Ecuador.</p>
+
+<p>By 1550 the civil wars were over, the unruly
+original conquistadores had been executed, banished,
+or reduced to obedience. Shortly afterward
+the system of Indian tribute and slavery was modified
+so that although the proprietors got rich the
+aborigines were saved from rapid extermination,
+royal officials and functionaries were installed, an
+elaborate system of taxation established, and Ecuador,
+with the rest of Spanish America, entered upon
+a long period of exploitation under form of law, instead
+of being the haphazard prey of irresponsible
+private adventurers.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 640px;">
+<img src="images/i302.jpg" width="640" height="427" alt="ECUADOR INDIANS." title="" />
+<span class="caption">ECUADOR INDIANS.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>For the next two hundred and fifty years Ecuador
+has no history. The occasional eruption of a volcano
+or an Indian insurrection is all one finds in the
+annals, except the interminable lists of the Spanish
+officials sent out to enrich themselves and the Crown
+at the expense of the hapless Indians. The Spanish
+occupation brought about no colonisation of Ecuador
+in the true sense of that word, although it
+worked a considerable revolution in the life and
+customs of the Indians who continued to constitute
+the bulk of the population. Indeed, the habitable
+area of the Andean plateau was so limited and the
+aboriginal population so numerous, that there was
+no room for immigration without a war of extermination.
+The cultivable area of Andean Ecuador
+barely exceeds eight thousand square miles, and it
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span>
+is probable that more than a million natives lived
+there in the time of the Caras and Incas. Even at
+the present day these eight thousand miles contain
+more than two-thirds of the total population, and
+not more than four hundred thousand people inhabit
+the two hundred and eighty thousand square miles
+of high, barren mountains, steep declivities of the
+Cordillera, and wooded plains on the coast and in
+the Amazon valley, which constitute the remainder
+of Ecuador.</p>
+
+<p>One of the important results of the Spanish occupation
+was the introduction of new food plants and
+domestic animals. Wheat and barley were early
+planted by the Castilian proprietors who had divided
+the country among themselves, and these grains
+quickly replaced the quinoa, which, with the potato,
+had been the chief reliance of the Caras. The cultivation
+of the potato and also of maize was, however,
+continued. The Spanish invaders introduced
+the plantain and banana, which immediately became
+the staples of the forested and tropical districts,
+making possible a great increase of population.
+The plateau was found suited to European fruits,
+and orchards were soon flourishing in its more
+favoured parts. Rice, indigo, and sugar-cane were
+also introduced, and an export trade in these articles
+grew up, as well as in the native cacao and
+sarsaparilla.</p>
+
+<p>The Spanish rulers effected radical changes in the
+political, social, and religious life of the civilised
+Indians. A certain apathy and fatalism seems
+characteristic of the American aborigine, and in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span>
+Ecuador, trained through countless centuries to the
+patriarchal rule of his own chiefs, he submitted to
+the exactions and innovations of his new masters.
+According to Spanish constitutional law and practice,
+America was not a component part of the
+mother-kingdom, but the new continent was regarded
+as the personal property of the king of
+Castile, its lands, mines, and inhabitants being
+his to dispose of at pleasure. The viceroy at Lima
+was the monarch's lieutenant, only responsible to
+the king himself or to the advisory board known as
+the Council of the Indies. For great territorial
+divisions like Ecuador this power was delegated to
+governors, and the corregidors were likewise unrestrained
+within the smaller subdivisions. The Indians
+were regarded as mere chattels, and the tribute
+exacted from every adult was a logical consequence
+of their legal status. In theory even the Spanish
+residents had no rights to self-government, nor did
+any constitutional guaranties of life and property
+exist.</p>
+
+<p>But such a despotism largely existed only on
+paper. The Spaniards who came to South America
+brought with them their characteristic constitutional
+traditions and personal independence. Instinctively
+they flocked into cities and organised municipal
+governments after the time-honoured Spanish form.
+So a system came into existence which had the
+sanction of the people's co-operation and was therefore
+workable. The country districts were left to
+the Indians and as long as they paid their tribute
+to the Crown or to the Spaniard who claimed the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span>
+lands they tilled, little heed was paid to the form of
+civil government among them. The influence of
+their hereditary chiefs survived for centuries, and
+their old laws and customs died out only by degrees.
+In the cities contact between Spaniards and Indians
+was closer.  In process of time the increasing number
+of half-breeds aided in the process of amalgamation,
+and even the pure-blood Indians of the fields
+and villages learned much of what their masters had
+to teach them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 763px;">
+<img src="images/i305.jpg" width="763" height="600" alt="CHURCH OF SANTO DOMINGO AT GUAYAQUIL." title="" />
+<span class="caption">CHURCH OF SANTO DOMINGO AT GUAYAQUIL.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Church, however, operated more powerfully
+than any other influence in making Ecuador Spanish.
+Within a few years after the conquest a regular<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span>
+bishopric was established in Quito, and hundreds
+of priests and friars flocked over to take part in
+the wholesale evangelisation of the heathen natives.
+The gospel was preached everywhere, churches and
+chapels built in even the smallest villages, the obdurate
+Indians were treated with scant ceremony, and
+it soon became well understood among the natives
+that a hearty acceptance of the Christian cult tended
+to keep them out of trouble. Ecuador quickly became
+one of the most devotedly Catholic countries
+in the world, and has ever since remained so. The
+Crown and the landed proprietors made lavish gifts
+to the cause of religion, and a great proportion of
+the property of the country ultimately fell into the
+hands of the religious orders. Quito has appropriately
+been called the city of convents, and if we are
+to believe the accounts of travellers in colonial times
+half the population must have been priests, monks,
+and nuns. The introduction of Christianity among
+the Indians aided powerfully in spreading a knowledge
+of the Spanish language, but was more effective
+in substituting the Quichua for the ancient local
+tongues. The evangelists found it easier to preach
+to all the tribes in one language, and Quichua was
+naturally chosen, since it was already in the most
+general use as the official medium of the Inca empire.
+The Spanish priests reduced it to written
+form and it became a <i>lingua franca</i> which was understood
+among all the nations of the Andean plateau
+very much as Guarany was among the Indians of the
+Atlantic slope.</p>
+
+<p>The details of Spanish civil, military, and finan<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span>cial
+administration in Ecuador did not differ greatly
+from those in the other provinces, and there is no
+need to repeat them here. The peaceable character
+of the Ecuador Indians made the maintenance of a
+standing army or even of a militia unnecessary. A
+few companies of troops in each of the principal
+towns and the natural military aptitude of the
+Spanish residents were sufficient to suppress any
+symptoms of rebellion, and to keep the Indians at
+work for their masters. Happily for the natives no
+great finds of silver or gold were made except in the
+southern province of Loja, and forced labour in the
+mines did not decimate the population, as happened
+in Bolivia and parts of Peru. Spaniards did not
+immigrate to any considerable extent, and negro
+slavery flourished on the seacoast.</p>
+
+<p>The only schools were priests' seminaries in which
+little except theology was taught and the level of
+intellectual culture among the Creoles sank very
+low. Taxes were heavy, public employments and
+titles of nobility were openly sold by the government,
+commerce amounted to little, because little
+gold and silver was mined and other articles would
+not bear the heavy transportation charges and the
+exactions and restrictions of the Spanish colonial
+system. The magnificent stone highways which the
+Cara and Inca monarchs had built were allowed to
+fall into ruins, but their remains are to be seen even
+to this day on the table-land near Cuenca, still solid
+in spite of the storms and earthquakes of four centuries.
+Population on the plateau slowly decreased.
+Quito had been a great city while it was the Cara<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span>
+capital&mdash;the residence of Huaina Capac and Atahuallpa&mdash;and
+in 1735 Ulloa estimated that it contained
+over seventy thousand people, but at the end
+of the eighteenth century it had fallen to less than
+forty thousand. However, the introduction of the
+plantain undoubtedly brought about an increase of
+population in the coast provinces, and Guayaquil
+flourished with the cultivation of cacao and sugar-cane.</p>
+
+<p>No great figure of a soldier, reformer, or administrator
+stands out among all the hundreds of officials
+who were sent over from Spain to rule the country.
+Even records of the growth of jealousies between
+Spaniards and Creoles, such as we encounter in
+other countries of South America are wanting. The
+Creoles appear never to have been able to interrupt
+the monotonous course of Spanish administration.
+In 1564 the old kingdom of Quito, with the addition
+of some outlying Colombian and Peruvian provinces,
+was erected into a presidency, and a royal audiencia,
+or court of appeals, with important administrative
+functions, was established. The viceroy of Lima
+continued to exercise nominal jurisdiction over all
+Spanish South America until the year 1719, when
+the viceroyalty of New Granada was first created.
+The Quito presidency was attached to the new
+jurisdiction, and this emphasised the separation
+from Peru. Twelve hundred miles of crooked,
+wretched road intervened between Quito and Lima,
+while the distance to Bogot&aacute; was less than half as
+great. However, the natural outlet for the plateau
+from Cuenca north to Popayan was the road to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span>
+Guayaquil, and the Quito presidency was therefore
+co-extensive with a natural commercial subdivision
+of the continent.</p>
+
+<p>In 1736 a party of scientists commissioned by the
+king of France came to Quito for the purpose of
+measuring an arc of the earth's meridian at the
+equator. These savants erected two pyramids to
+serve as a permanent record of the line they had
+measured, and placed upon them an inscription
+stating that the work had been done under the
+patronage of the king of France. Years afterwards
+a Spanish official, offended in his national
+pride by the wording of the inscription, obtained
+an order from Madrid for the destruction of these
+monuments, so invaluable to the science of exact
+geography.</p>
+
+<p>The latter part of the eighteenth century was
+marked by a greater interest in education. The
+seminaries widened their courses of study to include
+something more than the canon law and the Fathers,
+and public-spirited Creoles endowed new and better
+institutions of learning. No press or periodical
+literature appeared, but poetry and belles-lettres
+were cultivated with some success by native authors.
+Though the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1765 was
+accomplished without bloodshed, it resulted in no
+material weakening of ecclesiastical influence. The
+revolutionary ideas which were transforming the
+political thought of the world during the eighteenth
+century hardly penetrated Ecuador at all, and
+whatever influence they had was confined to the
+small percentage of the population that boasted of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span>
+non-Indian blood. The news of Lexington and
+Yorktown and the enfranchisement of British North
+America stimulated no similar movement among the
+patient Indians and devout Creoles of the Andean
+valleys, and even the tremendous cataclysm of the
+French Revolution passed almost unnoticed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;">
+<img src="images/dec-f.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-5.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<h3>THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE</h3>
+
+
+<p>The beginning of the nineteenth century saw
+Spain involved to her ruin in the tremendous
+struggle between Napoleon and his enemies. Her
+fleets were destroyed at St. Vincent and Trafalgar;
+her treasury was emptied; her administration demoralised.
+Free communication with her American
+colonies was impossible while British frigates commanded
+every sea, and both on the Peninsula and
+in America, Spanish subjects lost their traditional
+respect for the monarchy. Though the jealousy
+against their imported rulers which always fermented
+among Creoles was not so strong in quiet, isolated,
+and agricultural Ecuador as in the coast provinces
+and mining regions, the news of Spain's defeats
+and humiliations awakened ambitious lawyers and
+wealthy landowners to a realisation that the Spaniards
+might be ousted from the lucrative offices.</p>
+
+<p>The opportunity came in 1809 with the resignation
+of Charles IV., the deposition and imprisonment
+of Ferdinand VII., the usurpation of the Spanish
+throne by Joseph Bonaparte, and the occupation of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span>
+the Peninsula by the French. The viceroys and
+governors of Spanish America refused to recognise
+Joseph. The many patriots on the Peninsula who
+resisted the French usurpation organised provisional
+juntas which assumed to be the supreme depositaries
+of power pending the expulsion of Joseph and the
+return of Ferdinand, while the Queen claimed a
+regency for herself. The Spanish authorities did
+not know who would come out on top and were
+principally anxious to maintain themselves in their
+places, while ambitious leaders among the Creoles
+immediately began to plot to turn the confusion to
+their own advantage and to secure autonomy and
+even independence for the colonies.</p>
+
+<p>In 1809 Don Ruiz de Castilla was president of
+Quito. His jurisdiction included not only all present
+Ecuador, but also the southern part of Colombia,
+extending north three hundred miles along the great
+Andean plateau through the populous regions of
+Pasto and Popayan and far down the high and fertile
+valley of the Cauca. These portions of Colombia
+are continuous with the table-land on which Quito
+stands and directly accessible therefrom, while they
+are separated from the parallel series of plateaux on
+which Bogot&aacute;, Tunja, and Socorro lie, by the deep
+valley of the Magdalena. Castilla's dependence
+upon the Bogot&aacute; viceroy was therefore largely
+nominal, and he could expect as little help from
+New Granada as from Peru. He had only a few
+troops at Quito&mdash;probably not more than two or
+three hundred,&mdash;while the governors of the subordinate
+provinces, Popayan, Guayaquil, and Cuenca,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span>
+each could muster only a few dozen armed police.
+A number of wealthy Creole proprietors and restless
+lawyers determined in the early part of 1809 to overthrow
+the president and create a governing junta
+composed of residents of Ecuador. Castilla was
+powerless to avert the storm. The handful of
+troops in barracks was easily suborned by the conspirators,
+who included the persons of greatest
+wealth, intelligence, and influence in the community.
+The mass of the Indian population was inert and
+would naturally side with their landlords, while the
+Spanish residents and Creole Tories had formed no
+plans for common action.</p>
+
+<p>On the night of the 9th of August, 1809, the
+chiefs of the movement, with the officers of the
+troops, met in the house of Do&ntilde;a Manuela Canizaries,
+the Madame Roland of Ecuador, and assigned
+to each the r&ocirc;le which he was to play in the <i>coup
+d'&eacute;tat</i>. The officers went to the barracks, led out
+the troops, and took possession of the government
+buildings in the name of the revolutionist committee.
+The president and those Spanish officials who proved
+recalcitrant were imprisoned, a governing junta of
+nine with Juan Montufar as chief was appointed,
+and an open cabildo summoned which confirmed
+these acts. The junta notified the viceroys of Bogot&aacute;
+and Lima that it had assumed the government,
+and sent messengers to the provincial capitals demanding
+that they expel their Spanish authorities,
+adhere to the new order of things, and recognise the
+supremacy of the Quito junta. But the movement
+met with no favourable response from the rest of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span>
+the presidency. The governors of Popayan, Cuenca,
+and Guayaquil immediately began to enlist troops
+to defend themselves against an attack from Quito.
+The junta prepared for war, but though plenty
+of ambitious young Creoles volunteered as officers
+there were not firearms enough to go around. At
+last an expedition set off to the north against Pasto
+and Popayan only to be easily defeated by the hasty
+levies the Spanish authorities had made among the
+sturdy Indians of those regions. Frightened by
+this defeat and their hopeless isolation, the junta
+resigned under promise of amnesty and in October
+Castilla returned to Quito and resumed the reins of
+government. But his position was insecure, and
+rumors of a fresh conspiracy soon drove him to repressive
+measures and the imprisonment of leading
+Creoles. The feeling grew bitter and in August,
+1810, a desperate effort was made by the Creoles to
+get possession of the barracks. Its failure was followed
+by a frightful massacre in which many of the
+most popular men in the place were murdered.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, the supreme junta at Seville, anxious
+to pacify the revolutionary disorders, had commissioned
+Carlos Montufar, a son of the chief of the
+fallen Quito junta who then happened to be in
+Spain, to go to Ecuador and reconcile the factions.
+Under his advice Castilla resigned to a new junta
+the direction of affairs, taking, however, the position
+of its chief member, and sent away his troops. In
+reality the younger Montufar sympathised with
+his brother Creoles; the universal indignation at
+the massacre of 1810 pushed him on to vengeance;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span>
+Spaniards travelling through the country were waylaid
+and assassinated; and by the time Molina, appointed
+by the Spanish government in Castilla's
+place, had reached Cuenca on his way north to
+Quito, the old governor had again been deposed
+and imprisoned and open war existed between Arredondo,
+the Spaniard commanding the troops who
+had retired from Quito in accordance with the compromise,
+and the junta in the latter city. The year
+1811 passed without any material change in the
+situation. The Spanish generals controlled Guayaquil
+and Cuenca in the south and Pasto and Popayan
+in the north, practically isolating the revolutionary
+government at Quito. As the troops of both sides
+became better trained the war took on a more determined
+and cruel character. Royalists and revolutionists
+both raised recruits among the sturdy
+mountain Indians and half-breeds. In technical
+knowledge of their profession the Spanish officers
+were superior to the revolutionary leaders and could
+procure arms more readily. Their armies were
+usually better disciplined and more efficient, although
+more liable to depletion by desertion.</p>
+
+<p>In this state of perpetual war, government rapidly
+became exclusively military. On the surface the
+contest seemed only a struggle between two sets of
+independent chiefs, in whose mouths "liberty" and
+"loyalty" were mere catch-words, and who continually
+quarrelled among themselves even when they
+nominally belonged to the same side. Early in 1812
+Montufar was overthrown by another Creole chief
+in Quito who thereupon undertook an expedition<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span>
+against the Spanish general at Cuenca. But sedition
+among the patriot troops gave an easy victory
+to the latter, and the Spaniards took the
+offensive. Marching toward Quito, they dispersed
+the patriot army at Mocha, and entered the capital
+in triumph.</p>
+
+<p>Montes, the Spanish general who now became
+ruler of the presidency, was a wise and moderate
+man, and spared no pains to conciliate. He soon
+succeeded in so completely consolidating his power
+that during nine years Quito and most of the presidency
+remained quietly submissive, and became one
+of the centres whence Spanish expeditions went out
+against the parts of the continent which still remained
+in revolution. An able general, Samano by
+name, carried the successes of the Spanish arms to
+the north, and although the patriots of Colombia
+obtained some temporary advantages in the winter
+of 1814-15, they never penetrated south of Pasto.
+In 1816 the tide again turned with the arrival of
+eleven thousand Spanish veterans in the north of
+Colombia. The patriots were soon everywhere defeated,
+Bogot&aacute; itself taken, and a remnant of revolutionists
+who attempted the invasion of Popayan
+and Pasto were overwhelmed by Samano in 1816 at
+the battle of Tambo. The patriot cause was at its
+lowest ebb in all South America. Resistance ceased
+in Colombia; only a few scattered bands kept up a
+desultory warfare in Venezuela; Ecuador, Peru, and
+Bolivia were quiet; Spanish authority had been re-established
+in Chile; Uruguay had fallen into the
+hands of the Portuguese king; and Spanish armies<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span>
+were invading the Argentine, the last refuge of the
+revolution.</p>
+
+<p>San Martin's thunderbolt descent upon Chile and
+his victory at Chacabuco changed the aspect of
+affairs. A fleet was improvised at Valparaiso which
+obtained command of the Pacific coast, cutting off
+the Spaniards in Ecuador from receiving supplies
+except overland from the Caribbean ports. Bolivar
+took new heart for his tedious task of arousing the
+north and driving the Spaniards from Venezuela and
+New Granada. In 1819 he climbed the east side of
+the Andes to the neighbourhood of Bogot&aacute; and by
+defeating the Spanish army at Boyac&aacute;, freed most of
+present Colombia, and even in Quito the patriots
+renewed their revolutionary plotting. Meanwhile
+San Martin had completed the expulsion of the
+Spaniards from Chile, and in 1820 he transported
+an army by sea to the neighbourhood of Lima itself,
+opening communications with the anti-Spanish
+party all along the coast. On the 9th of October,
+1820, a successful revolution broke out at Guayaquil,
+and little time was lost in sending an army
+to the plateau. The Spaniards defeated it, but with
+Bolivar threatening them from Colombia, their comrades
+in Peru fighting for their lives against San
+Martin, the population of Quito on the verge of a
+revolt, and the Pacific in the control of the patriots,
+they could not follow up their advantage.</p>
+
+<p>On June 24, 1821, Bolivar gained the crowning
+victory of Carabobo in Venezuela. The Spanish
+position in the Caribbean provinces became irretrievable,
+and the patriot general was thenceforth free to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span>
+pursue his plans for the expulsion of the enemy from
+southern New Granada and Ecuador and their incorporation
+with Colombia. In the fall of that year
+General Sucr&eacute;, who shares with San Martin the
+honor of being the greatest soldier of the patriot
+side, arrived at Guayaquil by sea, bringing with him
+seventeen hundred Colombian and Venezuelan veterans.
+Bolivar was to advance from Bogot&aacute;, conquering
+Popayan and Pasto on his way to Quito,
+while Sucr&eacute; came up from the south. The latter at
+once ascended the Andes to the plateau, but was
+badly defeated. Retreating to Guayaquil, he reorganised
+his army, incorporating with it a reinforcement
+of twelve hundred men sent by San Martin,
+and again climbed the Andes. By this time Bolivar
+was advancing from Popayan to Pasto and the
+Spaniards, thinking it best to concentrate their
+forces, abandoned Cuenca and the southern provinces
+and allowed Sucr&eacute; to advance unopposed
+to the neighbourhood of Quito. There he outman&#339;uvred
+them and gained a commanding position
+on the slopes of the great volcano, Pichincha, overlooking
+the city. His foes were forced to the alternative
+of giving battle at a disadvantage or permitting
+him to effect a junction with Bolivar, and overwhelming
+them by superior numbers. On the morning
+of the 24th of May, 1822, the battle decisive of
+Ecuador's fate was fought. The royal army suffered
+annihilation; four hundred dead lay on the
+mountainside and two hundred wounded; eleven
+hundred men and one hundred and sixty officers
+surrendered the following day.  The only troops<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span>
+who escaped belonged to scattered detachments not
+present at the battle, who fled down the eastern
+slope of the Andes into the trackless forests and
+finally made their way down the Amazon to the
+Atlantic.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;">
+<img src="images/dec-c.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-7.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<h3>THE FORMATION OF ECUADOR</h3>
+
+
+<p>At the head of a victorious army of Colombians
+and Argentines, Sucr&eacute; could naturally do as
+he liked with Ecuador and an assembly of the people
+of Quito accepted incorporation into the republic of
+Colombia. Bolivar, meanwhile, had had some hard
+fighting with the stubborn loyalists of Pasto, and
+the issue remained doubtful until news of the victory
+of Pichincha was received. The Spanish commander
+surrendered; Bolivar came on to Quito, and thence
+proceeded to Guayaquil. The inhabitants of this
+important city were divided. Many wanted to be
+independent; others preferred incorporation with
+Peru, to being tied up with Colombia, a country
+whose capital could only be reached by months of
+tedious travelling; others, however, were willing to
+maintain the ancient political connection with New
+Granada. As a matter of fact, discussion was useless,
+for Bolivar threw into the scale the weight of
+his military power. Guayaquil and the adjacent
+coast region became a department of Colombia,
+while the southern plateau provinces&mdash;Cuenca and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span>
+Loja&mdash;were also erected into a department of Bolivar's
+vast confederation. This completed the division
+of the old presidency of Quito into four parts&mdash;Pasto
+and the northern provinces, Quito and the
+central, Cuenca and the southern, and Guayaquil
+with the coast, and in all of them the influence of
+Bolivar's satraps was predominant.</p>
+
+<p>Shortly after his arrival at Guayaquil Bolivar and
+San Martin had their famous interview. The latter
+came up from Lima hoping to arrange plan of joint
+campaign, but he quickly saw that Bolivar would
+never consent to share the glory of driving the
+Spaniards from their last strongholds. The great
+Argentine magnanimously determined to retire, and
+returning to Lima, resigned the presidency of Peru.
+San Martin once out of the way, Bolivar was eager
+to lead a Colombian army to Lima, but the Peruvians
+declined his assistance. Alone, however, they had
+little chance against the able Spanish generals, and,
+aghast at the progress of the enemy, they soon sent
+to Bolivar begging his assistance on his own terms.
+The selfishly ambitious liberator gladly accepted,
+and within a month Sucr&eacute; was on his way south at
+the head of a fine army of Colombian veterans.
+Bolivar himself followed with reinforcements, and
+though hampered and delayed by the revolt of the
+Callao garrison, Sucr&eacute;'s military ability backed by
+Bolivar's tireless energy and large resources produced
+their legitimate results. Bolivar in person advanced
+to the plateau and August 6, 1824, won the cavalry
+action of Junin which compelled the retirement of
+the Spanish army to Cuzco.  Bolivar returned to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span>
+Lima leaving Sucr&eacute; in command, and on the 9th of
+December the latter annihilated the main body of
+the enemy in the battle of Ayacucho&mdash;the crowning
+victory of the war of South American independence.</p>
+
+<p>Bolivar was supreme from the Caribbean to Potos&iacute;.
+As president of the United States of Colombia he
+ruled Venezuela, New Granada, and Ecuador, he
+himself was dictator of Peru, and his faithful lieutenant
+exercised supreme power in Bolivia. The
+realisation of his cherished plan for the union of all
+South America into one great confederacy, with
+himself as life-president, seemed near at hand. But
+successful soldier though he was&mdash;heroic, resourceful,
+and unwavering in reverse&mdash;his statecraft was
+short-sighted and impracticable. The moment of his
+apogee marked the beginning of his decline. He
+failed to appreciate that the spirit of South America
+was profoundly democratic and local, and that the
+war of independence owed its beginning and successful
+prosecution to a deeply rooted impulse toward
+division, liberty, and anarchy among the Creoles.
+To build a tower out of sand would have been easier
+than to create a stable union between the recently
+liberated provinces of Spanish America. Viewed in
+the light of subsequent events the wonder is that
+territorial disintegration stopped where it did, and
+that South America did not split into twenty instead
+of nine separate countries.</p>
+
+<p>Bolivar's partisans in Colombia were unsuccessful
+in their intrigues to replace the Constitution of Cucut&aacute;
+with one drawn up after the plan their chief
+had imposed upon Bolivia and Peru. Neither<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span>
+leaders nor people, army nor professional classes,
+showed any disposition to concede him greater
+powers. His attempts to interfere in the affairs of
+Argentine and Chile were repulsed, Peru became
+restless under his dictatorship, Bolivia only waited
+a favourable opportunity to expel Sucr&eacute;, the very
+troops he had brought from Colombia to Peru
+became mutinous, his pan-American congress at
+Panama turned out a fiasco. He remained two
+years in Peru, until the news of a great uprising in
+Venezuela made it necessary for him to hurry to the
+north. Hardly had he left Lima than the military
+chiefs in Peru virtually disavowed his authority.
+Under the leadership of their officers the Colombian
+troops in Lima revolted, and the Peruvians, delighted
+to be rid of these embarrassing guests, paid
+their pecuniary demands, and to the number of over
+three thousand despatched them in ships for the
+north. They disembarked in Ecuador, where one
+division took possession of Guayaquil and another
+of Cuenca. Bolivar was so occupied with the
+troubles in Venezuela that he could personally take
+no measures against this defection, but General
+Flores, a Venezuelan whom he had appointed commander
+of the military forces of the three southern
+provinces of the old Quito presidency,&mdash;Guayaquil,
+Cuenca, and Quito,&mdash;proved energetic and fortunate.
+His intrigues sowed discord among the officers of
+the revolting troops. A counter-revolution occurred
+in his favour at Cuenca, and after a short period of
+virtual independence Guayaquil also returned to its
+old connection with Quito.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The movement against Bolivar from Colombia
+proper involved Pasto and Popayan&mdash;the northern
+division of the old Quito presidency&mdash;while Quito
+and the southern provinces were left largely to their
+own devices. General La Mar, who had succeeded
+in making himself president of Peru, conceived the
+idea of enlarging the limits of that country by the
+acquisition of Guayaquil and Cuenca, and he was
+the more enthusiastic because the latter was his
+native province. In 1828 war broke out between
+Colombia and Peru. Peruvian ships blockaded
+Guayaquil, and in January, 1829, forced the surrender
+of that place, while a Peruvian army seven
+thousand strong invaded the Ecuadorean plateau
+and penetrated beyond Cuenca. Flores and his
+rivals united in face of the common danger, the
+Colombian veterans scattered through the country
+rallied to the banner of Sucr&eacute;, who came in person
+to take command, and the decisive battle was fought
+at Tarqui in February. The Peruvians were so
+badly defeated that they sued for peace, and agreed
+to surrender Guayaquil and the greater part of the
+southern provinces.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span>
+<img src="images/i325.jpg" width="800" height="475" alt="GUAYAQUIL, ECUADOR." title="" />
+<span class="caption">GUAYAQUIL, ECUADOR.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>By this time, however, Bolivar's own position had
+become desperate. Venezuela had already separated
+from the confederation, and when on the 12th of
+May, 1830, Flores proclaimed the Quito presidency
+independent, it was little more than the announcement
+of an existing fact. He attempted to disarm
+jealousy against Quito by christening the country
+by the fanciful name of Ecuador, and by decreeing
+that each province should have an equal vote in the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span>
+legislative assembly. Flores was merely one of a
+multitude of military chiefs who had been fighting
+among themselves since the expulsion of the Spaniards.
+Though married to a Quito lady he was a
+Venezuelan and could rely on few local friendships
+or sympathies, and the Colombian veterans, who
+swarmed over the country devouring the substance
+of the people and eager for pay and plunder, regarded
+him as one of themselves and were ready
+to desert him for any chief who might offer higher
+wages.</p>
+
+<p>Now that Bolivar was overthrown and Sucr&eacute; murdered
+on a lonely mountain road by hired assassins,
+the sentiment of loyalty to their old chiefs tardily
+revived among the fickle Colombian regulars. They
+received Flores's declaration of independence with
+indignation; an insurrection broke out among the
+garrison at Guayaquil; and the veterans marched to
+the plateau. Flores had no force capable of making
+headway against them, and was compelled to negotiate
+a treaty, agreeing to support Bolivar in case
+the latter should remain in South America. On the
+other hand, the troops consented to recognise Flores
+if Bolivar should go into exile. Hardly had the
+treaty been signed than word was received of the
+lonely death of the great Venezuelan at Santa
+Marta. Most of the veterans took service under
+Flores, and he pursued the recalcitrants with relentless
+and bloody severity. Pasto and Popayan, composing
+the province of Cauca, the northern division
+of the old Quito presidency, wavered as to whether
+they would cast their lot with Ecuador or New<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span>
+Granada. The government at Bogot&aacute; sent an army
+into the disputed territory, and Flores tried to
+organise a force large enough to beat it, but he was
+hampered by mutinies, conspiracies, and poverty,
+and after a year of expensive though nearly bloodless
+operations withdrew and consented to a treaty
+by which Ecuador gave up all claim to Pasto and
+Popayan, losing a third of the territory and population
+of the old presidency of Quito.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 582px;">
+<img src="images/i327.jpg" width="582" height="480" alt="COSTUMES OF NATIVES NEAR QUITO." title="" />
+<span class="caption">COSTUMES OF NATIVES NEAR QUITO.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Flores, however, managed to hold Guayaquil and
+Cuenca as well as Quito and must therefore be
+regarded as the founder of Ecuador, though his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span>
+reactionary, absolute, and violent government was
+hated by all that was young, intelligent, and liberal
+in the country. The Indian peasants groaned
+under the burden of taxes imposed to subsidise a
+horde of functionaries. Finances were in deplorable
+confusion; the public debts left unpaid; population
+decreased, especially in the Andean region; agriculture,
+industry, and commerce remained stationary,
+except in the cacao districts on the coast. The
+lower classes had a hard struggle for bare existence,
+and the parasitical ruling race was solely pre-occupied
+with political war and intrigue. But it cannot
+fairly be said that Flores or any other one man was
+responsible. The lamentable condition of affairs
+resulted inevitably from the long struggle with Spain
+and from the situation, character, and ideals of the
+people. But such a janizary system of government
+was too burdensome, unwieldy, and wasteful not to
+fall by its own weight sooner or later. The people
+were simply unable to pay the taxes which Flores
+levied vainly trying to satisfy his troops. Mutinies
+broke out among the latter, and the liberals were
+encouraged to organise.</p>
+
+<p>A revolutionary society was formed in Quito
+whose ramifications extended among the enthusiastic
+youth in every part of the republic. In Guayaquil,
+the wealthiest and most commercial city, the
+demand for better financial administration became
+universal. In 1833 Vicente Rocafuerte, the foremost
+of Ecuadorean liberals and the most accomplished
+public man in the country, openly assumed
+the leadership of the opposition to Flores. Elected<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span>
+a member of congress he bravely defied the dictator,
+who sentenced him to banishment. But when he
+reached Guayaquil the troops and citizens of that
+city arose to support him. Flores led an army
+down the Andes and attacked and captured Guayaquil,
+Rocafuerte and his partisans escaped and kept
+up the struggle at different points of the coast,
+while sympathetic insurrections broke out on the
+plateau in Flores's rear. Though the dictator
+finally succeeded in capturing Rocafuerte, the only
+use he was able to make of his victory was to secure
+better terms from the liberals. Rocafuerte and he
+formed an alliance and together they pacified the
+country, the former becoming president and the
+latter retaining command of the army. Ecuador
+enjoyed her first real respite from civil war and
+tumult since 1809, and Rocafuerte's inauguration in
+1835 marks the beginning of civil and constitutional
+government.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;">
+<img src="images/dec-g.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-6.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<h3>MODERN ECUADOR</h3>
+
+
+<p>President Rocafuerte was not only
+animated by revolutionary principles, imbued
+with liberal ideas, and a student of the best political
+and economic writers, but he proved to be a good
+administrator&mdash;practical, cautious, and sure&mdash;and
+earned the title of the greatest of Ecuador's reformers.
+His first step was to summon a constituent assembly
+which divided the country into provinces and
+parishes, outlined a rational scheme of administration,
+and made a substantial beginning toward substituting
+civil for military government. Although he did not attempt
+to carry into practice the dreams of radical liberals&mdash;impracticable
+among a population nine-tenths
+Indians in semi-bondage, and in a country where
+the clergy were dominant&mdash;he reformed the taxing
+system, set in order the finances, so far as his means
+and knowledge would permit, earnestly encouraged
+industry, agriculture, and commerce, repaired and
+built roads, promulgated a new and humane criminal
+code, and established schools. He set up the pyramids
+of the French geographers, showing that tender<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span>
+regard for his country's repute abroad which is rarely
+absent in statesmen of high character and noble
+aims. Under his administration Ecuador assumed
+the payment of her proportion&mdash;twenty-one and a
+half per cent., or one million eight hundred thousand
+pounds&mdash;of the debt contracted by the defunct
+United States of Colombia during the war of independence.
+However, this debt proved a burden
+too great for her resources. Interest fell behind
+and the principal has been scaled down repeatedly.
+Only in 1900 was an arrangement satisfactory to
+the bondholders finally reached.</p>
+
+<p>His efforts made Ecuador the second South
+American republic whose independence was formally
+recognised by Spain. In religious matters he proved
+true to his liberal convictions, and while never persecuting
+the clergy always advocated religious freedom
+for the individual. But though he set his
+country's feet in the path of progress, the steps were
+slow, short, and uncertain. His alliance with the
+military element as represented by Flores, and the
+religious and social conservatism of the bulk of
+the people, hampered rapid progress. The radical
+liberals conspired against him, but their plots were
+sternly stamped out. Government remained essentially
+military and aristocratic, and active participation
+was confined to the educated and military
+classes. Nevertheless, a sort of equilibrium between
+the demands of the governing caste and the capacities
+of the producing masses was reached, and a
+certain degree of order replaced the indiscriminate
+exactions and tyranny which the proletariat had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span>
+endured ever since the first Spaniard had landed.
+When Rocafuerte finished his term in 1839, Ecuador
+was at peace and had recovered much of the material
+prosperity lost during the long wars.  On the
+plateau the Indians cultivated their wheat and potatoes
+in security, while on the low coast lands the
+cacao industry flourished, making Ecuador one of
+the chief sources of the world's supply of chocolate
+and multiplying Guayaquil's population and wealth.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 486px;">
+<img src="images/i332.jpg" width="486" height="480" alt="ECUADOR PEON'S HOUSE." title="" />
+<span class="caption">ECUADOR PEON&#39;S HOUSE.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Flores's command of the army insured him the
+succession to the presidency. Though his return to
+power meant political reaction, the beneficent effects
+of Rocafuerte's system had been too obvious to be
+entirely ignored and hastily abandoned. Flores's
+first measures were moderate, but his irrational
+ambition quickly led him into an expensive and
+fruitless intervention in the Colombian civil war of
+1840. His financial difficulties and a return to military
+habits caused him to adopt measures continually
+more arbitrary, and he went stubbornly ahead with
+his schemes to make his dictatorship permanent.
+He forced the adoption of a new Constitution
+lengthening the presidential term to eight years,
+and caused himself to be declared elected in 1843.
+The conflict with the liberals became acute; Rocafuerte
+protested and was forced to fly for his life.
+The young radicals of Quito plotted the tyrant's
+assassination, while the villagers of the plateau arose
+in revolt against the gatherers of an obnoxious poll-tax.
+In 1845 a liberal revolution broke out at
+Guayaquil. Flores descended from the table-land,
+but the liberal army met and defeated him at the
+foot of the mountains, and he accepted the offer of
+twenty thousand dollars in cash and a pension to
+leave the country.</p>
+
+<p>The better elements of the triumphant party were
+not able to keep the upper hand. A new Constitution
+was hastily adopted and the mulatto Ramon
+Roca installed as president. For four years he
+ruled while the gulf between liberals and conservatives
+widened day by day, and factional jealousies<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span>
+and ambitions within the dominant party became
+menacing. The congress of 1849 quarrelled bitterly
+over the presidential succession and was unable to
+agree on any one. Ambitious chiefs got arms and
+men together, and after a year of uncertainty General
+Urbina, of Guayaquil, issued a pronunciamento declaring
+Diego Noboa provisional head of the government.
+A convention called for the purpose adopted
+a new Constitution and elected Urbina's nominee
+president for the full term. To the consternation
+of the liberals he recalled the Jesuits and gave
+asylum to the defeated conservatives from Colombia,
+going so far as to send troops to the frontier to aid
+in their restoration. But Urbina, to whose command
+these forces had been entrusted, proclaimed
+himself dictator and exiled Noboa. He promulgated
+a new Constitution&mdash;Ecuador's sixth in
+twenty-two years,&mdash;persecuted the conservatives,
+and ruled for four years as an ultra-liberal. At the
+expiration of his term in 1856 he named his friend
+Robles as his successor, who maintained himself
+against the conservative attacks until in 1859 his
+government became involved in a war with Peru.
+When Robles and Urbina went to the Peruvian
+frontier the conservatives rose behind them. As a
+matter of fact the country was tired of the misrule
+of the military chiefs, miscalled liberals, whose government
+was a compound of oppression for their
+enemies and license for their friends. The clericals
+armed their adherents in the northern villages and
+marched on Quito. The partisans of the administration
+at the capital could oppose no effective resist<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span>ance,
+and the insurgents entered the city, and on
+May 1st installed a provisional government with
+Garcia Moreno at its head. The latter at once
+pushed on south with a small force, and, though
+defeated by Robles, he escaped to Peru, where he
+received help for new operations. In spite of Moreno's
+temporary reverse his friends retained possession
+of Quito, and the Peruvian blockade of
+Guayaquil absorbed the president's attention. The
+forces under Robles soon crumbled away, and he
+resigned and went into banishment. Urbina, the
+real chief of the liberal party, had a small body of
+troops in Cuenca with which he tried to maintain
+the unequal contest, but his position soon became
+untenable and he followed Robles into exile.</p>
+
+<p>Moreno was now master of the whole Andean
+region. Guayaquil, however, remained in the hands
+of a liberal chief; the Peruvian government had
+tired of its bargain to support the Ecuadorian clericals;
+the blockade was abandoned, and the Peruvian
+ships retired after making a treaty with the Guayaquil
+authorities. This rid Moreno of an embarrassing
+entanglement with a foreign power, although it
+left the Guayaquil insurgents free to employ all their
+forces against him. Descending with all the forces
+he could muster, his mountaineers defeated the coast
+troops in every encounter, and on the 2d of September,
+1860, Moreno captured the great seaport, putting
+an end to open opposition in all Ecuador.
+Every successful revolutionist in those days made
+his own Constitution, so it is a waste of words to
+tell that Moreno summoned a convention which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span>
+promulgated a new fundamental law for the republic.
+During the next fifteen years he remained the
+dominant personality in Ecuadorian history. His
+biography is typical of the careers of the higher class
+of Creole statesmen, and profoundly interesting to
+a student of South American history as illustrating
+the difficulties with which men of constructive minds
+and a passion for order have been obliged to contend.
+A scion of one of the oldest and proudest
+Spanish families, he had been proscribed in his
+youth, and spent the years of his exile studying in
+the old world. He returned with his naturally fine
+mind stored with the fruits of study and observation,
+but with his prejudices of caste and religion
+unshaken. The clericals set all their hopes on this
+brilliant young advocate, and his public life, his
+opinions, and his personality r&eacute;sum&eacute; the reactionary
+characteristics of Ecuador. Nevertheless it is hard
+for an unprejudiced outsider to study the history of
+his country during his time without retaining a
+strong admiration for his abilities and force, even
+if not convinced that his career made for the moral
+uplifting of the republic.</p>
+
+<p>He found the finances in a wretched state. Salaries
+were unpaid, the revenue amounted to less than
+a million pesos, and the government was living from
+hand to mouth on twenty-per-cent. loans. He
+directed his activity principally toward effecting
+urgent material reforms&mdash;increasing the revenue by
+systematising taxation, suppressing frauds and contraband,
+founding a mint and hospital at Quito,
+building the great waggon-road from Quito to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span>
+southern provinces, and connecting that remote and
+mountain-locked capital by a telegraph line with
+Guayaquil. The whole of his own salary he devoted
+to the public use, the laws were better enforced, life
+and property became safer, and material prosperity
+increased. The government was centralised, the
+semi-independency of the departments abolished,
+the Jesuits recalled, the rights and privileges of the
+clergy restored and increased, and a Concordat
+signed with the Holy See which virtually freed the
+Ecuadorian Church from all secular control.</p>
+
+<p>The Concordat was denounced throughout the continent
+as treason to South American independence,
+and his relations with European diplomatic representatives
+were so cordial and frank that rumours
+of his willingness to accept a foreign protectorate
+or even annexation by Spain were rife in the other
+capitals. The publication of his personal correspondence
+with a French diplomatist raised such a
+storm against him that other countries plotted his
+overthrow, and the democrats of Colombia, victorious
+in the civil war of 1863, sent an army to the
+frontier, proclaiming that their purpose was "to
+liberate the brother democrats of Ecuador from the
+theocratic yoke of Professor Moreno." His army
+was defeated in the battle of Cuaspud, but he stood
+firm and his people showed no eagerness to accept
+Colombia's invitation and re-enter that confederacy.
+Her army was unable to follow up its advantage,
+and the danger quickly passed. When war broke
+out between Spain and Peru he, like the Emperor
+of Brazil, refused to follow Chile's example and take<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span>
+sides, against the mother country. In a word, his
+foreign policy was a selfish but intelligent opportunism,
+and he was not influenced by vague sentimental
+considerations and blind chauvinism.</p>
+
+<p>In 1864 Urbina, with the countenance and assistance
+of Peru, invaded the southern province, Loja,
+but the insurrection was promptly crushed. Next
+year Moreno's term expired, and he named a disciple
+and friend to be president in his place, but his own
+political preponderance was so unquestioned and his
+prestige so enormous in the barracks, convents, and
+pulperias that he continued the real ruler of the
+country. His understudy did not please him and he
+demanded and received a resignation. The incumbent
+next selected proved insubordinate and had to
+be displaced by force. When Moreno declared himself
+provisional dictator the Guayaquil liberals undertook
+an armed resistance, but by 1869 he was firmly
+in the saddle once more. He kept his hold on the
+government, apparently becoming more securely
+entrenched each year in the love and confidence of
+the soldiery, the priests, and the common people.
+From the safety of exile the liberals wrote crushing
+pamphlets against him and his despotism, his
+favouritism toward the clergy, his steady, relentless
+policy of conservatism and reaction. But their
+attempts at insurrection were feeble and in 1875 he
+was re-elected as a matter of course. The liberals,
+hopeless of ending his domination constitutionally
+or by open war, had recourse to assassination. On
+the 6th of August a party of young Creoles deliberately
+killed him at midday on the principal square<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span>
+of Quito in the presence of the populace and the
+soldiery.</p>
+
+<p>The murderers were executed and the vice-president
+succeeded to the vacancy. However, no one
+appeared big enough to fill Moreno's shoes, and
+his death made civil war inevitable. After a few
+months the vice-president was deposed; then one
+of Moreno's ministers remained at the head of affairs
+for a short time; but finally Antonio Borrero was
+selected president in constitutional form. He proved
+not to possess the resolution requisite to cope with
+the situation. General Veintemilla, commander of
+the troops in Guayaquil, revolted in the name of the
+liberal party, defeated Borrero, and went through
+the usual form of summoning a convention, adopting
+a new Constitution, and having himself named
+president. He held power insecurely and by the
+aid of a personal party from 1878 to 1883, but
+neither conservatives nor liberals were satisfied.
+The radicals attacked him furiously for not putting
+in practice anti-clerical principles, and the conservatives
+never trusted him. When his constitutional
+term expired, the army proclaimed him dictator,
+but he soon fell before the combined forces of his
+enemies. During the fighting Jos&eacute; Camano came
+to the front, and now seized the presidency. Alfaro,
+the principal liberal leader who had co-operated
+with Camano in overthrowing Veintemilla, made
+war against his late ally, but was defeated. The
+new president, once securely in his seat, formed close
+relations with the clergy and the old partisans of
+Moreno, and though the liberal chiefs kept up a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span>
+guerilla warfare in the forests and swamps, he
+finished out his term. In 1888 he was succeeded
+by Antonio Flores, who followed his predecessor's
+policy in the main, and was in his turn succeeded
+by another friend of Camano's&mdash;Luis Cordero. It
+was not until 1895 that the liberals were able to
+gather their forces for a formidable rebellion. Camano
+was then governor of Guayaquil, and the immediate
+occasion of the outbreak was the charge
+that he had taken part in the sale of the Chilean
+iron-clad, <i>Esmeralda</i>, to Japan, then at war with
+China. It was claimed that Ecuador had acted as a
+go-between and committed a wilful breach of the
+rules governing the conduct of neutral nations.
+President Cordero's prestige was seriously compromised
+by this incident. His forces were defeated
+in several actions and he resigned. Alfaro,
+who had been in exile since 1883, returned, took
+possession of Guayaquil, was proclaimed dictator,
+and finally completely overthrew the conservatives
+in the battle of Gatajo. His election to the presidency
+followed in 1897, and he was succeeded four
+years later by the present incumbent, General Leonidas
+Plaza.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 754px;">
+<img src="images/i340.jpg" width="754" height="600" alt="PRINCIPAL STREET IN GUAYAQUIL." title="" />
+<span class="caption">PRINCIPAL STREET IN GUAYAQUIL.</span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Ecuador coast is one of the most fertile and
+lovely regions on the earth. It already furnishes a
+considerable proportion of those tropical products
+of which the great nations of the temperate zone
+demand more every year. Like a Luzon which has
+been stranded at the foot of the Andes, its green
+shores refresh the eyes of the north-bound traveller
+tired of the dreary desert that stretches from Valparaiso
+to the Gulf of Guayaquil; it possesses the
+best harbour on the Pacific south of Panama and
+one of the few in all South America which is not
+mountain-locked. Between the Cordillera and the
+sea there is room for untold millions of cacao and
+coffee trees. In spite of civil war and political upheavals
+which have made her custom-house so often
+the prey of irresponsible bandits, masquerading
+under the name of dictators, Guayaquil's population
+and wealth have increased until she has outstripped
+the hoary old capital, which, enthroned on a volcano
+side, overlooks a narrow strip of cultivable land.
+Nevertheless the plateau is still predominant in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span>
+Ecuadorian state, and supports a vast majority of
+the population. Nine-tenths of the inhabitants of
+the Andean region are Indians, mostly in a condition
+not far removed from bondage, by circumstance and
+their own distrustful natures shut up within the
+narrow limits of an existence which has no outlook
+over the mountains. None the less, they are sturdy
+fellows, admirably suited to the climate of those
+high altitudes, and though their numbers have been
+practically stationary since the Spanish conquest,
+the failure to increase has been rather due to lack of
+room than to misgovernment, vice, or the want of
+the qualities that make for success in the struggle for
+existence. In that day, now near at hand, when
+a great railway shall connect the string of towns
+on the Ecuador plateau with Peru and Colombia,
+and when branches shall run to the ports and take
+the place of the well-nigh impassable trails down the
+tremendous, rain-soaked slopes of the Andes, the
+mountain region of Ecuador may be transformed
+and revivified by new systems of agriculture, and
+the artistic taste and remarkable ingenuity of the
+people may find a market and a reward. The railway
+from Guayaquil long stopped at the foot of the
+mountains, but within the last three years the almost
+insurmountable difficulties of the ascent have been
+overcome by American engineers, and the line is being
+rapidly built along the plateau to Quito. Ecuador
+already supplies the world with Panama hats,
+and other manual industries may flourish when unfavourable
+transportation conditions are removed.
+Not only are the common people patiently indus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span>trious,
+but they possess innate good taste and artistic
+feeling. Such a people has special aptitudes, sure
+to give it a place in that vastly complicated workshop
+into which the multifarious needs of modern
+civilisation are transforming the earth. The plateau
+of Ecuador does not, however, offer room for any
+considerable immigration, and its wheat, barley, and
+potatoes do not and will not much more than suffice
+for local consumption. Ecuador's great future lies
+in the beautiful and as yet sparsely peopled Pacific
+plain, and in the vast and absolutely unknown forests
+which stretch east from the Andes.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;">
+<img src="images/dec-h.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="bbt">
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span></p>
+<h1><a name="VENEZUELA" id="VENEZUELA"></a>VENEZUELA</h1>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-1.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+<h3>CONQUEST, SETTLEMENT, AND COLONIAL DAYS</h3>
+
+
+<p>On his third voyage in 1498 Columbus sighted
+the Venezuelan coast just south of the Windward
+Islands. A year later, Alonso de Ojeda saw
+the mainland at about the same place and skirted
+the coast for four hundred miles west without finding
+any important break in a line of mountains
+which rose almost directly from the sea to a height
+of three to nine thousand feet, covered to their very
+tops with luxuriant vegetation. But there was no
+such barrier as that made by the main Andes on the
+Pacific; the passes were only half a mile instead of
+nearly three miles high; the slopes were not dry
+and desolate as in Peru, or covered with a tangled
+mass of forest as in Pacific Columbia and Ecuador.
+Just beyond the harbour where Puerto Cabello now
+stands, the coast-line turned abruptly to the north-west,
+leaving the mountains farther inland, but the
+intervening plain was swampy and uninviting. Still
+following west, Ojeda rounded Cape San Roman and
+turned south into the great Gulf of Maracaibo.
+There he saw Indian villages of houses built on piles<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span>
+near the shallow shores, and he called the place
+Venezuela&mdash;"little Venice,"&mdash;a name shortly extended
+to the whole coast from the mouth of the
+Orinoco west to the forbidding and uninhabitable
+peninsula of Goajira, which forms the western promontory
+of the Gulf of Maracaibo.</p>
+
+<p>There is no record that either Columbus or Ojeda
+effected a permanent landing, and it was not until
+1510 that some adventurers founded a settlement on
+the small island of Cubagua, in the channel between
+the large island of Margarita and the mainland.
+This was a mere nest of pirates who persecuted the
+Indians of the shore, kidnapping and selling them
+as slaves to the Spaniards on the Antilles, and it
+was shortly abandoned. In 1520, on the coast just
+opposite, was founded the settlement of Cuman&aacute;,
+the oldest city on the South American continent,
+which, though destroyed by the natives, was rebuilt
+in 1525, when valuable pearl fisheries were discovered
+in the neighbouring waters of Margarita. However,
+the place remained of little importance and
+did not become a centre for the colonisation of the
+adjacent country, the Spaniards attaching little
+value to this region because it contained no gold
+washings.</p>
+
+<p>The real colonisation of Venezuela began four
+hundred miles farther west with the foundation in
+1527 of the city of Coro on the narrow neck of land
+which separates the Gulf of Maracaibo from the
+Caribbean Sea. Thence there was easy access by
+water to the shores of the great lagoon, or by land
+over the coast plain to the north-western slopes of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span>
+the Andean range which runs south-west to the giant
+plateau of Pamplona just over the Colombian border.
+The Andean valleys were filled with gold, and among
+the higher mountains lay fertile plateaux, cultivated
+by tribes of semi-civilised Indians. Altogether the
+region was well calculated to stimulate the cupidity
+of adventurers.</p>
+
+<p>Charles V. granted the Venezuela coast to the
+Welser family of Augsburg, the greatest merchants
+of their time and his heavy creditors. Under their
+commission the first adelantado, Alfinger, took possession
+of Coro and conducted various expeditions
+south-west along the Andes, perishing near Pamplona
+about 1531. His successors continued these murdering,
+kidnapping incursions into the interior, often
+being led to their ruin among remote mountain fastnesses
+by tales of a mythical Eldorado, where the
+rivers ran over silver sands, the palaces were of solid
+gold with doors and columns of diamonds and emeralds,
+and the Indian king every morning covered his
+body with gold dust and bathed in precious aromatic
+essences.</p>
+
+<p>Eighteen years, however, elapsed before the Spaniards
+established a permanent settlement in the interior,
+and only in 1545 was the city of Tocuyo
+founded in a beautiful Andean valley a hundred and
+fifty miles south of Coro. But the cruelties of
+the proprietors' agents scandalised public opinion.
+Charles V. declared their concession cancelled and
+a governor, responsible directly to the government,
+was appointed in 1547. Thenceforward the settlement
+of Venezuela proceeded more rapidly.  Five<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span>
+years later the city of Barquisimeto, fifty miles
+north of Tocuyo and near the point where the
+Andes join the coast range, was established on a
+secure footing after hard fighting with the Indians;
+in 1555 the Spaniards penetrated east a hundred
+miles along the lovely plateaux of the coast mountains,
+and founded Valencia. The following year
+they settled Trujillo, fifty miles south-west of Tocuyo,
+and two years later Merida, a hundred miles
+farther in the same direction and not far from the
+Colombian frontier.</p>
+
+<p>To the east of Valencia lay valuable gold washings,
+and to work these the Spaniards fixed a camp at San
+Francisco in the Aragua Valley about 1560. This
+is the garden spot of Venezuela, and the warlike
+Teques Indians, under their terrible chief, Guaicaipuro,
+massacred the miners and defeated several
+expeditions from Valencia and Barquisimeto. It was
+not until 1567 that the Spaniards succeeded in establishing
+their power in the valley of Caracas, which, a
+hundred miles east of Valencia, lies close to the
+shore, although three thousand feet above sea-level
+and separated from the ocean by high mountains.
+The defensibility of the site as well as the fertility
+of the soil pointed it out as the best place for the
+seat of government. A city was founded which ten
+years later replaced Coro as the capital of the province,
+and shortly thereafter a port was opened at
+La Guaira giving direct communication with Spain.
+The savage tribes fought more pertinaciously than
+the civilised natives of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and
+northern Chile and Argentina, and a greater number<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span>
+of Europeans and negroes replaced those who were
+slain. Finally, however, the majority submitted,
+and were incorporated as peasants into the Spanish
+system.</p>
+
+<p>By the end of the sixteenth century the Spaniards
+had obtained undisputed possession of that lovely
+strip of mountainous country which extends from
+Cape Codera west between two parallel coast ranges
+to Barquisimeto and thence west-south-west nearly
+to the head of Lake Maracaibo&mdash;a belt some four
+hundred miles long and fifty or seventy-five wide.
+They also held the great peninsula east of Maracaibo
+Gulf, and had established outlying settlements in
+the llanos south of the mountains, besides the two
+isolated ports&mdash;Cuman&aacute; on the eastern coast and
+Maracaibo on the western. Notwithstanding the
+sack of Caracas in 1595 by the daring British buccaneer,
+Amyas Preston, the colony prospered.
+Unlike the Pacific coast, it had easy and direct
+communication with the Antilles and Europe; the
+altitude was great enough to ensure a healthful
+climate, while its fertile valleys could be reached
+from the sea in a few hours over easy passes, far
+different from those formidable gorges which are the
+only ways of reaching the table-lands of Colombia,
+Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. The interior, instead
+of being a heavily forested plain like that of the
+Amazon, practically inaccessible behind tremendous
+rain-soaked declivities, was an open prairie into
+which the mountains sank gently, and whose grassy
+expanses afforded pasture for innumerable herds.
+These geographical and topographical features have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span>
+been determinative of Venezuela's development and
+history, political as well as industrial.</p>
+
+<p>In the early years of the seventeenth century the
+long-neglected Cuman&aacute; district on the eastern coast
+began to be developed. The city of Barcelona was
+founded in 1617 near a magnificent body of grazing
+land and in the best tobacco country in Venezuela,
+where the Indians had grown the plant for
+untold generations. Barcelona soon became an
+important centre of population, and the starting-point
+for missionaries to the interior tribes. The
+gold placers which had attracted the first adventurers
+to the mountains west of Caracas became exhausted
+within a few decades. Nevertheless, the fertile
+lands, distributed among the Spaniards in encomiendas,
+continued to be cultivated by Indian and negro
+labour, but, although maize, bananas, potatoes, and
+in the higher valleys even wheat, as well as the vine
+and olive, with the cattle introduced by Europeans,
+furnished an abundant supply of food, to say nothing
+of tobacco and sugar, Spain's blind colonial
+policy virtually prevented export of agricultural
+products. The Spanish authorities wanted nothing
+from their American dominions but gold and silver,
+and when Venezuela's placers were exhausted the
+colony was neglected. It was in spite of the prohibition
+of the Spanish government that cacao trees
+were introduced, and the exportation which soon
+grew up&mdash;the first of any importance from Venezuela&mdash;was
+mostly clandestine. Practically all the
+goods legally imported had to be procured from the
+Cadiz monopoly, and were sent to the Isthmus and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span>
+there transhipped into coasting vessels, paying
+enormous freight charges, profits, and duties. Tobacco
+and salt were monopolised by government
+concessionaires, and not a chicken could be sold in
+the markets without paying an exorbitant tax.</p>
+
+<p>Education was completely neglected. It was not
+until 1696 that a priests' school was established in
+Caracas, and when the city of Merida asked a similar
+boon, it was denied because "His Catholic Majesty
+did not deem it wise that education should become
+general in America." So the Creoles grew up nearly
+as ignorant as the Indians around them, although retaining
+all the fierce pride of their Spanish descent,
+acknowledging no man as superior, and retaining
+very dim sentiments of loyalty to the mother country.
+Nevertheless, the ancient municipal forms,
+traditional among peoples of Spanish descent, survived,
+furnishing the framework of civil government,
+while the priesthood constituted a moral and
+intellectual tie binding the Creoles to their Castilian
+ancestors.</p>
+
+<p>The repressive regulations against commerce could
+not be perfectly enforced. Although the arrival of
+a ship from Spain was a real event, British, Dutch,
+and French traders frequented the coast, opening
+markets with their swords, and often turning buccaneers
+and sacking a town when not satisfied with
+their reception. But the burning of a few coast
+hamlets was more than compensated by the advantages
+of practical free-trade, and Venezuela owed
+much of the prosperity she enjoyed during the
+seventeenth century to these semi-pirates.  The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span>
+settlements crept along the Andean valleys to the Colombian
+frontier; the Creoles ventured farther and
+farther into the wide plains of the Orinoco and their
+cattle were soon roaming half-wild in the immense
+and luxuriant pastures stretching south of the agricultural
+strip. From the mixture of the Indians of
+the llanos with Europeans sprang a new race of men,
+the semi-nomadic llaneros, whose hardiness, courage,
+horsemanship, and prowess as hunters of big game
+have given them equal celebrity with the gauchos of
+the Argentine, the cossacks of the Russian steppes,
+or the Texas cowboys. The buccaneers and smuggling
+traders were especially active in the latter
+part of the seventeenth century. In 1654 Frenchmen
+were repelled in an attack on Cuman&aacute;, but in
+1669 the Britisher, Morgan, sacked Maracaibo, and
+in 1679 the French pillaged Caracas itself. The
+paralysis suffered by Spain during the war of the
+Spanish Succession nearly destroyed Venezuelan
+commerce, and it did not recover with the peace of
+Utrecht. Only five ships arrived in the first thirty
+years of the eighteenth century, and from 1706 to
+1721 not a single vessel sailed for Spain.</p>
+
+<p>The Spanish government determined to try if
+another system would not bring a larger revenue
+into the royal treasury. The Guipuzcoa Company
+was granted an exclusive franchise to buy and sell in
+the colony, and the operations of this powerful corporation
+galvanised commerce into a certain activity.
+In order to stimulate the receipt of hides, and prevent
+the incursions of wild plains Indians, trading
+posts were established in the llanos, and soon the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span>
+prairies south of Valencia and Caracas rivalled the
+Barcelona country in cattle, and the ranches extended
+up the Apur&eacute;, the great western tributary of
+the Orinoco, to the foot of the Colombian Andes.
+Meanwhile expeditions penetrated up the Orinoco
+from its mouth, and in 1764 the city of Angostura
+was established four hundred miles from the sea.
+The operations of the Guipuzcoa Company did not
+aid in establishing a more friendly understanding
+between the home government and the Venezuelan
+Creoles. The independent merchants constantly
+quarrelled with the company's agents; the low prices
+for which they were compelled to sell their stock
+outraged the ranch owners; the farmers resented the
+monopolisation of tobacco and the restrictions on
+sugar-culture; exorbitant prices were demanded
+for imported goods. Protests became so loud that
+special commissioners were sent from Spain to investigate,
+but they gave no satisfactory relief.
+Shortly after the foundation of the Guipuzcoa Company,
+Venezuela had been raised to the dignity of a
+captaincy-general. The increased efficiency of the
+administration assisted the monopoly in suppressing
+clandestine trading, and the feeling grew to such a
+height that in 1749 a Creole leader, named Leon,
+menaced Caracas itself at the head of six thousand
+armed men, demanding the suppression of the company
+and the expulsion of its factors. The captain-general
+was forced to yield and the revolutionists
+dispersed, but his promise was never redeemed. The
+active measures of the company effectually shut off
+foreign trading-ships, and the ports were so fortified<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span>
+that the British expeditions retired defeated from
+the attacks they made in 1739 and 1743 on La Guaira
+and Puerto Cabello, although in 1797 they captured
+the island of Trinidad and menaced the entrance to
+the Orinoco. It was not until 1778, when the Spanish
+government finally abandoned the monopolistic
+colonial system and opened all the ports of South
+America to free commerce with each other and with
+Spain, that the Guipuzcoa Company retired from
+business. Six years before this the provinces of
+Maracaibo, Cuman&aacute;, and Guiana&mdash;as the lower
+Orinoco region was called,&mdash;all of which had heretofore
+been directly dependent upon the viceroy of
+Bogot&aacute;, were placed under the jurisdiction of the
+captain-general of Caracas, fixing the modern boundaries
+of Venezuela.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;">
+<img src="images/dec-d.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-4.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<h3>THE REVOLT</h3>
+
+
+<p>Venezuela's conditions during colonial times
+produced a people possessing in the clearest
+and most accentuated form the characteristics distinctive
+of the Spanish Creole. Not more than one
+per cent. of the total population of over eight hundred
+thousand were native Spaniards; fifteen per
+cent. were Creoles of pure European descent; sixty
+per cent. were Indian, two-thirds of whom had an
+admixture of white blood; and three-fourths of the
+twenty-five per cent. of negroes and mulattoes were
+free. The majority did not consist of docile, inert,
+pure-bred natives as in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and
+Paraguay, though the white element was not so large
+that the Creoles had ceased to occupy the position
+of a governing and property-owning caste who lived
+upon the labour of the half-breeds, Indians, and
+negroes. They regarded themselves as a superior
+class, entitled by birth to exemption from manual
+labour, and even considered commercial pursuits
+unworthy a gentleman.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 640px;">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></span>
+<img src="images/i358.jpg" width="640" height="424" alt="ANCIENT INDIAN ROCK FOR GRINDING MAIZE." title="" />
+<span class="caption">ANCIENT INDIAN ROCK FOR GRINDING MAIZE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Spanish government had concerned itself
+little with this purely agricultural colony, and its
+hand was felt only in the collection of taxes. The
+officials were comparatively few, the number of resident
+Spaniards small, and neither mutual commercial
+interests nor a solid administration existed to
+strengthen the flimsy ties that bound Venezuela to
+the mother-country. So little had the interference
+of the Spanish government been felt since the abolishment
+of the Guipuzcoa Company that no well-defined
+and widespread sentiment in favour of
+separation existed. There was a vague feeling of
+dissatisfaction among the masses, but their ignorance
+prevented them from forming any rational plans for
+the betterment of their condition. However, the
+Venezuelan coast is so accessible that the fertilising<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</a></span>
+and disturbing currents of trade and ideas had really
+profoundly modified the people, and the leaven of unrest
+was at work. The wealthier Creoles had imbibed
+radical notions and were ambitious of trying their
+hands at governing. By heredity, social custom,
+and environment indisposed to industry and commerce,
+their unemployed activities naturally flowed
+into the channel of politics, intrigue, and fighting.</p>
+
+<p>The first outbreak owed its origin to events in
+Spain. In 1796 a republican conspiracy was brought
+to light on the Peninsula, and several of its leaders
+were exiled to La Guaira. In their prison they
+were visited by many prominent Creoles, into whose
+minds they inculcated their republican principles,
+and it was not long before the existence of an extensive
+republican plot among the Creoles of La
+Guaira and Caracas was denounced to the captain-general.
+Many persons were arrested, and of the
+two principals, Espa&ntilde;a expiated his treason on the
+scaffold, while the other, Gual, escaped into exile.
+But the seed of revolution had been planted, and
+many leading Creoles entered into correspondence
+with the British authorities on Trinidad, who promised
+aid in arms, munitions, and ships. Francisco
+Miranda, a native of Caracas, who had fought under
+Washington, and distinguished himself at Valmy
+and Jemappes as a soldier of the French republic,
+planned an invasion with the avowed purpose of
+achieving Venezuelan separation from Spain. With
+three ships manned by American filibusters he sailed
+from New York early in 1806, and attempted to
+land at Ocumare, near Puerto Cabello.  But the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</a></span>
+Spanish authorities had been warned and he was
+beaten in a sea-fight where he lost sixty prisoners.
+Ten North Americans were condemned by court-martial
+and shot in Puerto Cabello, and their names
+are inscribed on a monument recently erected in the
+principal square of the town. The captain-general
+offered thirty thousand dollars for Miranda's head,
+but the latter retired to Jamaica, where, with the
+help of the British authorities, he organised a force
+of five hundred foreigners. Three months later he
+made a descent on Coro, effected a landing, and took
+the city. But the population remained inert, and
+the indifferent or hostile attitude of the region forced
+him to withdraw.</p>
+
+<p>Though the western provinces received Miranda
+so coldly, among the Creoles of the upper classes at
+Caracas aspirations for constitutional government,
+autonomy, and even for independence had made
+headway in the ten years since the suppression of
+the conspiracy of Gual and Espa&ntilde;a. In 1808 French
+commissioners arrived bringing the news of Ferdinand's
+expulsion. They were empowered to receive
+the allegiance of the colony for Joseph Bonaparte,
+but the captain-general hesitated and asked the
+advice of leading citizens, who proved unanimous
+against recognising the French r&eacute;gime. The captain-general's
+vacillation gave the Creoles of the
+cabildo a predominance in governmental councils.
+Although in the middle of the following year it was
+decided to recognise the Seville junta as supreme,
+pending Ferdinand's return, this decision was
+reached only after many debates, and a numerous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></span>
+party among the Creoles saw no reason why Venezuela
+should not establish a junta of her own. The
+news of the frightful cruelties perpetrated by Goyeneche
+in suppressing the junta at La Paz excited
+great indignation among Creoles; the anti-Spanish
+feeling grew rapidly; and when, on the 19th of
+April, 1810, the captain-general summoned an open
+cabildo to receive the news that the French armies
+had overrun nearly the whole of Spain and that
+only Cadiz remained faithful to Ferdinand, the electors
+had no sooner met than, excited by suggestions
+of ambitious persons, they turned into a mob howling
+for the resignation of the captain-general and the
+establishment of a Caracas junta. Accordingly a
+junta was named which exiled the Spanish functionaries
+and sent messages to the provincial capitals
+demanding their adhesion. The cities of the mountain
+strip extending from Cuman&aacute; to the Colombian
+Andes responded favourably and sent delegates to
+Caracas, while Maracaibo, Coro, and Guiana refused.
+As a matter of fact the masses as yet took little interest.
+The Caracas revolution was effected by a
+few determined spirits, and the adhesion of the
+mountain provinces was given by Creole municipal
+authorities who saw in the change an opportunity
+to better their personal fortunes. Nor was the resistance
+of Coro and Maracaibo so much inspired by
+love of Spain as by the presence of the resolute,
+clear-headed Jos&eacute; Ceballos, who gathered troops and
+sent emissaries into the revolted provinces. The
+Caracas junta responded by raising an army which
+marched toward Coro, and the civil war was on.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The news of the massacre of the Ecuadorean
+revolutionists at Quito in August, 1810, warned the
+junta Creoles that they had engaged in no child's
+play. A commission went to London to solicit the
+intervention of the British government in reaching
+an accommodation with the patriot authorities in
+Spain, but the Seville junta declared the Caracas
+revolutionists traitors. The commissioners fell under
+Miranda's influence and he convinced them that an
+open declaration of independence was the only course
+left. Meanwhile the troops sent to conquer Coro
+had been defeated by Ceballos. Threatened by the
+royalist arms, unable to count on the support of
+any considerable proportion of the rural population
+of even their own provinces, the Creoles of the ruling
+coterie proceeded to extreme measures. A congress
+met in March and on the 5th of July, 1811,
+adopted a declaration of independence, proclaiming
+the seven provinces of Cuman&aacute;, Barcelona, Caracas,
+Barinas, Trujillo, Merida, and Margarita free and
+sovereign states. Venezuela was, therefore, the
+first independent republic in Spanish America.
+Congress adopted a Constitution full of the most
+radical reforms and advanced ideas, and a handful
+of political theorists and advanced radicals took the
+direction of affairs, and imposed their crude theories
+on a bewildered and reluctant population. The
+ruling clique issued fiat money in immense quantities,
+and the resulting disorganisation of business
+increased discontent.</p>
+
+<p>Miranda, who had come from Europe to take
+command of military operations, warned them that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</a></span>
+the fabric was not strong enough to withstand the
+shock of battle, but the eager young reformers persisted.
+The clergy and the native Spaniards were
+the first to react. Though an outbreak of the
+Spaniards in Caracas was bloodily suppressed, the
+priests stirred up the people of Valencia, and that
+city&mdash;the second in the republic&mdash;declared against
+the Caracas government. Miranda succeeded in
+reducing the place only after costly fighting. The
+ruling clique did what they could to raise and equip
+troops to meet the approaching attacks from Coro
+and the West Indies, but their efforts were hampered
+by loyalist risings. In February, 1812, Monteverde,
+a Spanish leader, marched with a small detachment
+south from Coro, and northern Trujillo welcomed
+him. Defeating the patriot forces wherever he met
+them and refusing quarter to his prisoners, he prepared
+to advance eastward on the centre of the
+revolution. The junta was already trembling, when,
+on the 26th of March, a terrific earthquake devastated
+the revolted provinces. The solid ground
+rocked with such violent oscillations that in less
+than a minute the cities of Caracas, Barquisimeto,
+and Merida were mere heaps of ruins. Twelve
+thousand persons perished in Caracas alone. The
+loyalist provinces escaped injury, and the priests
+preached that the earthquake was a punishment sent
+by God upon impious rebellion. The people of
+Barquisimeto joined Monteverde, and he marched
+east, slaughtering the raw recruits with which the
+patriot leaders tried to block his way. Merida,
+Trujillo, and Barinas declared for the king, and an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></span>
+expedition sent from Caracas to the lower Orinoco
+was destroyed. Monteverde entered Valencia unopposed
+and only the coast from Caracas east to
+Cuman&aacute; remained to the republic. In despair the
+politicians made Miranda dictator, but, though the
+army numbered five thousand, he had no confidence
+in his men. He signed a capitulation and tried to
+fly while his army dispersed or joined the loyalist
+forces. On the 30th of July Monteverde entered
+Caracas and the first Venezuelan revolution ceased
+to exist.</p>
+
+<p>Among the volunteer officers who had been entrusted
+with positions of confidence by Miranda was
+a young Creole, named Simon Bolivar. Heir to
+some of the largest estates in Venezuela he had been
+left an orphan at three years of age, and was educated
+by a tutor who filled his marvellously impressible
+mind with a crude political philosophy, and
+under whose teachings he evolved original theories
+of government which all the wars, debates, and
+revolutions of his stormy life failed to modify. Preoccupied
+with his own ideas, he gave no heed to the
+counsels of others, took no thought of obstacles,
+and, victor or vanquished, stubbornly followed his
+own way, always confident of infallibility and persevering
+in the face of difficulties that would have
+appalled a rational man. From his earliest childhood
+a little feudal lord, owing obedience to no
+parent, with hundreds of slaves at his orders, his
+precocious intelligence the object of that ruinous
+admiration with which thoughtless strangers and
+servants spoil a rich and lonely child, his naturally<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span>
+strong will uncurbed by any discipline, he grew into
+manhood&mdash;arrogant, uncompromising, solitary, suspicious,
+a deep thinker, wildly ambitious, marvellously
+brilliant, though lacking steady common-sense,
+blindly confident of his own moral and intellectual
+infallibility, firmly convinced that he was destined
+for vague great things, inordinately fond of honours
+and praise, and absolutely unable to distinguish his
+desires of gratifying selfish ambitions, and his yeasty
+notions of regenerating mankind. At sixteen he
+went to Spain to complete his education; his wealth
+procured him an entrance into the aristocratic families
+of Madrid; and he even penetrated the precincts
+of the ceremonious court and had the honour of
+playing ball with the lad who afterwards became
+Ferdinand VII. When only eighteen he married a
+beautiful girl, who died shortly after he brought her
+back to Caracas. For the rest of his life he remained
+without family ties. Again he went to
+Europe and wandered through England, France,
+and Italy, falling more and more under the spell of
+the mighty spirit of Napoleon the Great. At the
+age of twenty-three Bolivar returned to his native
+country and took up his life as a rich slave-owner.
+When the revolution broke out in 1810 he took no
+part until the junta requested him to go to England
+on the embassy previously mentioned. There he
+became acquainted with Miranda, and, appreciating
+that the South American revolution must be decided
+by arms, made up his mind that only as a soldier
+could he put himself at the head of affairs in Venezuela.
+His first essays in the military art were not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span>
+successful, and it was he who lost Puerto Cabello,
+giving the first revolution its <i>coup de gr&acirc;ce</i>. But
+a situation in which others saw no hope he regarded
+as an opportunity, and he resolved to devote his life
+to South American independence.</p>
+
+<p>Bolivar went to Cartagena in Colombia and offered
+his sword to the patriot junta which ruled that city.
+Given a small military command on the Magdalena
+River, he embodied a few militia and surprised two
+posts which were obstructing the navigation of the
+river. Delighted at these successes, the Cartagena
+junta sent him reinforcements, with which he captured
+Ocana, an important city lying east of the
+Magdalena and not far from Pamplona and the
+Venezuelan border. The loyalists had collected a
+considerable force in the Venezuelan province of
+Barinas, with which they proposed to advance into
+Pamplona. The patriot chief of this Colombian
+province appealed to Bolivar and this suggested to
+him the Napoleonic plan of relieving Pamplona and
+reconquering Venezuela. On his own responsibility
+he dashed with only four hundred men over the
+Andes in front of Ocana, descended into the plain
+north of Lake Maracaibo, took the royalists on their
+march to Pamplona by surprise, and routed them.
+Joined by the patriots from Pamplona, he received
+formal authorisation to drive the Spaniards from
+the Venezuelan provinces of Merida and Trujillo.
+His movements among the mountain valleys were
+like lightning flashes, and though the Spanish forces
+were more numerous their commanders were demoralised
+by his attacks made in defiance of all the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</a></span>
+rules of prudent warfare. Within fifty days there
+was not an enemy left in the two provinces, and
+Bolivar's army had been trebled by enlistments. The
+New Granadan government ordered him to pause,
+but he paid no heed. Issuing a proclamation that
+no quarter would be given, he crossed the mountains
+south-west into the province of Barinas, annihilated
+the Spanish forces there, and rushing to the
+east caught another army of a thousand men near
+Valencia and destroyed it. Monteverde had no
+time to concentrate his scattered forces, and the
+news of this last defeat caused him to flee to the
+protection of the fortifications of Puerto Cabello.
+Bolivar occupied Valencia and Caracas without
+resistance. In a campaign of ninety days, with a
+handful of New Granadans and mountaineers from
+western Venezuela, he had defeated and dispersed
+over four thousand royalists, and conquered the
+country from the Andes to the capital.</p>
+
+<p>Only the lower plains of the Orinoco and the coast
+provinces of Maracaibo and Coro remained royalist,
+for while Bolivar had been overrunning the west,
+another young Creole, Mari&ntilde;o, had led a small expedition
+from the island of Margarita, captured
+Maturin just east of the mouth of the Orinoco, and
+with the military stores found there armed the inhabitants
+of Cuman&aacute; province, made ripe for revolt
+by the cruelties of Monteverde. The Spanish attempts
+to recover Maturin by assault were repulsed
+with great slaughter, and Mari&ntilde;o followed up his
+success by besieging Cuman&aacute;. By the time Bolivar
+reached Caracas the place was in the last extremities<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[Pg 368]</a></span>
+of starvation, and Monteverde's flight was a signal
+for its surrender. There were therefore two dictators
+in Venezuela, and Mari&ntilde;o sent to Bolivar to
+treat about the form of government, but the latter
+had determined on a centralised administration with
+himself supreme. Mari&ntilde;o refused to agree, and only
+the activity of the loyalists prevented a war between
+him and Bolivar.</p>
+
+<p>Monteverde held out in Puerto Cabello, and when
+reinforcements arrived from Spain resumed the
+offensive. Though Bolivar won a victory at Las
+Trincheiras, and was greeted on his return to Caracas
+with the title of "Liberator," reaction had in
+fact begun. Reports of loyalist movements came
+from all sides; Bolivar's power was confined to the
+towns; the terrible Boves roused the llaneros and
+gathered the nucleus of a formidable army of horsemen.
+Ceballos sallied out from Coro and captured
+Barquisimeto, utterly defeating Bolivar when the
+latter attacked him. Difficulties, however, only
+stimulated this remarkable man to fresh exertions.
+The patriot leader, Campo Elias, overthrew Boves's
+horsemen near Calabozo on the llanos south of Caracas,
+killing the prisoners and butchering every man
+in the town because it had helped the loyalists.
+This cruel deed decided the llaneros for the Spanish
+side, and though Bolivar, with the assistance of
+Campo Elias's troops, won the pitched battle of
+Araure from Ceballos, Boves had escaped to the
+plains there to recruit another army of llaneros,
+which was destined to expel the Liberator.</p>
+
+<p>Bolivar was soon reduced to the possession of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</a></span>
+Caracas and its neighbouring valleys, with a feeble
+reserve at Valencia. Mari&ntilde;o had thirty-five hundred
+men, and Bolivar finally agreed to recognise him
+as dictator of the eastern provinces as the price of
+his help. But their union only put off the evil
+day. Boves crushed Campo Elias at La Puerta and
+advanced on Caracas. Raging like a trapped wild
+beast, Bolivar ordered the wholesale assassination of
+eight hundred and sixty-six Spaniards confined at
+La Guaira. His desperation inspired his followers,
+and when Boves attacked the entrenchments outside
+Caracas and rushed the patriot magazine, the young
+Granadan who was in command, seeing that the
+place could not be held, ordered his men to fly, but
+when the loyalists triumphantly rushed into the
+building they found him in the act of throwing a
+match into the powder. In the explosion eight
+hundred of the assaulting column were blown into
+the air and the survivors desisted. Mari&ntilde;o was
+coming by forced marches from the east along the
+plains, and Boves retired to cut him off, while
+Ceballos also abandoned the siege of Valencia.
+Mari&ntilde;o eluded Boves and beat off one attack. If
+the Liberator had concentrated his forces and united
+with his colleague the patriots would have stood a
+chance, but he sent most of his own troops to recover
+the west, joining Mari&ntilde;o with only a few men.
+At La Puerta on the 14th of June, 1814, the battle
+decisive of the second Venezuelan revolution was
+fought. The desperate charges of Boves's llanero
+horsemen overwhelmed the patriots, and more
+than half their number were left dead on the field.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[Pg 370]</a></span>
+Bolivar fled to Caracas, gathered all the money and
+jewels, and, encumbered by a great multitude of
+fugitives, retreated east. But at Aragua the patriots
+were driven out of their trenches with terrific slaughter.
+The Liberator took ship at Barcelona with the
+intention of making a last stand near the mouth of
+the Orinoco, but his comrades had had enough of
+him. He was declared a traitor and Rivas put in
+command. The remaining patriots managed to repulse
+one attack of the royalists, but in a second
+they were defeated, and in a third Boves slaughtered
+them nearly to the last man, although he himself
+was killed in the m&ecirc;l&eacute;e. Only a few scattered bands
+on the plateaux of Barcelona and the plains of the
+upper Orinoco kept up a resistance. The detachment
+which Bolivar had so imprudently sent west
+before the battle of La Puerta escaped into New
+Granada, while the Liberator went by sea to that
+country and took service under its government.</p>
+
+<p>The revolution headed by Bolivar and Mari&ntilde;o had
+been crushed by Boves, Morales, and Ceballos with
+troops recruited in Venezuela itself. Monteverde's
+defeat and Boves's death left Morales master of
+Venezuela, and virtually independent of outside
+control. But by 1815 Ferdinand was securely on
+the throne of Spain, and absolutism had replaced
+the Constitution established by the popular leaders
+of 1812. The Spanish government determined to
+suppress the revolutionists  who still maintained
+themselves in New Granada and the Argentine, and
+to reduce the semi-independent royalist chiefs to a
+more exact obedience.  In April, Morillo, Spain's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</a></span>
+ablest general, arrived near Cuman&aacute; at the head of
+ten thousand veteran regulars. Morales sailed out
+to meet the Marshal and place his troops at his
+orders, but the regular officers gazed in astonishment
+at the dark-skinned llaneros, wearing only a
+hat and a waist-cloth, who were the pillars of royal
+authority in Venezuela. At first the Spaniards accepted
+the aid of these half-savage allies, but Morillo
+lost no time in establishing a military despotism in
+which the llanero chiefs had no place. Even more
+unpopular was his leaving three thousand Spaniards
+to garrison Venezuela while he impressed an equal
+number of native troops to accompany him on his
+expedition against New Granada. Nearly a third
+of the latter deserted rather than embark, and the
+attitude of the Spanish officers who were left behind
+to rule the country roused the native instinct for
+independence.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the scattered bands of patriot guerillas
+on the western headwaters of the Orinoco, near the
+Granadan border, had been uniting and increasing
+in strength. Jos&eacute; Antonio Paez, a mixed-blood,
+only twenty-six years old, who could neither read
+nor write, but of herculean strength and skill in the
+use of lance and sword, proved the leader for the
+occasion. A small corps in which he was a simple
+captain was threatened by the Spanish governor of
+Barinas at the head of fourteen hundred men. His
+own commander wished to retreat, but Paez persuaded
+five hundred reckless fellows to follow him
+in a night assault. Leading his men in a furious
+charge he bore down the enemy with a rush, killing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</a></span>
+four hundred and taking many prisoners, whom he
+treated so well that they all joined him. The fame
+of his success spread through the llanos and the
+rough plainsmen, dissatisfied with the discipline and
+routine of the regular Spanish officers, flocked to
+the banner of this new chieftain, and he began the
+organisation of the army of the Apur&eacute;, destined to
+be the principal instrument in the redemption of
+Venezuela.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[Pg 373]</a></span>
+<img src="images/i373.jpg" width="800" height="470" alt="THE PASS OF ANGOSTURA, BOLIVAR CITY." title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE PASS OF ANGOSTURA, BOLIVAR CITY.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the guerilla chiefs farther down the
+Orinoco made headway against the Spaniards, and
+the whole plain turned to the patriot side. Hearing
+of these successes, Bolivar resolved to return to
+Venezuela. He landed near the mouth of the
+Orinoco, but was soon driven thence and took ship
+for Ocumare, near Puerto Cabello. From this point
+he sent a small expedition inland towards Valencia
+under the command of MacGregor, who achieved
+some successes against isolated bodies of loyalists,
+was joined by many llaneros, and finally made his
+way to the plains of Barcelona, while Bolivar was
+compelled to re-embark and flee to Hayti. MacGregor
+took the city of Barcelona, and then with
+the assistance of the negro chief, Piar, who had been
+besieging Cuman&aacute;, repulsed Morales himself at the
+battle of Juncal. By the end of 1816 the patriots
+had gained so many advantages that Morillo thought
+himself obliged to return to Venezuela at the head
+of huge reinforcements. However, the patriot cause
+needed a head. The chieftains were rude and ignorant
+men with a talent for fighting and nothing more,
+while Bolivar was a man of wide and varied
+accom<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[Pg 374]</a></span>plishments. In spite of his failures he retained great
+prestige among the Creole officers. He was agreed
+upon as general-in-chief, and in December landed at
+Barcelona. But Piar had led his victorious army
+over to the Orinoco, and notwithstanding Bolivar's
+entreaties the llaneros persisted in their refusal to
+return to a country where cavalry could not man&#339;uvre
+to advantage. When Bolivar arrived at Piar's
+headquarters near Angostura he appreciated that
+the true theatre for a successful war had been
+found. In those plains the llanero cavalry, which
+formed the bulk of the patriot force, was invincible.
+Morillo also realised that the coast would not long
+remain tenable if the line of the Orinoco were in the
+hands of the patriots, and he sent a regular force of
+three thousand men under La Torre down the Apur&eacute;
+and Orinoco to Angostura, while he himself quickly
+made an end of the few insurrectionists who stubbornly
+refused to retire from the coast to the llanos.
+During one of Bolivar's absences, La Torre offered
+Piar battle, and at San Felix, in April, 1817, the
+plainsmen annihilated the Spanish infantry.</p>
+
+<p>Bolivar now went vigorously to work to secure
+complete command of the river and soon had quite
+a fleet. His ascendancy over his officers increased
+daily, and when Piar conspired against him he was
+strong enough to have the negro hero arrested and
+shot as a traitor. Before the end of 1817 the
+patriots were in command of the whole line of the
+rivers except the fortress of San Fernando, near
+the junction of the Apur&eacute; and Orinoco, and Morillo
+could do nothing against them because the plains<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[Pg 375]</a></span>
+were flooded. When the waters fell in early spring
+the royalists achieved some successes, but Bolivar
+joined Paez, established a blockade of San Fernando,
+and surprised Morillo himself near Calabozo. Against
+Paez's advice he now insisted on making a campaign
+for the recovery of Caracas, but was badly defeated
+by the marshal at La Puerta&mdash;a spot for the third
+time the scene of a patriot downfall. Though Paez
+had captured San Fernando his expedition into the
+mountain country was no more successful than Bolivar's,
+and the two retreated to the river to raise
+fresh troops. Morales followed the patriots to the
+Apur&eacute;, but was in his turn repulsed by Paez, giving
+Bolivar a breathing spell.</p>
+
+<p>The Liberator's position was desperate; his infantry
+had been destroyed; his cavalry reduced in
+numbers; his men were nearly without arms; his
+ammunition exhausted. Ill-considered movements
+had turned the brilliant situation in which he had
+found patriot affairs a year before into the gloomiest
+sort of an outlook. On the other hand, a defensive
+campaign in the llanos could be kept up indefinitely,
+and though Morillo had twelve thousand men in the
+populous mountain provinces north of the plains,
+he also was without money, arms, and supplies. As
+he reported to the Peruvian viceroy: "Twelve
+pitched battles in which the best officers and troops
+of the enemy have fallen, have not lowered their
+pride or lessened the vigour of their attacks."
+With that indomitable energy which more than
+compensated for his inferiority as a strategist, Bolivar
+set to work to create a new army.  Cavalry of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[Pg 376]</a></span>
+most admirable sort could be recruited in sufficient
+numbers among the llaneros, but bitter experience
+had convinced him that against Spanish regulars the
+native infantry stood little chance. The cessation
+of the Napoleonic wars had left thousands of European
+veterans without employment, and Bolivar
+contracted for a few thousand Britishers and Irishmen,
+paying a bounty of eighty dollars per man on
+enlistment and promising five hundred dollars at
+the conclusion of the war. Some of these troops
+arrived opportunely late in 1818, and, few as their
+numbers were, no soldiers in South America could
+stand against them.</p>
+
+<p>In October Bolivar issued a proclamation foreshadowing
+the union of Venezuela and New Granada.
+In the midst of defeat, with all of both
+countries except the thinly populated Orinoco plains
+in possession of the Spaniards, he was confidently
+planning the creation of a great empire. Morillo
+opened the campaign of 1819 by advancing with
+over six thousand men against Paez on the upper
+Orinoco. The Creole's four thousand were mostly
+cavalry, and he had learned better than to risk a
+pitched battle. The Spanish columns were harassed
+beyond endurance by his light horsemen, and after
+weeks of heartbreaking marches Morillo had to retire,
+having accomplished nothing.</p>
+
+<p>From Bolivar's erratic genius now emanated a
+great stroke of strategy. West of the plains of the
+Apur&eacute; and Casanare, tributaries of the upper Orinoco,
+rises the giant range of the Cordillera and on
+its top lay the fertile plateaux of Socorro, Tunja,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[Pg 377]</a></span>
+and Bogot&aacute;, the populous heart of New Granada.
+For three years the Spaniards had been in secure
+possession and all except three thousand troops
+had been drafted for service in Venezuela and Peru.
+A small Spanish force came down from Tunja to
+attack the patriot guerillas in Casanare, and was
+repulsed. Where the enemy could go he could follow,
+reasoned Bolivar. Paez's cavalry had proved
+itself amply able to hold the llanos, so no risk to
+Venezuela would be incurred by temporarily withdrawing
+part of the infantry. With two thousand
+natives and five hundred British the Liberator followed
+up the Orinoco, Meta, and Casanare to the
+latter's sources at the foot of the Paya pass, which
+leads directly into the fertile valley of Sagamoso,
+the heart of Tunja province. This pass is high and
+very difficult, although the distance to be traversed
+was only eighty miles. The road was a mere track
+leading along precipices, crossing and recrossing
+mountain torrents, and the rain fell incessantly as
+the patriots struggled up the slippery path. When
+they reached the higher regions a hundred men perished
+with the cold, and not a horse survived. The
+army arrived at Sagamoso in a pitiable condition,
+but without seeing an enemy except an outpost,
+which was easily dislodged.</p>
+
+<p>Not knowing Bolivar's numbers, Barreiro, the
+Spanish commander, dared not attack, and the
+Liberator thus obtained a much-needed opportunity
+to rest his men and gather horses for his dismounted
+cavalry. As soon as he got his army in hand he
+outman&#339;uvred Barreiro and by a rapid march<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[Pg 378]</a></span>
+captured the city of Tunja, where he found a good
+store of arms and material. This movement also
+placed the patriot army between the Spaniards and
+Bogot&aacute;. Barreiro, seeing himself cut off from his
+base, made a desperate dash for the capital, but
+Bolivar knew the enemy's route and took up a position
+directly across his path on the right bank of the
+small river Boyac&aacute;. Though the patriots were only
+slightly superior in numbers, the Spaniards had to
+attack at a disadvantage, and fled completely defeated
+after losing a hundred men. Practically
+their whole force was dispersed or made prisoners.
+Small as were the numbers engaged and easily as it
+was won, Boyac&aacute; was the most important battle
+fought in northern Spanish America. Central New
+Granada, the wealthiest and most populous part of
+the country, fell into Bolivar's hands without a
+further blow. Its revenues relieved his financial
+difficulties and among its sturdy inhabitants he
+recruited a new army. Morillo, now isolated in
+Venezuela, must expect an attack from the llaneros,
+reinforced by the Granadan mountaineers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[Pg 379]</a></span>
+<img src="images/i379.jpg" width="600" height="784" alt="ROAD NEAR MACUTO." title="" />
+<span class="caption">ROAD NEAR MACUTO.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>During the Liberator's absence from Venezuela
+he had been branded as a traitor for abandoning his
+country without the authorisation of congress, and
+Mari&ntilde;o made commander-in-chief. But the news
+of Boyac&aacute; fell like a thunderbolt among the disaffected,
+and his return in December quelled them
+utterly. No opposition was made when he announced
+that Venezuela and New Granada were
+united into a single republic, the United States of
+Colombia, with himself as president and military
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[Pg 380]</a></span>
+dictator. The year 1820 passed without any decisive
+campaign. Bolivar occupied himself principally
+in recruiting and refitting his armies. Twelve
+hundred Irish mercenaries arrived and were incorporated
+with an army which was sent by sea to
+threaten the Spaniards in Cartagena, and co-operate
+with the New Granadans on the lower Magdalena.
+A strong division of Venezuelans was sent against
+Quito. Paez with the main army of the Apur&eacute; was,
+however, repulsed in an advance into Barinas. In
+spite of this success Morillo could only lie inactive
+south of Caracas. His forces were not numerous
+enough both to retake New Granada and to hold
+northern Venezuela. But word came that Ferdinand
+was preparing an army of twenty thousand men
+which would shortly sail from Cadiz for America,
+and with this reinforcement the marshal believed he
+could destroy all the patriot armies. The revolution
+which broke out in Spain in 1820 against Ferdinand's
+absolute government overturned his hopes.
+The expedition never sailed, and the new liberal
+government showed itself disposed to make terms
+with the revolted colonies. In November a six
+months' armistice was arranged pending the despatch
+of peace commissioners to the mother-country,
+and Morillo resigned in favour of La Torre.</p>
+
+<p>Bolivar's lieutenants respected the armistice only
+where convenient, and shamelessly continued warlike
+operations, wresting the New Granadan coast
+from the Spaniards, beginning the siege of Cartagena,
+and encouraging a revolt in the province of
+Maracaibo.  When La Torre declared the armistice<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[Pg 381]</a></span>
+at an end late in April, 1821, Bolivar had twenty
+thousand men in the field disposed in five armies.
+Montilla was besieging Cartagena with three thousand;
+one Granadan army held the valley of the
+Magdalena; another was operating against Ecuador;
+Bermudez with two thousand men threatened Caracas
+from the east; and Bolivar and Paez at the head
+of nine thousand men were ready to advance directly
+from the Orinoco on Valencia and Caracas. To
+these forces La Torre could only oppose nine thousand
+troops besides his garrisons. The moment the
+armistice was formally terminated Bolivar started
+straight for La Torre. The latter had made the
+fatal mistake of dividing his forces, and had only
+about three thousand men drawn up on the wide
+plain of Carabobo, at the northern foot of the passes
+which lead through the mountains from the llanos
+to the Valencia plateau. Bolivar's six thousand
+captured the passes, but he could not deploy his
+infantry on the flat ground in front except at the
+risk of having them cut to pieces. On June 23,
+1821, he detached the British legion of one thousand
+men and fifteen hundred cavalry under Paez around
+to the left to take the Spaniards in flank. The
+charge of the llanero horse was driven back by
+the musket fire, but the pursuing Spaniards were
+checked by the steady Englishmen, who stood in
+their tracks and withstood the fire of the whole Spanish
+army. Their ammunition was soon exhausted;
+no help came from Bolivar; all seemed to be over
+with them; a second cavalry charge was as unsuccessful
+as the first; and the surviving Britishers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[Pg 382]</a></span>
+made up their minds to carry the enemy's position
+or perish. Their commander had fallen; the
+colours changed bearers seven times; still they kept
+their formation as steadily as if on parade, and bayonet
+in hand rushed on the Spaniards, who outnumbered
+them four to one. For a brief time the
+struggle was fierce and the result doubtful, but cold
+steel in the hands of such a desperate, forlorn hope
+was too much for the Spaniards. They began to
+give ground and at last broke and fled. The llanero
+horse rode them down, and only a remnant escaped
+to the shelter of Puerto Cabello. Bolivar entered
+Caracas acclaimed&mdash;and this time justly&mdash;as the
+liberator of his country.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the constituent congress of the new
+republic of Colombia had met at Cucut&aacute;, a town
+near the limits of Venezuela and New Granada. It
+was composed entirely of civilians and lawyers and
+proved to be radically republican and opposed to
+Bolivar's anti-democratic theories. Though a centralised
+government was adopted, congress rejected
+the life presidency and hereditary senate, and abolished
+the military dictatorship by providing that the
+commander-in-chief, when on active service, should
+leave his political functions in the hands of the vice-president.
+Bolivar made a pretence of declining the
+presidency, but yielded to the importunities of congress
+and continued in command of the army on the
+terms proposed, stipulating, however, that he be
+allowed to organise as he saw fit the provinces he
+might conquer in the rest of South America.</p>
+
+<p>The Spaniards now held only Puerto Cabello and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[Pg 383]</a></span>
+Cuman&aacute;, but no progress was made toward driving
+them out of these positions during the remainder of
+1821, nor until after Bolivar had, early in 1822, left
+for the south to co-operate with Sucr&eacute; in the conquest
+of Quito. In October Cuman&aacute; surrendered
+to Bermudez, but from Puerto Cabello Morales led
+an expedition which reconquered Maracaibo and
+Coro. He was unable to hold them and the defeat
+of his squadron on Lake Maracaibo in July, 1823,
+forced him to surrender. On the 8th of November
+Puerto Cabello was taken by assault and the long
+war for Venezuela's independence was over.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;">
+<img src="images/dec-b.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[Pg 384]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-2.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<h3>MODERN VENEZUELA</h3>
+
+
+<p>In 1822 Bolivar departed bent on the conquest of
+Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, leaving a New
+Granadan vice-president as ruler of the great Colombian
+republic, of which Venezuela was merely one
+division. The massacres and sackings of ten bloody
+years had depopulated and impoverished Venezuela,
+and the cost of maintaining the army and aiding
+Bolivar in his foreign contests drained its exhausted
+resources. The educated Creoles, especially powerful
+in the agricultural regions near the coast, saw no
+place for themselves in Bolivar's centralising system.
+They wanted to control the offices in their own
+localities, and did not relish the establishment of a
+bureaucracy in which appointments and promotions
+would be settled at Bogot&aacute;. The predominant
+radical French ideas added force to the sentiment of
+local independence. The theorists were offended by
+Bolivar's manifest predilection toward aristocratic
+forms and the favours which he granted the clergy.
+Most dangerous of all, jealousy of the Liberator was
+rife among the generals.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[Pg 385]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Paez had been left at the head of military affairs
+in Venezuela and soon after the capture of Puerto
+Cabello he became involved in quarrels with the
+municipal authorities. The llanero general recked
+little of the arguments of the lawyers, and carried
+things with a high hand. In 1826, when the Bogot&aacute;
+government sent an order for the organisation of
+militia, he filled the measure to overflowing, and the
+municipality of Caracas made a formal complaint to
+the central government. A decree for his suspension
+was issued, but a riot in the streets terrorised
+the cabildo and he was replaced in power as a sort
+of dictator. This amounted to a destruction of the
+influence of the central Colombian government in
+Venezuelan affairs. Many cities raised the standard
+of rebellion and made themselves virtually independent.
+Bolivar hastened back from Peru to reduce
+his old companion in arms to obedience. He cajoled
+Paez into temporary co-operation, subdued
+most of the revolted cities, and, seeing that his
+system could not be sustained without coercion,
+assumed a dictatorship. But the news that Peru
+had revolted destroyed his dream of a continent-wide
+dominion, and the demand for local autonomy
+continued so strong throughout Venezuela and New
+Granada that he was forced to call a national assembly
+to amend the Constitution on the basis of a
+compromise. In spite of Bolivar's intrigues nearly
+half the elected delegates staid away, and a majority
+of those who presented themselves at Ocana, in
+March, 1828, though chosen under the pressure of
+his influence, opposed his measures.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[Pg 386]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 640px;">
+<img src="images/i386.jpg" width="640" height="430" alt="ENTRANCE OF PUERTO CABELLO IN 1870." title="" />
+<span class="caption">ENTRANCE OF PUERTO CABELLO IN 1870.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The minority who favoured him withdrew at his
+suggestion, leaving the congress without a quorum.
+It dissolved and the Liberator visited Caracas, Cartagena,
+and Bogot&aacute;, calling popular assemblies whose
+deliberations were directed by bayonets and which
+obediently besought him to save the country from
+anarchy in his own way.  He issued a decree virtually
+abolishing the Cucut&aacute; Constitution, but a conspiracy
+to assassinate him was formed at Bogot&aacute; in
+the fall of 1828, and he was saved only by the devotion
+of his mistress, who stood in the way of the
+midnight assassins, giving him time to jump from a
+window and escape. He took a fearful vengeance
+on the conspirators and banished his worst political
+enemies, but the incident failed to turn public senti<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[Pg 387]</a></span>ment
+in his favour, and it was in vain that he exhibited
+himself as a martyr. His old friend, General
+Cordoba, headed an unsuccessful insurrection in the
+province of Antioquia; insurgents rose in Popayan
+and Rio Negro, and towards the end of 1829, in
+Bolivar's native city, Caracas, an assembly of one
+thousand generals, public functionaries, and prominent
+citizens announced that Venezuela would shortly
+separate from Colombia and called upon Paez to
+assume a dictatorship. The Liberator struggled
+vainly against the rising tide of federalism; the
+country was at heart opposed to C&aelig;sarism and
+union; he had been unable to convince the Creoles
+of the advisability of providing a strong centralised
+government; and his only supporters were personal
+ones. Bitterly protesting that he was falsely charged
+with aspiring to mount a throne, and insisting that
+his real ambition had been only to secure the perpetuity
+of the Colombian union and establish an
+ordered government, he offered his resignation.
+Congress, however, contained many of his friends
+and hesitated at coming to an open breach. He
+was re-elected and made one last effort to enforce
+the obedience of Venezuela. But the troops he
+raised in New Granada did not dare to attack Paez,
+who with superior forces was waiting in an impregnable
+position near the frontier. Sick and discouraged,
+the Liberator renewed his resignation&mdash;this
+time in earnest&mdash;and retired to the seacoast, where
+a few months later he died of a wasting sickness at
+the early age of forty-seven. Though his courage,
+energy, and sublime persistence and self-confidence<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[Pg 388]</a></span>
+had been the chief factors in securing South American
+independence, those qualities proved utterly
+inadequate to hold in check the unruly ambitions of
+the Creoles. He died clearly foreseeing the decades
+of anarchy which lay before the northern countries
+of the continent. "I blush to admit it," he said to
+congress on the eve of his fall, "but independence
+is the only benefit we have achieved, and that has
+been at the cost of all others." On his death-bed
+he wrote: "Our Constitutions are books, our laws
+papers, our elections combats, and life itself a torment.
+We shall arrive at such a state that no
+foreign nation will condescend to conquer us, and
+we shall be governed by petty tyrants."</p>
+
+<p>The Venezuelan federalists had not waited for
+Bolivar's death to complete the formal separation
+from Colombia. In May, 1830, a constituent congress
+assembled which named Paez dictator and
+notified Bogot&aacute; that the country regarded itself as
+absolutely independent. But Bolivar had partisans
+and the ruling clique enemies. The eastern provinces
+refused to recognise Paez's authority and the
+whole country was soon under arms. But Bolivar's
+death and the virtual recognition of Venezuela's independence
+by New Granada brought about a treaty
+between Paez and Monagas, the chief of the insurrection.
+The Creole aristocracy came to a working
+understanding with the generals, and little cliques
+in each city supported the central government as
+long as they were recognised as dominant in their
+own localities. Naturally the ignored outsiders
+were dissatisfied and plotted to overthrow these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[Pg 389]</a></span>
+oligarchies. In May, 1831, a revolution broke out
+in Caracas which menaced nothing less than the extermination
+of the property-holding classes, but it
+was suppressed and its leaders executed. On paper
+the form of government was most liberal, congress
+abolishing the tobacco monopoly and many odious
+taxes inherited from Spanish times, proclaiming religious
+freedom, and adopting a Constitution very
+similar to that of the United States. But in practice
+the conservative cliques had things their own way.
+Though ambitious chiefs headed insurrections from
+time to time, they were all bought off or defeated,
+and Paez continued president until 1835, leaving
+the country in a condition of comparative order and
+prosperity.</p>
+
+<p>Doctor Vargas, a civilian, succeeded him, but
+against him the generals revolted, declaring Mari&ntilde;o
+dictator. Carujo, the soul of the insurrection, said,
+in the act of making the president and his ministers
+prisoners, "Doctor Vargas, the world belongs to the
+strongest," and the latter nobly replied, "No, the
+world belongs to the just," r&eacute;sum&eacute;ing in a word
+the conflict between force and law, between unbridled
+ambition and the necessity for order, which
+has desolated Venezuela to this day and which will
+last until the selfish elements learn that their own
+true interests would best be served by promoting
+the prosperity of the whole people&mdash;by relying upon
+their own industry rather than on chances to despoil
+the producing classes. The government party appealed
+to Paez, and the llanero general accepted the
+command. His prestige with the common people<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[Pg 390]</a></span>
+and the army enabled him to gather forces with
+which he overcame the revolted generals after eight
+months of bloody civil war. Vargas was recalled
+from exile, but after a short time refused to continue
+in the presidency, and his place was taken by
+the vice-president, Doctor Narvarte. In 1839 Paez
+was again made president, and was succeeded in
+1842 by General Soublette, another of the heroes of
+the war of independence. Until 1846 there was
+comparative tranquillity in Venezuela. The population
+had decreased by a fifth during the Spanish
+wars, being estimated at six hundred and fifty thousand
+in 1825, but within the succeeding twenty
+years it grew to a million and a quarter. Cacao,
+coffee, and sugar became important articles of export
+and made the landed proprietors rich. With
+the cessation of warlike operations on the plains,
+cattle rapidly multiplied, the first waggon roads were
+built, and a bank was established.</p>
+
+<p>In 1846 an anti-Creole insurrection broke out
+among the men of colour, and Paez was again invested
+with dictatorial powers. When he had completed
+his work he installed Monagas as president.
+Popular irritation against the ruling conservative
+coterie was, however, profound and Monagas quarrelled
+with congress, and sent his soldiers to break
+up its meetings. Paez took up arms again and tried
+to expel his nominee, but was defeated, and for the
+next nine years Monagas and his brother alternated
+in the presidency. Though raised to power by the
+conservative party they abandoned it and before
+1850 had thrown themselves into the arms of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[Pg 391]</a></span>
+liberals, or federalists. Extravagant powers were
+granted to the states; the provincial coteries ran
+their localities to suit themselves; the ties binding
+the different parts of the country together were
+weakened; an elaborate and confused set of taxes,
+national, provincial, and municipal, well-nigh choked
+commerce out of existence. More and more liberty
+was conceded to the states and municipalities, and,
+on paper, to the individual also. Slavery was abolished
+in 1854.</p>
+
+<p>Revolutions broke out from time to time, and
+finally, in 1858, the so-called conservatives overthrew
+the Monagas r&eacute;gime. But they immediately
+divided into warring groups, and their new Constitution
+proved too centralising to suit the Creole
+politicians. The liberals hoisted the banner of federalism
+and several provinces rose in revolt. Under
+the leadership of Pedro Gual the conservatives were,
+however, victorious, but they again split to pieces,
+and Gual himself went over to the liberals. A revolution
+in Caracas brought back old General Paez,
+who assumed a dictatorship and tried to re-establish
+the power of the central government. But it was
+impossible. Many disappointed conservatives had
+turned federalist. No politician seemed willing to
+submit to any administration unless he was a member
+of it. The struggle had degenerated into a mere
+selfish contest for power, and the terms liberal and
+conservative, federalist and unitarian, had ceased
+to have any real relation to the opinions of the persons
+who bore these appellations. General Falcon,
+with Guzman Blanco as lieutenant, led a successful<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[Pg 392]</a></span>
+insurrection in Coro and made himself undisputed
+master of a considerable portion of the country.
+The province of Maracaibo formally declared itself
+separated from all connection with Caracas. For
+three years civil war raged, when finally Paez gave
+up and Falcon assumed direction of the exhausted
+country. On only one thing had the rapid succession
+of dictators, provincial and national, been
+agreed,&mdash;the increase of taxes. Import duties had
+been raised to such a point that commerce could
+stand no more. But in spite of the enormous sums
+wrung from merchant, producer, and consumer, the
+treasury was empty, for the local chiefs openly took
+possession of the receipts of the custom-houses in
+their respective districts, and diversions of public
+funds to private use were the rule among all ranks of
+officials.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 419px;">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[Pg 393]</a></span>
+<img src="images/i393.jpg" width="419" height="640" alt="VENEZUELAN SOLDIER OF 1870." title="" />
+<span class="caption">VENEZUELAN SOLDIER OF 1870.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Falcon's success meant the definite triumph of unrestrained
+federalism. The twenty states into which
+the seven old provinces had been divided in the
+effort to provide enough offices to go around, became
+in law sovereign; the presidential term was
+reduced to two years; absolute liberty of the press
+was permitted, and the right of meeting for any
+purpose guaranteed. Imprisonment for debt, the
+death penalty, and religious instruction in the
+schools were all abolished. During the five years
+that Falcon was the chief political figure affairs in
+Venezuela grew worse and worse. State after state
+burst into revolution. Falcon sometimes whipped
+the insurrectionists and sometimes bought them off,
+but more often was unable to secure even a
+sem<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[Pg 394]</a></span>blance of obedience except by conceding everything.
+National penury reached the limit, the states collected
+and pocketed the dues in most of the custom-houses,
+officials were in regular partnership with
+smugglers, and finally the feeble ghost of a federal
+administration simply flickered out of existence
+because it could pay nobody.</p>
+
+<p>A chief of the so-called unitarian party was declared
+president in 1868, but Guzman Blanco, now
+the undisputed head of the federalists, retook Caracas
+in 1870 and installed himself as dictator. He
+proved the strongest and most tenacious man who
+had yet come to the front. With a terrific insurrection
+raging against him, he concentrated all powers
+in his own hands, suppressed the peculations of
+his agents, and relentlessly dragged the half-breeds
+and negroes into his armies. He finally put down
+all his enemies and in 1873 was installed as constitutional
+president. Until 1889 he virtually reigned
+over Venezuela. Though occasionally he might
+allow some one else to be elected president, after a
+short interval he would find a pretext for intervention
+and oust his nominee. Though the Constitution
+was left substantially unamended, he interpreted it
+as he pleased. He organised a regular machine
+through which he governed the "sovereign" states,
+taking care that none but his creatures should become
+governors and that the members returned to
+congress should be docile. To all intents and purposes
+his will was the law of the land, for the legislative
+and judicial departments were his instruments,
+and his executive decrees covered nearly every im<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[Pg 395]</a></span>aginable
+subject. The minutest details of commercial
+and social life were regulated, the clergy owed
+their positions to the dictator, and even private
+property was not safe if Blanco took a fancy to it.
+But in the main his tyranny was intelligent. The
+country escaped the desolating outbreaks of local
+chiefs, with forced loans wrung from property owners
+and merchants, the seizure of cattle and coffee
+for "war purposes," and the lassoing of peons to
+serve in the armed bands. Though the taxes imposed
+by Blanco were enormously heavy, the marvellous
+productive forces of the soil could stand
+almost any burden provided its amount were certain
+and its collection regular. Though the dictator
+withdrew millions for his private use, depositing
+them in Paris against the evil day of his expulsion,
+indiscriminate exactions by subordinates were suppressed.
+Large sums were spent on public works
+and buildings, and the beautification of the city of
+Caracas, one of the handsomest and best-built cities
+in America, dates from Guzman Blanco's time.
+Nearly five hundred miles of railroad were constructed.
+The country was given and has retained
+the inestimable blessing of a stable currency, and
+the coffee and cacao businesses increased enormously.
+The number of cattle, which the civil wars
+prior to 1870 had reduced to one million four hundred
+thousand, increased sevenfold in fifteen years.</p>
+
+<p>But Blanco's system was anomalous and rested on
+no secure foundation. The commercial and property-holding
+classes abstained from politics, the
+people became tired of his busybody tyranny, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[Pg 396]</a></span>
+peons were still an inert and ignorant mass, harmless
+by themselves, but furnishing a tempting recruiting
+ground for ambitious revolutionists. Nor had the
+Creole politicians changed their nature. There were
+plenty of talented adventurers whose mouths fairly
+watered seeing the immense fortune Blanco was accumulating,
+and who only waited a favourable opportunity
+to conquer a share in the spoils. The
+successful outbreak came in 1889, headed by Rojas
+Paul. His success was a signal for other chiefs to
+imitate his example. Resolute leaders hastily organised
+bands of peons, and the old story of pronunciamentos,
+kidnappings of peaceful peasants,
+attacks, surprises, forced loans, and all the demoralising
+and disintegrating horrors of civil war were repeated.
+Paul was overthrown by Andueza, and in
+1892 Crespo got to the head of affairs and held
+power long enough to accumulate a respectable
+fortune. Andrade succeeded Crespo, but had to
+divide the spoils with his predecessor. The disturbances
+did not become of a character to injure
+seriously Venezuela's commerce and production
+until 1896, but there then began a rapid decline in
+the value of her exports. The government's revenues
+diminished a third and amounted to less than
+half the expenditures. The debt grew to alarming
+figures and the guaranteed interest on foreign capital
+employed in building railroads was allowed to
+fall into arrear. In 1899, Castro, a man hitherto
+unknown in politics, started an insurrection against
+Andrade in the western state of Los Andes.
+Marching from one town to another his army grew<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[Pg 397]</a></span>
+like a rolling snowball by forced enlistments, and
+though the sturdy hillmen did not know what they
+were fighting for and would gladly have been at
+home, they showed all the stolid bravery that seems
+inborn in their race. The government troops could
+not stand against them, and Castro finally entered
+Caracas in triumph. Though insurrection after insurrection
+has broken out against him, the dauntless
+courage with which he leads his men has enabled
+him to maintain himself. The successful South
+American revolutionist must be willing to risk losing
+his own life, for so long as he leads he will be followed,
+but his cowardice or death means a rapid
+dissolution of his forces.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 785px;">
+<img src="images/i397.jpg" width="785" height="600" alt="VENEZUELAN GUERILLAS." title="" />
+<span class="caption">VENEZUELAN GUERILLAS.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[Pg 398]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 742px;">
+<img src="images/s-398.jpg" width="742" height="600" alt="ECUADOR COLOMBIA AND VENEZUELA" title="" />
+<span class="caption">ECUADOR COLOMBIA AND VENEZUELA</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/map-398.jpg">Click here for a larger image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Though the solidity acquired by the Venezuelan
+commercial and financial structure during the long
+years of Blanco's reign has prevented the country
+from reverting into the anarchy which prevailed before
+1873, and though the spirit of federalism is not
+so rampant and the chieftains aspire rather to a control
+of the whole country than to power confined to
+their own localities, the recent civil wars have disorganised
+the finances. Internal production has
+been hampered and external obligations have been
+deferred&mdash;the latter with serious consequences.
+Anti-foreign sentiment, already raised to a threatening
+height by the boundary dispute with British
+Guiana&mdash;a long-standing matter which was happily
+settled by arbitration after menacing a serious rupture
+between the United States and Great Britain,&mdash;was
+further exacerbated by the blockade of Venezuelan
+ports and the destruction of the Venezuelan
+navy by the joint fleets of Germany, England, and
+Italy in 1902&mdash;measures to which the European
+governments had been incited by the failure of
+Venezuela to settle claims of their citizens. In the
+face of this foreign war the civil conflicts were interrupted,
+and President Castro empowered the American
+minister to negotiate for the submission of the
+claims to arbitration. To the weight of the sentiment
+that international money claims should not be
+enforced by warlike measures was added the existence
+of a current of opinion in the United States
+which favoured arbitration as in this instance
+certainly the best method of adjustment. The
+temporary occupation of ports on American soil by
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[Pg 399]</a></span>European powers might give the latter a military
+hold in the western continent which would embarrass
+and complicate more important relations. The
+submission was quickly and amicably arranged, the
+claims of the citizens of other countries are to be
+ascertained at the same time, and the matter is now
+before The Hague international tribunal.</p>
+
+<p>By a resolution of congress General Castro is empowered
+to hold the office of president for six years
+from 1902. Bitter and costly as have been the
+experiences through which Venezuela has passed
+during the last twelve years, the vast majority of the
+intelligent and property-holding classes realise more
+clearly than outsiders possibly can that internal
+stability will alone ensure the commercial development
+of the country; that Venezuela united is far
+more likely to prosper than if separated into always
+jealous and often warring provinces. The mass of
+the people are industrious and peaceable. Real
+progress has been made since the time of Bolivar in
+the almost impossible task of adjusting republican
+forms and procedure to a people who by inheritance
+and tradition knew nothing of the difficult art of
+self-government. It cannot fairly be said that Venezuela
+as yet sees her way clear to a solution of the
+problem, but her commercial statistics for the last
+thirty years prove that her people have acquired industrial
+capacity, and the history of other Spanish-American
+countries shows that the power for evil of
+the turbulent military class may perish once for all
+with startling suddenness when the right stage in
+national development is reached.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[Pg 400]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="bbt">
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[Pg 401]</a></span></p>
+<h1><a name="COLOMBIA" id="COLOMBIA"></a>COLOMBIA</h1>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[Pg 402]</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[Pg 403]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-5.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+<h3>CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT</h3>
+
+
+<p>When Alonso de Ojeda coasted along the
+Venezuelan shore in the spring of 1499 he
+stopped short just west of the Gulf of Maracaibo,
+near the present boundary between Venezuela and
+Colombia. The following year Rodrigo Bastida
+doubled the Goajira peninsula and pursued his voyage
+to the west, catching sight of the giant snowclad
+mountains of Santa Marta and of the low land
+which lies between them and the sea. Coming to
+the mouth of a great river on the day sacred to Saint
+Magdalene, he named it the Magdalena, and farther
+to the south-west found the fine harbour where the
+city of Cartagena now stands. At the head of the
+Gulf of Darien he came to another great river,
+the Atrato, and here his explorations stopped.</p>
+
+<p>More than a year later the great Columbus himself,
+on his fourth and last voyage, sighted the
+Central American coast at Cape Gracias &aacute; Dios, near
+the present boundary between Nicaragua and Honduras.
+Thence he sailed south-east along a pestilential
+shore for eight hundred miles, finally arriving near<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[Pg 404]</a></span>
+the point where Bastida had left off his explorations.
+It is said that Bartholomew Columbus founded a
+settlement on the Atlantic shore of the Isthmus, but
+it was soon destroyed by the neighbouring Indians.
+The long stretch of coast was unfit for the abode
+of Europeans, but the Indians had gold in abundance,
+and the Spaniards were satisfied that the interior
+was full of mines. Hundreds of fortunate
+adventurers had accumulated fortunes in the placers
+of Hayti, and with a view of repeating their successes
+on the mainland, Alonso de Ojeda solicited
+and obtained from the Spanish Crown the grant of
+the territory from Goajira to the Atrato, while Diego
+de Nicuesa was given the coast from the Atrato to
+Cape Gracias &aacute; Dios. In 1510 one of Ojeda's lieutenants
+founded a town called Sebastian on the
+eastern shore of the Gulf of Darien. The Indians
+soon destroyed it, but Antigua was established
+across the gulf. This place was in fact on the
+Isthmus of Panama, and not much more than one
+hundred miles from the Pacific Ocean, of which the
+Spaniards then knew nothing. Among the military
+adventurers who had followed Ojeda to Darien were
+Nu&ntilde;ez de Balboa and Francisco Pizarro. In 1511
+the former went a short distance into the interior
+looking for gold, and fell in with an Indian chief
+who told him that only a few leagues south lay a
+great sea whose shores were inhabited by numerous
+rich and civilised nations. Two years later he headed
+an expedition from Antigua which resulted in the
+epoch-making discovery which has immortalised his
+name. As the band of Spaniards approached the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[Pg 405]</a></span>
+line of hills from which the natives told them they
+could see the mysterious ocean, Balboa hastened
+ahead of his men and was the first to catch a
+glimpse, but in the headlong rush for the honour of
+first touching its waters he was beaten by Alonso
+Martin and that lean and tireless soldier who was
+afterwards to conquer Peru&mdash;Francisco Pizarro.</p>
+
+<p>The Pacific side of the Isthmus proved to be
+more healthful and habitable than the marshy shores
+of the Atlantic, and the settlers at Antigua were
+soon driven by fevers and dysenteries, torrential
+rains and sweltering heat, to the more healthful
+region of Panama. Nicuesa likewise had been able
+to do nothing with his long stretch of Isthmian and
+Central American coast. Nombre de Dios, not far
+from the present site of Colon, was the only town
+which he succeeded in establishing, and that maintained
+itself only as landing-place on the way to
+Panama. To this day the Caribbean coast from the
+Atrato delta as far as Gracias &aacute; Dios is practically
+uninhabited by white men; on the site of Antigua
+there is left not a trace; the Indians in its neighbourhood
+are still independent savages; and the
+north shore of the Isthmus has been a hospital and
+a grave for successive generations of white men
+during four hundred years. Only its position at
+the strategical gate to the great South Sea has induced
+men to go to its noisome shores.</p>
+
+<p>The Isthmian settlements were, as they remain,
+separated from the continent of South America by
+the deep and broad valley of the Atrato, where the
+rainfall is the greatest known, and whose dense<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[Pg 406]</a></span>
+tropical forests are uninhabitable and practically impassable.
+No land communication exists between
+Panama and Colombia proper. However, the coast
+east of the Atrato delta is dryer, and at Santa Marta,
+beyond the mouth of the Magdalena and at the foot
+of the great outlying mountain mass of Colombia's
+north-eastern peninsula, was founded in 1525 the first
+permanent settlement in Colombia proper. It was
+nothing more than a kidnapping station, whence
+expeditions scoured the interior for slaves to be sold
+to the Haytian gold mines. Meanwhile from Coro,
+established two years later, on the eastern side of
+Maracaibo Gulf, murdering and slaughtering expeditions
+were sent across the gulf, returning to Venezuela
+after making a circuit among the mountains
+lying south of Maracaibo Bay. Later these expeditions
+from Coro penetrated over these mountains,
+reaching the llanos of the Apur&eacute; and finally
+the plains of Casanare lying east of Bogot&aacute;, which
+now belong to Colombia.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[Pg 407]</a></span>
+<img src="images/i407.jpg" width="800" height="535" alt="OLDEST FORTRESS IN AMERICA, AT CARTAGENA." title="" />
+<span class="caption">OLDEST FORTRESS IN AMERICA, AT CARTAGENA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The exploring parties from Santa Marta and
+Coro, and information picked up along the coast,
+gave the Spaniards a pretty fair idea of the geography
+of the interior, and the existence of immense
+quantities of gold and of civilised nations living on
+the high plateaux was verified from many sources.
+The conquest of the fertile and salubrious interior
+of Colombia was effected from three distinct centres,&mdash;Cartagena
+and Santa Marta on the Caribbean
+coast, and Quito on the Ecuador table-land. Serious
+colonisation began with Heredia's foundation of
+Cartagena in 1533. The new leader set vigorously
+to work to establish himself firmly on the magnificent
+harbour and seek for gold. Cortes' and Pizarro's
+marvellous successes had brought a multitude
+of adventurers to the new world, all of whom were
+eager for a share in the spoils of the yet independent
+Indian kingdoms. Heredia found the rocky
+hills which rise not far south of Cartagena full of
+profitable gold washings, and the Indians reported
+that only a short distance in the interior, where the
+mountains rose higher, there was a region called
+Zenufana which produced the precious metal far
+more abundantly. Their story was true, and Zenufana
+was none other than the present state of Antioquia,
+which has produced hundreds of millions of
+dollars of gold. No time was lost in starting on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[Pg 408]</a></span>
+search. Heredia's first expedition penetrated to
+the headwaters of the river Sinu, which flows into
+the Caribbean not far south-west of Cartagena, and
+though successful in finding gold he was unable to
+force his way over the high sierra of Abibe, the
+most northern bulwark of the great Maritime Cordillera,
+which barred his way into Antioquia and the
+valley of the Cauca. In 1535 the town of Tolu was
+founded between the mouth of the Sinu and Cartagena,
+and the expeditions skirted the northern end
+of the Andes until they reached the river Cauca
+where it debouches into the Magdalena. In 1537
+Spanish expeditions succeeded in crossing the
+formidable Abibe Mountains, and penetrated east
+into the coveted mining country. Up the Cauca
+they followed for two hundred miles, passing the
+rapids which place an almost inexpugnable barrier
+between the upper and lower river. Not far from
+the present city of Cartago they found traces of
+white men, and learned that while they themselves
+had been pushing south the indomitable companions
+of Pizarro had extended their explorations and conquests
+more than a thousand miles north from their
+landing-place on the Peruvian coast. The men from
+Cartagena went on to Cali, where the conquerors of
+Popayan had their headquarters, and there an expedition
+was fitted out which, under the leadership of
+Jorge Robledo, returned down the Cauca and conquered
+Antioquia after much bloody fighting with
+the Indians. It is said that each of Heredia's men
+received a larger amount than the conquerors of
+Mexico and Peru. Certain it is that the founding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[Pg 409]</a></span>
+of Cartagena resulted in putting the Spaniards in
+possession of the valley of the Cauca and the wonderful
+gold mines of Antioquia as far south as the 5th
+degree.</p>
+
+<p>Benalcazar, one of Pizarro's lieutenants, after conquering
+Quito in 1533, had proceeded north along
+the Andean plateau between the two Cordilleras.
+A hundred miles from Quito he entered the high region
+of Pasto, inhabited by vigorous, semi-civilised
+Indians much resembling those of Ecuador. Near
+this point the Andes, heretofore massed in one great
+chain, split into three parallel ranges. The western
+and central chains are separated from each other by
+the valley of the Cauca and near the Caribbean dip
+down to sea-level. The eastern range bears off a
+little to the right, with the Magdalena valley between
+it and the central mountains, and six hundred
+miles north turns north-east and enters Venezuela
+just south of Maracaibo Bay. Benalcazar went
+straight north from Pasto and entered the region
+where the Cauca gathers its headwaters. This was
+Popayan, a lower country than Pasto, but still high
+enough to be healthful, pleasant, and densely populated.
+In rapid succession the tribes inhabiting
+the whole upper Cauca valley were conquered, and
+Benalcazar's officers only stopped when they met
+their countrymen coming up from Cartagena. The
+city of Cali was founded in 1536, Popayan in 1538,
+Pasto and Anserma in 1539, and Cartago in 1540.
+This beautiful valley is one of the most isolated
+regions on the globe. To the east and west the
+high walls of the Quindio, or central, and of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[Pg 410]</a></span>
+western Cordillera shut it off from the Magdalena
+valley and from the Pacific, and the rapids near
+Cartago make communication with the Caribbean
+almost impossible.</p>
+
+<p>Benalcazar himself had returned to Quito and it
+was not until 1538 that he was able to undertake the
+conquest of the upper Magdalena and those lovely
+plateaux and rich kingdoms which nestled on the
+broad top of the eastern Cordillera. In the meantime
+he had been forestalled by an expedition coming
+from the Caribbean. In 1536 Jimenez de Quesada
+sallied forth from Santa Marta with eight hundred
+men and one hundred horses. Avoiding the swampy
+delta of the Magdalena, he passed through the
+Chimilas mountains which lie east of it, and reached
+the solid ground of the foothills that approach the
+river banks some three hundred miles above its
+mouth. Along these he made his way through incredible
+difficulties and hardships, months being
+consumed in the journey, and his men perishing by
+scores from fatigue, starvation, and continual fights
+with the savage natives. When he reached the
+river Opon, he determined to climb to the plateau,
+near the site of Velez, where he was told that the
+mountain top was inhabited by a civilised race.
+After fighting his way through the unconquerable
+savages of the Opon valley he found himself in the
+centre of a series of lovely table-lands, many of them
+the beds of ancient mountain lakes whose alluvial
+bottoms were inexhaustibly fertile, where the climate
+was perfect and all the products of the temperate
+zone grew luxuriantly.  The plateaux, interrupted
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[Pg 411]</a></span>by valleys and ridges, stretched from Pamplona to
+beyond Bogot&aacute;&mdash;a distance of more than two hundred
+miles. This region was then and remains to
+this day the populous heart of Colombia, the principal
+seat of power, wealth, and national civilisation.
+However, it is so isolated that it has never constituted
+a nucleus around which the widely separated
+provinces of Colombia could unite into a well
+organised nation. To reach Tolima, Bogot&aacute;'s
+nearest neighbour in the upper Magdalena valley, it
+is necessary to descend thousands of feet of steep
+mountainside, along which the sure-footed mule
+can hardly climb. To reach Cauca, not only must
+the Magdalena valley be crossed but the enormously
+high Quindio range must be climbed, and before
+getting to the Pacific, still another mountain chain
+intervenes, while the populous gold regions of Antioquia
+can only be reached by following down the
+Magdalena and up the Cauca. Weeks of the most
+difficult journeying are required to get to the seacoast
+or any of the other states, and Panama might
+as well be on the other side of the globe so far as
+practical communication goes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 640px;">
+<img src="images/i411.jpg" width="640" height="440" alt="TRAVELLERS DESCENDING A MOUNTAIN ROAD." title="" />
+<span class="caption">TRAVELLERS DESCENDING A MOUNTAIN ROAD.</span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[Pg 412]</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Quesada had lost three-fourths of his men in
+reaching the promised land, but once there he encountered
+fewer difficulties than any of the other
+great Spanish conquerors. The numerous nation
+of the Chibchas inhabited the southern plateaux,
+who acknowledged allegiance to the zipa of Meuqueta.
+But their so-called empire possessed no
+military force or cohesion, although they had carried
+agriculture to a high degree of perfection. They
+manufactured cotton cloths, mined gold and emeralds,
+worked artistic ornaments, had a circulating
+medium and a calendar, lived in houses, built splendid
+temples, and had tools hard enough to carve
+stones into elaborate sculptures. Their government
+was absolute; crimes were severely and relentlessly
+punished; the caste of priests wielded great power.
+Altogether they appear to have reached a stage of
+material civilisation not much inferior to the aztecs
+of Mexico, the caras of Ecuador, or the incas of
+Peru, but in efficiency of governmental and military
+organisation they fell far below those great peoples.
+Spanish chroniclers have amused themselves with
+recording traditions of great wars in which the
+Chibchas had assembled armies of hundreds of thou<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[Pg 413]</a></span>sands
+not long before the conquest, but the fact
+remains that less than two hundred Spaniards overcame
+them and reduced them to unquestioning
+obedience within a few months and without serious
+loss. Indeed, Quesada's successors had more difficulty
+with the smaller nations who inhabited the
+northern plateaux of Tunja, Socorro, and Tundama,
+and the most serious resistance was made by the
+semi-savage tribes of the upper Magdalena, who
+fought nearly as desperately as the Indians of Antioquia
+and the Caribbean coast.</p>
+
+<p>Quesada chose the site of the ancient Chibcha
+capital for his city and there Bogot&aacute; was founded
+on the 7th of August, 1538. It lies on the eastern
+border of a magnificent level plain, the bed of the
+largest of the prehistoric lakes, thirty miles broad
+and sixty long, and nearly nine thousand feet above
+sea-level. One hundred and fifty thousand people
+live on that plain to-day, and the population in
+Chibcha times was probably even larger. The same
+year Benalcazar reached the neighbourhood of Bogot&aacute;,
+having come down the valley of the Magdalena
+from Quito and Pasto, and at the very same moment
+arrived an expedition from Coro in Venezuela,
+which had crossed the mountains south of Maracaibo
+and followed south along the llanos lying at
+the eastern base of the Colombian Andes, thence
+climbing the sierra to Bogot&aacute;. Remarkable as it
+may seem, these three bands of indomitable Spaniards,
+starting from widely separated points on the
+coast, met each other in the remote interior of the
+continent, brought to the same place by the fame<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[Pg 414]</a></span>
+of the fertility and riches of the Chibcha kingdom.
+The Venezuelans under Federmann, and the Ecuadoreans
+under Benalcazar, accepted the bribe which
+Quesada offered them not to interfere with his conquest,
+and the three chiefs, laden with gold, returned
+to Spain in the same ship.</p>
+
+<p>Quesada left his brother in nominal command of
+the colony, but each of the conquerors was a law
+unto himself. When the governor of Santa Marta
+came up to Bogot&aacute; they refused to recognise his
+authority. Tunja and Velez were founded in 1539
+on the plateaux north of the capital, and a year or
+two later Quesada's brother wasted a great part of
+his forces in a fruitless expedition to the mountains
+of Pasto in search of the Eldorado. Meanwhile, in
+1539, the Portuguese Geronimo Mello had succeeded
+in entering the mouth of the Magdalena,
+making his way for a considerable distance upstream.
+The great river proved to be perfectly
+navigable from the sea to a point nearly as far south
+as Bogot&aacute;, and the Spaniards immediately utilised
+it as a route to Santa Marta and Cartagena far preferable
+to the track through swamps and foothills
+which Quesada had followed. Each of the plateau
+provinces lying on the mountains which follow its
+eastern bank had its own paths down the slopes to
+the river, and a practicable though tedious and expensive
+communication with the Caribbean was
+developed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[Pg 415]</a></span>
+<img src="images/i415.jpg" width="800" height="463" alt="NATIVE BOATS, MAGDALENA RIVER." title="" />
+<span class="caption">NATIVE BOATS, MAGDALENA RIVER.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1542 Lugo, an adventurer who had successfully
+intrigued against Quesada, arrived with a commission
+as adelantado and considerable reinforcements.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[Pg 416]</a></span>New cities were founded among the gold mines of
+the upper Magdalena at Tocaima, Ibague, and
+Neiva, as well as at Pamplona at the northern end
+of the plateaux. The tribes of Bogot&aacute;, Tunja,
+Velez, Socorro, and Pamplona submitted without
+appreciable resistance, and their fertile fields were
+divided into great estates among the Spaniards.
+But the more savage tribes in the gold-bearing valleys
+of the Upper Magdalena and Cauca and in
+Antioquia struggled hard to escape impressment
+into the mines, and war almost exterminated them.
+The same thing happened on the plains of the Caribbean
+coast, although in that region some tribes maintained
+their independence. To work the mines and
+plantations negro slaves had to be imported, with
+the result that black blood predominates in the
+lower regions of Colombia, while the descendants of
+the aborigines are in a majority on the eastern
+plateaux.</p>
+
+<p>Within twenty-five years after the establishment
+of the first permanent Spanish post at Santa Marta,
+the whites were in undisputed control of practically
+all Colombia which is now inhabited by civilised people.
+Three great territorial divisions corresponded
+to the three directions in which the conquest had
+been effected. From Cartagena, Antioquia and
+the lower Cauca had been settled; from Quito,
+Popayan, Pasto, and the upper Cauca; and Bogot&aacute;
+was the centre of the region extending from Pamplona
+south along the plateaux and into the valley of
+the upper Magdalena. This division of the country
+soon brought on disputes as to pre-eminence and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[Pg 417]</a></span>
+jurisdiction between the authorities, foreshadowing
+the demand for local independence which desolated
+Colombia with civil war during so many years
+of the last century. Lugo, the new adelantado,
+who had displaced Quesada, deprived many of the
+original conquerors of their grants of lands and Indians,
+and the old and new comers fell to fighting
+among themselves. But their numbers were too
+small to make their disagreements really threatening
+to the interests of the Spanish Crown. In 1545 the
+Spanish government sent out a commissioner to reduce
+the country to order. The first royal commissioner
+was replaced by a second in 1553, who carried
+things with a high hand, depriving proprietors of
+their grants, nominating members of his own family
+to the lucrative posts, and finally even exiling
+Quesada himself and executing some of the most
+famous of the original conquerors. Under instructions
+from Madrid he promulgated many laws for
+the protection of the Indians from the exactions and
+tyrannies of the encomenderos&mdash;regulations which,
+as in Peru, excited great dissatisfaction among the
+colonists and were constantly evaded. It was forbidden
+for any encomendero to be military governor
+of his district, and the original conquerors were replaced
+in all positions of authority by officials newly
+brought out from Spain. However, the office of
+commissioner was an irregular and extraordinary
+one and his powers ill-defined. Even at Bogot&aacute; his
+authority was defied by the audiencia and the
+municipal councils, and over the remote provinces
+of Antioquia and Popayan, Cartagena and Panama,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[Pg 418]</a></span>
+his power was a mere shadow. The Spanish government
+resolved to erect Quito and Bogot&aacute; into
+presidencies, whose governors would be responsible
+directly to Madrid and have greater authority over
+subordinate officials.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;">
+<img src="images/dec-f.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[Pg 419]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-7.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<h3>COLONIAL TIMES</h3>
+
+
+<p>In 1564 the president arrived in state with all the
+trappings appropriate to his high rank. His
+powers were most ample; he was practically vicegerent
+of the Castilian king; his jurisdiction extended
+not only over the Bogot&aacute;-Pamplona plateaux
+and Tolima on the upper Magdalena, but also over
+Santa Marta, Cartagena, Antioquia, and even to
+Panama and the Mosquito coast. The name of New
+Granada, which Quesada had given to his conquests
+in honor of his native province in Spain, was extended
+to the whole presidency. To it were also
+attached, though loosely, the provinces that now
+make up the republic of Venezuela. But access to
+the Venezuelan coast from Bogot&aacute; was so difficult as
+to prevent that region from ever being really a part
+of the New Granada presidency, and it became an
+independent captaincy-general in 1731. The eastern
+boundary of the president's immediate jurisdiction
+included the provinces which naturally communicated
+with the Colombian plateaux, but the extension
+of the Andes north-east from Pamplona along<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">[Pg 420]</a></span>
+the Venezuelan coast was left to be settled from
+Coro. For similar reasons the valley of the upper
+Cauca&mdash;Cali and Popayan, as well as Pasto&mdash;was
+attached to the presidency of Quito, and the subordination
+of its governor to Bogot&aacute; was only incidental
+and gave rise to many disputes and conflicts.
+The administrative entity of New Granada may be
+said to have included the territory which the Spaniards
+had reached by the line of the Magdalena, and
+in addition the Cartagena region and the Isthmus.
+The last named province was a source of constant
+trouble, because the difficulties of communication
+and the diversities of interests really made it separate
+from the rest of New Granada. Panama's
+governor and independent audiencia frequently defied
+the commands received from Bogot&aacute;.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 610px;">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[Pg 421]</a></span>
+<img src="images/i421.jpg" width="610" height="480" alt="THE NATURAL BRIDGE AT GUARANDA." title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE NATURAL BRIDGE AT GUARANDA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The disorders near Bogot&aacute; ceased after the arrival
+of the first president, Neiva. He actively engaged
+in promoting new colonisation, founding the city of
+Ocana in the Maracaibo watershed north-west of
+Pamplona, as well as Leiva and several other towns.
+He opened a road down from Bogot&aacute; to Honda at
+the head of navigation on the Magdalena, and in
+his time great flatboats were introduced. These
+were poled against the river's rapid current, and
+they continued the sole means of river freight transportation
+for nearly three centuries. The cornerstone
+of the Bogot&aacute; cathedral was laid, and schools
+established which soon counted among the most
+successful and famous in Spanish America. The
+country prospered after a fashion. The fertile
+plateaux from Bogot&aacute; to the north were admirably
+adapted to the residence of Europeans, and the rich
+soil soon produced large crops of wheat and fed
+great herds of cattle. This region was so attractive
+that the Spaniards became attached to the country
+and contentedly established themselves as semi-feudal
+proprietors of estates cultivated by the docile
+and industrious Indians. A considerable proportion
+of the successive generations of office-holders sent
+out from Spain, applied for land-grants and remained
+in the country, founding new Creole families. Mixture
+with the aborigines occurred on a large scale
+and the process of Caucasianising the population
+made greater progress than in many other parts of
+Spanish America.  The region was too far from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[Pg 422]</a></span>
+sea-coast to attract haphazard adventurers or to
+serve as a Botany Bay for convicts; the Spanish
+settlers belonged as a rule to good families; and the
+standard of living, education, and manners was exceptionally
+high. Bogot&aacute; became one of the principal
+centres of Spanish American culture, and
+Colombian authors are celebrated for their excellence
+throughout the Spanish-speaking world. In
+the invigorating climate the Creoles retained their
+physical vigour and the concentration of population
+on these densely inhabited plateaux increased their
+mental alertness. Living, however, as a superior
+class in the midst of a subject population, they
+acquired no taste or capacity for commerce or industry.
+A Creole was by birth a gentleman and
+exempt from manual labour. The Colombian plateaux
+made little material progress, and settled
+down into an eventless, patriarchal existence.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 451px;">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">[Pg 423]</a></span>
+<img src="images/i423.jpg" width="451" height="640" alt="FALLS OF TEQUENDAMA." title="" />
+<span class="caption">FALLS OF TEQUENDAMA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Conditions were entirely different in the deep, hot
+valleys of the Magdalena and Cauca and on the
+sweltering sea-coast plain. The semi-savage Indians
+did not make good labourers, and were massacred
+or driven into the fastnesses on the mountain sides,
+while their places were taken by negro slaves. The
+white population fell into much the same position
+as it occupies in the West Indian Islands. In the
+mining regions the Indians were pretty nearly exterminated.
+Antioquia, the great mineral province,
+has always contained a larger proportion of white
+blood than any other part of Colombia, and with
+the decline of its mines it became a centre whence
+white emigration poured into the other departments.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">[Pg 424]</a></span>
+Still different conditions prevailed in the extreme
+south, where the highlands of Popayan and the dry,
+cold tablelands of Pasto offered the same aspect as
+adjoining Ecuador. In those utterly isolated and
+comparatively unattractive regions the Indian population
+remained predominant.</p>
+
+<p>In Colombia, as in all the other Andean countries,
+the impulse toward conquest, expansion, and colonisation
+seems to have died out completely with the
+disappearance of the first generation of conquistadores.
+We read of the foundation of new cities
+from time to time, but it usually means that previously
+existing villages were given municipal charters.
+After one brief spurt the Spaniards settled
+down to enjoy the fruits of their ancestors' heroic
+marches and battles. Except near Panama the
+rainy Pacific coast was left untouched, and the
+forests of the Amazon in the south-east could not
+be penetrated. The open prairies of the Orinoco
+north-east of Bogot&aacute; could be occupied and the province
+of Casanare at the foot of the eastern Andean
+range became a stock region, inhabited by the same
+hard-riding, semi-civilised llaneros as the adjoining
+Venezuelan plains.</p>
+
+<p>The Spanish government applied its restrictive
+colonial system with the utmost rigour. The obnoxious
+market tax was imposed as early as 1690;
+tobacco and salt were made monopolies; the exportation
+of agricultural products was discouraged;
+and the production of gold, emeralds, platinum, and
+silver, was jealously watched and heavily taxed.
+In the early history of the colony the profits of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[Pg 425]</a></span>
+mining were prodigious, but during the seventeenth
+century, after the cream of the surface placers had
+been skimmed, progress was slow. The unhealthful
+climate of the mining regions almost exterminated
+the settlers; the native population diminished so
+rapidly that soon the mines were short-handed; and
+the importation of negro slaves was so costly that
+the smaller proprietors could not operate on their
+own account, and even the great mine owners had
+to be content with moderate profits. One-fifth of
+the gross product was required to be paid to the
+government, and there were other fiscal exactions.
+The efforts of the authorities to prevent the smuggling
+of gold introduced a swarm of soldiers, collectors,
+and guards with whom the miners were in a
+constant turmoil.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of the Church was very powerful,
+and the population became devotedly Catholic.
+Great tracts of the best lands were given to the
+bishoprics and the religious orders. Piously disposed
+persons left property in trust charged with
+the payment of so many dollars a year for the saying
+of so many masses, and the stewardships, or
+rights to administer these estates, were the subject
+of sale or descended from father to son. In 1630, a
+daring president, Jiron, presumed to arrest and
+banish the archbishop of Bogot&aacute;, but fifty years
+later one of his successors wrote back to Spain that
+"in New Granada there is much Church and little
+king." The poor Indians were decimated not only
+by war, massacre, and forced labour in the mines,
+but the white man's diseases played havoc with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[Pg 426]</a></span>
+them. The small-pox was introduced on the plateaux
+within a few years after the conquest, and
+continued to ravage the country throughout the
+early part of the seventeenth century. The third
+president died of the leprosy within a few months
+after his arrival in 1579, and the first case of elephantiasis,
+which has proved a curse to Colombia,
+occurred in 1646.</p>
+
+<p>The quarrels and disagreements between the
+president and the governors and audiencias of the
+associated provinces, especially Panama, to say nothing
+of the disputes with the president of Quito
+and the governor of Venezuela on account of conflicting
+jurisdiction, became so acute early in the
+seventeenth century that the Spanish government
+determined to erect New Granada into a viceroyalty,
+extending the power of the Bogot&aacute; central authorities
+over Ecuador and Venezuela. The first viceroy
+was inaugurated in 1719, but he recommended a return
+to the old system. In the year 1740 the viceroyalty
+was re-established and all connection with
+Peru ceased. Although in the meantime Caracas had
+been made a captaincy-general, it was placed nominally
+under the viceroy's jurisdiction, and Ecuador
+was again detached from Lima. Within a few
+years the attempt to govern Maracaibo, Cuman&aacute;,
+Margarita Island, and Guiana from Bogot&aacute; was
+abandoned, and these provinces transferred to the
+Venezuelan captaincy-general. But the high rank
+and royal powers of the viceroys did not save them
+from troubles. They were engaged in an almost
+continual struggle against the encroachments of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[Pg 427]</a></span>clergy, while the laity protested vigorously at the
+constantly increasing taxation. A special royal
+commissioner came out in 1774 to perfect the tobacco
+monopoly, and five years later another agent
+arrived with instructions still more irritating. The
+Creoles of Santander arose in the "Rebellion of the
+Communes" and so formidable was the insurrection
+that the authorities were compelled to make a feint
+of yielding to the people's demands. They promised
+to expel the obnoxious commissioner; to abolish
+not only the tobacco monopoly, but the market-tax
+on the sale of domestic products, the requirement
+that every shipment be accompanied by a high-priced
+official invoice, and the poll-tax; to lower
+the stamp duties, the curates' tithes, and the Indian
+tribute; to cease burdening commerce with
+unreasonable highway, bridge, and ferry dues; and
+to require the priests to give up the practice of forcing
+the Indians to pay for masses. The viceroy also
+promised to open public employments to Creoles,
+to permit the establishment of a militia, and to concede
+to the people the right to confirm the governors
+nominated by the Crown or viceroy. But no
+sooner had the insurgents dispersed, than the government
+repudiated all these pledges and dragged
+the popular leaders to the scaffold.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 640px;">
+<img src="images/i427.jpg" width="640" height="427" alt="NATIVE HOUSES IN COLOMBIA." title="" />
+<span class="caption">NATIVE HOUSES IN COLOMBIA.</span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">[Pg 428]</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The foreign commerce of the viceroyalty had
+diminished until only one small fleet came each year
+to Cartagena and Porto Bello, and though, during
+the latter part of the colonial period, certain viceroys
+did something to open up roads by which
+wheat, sugar, cacao, and hides could be exported at
+a profit, no measures could prove effective while the
+enormous fiscal exactions of the Spanish government
+continued. During the last few years of the eighteenth
+century, commerce was made nominally free,
+but this meant simply that the old prohibitions on
+private shipments by sea were abolished, and the
+ports opened for trade with Spain and the other
+colonies. These wise measures were, however, accompanied
+by such an increase in taxes that their
+effect was nugatory.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile New Granada had also had her external
+troubles. In 1586 Sir Francis Drake reached
+Cartagena and forty years after the Spanish government
+fortified the place at great expense. Nevertheless
+Ducasse took it in 1695 though Admiral
+Vernon, with a great fleet and army, unsuccessfully<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[Pg 429]</a></span>
+besieged the place in 1741, after having captured
+Porto Bello. The unsettled Central American coast
+north from the Isthmus was nominally a part of the
+vice-royalty, but had been completely neglected by
+the Bogot&aacute; authorities, and in 1698 a colony of
+twelve thousand Scotchmen, with authority from
+Parliament and backed by a vast popular subscription,
+landed on the north shore of the Isthmus.
+They purposed the establishment of a general emporium
+for all nations on the spot which the great
+financier, William Paterson, who originated the
+scheme, regarded as "the key of the commerce of
+the world." There was to be free-trade; the Indians
+were to be protected; religious liberty was to
+be established; and the Spanish monopoly of South
+and Central America destroyed. The far-sighted
+Paterson hoped to found a colonial empire and to
+enrich his own country by the resulting trade. But
+the enterprise was wrecked by the fatal climate and
+the supineness of the British Government. Provisions
+fell short, and within a year the survivors
+re-embarked in a miserable plight. Two small supplementary
+expeditions arrived in 1699 to find assembled
+a Spanish fleet and army against which no
+serious resistance could be made. After a little
+half-hearted fighting the Scotchmen capitulated and
+the colony was definitely abandoned. The Bogot&aacute;
+government continued to neglect that coast. It was
+placed under the jurisdiction of the captain-general
+of Cuba, and the claim that Colombia set up after
+she became an independent nation has never held
+good against the Central American republics.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">[Pg 430]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-8.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<h3>THE WAR AGAINST SPAIN</h3>
+
+
+<p>The stirring events of the year 1808 in Spain and
+the disorganisation of the monarchy produced
+great excitement in the New Granadan cities. When
+the news of the establishment of a junta at Quito
+came in September of the following year, Amar, the
+Bogot&aacute; viceroy, summoned an assembly of the authorities
+and leading citizens for consultation. The
+Creoles favoured an independent junta, but the
+prestige of the Spaniards and Amar's popularity
+prevailed, and it was resolved to recognise the home
+revolutionary government, and to send an expedition
+to crush the Quito junta. Meanwhile the
+Ecuador patriots had despatched troops to Pasto,
+but the sturdy conservative mountaineers resented
+the invasion and repulsed the Quite&ntilde;os. Thenceforth
+to the end of the war Pasto remained a loyalist
+stronghold. Though Quito soon laid down its arms
+under promise of amnesty, the re-established Spanish
+government massacred the insurgent leaders, and
+reports of these cruelties threw the Creoles of the
+cities into effervescence, though the Indian and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">[Pg 431]</a></span>
+negro population of the rural districts remained indifferent.
+On May 22, 1810, the citizens of Cartagena
+demanded and obtained an independent revolutionary
+junta; shortly after an insurrection broke out
+among the llaneros on the Orinoco plains north-east
+of Bogot&aacute;; on the 4th of July Pamplona followed
+Cartagena's example and set up its own junta; and
+a little later Socorro did likewise. By this time
+things were ripe in Bogot&aacute; for an anti-Spanish revolution.
+Ambitious Creoles intrigued among the
+people; the natural feeling of jealousy and hatred
+between Spaniards and Americans became inflamed;
+a contemptuous remark about Creoles made by a
+Spaniard in the streets was the signal for the gathering
+of a great mob which rushed tumultuously to
+the public square and howled for an open cabildo
+and the immediate appointment of a junta. With
+six thousand armed men in front of his palace the
+viceroy had no choice. The junta was named and
+a circular sent to the other cities inviting them to
+name deputies for a congress to arrange a federal
+union. But local jealousies, hardly held in check
+by the rigid colonial system, now flamed forth; the
+people instinctively grouped along geographical
+lines; and divergencies of opinion and ambition
+among leaders increased the confusion. Cartagena
+and other provinces declined to send delegates to
+Bogot&aacute;, preferring to act independently until the
+re-establishment of regular government in Spain.</p>
+
+<p>When the congress met it represented only a part
+of the territory, and but a small percentage of the
+population. Nari&ntilde;o and other popular young leaders<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">[Pg 432]</a></span>
+in Bogot&aacute; intrigued for a centralised system in which
+Bogot&aacute; was to be master province. An insurrection
+against the junta installed him as dictator, and congress
+fled from the capital. The royalists had made
+no effort to oppose the revolution in the centres of
+population, contenting themselves with sending expeditions
+from Quito to occupy Pasto and Popayan,
+with keeping possession of the Isthmus, and establishing
+themselves on the lower Magdalena. Cartagena
+was thereby isolated from the rest of the
+revolted provinces, and Bogot&aacute; cut off from communication
+with the sea. In March, 1811, the patriots
+marched up the Cauca from Cali and defeated
+the Spaniards in Popayan. Quito rose in rebellion
+a second time, and the Ecuadoreans advanced north
+into Pasto, only to be beaten once more by the loyalist
+peasantry. The Granadans, who invaded by way
+of Popayan, met with no better success, and their
+forces under the command of a North American
+adventurer, Macaulay, were annihilated. The re-establishment
+of the royal authority at Quito followed,
+and Bogot&aacute; again lay open to attack from
+the south.</p>
+
+<p>While the royalist reaction was thus closing in
+around the revolution in central New Granada, the
+mass of the people cooled, the patriot leaders fought
+among themselves, and the interior was a prey to
+anarchy. Dictator Nari&ntilde;o had broken completely
+with the ambulatory congress, and was sending his
+troops into the adjacent provinces. Congress protested
+and a civil war broke out in central Granada.
+Nari&ntilde;o was defeated in an attack on Socorro, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">[Pg 433]</a></span>
+the federalists were in their turn repulsed when they
+lay siege to the capital, and Bogot&aacute; declared itself
+an independent state. In the midst of these disorders,
+the alarming news was received that General
+Samano, advancing from Quito and Pasto, at the
+head of two thousand well-equipped men, had retaken
+Popayan, and was already menacing Antioquia
+and the lower Cauca. In the face of this common
+danger Nari&ntilde;o and congress came to terms. The
+latter advanced to meet Samano and badly defeated
+him at the battle of Calivio, January 15, 1814. The
+re-occupation of Popayan was the only result of this
+victory. Pasto remained faithfully loyalist&mdash;a
+Vendee into which many republican armies were
+destined to dash in vain. The Spaniards brought
+up reinforcements, and when Nari&ntilde;o again advanced
+his army was overwhelmed and himself captured.
+However, the loyalists were not able to equip an
+army large enough to justify undertaking the conquest
+of central Granada, so the jarring factions and
+provinces were left alone for the present to waste
+their energies in internecine conflicts.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[Pg 434]</a></span>
+<img src="images/i434.jpg" width="800" height="528" alt="ROPE BRIDGE OVER THE MAGDALENA RIVER." title="" />
+<span class="caption">ROPE BRIDGE OVER THE MAGDALENA RIVER.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Cartagena had all the while remained independent,
+and in 1813 Bolivar, flying from his native Venezuela
+after the suppression of its first insurrection, took
+service with the Granadan city. With a handful of
+militia he drove the Spaniards from the lower Magdalena,
+and retook the important city of Ocana near
+the Venezuelan border. His unexpected success
+created such enthusiasm that the Cartagena dictator
+gave him a small body of regulars, and with
+them the daring Venezuelan began that marvellous
+campaign which for the second time expelled the
+Spaniards from Venezuela. His triumph was shortlived,
+and by September, 1814, his forces had been
+dispersed by the loyalist llaneros and he was back in
+New Granada. He now offered his services to the
+federated provinces, and in spite of his recent defeats,
+the prestige of the 1813 campaign secured him
+the command of the army which was about to march
+on Bogot&aacute; to force that recalcitrant province into
+the union. At the head of eighteen hundred men
+Bolivar prosecuted the campaign with all his usual
+activity. The outlying towns of the province surrendered
+at his approach, and the capital itself,
+which had been denuded of troops by Nari&ntilde;o for his
+ill-fated expedition against Pasto, and which in fact<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">[Pg 435]</a></span>
+was tired of the dictatorship, could not make much
+resistance. The seat of the federal government was
+transferred to Bogot&aacute;, and the victorious general,
+though a Venezuelan, became captain-general of its
+forces, and to his title of "Liberator" was added
+that of "Illustrious Pacificator." If the adhesion
+of Cartagena could be secured, the union of New
+Granada would be well-nigh complete; so with two
+thousand men he proceeded to the lower Magdalena
+and established his headquarters just above the delta
+and within striking distance of the sea-port. However,
+his intrigues with its government led to nothing.
+Cartagena refused to co-operate with the
+confederation on any terms, and finally Bolivar made
+a foolish attempt to besiege the strongest fortress in
+America without artillery. He soon came to his
+senses, raised the siege, gave up his command of
+the Granadan army, and withdrew to Jamaica to
+wait a new opportunity to make war on Spaniards.</p>
+
+<p>The revolutionary cause was in a bad way. The
+loyalists of Venezuela, Ecuador, and southern New
+Granada had put down the insurgents in their own
+provinces. Bogot&aacute; was only held back by the military
+pressure of a few resolute republicans from declaring
+for the king, and the other provinces were
+disgusted with civil disorder and wavered in their
+allegiance. However, they were destined not to be
+given the opportunity to return peaceably to obedience
+on reasonable terms. Wellington's peninsular
+campaigns and Napoleon's fall changed the
+face of affairs in Spain. Ferdinand once more on
+the throne of his fathers, and absolute government<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">[Pg 436]</a></span>
+re-established, all thought of compromising with the
+American rebels on the basis of autonomy or representation
+in the Cortes was abandoned. In April,
+1815, Marshal Morillo, Spain's ablest general, arrived
+on the Venezuelan coast with more than ten thousand
+veteran regulars. Having reinforced himself among
+the Venezuelan loyalists, and leaving a large garrison
+of Spaniards in Venezuela, he proceeded to Cartagena
+at the head of over eight thousand troops.
+The defenders numbered less than four thousand,
+but behind the strongest fortifications in America
+they prepared to make a desperate resistance. So
+formidable were the walls that Morillo did not try
+to take the place by assault. His main body landed
+at Santa Marta and crossed the Magdalena to blockade
+the city from the rear, while his fleet cut off
+communication by sea. The besiegers suffered terribly
+in the pestilential swamps, but the defenders
+were reduced to the most horrible extremities during
+four months and a half. The provisions ran out;
+fevers decimated the people; the starving garrison
+ate rats and hides, sentinels fell dead at their posts;
+the commander drove out of the city two thousand
+old men, women, and children, and of this procession
+of spectres only a few reached the Spanish
+lines. Finally, the surviving soldiers escaped by
+boats in the midst of a storm which dispersed the
+Spanish squadron, and Morillo entered a deserted
+city where the very air was poisoned by the rotting
+bodies of famished people. It is calculated that six
+thousand persons died of hunger and disease. The
+Spaniards hunted down and shot the revolutionary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">[Pg 437]</a></span>
+leaders; the absolute powers of the governor were
+revived; and even the inquisition re-established.</p>
+
+<p>While Cartagena was being besieged, a Spanish
+army advanced along the Venezuelan Andes to the
+Granadan border and climbed to the Pamplona plateau.
+There they defeated the local patriots, and the
+latter fled from the province after killing all the Spanish
+non-combatants on whom they could lay hands.
+Desperately alarmed, the congress at Bogot&aacute; made
+Camilo Torres dictator, and he resolutely advanced
+with twenty-five hundred recruits against Pamplona.
+The Spanish general retreated to Ocana, with the
+patriots following, but receiving reinforcements,
+turned upon Torres, and on the 22nd of February,
+1816, utterly defeated him. The revolution lay
+helpless at Morillo's feet. The royalist forces
+promptly occupied the great plateau provinces of
+Pamplona and Socorro, as well as Antioquia. Bogot&aacute;
+had in fact long been disaffected to the insurgent
+cause and now became openly royalist. Torres
+resigned, and when Madrid, whom the revolutionary
+chiefs appointed in his place, called for volunteers
+only six men presented themselves. Congress dissolved,
+and the dictator and a few determined leaders,
+with a remnant of the army, fled north to Popayan.
+There they joined a band of local patriots under
+Mejia, and gave unsuccessful battle to General Samano,
+who had advanced from Quito. This fight of
+Tambo seemed the revolution's <i>coup de gr&acirc;ce</i> in New
+Granada, Ecuador, and Venezuela. Only on the
+plains of eastern Venezuela, and in the llanos on the
+Apur&eacute; and Casanare headwaters, did a few guerrilla<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">[Pg 438]</a></span>
+bands maintain themselves. In far away Argentina,
+the town of Buenos Aires and the gauchos were still
+defiant, but elsewhere in all Spanish South America
+resistance to the King's generals had ceased.</p>
+
+<p>Marshal Morillo fully appreciated how dangerous
+to Spanish domination in New Granada and Venezuela
+were the fierce, hard-riding, llaneros, uncatchable
+and unconquerable in the vast Orinoco plains.
+Fighting on the royal side under guerrilla chiefs they
+had beaten the republicans and Bolivar, but they
+turned insurrectionist the moment Spanish regular
+officers assumed command. Morillo resolved to
+crush the towns completely, and hoped gradually to
+wear out or exterminate the llaneros. In pursuance
+of this policy all officers above the rank of captain
+were denied amnesty, and shot wherever found.
+The same fate was reserved for those who had held
+high civil office during the insurrection. The Marshal
+came to Bogot&aacute; in person to see that his bloody
+orders were carried out. The city's prisons were
+filled with unfortunates whose wives and daughters
+pleaded in vain for mercy. The most prominent
+patriots were shot in the back as traitors and their
+bodies hung on gibbets. The great scholar, Caldas,
+the pride of Bogot&aacute; for his world-wide reputation as
+a scientist, suffered a not much better fate. In the
+capital alone one hundred and twenty-five of New
+Granada's brightest and best perished on the scaffold,
+their property was confiscated, and their families
+reduced to abject poverty. Because they had
+not actively resisted the rebellion, the entire male
+population were adjudged to have forfeited all civil<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">[Pg 439]</a></span>
+rights, and gangs of Granadan youth were impressed
+into the army, or, worse still, forced to work on the
+public roads. Even the ladies of Bogot&aacute; were sent
+to country towns to remain under police surveillance
+with women of doubtful character.</p>
+
+<p>While thus engaged in stamping out the revolutionary
+embers in New Granada word came to
+Morillo that the Venezuelan llaneros had risen against
+his lieutenants, and that Bolivar had landed near
+Valencia. Leaving a garrison of Venezuelan and
+Pasto royalists at Bogot&aacute; under the command of
+Samano, the Marshal, with four thousand Spanish
+troops, took the plateau road to the frontier, carrying
+with him some prisoners to shoot on the line.
+Samano's first act on assuming the government of
+Bogot&aacute; was to erect a gallows in the great square
+facing the windows of his palace, and to set up four
+execution benches on the public promenade. Of
+the victims who sat thereon with their backs to the
+firing squad, one of the first was the beautiful Policarpa
+Salabarrieta, with seven men also implicated in
+sending information to the llanero insurgents. She
+died exhorting her companions to meet their fate
+like men, and under the name of La Pola her memory
+is preserved in the songs of the Colombian people.
+Sixty years after her death the Colombian congress
+voted a pension to her surviving relatives.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 755px;">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">[Pg 440]</a></span>
+<img src="images/i440.jpg" width="755" height="600" alt="THE HOME OF BOLIVAR." title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE HOME OF BOLIVAR.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Morillo never returned to New Granada. Before
+he arrived in Venezuela, Bolivar had temporarily
+retired, and the llaneros retreated to the vast solitudes
+in which they were unconquerable. Though
+the Spanish regulars won battle after battle their
+victories were fruitless, and Bolivar soon returned
+to Venezuela to be again placed at the head of
+the patriots and to wage unremitting warfare with
+cavalry from a secure base in the llanos, while he
+imported British mercenary infantry capable of making
+headway against the Spanish regulars.  From
+1816 to 1819 New Granada suffered hopelessly and
+silently the bloody despotism of the Spanish generals,
+while the tide of war rolled to and fro in
+Venezuela. In the early part of the latter year
+Samano sent a small expedition down the steep Cordillera
+slope against the guerrillas in the Casanare
+plains north-east of Bogot&aacute;.  This gave Bolivar a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">[Pg 441]</a></span>
+great strategical idea. He knew that the tableland
+of New Granada had been denuded of troops; but
+it was useless to try an attack from the direction of
+the provinces south of Maracaibo Bay because this
+well-travelled route and its populous towns were in
+secure possession of the enemy. Where Spaniards
+could go he could follow&mdash;so he reasoned&mdash;and determined
+to assault Bogot&aacute; directly from the Orinoco
+plains, thus striking the centre of the Spanish line.</p>
+
+<p>With a mixed army of British mercenaries and
+hardy Venezuelans the Liberator mounted the difficult
+pass which leads from Casanare up to Tunja.
+Samano had only three thousand troops and these
+he sent under the command of General Barreiro to
+meet Bolivar. Though the patriots were somewhat
+inferior in numbers and arrived on the plateau fatigued,
+starving, and without horses, Barreiro, not
+knowing their real numbers, hesitated about attacking.
+Bolivar was given time to rest and remount
+his men, and then took a vigorous offensive. His
+rapid movements confused the Spanish commander,
+and the latter allowed the patriot army to get between
+him and Bogot&aacute;. Thus cut off from his base,
+Barreiro made a desperate dash to reach the capital,
+but ran against the patriots posted directly across his
+path at Boyac&aacute;, on the 7th of August, 1819. The
+loyalists attacked at a disadvantage and without
+hope. After losing a hundred men they fled in disorder
+and the whole army dispersed or was captured.
+The way to Bogot&aacute; lay open, and Samano had no
+forces to defend the city. Within three days Bolivar
+had traversed the hundred miles from the battlefield,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">[Pg 442]</a></span>
+and Samano fled in such precipitous haste that he
+left behind the government archives and even the
+money in the treasury. A month later the whole of
+New Granada, except the stubbornly loyalist Pasto
+and the fortress of Cartagena, was free. Bolivar
+had himself made president and military dictator,
+naming Santander vice-president, and giving each
+province two governors, one military and the other
+civil, responsible directly to Bogot&aacute;. The municipal
+governments were preserved, and the Spanish system
+of taxation continued, but patriot republicans displaced
+loyalists in all the offices.</p>
+
+<p>Bolivar soon returned to his Venezuelan headquarters
+on the Orinoco to fight Morillo and organise
+the grand republic he had dreamed of so many years.
+Though all of Venezuela except the Orinoco valley,
+all of Ecuador, and the sea-ports and southern provinces
+of New Granada still remained in the hands
+of superior Spanish armies, and although the Creole
+ruling class had already proved strongly prejudiced
+in favour of local autonomy and the tearing down
+of aristocratic forms, his imagination vaulted all obstacles
+and he planned the new state down to its
+minutest details. His idea was a centralised system
+with himself at its head as life president, backed by
+a hereditary senate, and ruling the three grand divisions
+of his empire through docile vice-presidents.
+But his military power and prestige were insufficient
+to overcome the opposition of jealous generals and
+ambitious lawyers. He spent the year of 1820 in
+futile intrigues among the politicians, and in unsuccessful
+campaigns against the Spaniards in Venez<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">[Pg 443]</a></span>uela,
+while the patriots trembled at the news that a
+great army was assembling at Cadiz which would
+surely sweep them out of existence. A liberal revolution
+in Spain came opportunely to interrupt military
+operations.</p>
+
+<p>Bolivar was obliged to compromise with the
+advocates of federalism and democracy. A congress
+representing the Granadan and Venezuelan
+provinces then in the hands of the patriots assembled
+at Cucut&aacute; early in 1821. Composed of ambitious
+civilians it was opposed to centralisation or
+military rule, and in spite of the Liberator's protests
+adopted a compromise Constitution. Though
+Bolivar was conceded the title of president, he was
+required to give up his civil authority whenever he
+took command of the army, and this meant an
+abolishment of the dictatorship. The idea of a life
+presidency or a hereditary senate was abandoned,
+and the only part of his system which Bolivar managed
+to retain was the subordination of the provinces
+to the central government. The Liberator now devoted
+himself to the direction of the war, leaving
+that long-headed schemer, Santander, in power at
+Bogot&aacute; as vice-president. The winning of the battle
+of Carabobo in Venezuela in June, 1821, and the surrender
+of Cartagena in September, made necessary
+the withdrawal of the Spanish troops from the Isthmus.
+Panama immediately declared itself independent,
+in November, 1821, and announced its intention
+of joining the great confederation of Colombia, then
+composed of the provinces of Venezuela, and New
+Granada, and later of those of Ecuador.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">[Pg 444]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Pasto alone remained in the hands of the Spaniards.
+Bolivar determined to expel them from this
+province, and also from Quito and Guayaquil, while
+visions of conquests in Peru and Bolivia, and of
+returning to his dazzled countrymen in Colombia
+crowned with laurels gathered on southern battle-fields,
+floated through his mind. Congress gladly
+gave him leave of absence and Santander promised
+supplies of money and soldiers. In 1822 he advanced
+against Pasto, sending his able lieutenant, Sucr&eacute;,
+around by sea to Guayaquil to take Quito from the
+south. Gathering three thousand men at Popayan
+he marched into Pasto and on the 7th of April came
+upon the royal army at Bambona. A bloody battle
+followed and Bolivar by inciting his men to reckless
+charges remained master of the field. However, he
+lost three times as many men as the royalists; the
+latter retired in good order, and the Liberator, after
+encamping eight days on the plateau, surrounded by
+a hostile population, hampered by the difficulties of
+the mountain paths, with a strong enemy in front,
+was compelled to retreat on Popayan, leaving his
+sick and wounded. He remained inactive until the
+glorious news of Sucr&eacute;'s overwhelming victory at
+Pichincha arrived. The loyalists in Pasto were now
+completely isolated. The Spanish commander made
+terms with Bolivar and the indomitable mountaineers
+were induced to submit on the promise that they
+should be allowed to retain their local laws and
+customs.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">[Pg 445]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<img src="images/i445.jpg" width="800" height="498" alt="PANAMA FROM THE BAY." title="" />
+<span class="caption">PANAMA FROM THE BAY.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">[Pg 446]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-3.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<h3>MODERN COLOMBIA</h3>
+
+
+<p>After Bolivar's departure for Peru, a period of
+relative quiet ensued. Nevertheless, ambitious
+local politicians constantly intrigued against Santander,
+who in his turn was suspected of encouraging
+federalist agitation in the hope of overthrowing
+Bolivar. The United States and England recognised
+the independence of Colombia shortly after
+the expulsion of the Spaniards, but foreign troubles
+arose when the new republic faced the question of
+paying the immense debt contracted by Bolivar's
+agents in recruiting and equipping the mercenary
+troops and buying ships, artillery, and ammunition.
+This debt had been enormously swollen by the dishonesty
+of some Colombian commissioners and by
+the greed of money lenders who insisted on receiving
+bonds for double the amount they had really
+advanced. The temptation to borrow more when
+it was refunded was too great to be resisted, and
+Colombia soon saw herself burdened with foreign
+obligations amounting to nearly seven millions sterling.
+All the revenues were insufficient to pay inter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">[Pg 447]</a></span>est
+on this sum&mdash;a truly stupendous one for so poor
+a country. The payments fell into arrears, and
+though the debt has been scaled down repeatedly,
+interest has rarely been paid. At the very beginning
+of her independent existence Colombia's credit
+was ruined, and the three countries into which she
+was shortly divided have remained burdened to this
+day with the debts then contracted, their finances
+disorganised, their attempted operations blighted by
+the reputation of bankruptcy, and their diplomatic
+relations hampered by the clamours of bondholders.</p>
+
+<p>Santander's administration was further embarrassed
+by Bolivar's demands for money and troops
+with which to pursue his conquests in Peru and
+Bolivia, and still graver difficulties soon arose.
+Paez, left in command of the army in Venezuela,
+became involved in disputes with the authorities of
+the Venezuelan cities and with the ministers at Bogot&aacute;,
+all of whom he despised as mere civilians or as
+foreigners who had no right to interfere.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, in 1826 the central government formally
+deprived him of his position and summoned him to
+Bogot&aacute;, but a revolution which promptly broke out
+in Caracas made him dictator. The news brought
+Bolivar back from Lima, where for two years he had
+reigned an absolute monarch, leading the life of a
+voluptuous eastern prince. For the next four years
+the Liberator struggled in vain to repress the rising
+tide of federalism and radicalism in Venezuela and
+New Granada. The republican theorists could not
+forget that he had re-established the convents,
+placed the schools under priestly control, abrogated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">[Pg 448]</a></span>
+government contracts for personal reasons, introduced
+aristocratic decorations, and schemed for a
+hereditary senate and a life tenure of the executive;
+nor that his influence had stopped the Cucut&aacute; convention
+in the path of political reform, prevented
+the abolition of slavery and capital punishment, and
+retained the connection of Church and State, and
+the exemption of the army and clergy from civil
+jurisdiction. Santander was more liberal and a
+better practical politician. He had shown much
+ability during the Liberator's absence, and risen to
+be the head of a considerable party.</p>
+
+<p>Bolivar succeeded in temporarily crushing some
+of the opposition in Venezuela and in cajoling Paez,
+and on his return to Bogot&aacute; he made a feint of resigning
+the presidency. Congress, however, was
+still under his spell and re-elected him. He then
+made an attempt to secure legal sanction for his
+system by summoning another constitutent convention.
+But news had come of Peru's and Bolivia's
+defection, and the agitation of the transcendental
+liberals, the universal desire for local self-government,
+and the ambitions of a hundred intriguers for
+high office, proved too much for him. A majority
+of the convention which met at Ocana in 1828 were
+partisans of Santander and opposed Bolivar's proposals
+although the Liberator at the head of three
+thousand soldiers watched the proceedings. Though
+he did his best to intimidate the majority, he shrank
+from frankly playing the role of a Cromwell, and
+contented himself with ordering his supporters to
+withdraw, leaving the convention without a quorum.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">[Pg 449]</a></span>It dissolved and the country trembled on the verge
+of disintegration. His friends called an assembly
+which obediently proclaimed him dictator. The
+Liberator accepted, and deprived Santander of the
+vice-presidency. The press was muzzled, protesters
+banished, and military rule established. Some fiery
+young republicans, determined to emulate the example
+of Brutus, struck down the palace guards at
+midnight and rushed into the house to kill the dictator.
+But his mistress, Manoela Saenz, awakened
+by the noise, directed him to a window. He
+dropped a few feet to the pavement and ran and
+hid himself under a bridge, while the woman, in her
+night clothes, met the assassins on the stairs and
+told them they could enter only over her dead body.
+They pushed her aside with their bloody hands only
+to find the quarry escaped. The next day Bolivar
+returned to the palace and his spies soon hunted
+down the criminals. Santander, suspected of knowledge
+of the plot, went into banishment, and for the
+moment civil war was averted.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 449px;">
+<img src="images/i449.jpg" width="449" height="640" alt="SCENE IN THE ANDES, EN ROUTE TO BOGOT&Aacute;." title="" />
+<span class="caption">SCENE IN THE ANDES, EN ROUTE TO BOGOT&Aacute;.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">[Pg 450]</a></span>But the incident did not revive Bolivar's waning
+popularity. News came in 1829 that Paez had again
+assumed the dictatorship of Venezuela. This was
+fatal to Bolivar's hopes. With New Granada in a
+ferment behind him he could not expect to conquer
+Paez and the formidable llaneros. He made a half-hearted
+attempt to raise an army, but recoiled before
+the insuperable difficulties. Again he resigned
+the presidency, protesting that he was ready to
+sacrifice all personal ambition to secure the integrity
+of the Colombian union and the establishment of a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">[Pg 451]</a></span>
+strong and ordered government. Again he was re-elected,
+but meanwhile civil war was raging in
+Ecuador, where his own troops disavowed his authority.
+Rebellion also broke out in Pasto, and Peru
+intervened in Ecuador and sent a fleet to capture
+Guayaquil and an army to invade Cuenca. Bolivar
+exhausted his last resources in despatching troops
+to meet the Peruvian onslaught, but the principal
+result of the war was to put General Flores in a
+position to make himself independent dictator of
+Ecuador. Despairing of longer maintaining himself,
+but loath to give up his ever-cherished idea of union,
+the Liberator entered into negotiations with European
+diplomats to appoint a prince of a reigning
+family as king of Colombia. But the idea was impracticable.
+There was no place for a monarch,
+either native born or foreign, on the Granadan highlands,
+and Venezuela had already virtually separated.
+Although a rebellion in Antioquia headed
+by his old companion in arms, General Cordoba,
+failed in the fall of 1829, at the end of the year
+word came that Venezuela had formally declared
+her independence and had pronounced a sentence of
+perpetual banishment against the Liberator. This
+was the last straw, and Bolivar made no further resistance
+to his fate, but summoned a congress and
+retired to his country house penniless, sick, and
+heartbroken. All his vast estates had been sacrificed
+to the cause of independence; the hardships
+of his innumerable marches over the cold mountain
+roads had broken his health; and his mode of life
+during the intervals of peace had not tended to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">[Pg 452]</a></span>
+restore it. Although only forty-seven he was a dying
+man. Still he clung to his hopes of vindication and
+re-election, but seeing that even the bulk of his own
+friends opposed, he at last sent in a formal resignation.
+He lived only a few months after congress
+had elected Mosquera president.</p>
+
+<p>Though Bolivar's overthrow was a triumph for the
+federalists and red republicans, congress shrank from
+going too far and installed a wealthy aristocrat as
+president. However, his feeble administration was
+soon driven from power by the revolt of General
+Urdaneta, who made use of Bolivar's name as a
+rallying cry, but who in fact was actuated alone by
+personal ambition. The federalists and anti-Bolivarists
+did not leave him long in possession, and in
+May, 1831, he was expelled in his turn. Obando
+and Lopez, both bitter enemies of the Liberator
+during his lifetime, and the latter suspected of complicity
+in the cowardly murder of the great Marshal
+Sucr&eacute;, came to the head of affairs. New Granada's
+intestine troubles made her too weak to attempt the
+coercion of Venezuela and Ecuador, so their independence
+was recognised and the Colombian republic
+ceased to exist.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">[Pg 453]</a></span>
+<img src="images/i453.jpg" width="600" height="758" alt="CATHEDRAL PANAMA." title="" />
+<span class="caption">CATHEDRAL&mdash;PANAMA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A federalist Constitution for New Granada was
+framed in 1832, and shortly afterwards Santander
+became the first legal president. Unquestionably
+the strongest man in the nation, a good administrator
+and a shrewd politician, he was helpless to
+check the tendency toward disintegration, though
+he reduced Bolivar's army of twenty thousand to
+less than one half, and did much to establish civil
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">[Pg 454]</a></span>
+administration. His energy in enforcing order
+earned him the title of the "Man of Laws," and
+many Granadans regard him as the real founder of
+their nationality. Marquez, who succeeded to the
+presidency in 1837, was not radical enough to suit
+the advanced federalists and republicans, although
+the first serious rebellion which broke out against
+him was caused by his suppression of convents in
+reactionary and Catholic Pasto. At the same time
+Obando was intriguing against the government, and
+many of the provincial governors aided the plots.
+When summoned to trial, Obando fled to the wilds
+of Popayan and Pasto, and civil war raged through
+1839 and 1840. In this latter year Panama successfully
+revolted, maintaining its independence until
+1842. Tomas Mosquera, the minister of war, with
+the help of his son-in-law, General Herran, eventually
+triumphed over the rebels. In 1841 the latter
+became president, and set vigorously to work to
+strengthen the power of the central government.</p>
+
+<p>By this time, all the people who took any interest
+in politics had divided into two parties. The liberals
+insisted on universal suffrage, the separation of
+Church and State, the granting the provinces the
+fullest autonomy, the division of the greater portion
+of the national revenue among the provincial governments,
+and even opposed the theoretical right of
+any government to impose its will on the individual
+citizen. The conservatives believed in respecting
+the clergy, in continuing the old system of education
+under priestly control, and resisted any further
+emasculation of the national government.  Herran
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">[Pg 455]</a></span>
+recalled the Jesuits, and under his direction a conservative
+convention framed a more centralising
+Constitution than that of 1832. Bolivar's ashes
+were delivered to the Venezuelan government with
+impressive solemnities, and his memory apotheosised
+as the father of the nation and the apostle of centralisation.
+Herran was succeeded by his father-in-law,
+Tomas Mosquera. During his administration,
+which lasted until 1849, steam navigation was introduced
+on the Magdalena, the Panama railway was
+begun, the finances were brought into some sort of
+order, the army was further reduced, and the post-office
+system was improved.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 544px;">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">[Pg 456]</a></span>
+<img src="images/i456.jpg" width="544" height="480" alt="CROSSING THE MOUNTAINS IN 1850." title="" />
+<span class="caption">CROSSING THE MOUNTAINS IN 1850.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The liberals and federalists were constantly becoming
+more powerful and more discontented. Disturbances
+broke out from time to time and when
+Mosquera's term expired, the attempt to elect a
+successor in an orderly and constitutional manner
+utterly failed. Riots and bloodshed followed, and
+it was officially announced that no candidate had
+received a majority of the popular vote. The duty
+of making a choice fell upon congress, and Lopez, a
+general of the war of independence who had taken
+part in the overthrow of Bolivar, was installed.
+This meant a resumption of the march toward complete
+decentralisation, temporarily checked during
+Herran's and Mosquera's administrations. The
+Constitution was reformed so as to reduce the power
+of the national executive and guarantee greater
+privileges to the provinces. The latter were divided
+and subdivided to suit the exigencies of local politicians
+until their number reached thirty-five. Lopez
+had been a revolutionist himself and did not know
+when he might be one again, and his abolishment of
+the death penalty for political crimes met with the
+hearty approval of the large number of Granadan
+politicians who were in the same case.  The central
+government transferred a large part of its revenues
+to the provinces, and gave up to them the control
+of judicial administration, of education, and of transportation.
+The tide of liberal legislation also swept
+over the privileges of the clergy. Laws were voted
+suppressing of tithes, giving the nomination of parish<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">[Pg 457]</a></span>
+priests to the civil authorities, taking control of education
+out of their hands, separating Church and
+State, and establishing civil marriage. But it was
+easier to pass such laws than to enforce their observance
+by the Granadans. The clergy were enormously
+powerful among the common people and
+the conservative aristocrats. The banishment of the
+archbishop and several suffragans roused the conservatives.
+Politics became the principal preoccupation
+of the educated classes. Hardly a village in
+the country but had its political club, and more
+than a hundred party newspapers, besides innumerable
+pamphlets, thundered against their opponents.
+The conservative revolution broke out in 1851, beginning
+in Pasto and immediately spreading over
+the whole western half of the republic and even to
+the eastern plateau. Antioquia was the stronghold
+of the clericals, and there they gathered a force of a
+thousand men which was beaten at Rio Negro on
+the 10th of September, 1851, while the insurgent
+bands in a dozen other provinces were reduced in
+detail. Although the liberal government was thus
+triumphant in the field, the danger had been too
+great and was still too menacing to make it safe to
+maintain an uncompromising attitude on the religious
+question.</p>
+
+<p>Lopez procured the election of Obando, another
+political general of the same type and opinions as
+himself, as his successor in the presidency. The
+new president's first act was to summon a convention
+which abolished the last traces of Herran's
+moderately centralising Constitution, and depriving<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">[Pg 458]</a></span>
+the executive of the power of naming provincial
+governors. Obando gave satisfaction to no one,
+and in 1854 General Melo, commander of the cavalry
+in Bogot&aacute;, incited the garrison and workingmen
+of that city to join him in an insurrection. However,
+the chiefs of the conservative party would
+have none of him; the recent concessions to the
+clergy had removed the strongest motives for rousing
+fanaticism to arms; and the clericals declared in
+his favour in only a few provinces. The property-holding
+and educated classes were practically unanimous
+against him. Mosquera and Herran, the most
+powerful men in New Granada and the historical
+chiefs of the moderate conservatives, had modified
+their views to suit the exigencies of the situation
+and become in effect moderate liberals. It was
+Mosquera himself who led the provincial militia
+against Bogot&aacute; and overcome the dictator after
+much bloody street fighting.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">[Pg 459]</a></span>
+<img src="images/i459.jpg" width="600" height="670" alt="TYPES OF COLOMBIAN NATIVES." title="" />
+<span class="caption">TYPES OF COLOMBIAN NATIVES.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The unhappy country, tired of continual internecine
+disorder and exhausted by the harrying civil
+wars, rested willingly for two years under the compromise
+administration of Mallarino in which representatives
+of both parties and most of the principal
+factions had a voice. As a matter of fact the federal
+government had almost ceased to exercise the greatly
+reduced functions which nominally remained to it.
+The executive had only the shadow of a control
+over the provinces, its revenues sank to well-nigh
+nothing, its army was reduced to eight hundred
+men. The very name of the country was changed
+from the "Republic of New Granada" to the "Granadine
+Confederation," and the organisation of
+powerful and independent federal departments was
+begun, foreshadowing the abolition of the old provincial
+system. In 1857 three candidates had presented
+themselves&mdash;Ospina, representing the clerical
+conservatives; Murillo, the advanced liberals; and
+Mosquera, the moderates.  Suffrage had been made<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">[Pg 460]</a></span>
+universal, and under the conditions necessarily prevailing
+among a population almost entirely illiterate
+and used for centuries to monarchical and military
+government, a satisfactory election was impossible.
+On the face of the returns Ospina received a plurality,
+but the radicals were able to force the adoption
+of a new federal Constitution in 1859 which abolished
+the old provinces. However, the new system
+had not the sympathy of the conservative and clerical
+president. He tried to usurp control of the
+elections, the liberals accused him of acting unconstitutionally,
+insurrections broke out in various parts
+of the country, and the confusion became worse
+confounded.</p>
+
+<p>In the state of Bolivar, the liberal insurrectionists
+triumphed, while in Santander the conservatives
+themselves started a revolution which Ospina only
+succeeded in suppressing by the bloody battle of Oratorio.
+Meanwhile Mosquera had become governor
+of Cauca, and when the conservatives of that state
+tried to expel him, he beat them and took advantage
+of his victory to declare himself independent
+of Ospina. The latter advanced, but Mosquera
+defeated him, and invaded the upper Magdalena,
+gaining the battle of Segovia. In every state there
+was an insurrection against Ospina, and three ex-presidents
+accompanied the insurgent armies. On
+the surface the civil war appeared to be a mere contest
+for personal power between Mosquera and
+Ospina, but the former had ensured a large support
+by raising the banner of federalism, and the latter's
+triumph would probably have meant a strengthening<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">[Pg 461]</a></span>
+of the national government and certainly a reaction
+from the radicalism which had gained ground year
+by year since the fall of Bolivar. Supported by the
+clericals, conservatives, and reactionists, Ospina
+fought tenaciously and with a fair prospect of success.
+But the federalist armies advanced relentlessly
+from both north and south, and one after another
+the provinces of the eastern plateaux were wrested
+from him by bloody and well-contested battles.
+Bogot&aacute; was finally taken and the president imprisoned,
+but Mosquera's opponents kept up the
+conflict for some time in the states of Panama, Santander,
+and Antioquia, and it was near the end
+of 1861 before the federalists were everywhere
+triumphant.</p>
+
+<p>With Mosquera at the head of affairs, under the
+title of "Supreme Director," a congress was summoned
+whose members were called, not deputies,
+representatives, or delegates, but "plenipotentiaries"
+of the sovereign states. This congress
+adopted a new constitution, New Granada's sixth
+since 1830. The triumphant liberals expelled the
+Jesuits, abolished ecclesiastical entails, extinguished
+the monastic orders, confiscated Church property,
+decreed the absolute separation of Church and
+State, imprisoned the archbishop, and secularised
+the schools. Suffrage was made nominally universal,
+and the death penalty abolished. The name
+of the country was changed to the "United States
+of Colombia," and it became little more than a
+league of nine federal states for the purpose of defence
+against foreign attack. The national govern<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">[Pg 462]</a></span>ment
+was expressly prohibited from interfering in
+the affairs of the states, even for the preservation of
+order, and a clause of the Constitution provided
+that "when one sovereign state of the union shall
+be at war with another, or the citizens of any state
+shall be at war among themselves, the national government
+is obligated to preserve the strictest neutrality."
+The federal judiciary had no power to
+decide any constitutional questions nor could its
+decisions bind the state authorities. The national
+government was deprived of half its revenue for the
+benefit of the states, and the receipts of the latter
+equalled the federal income. This Constitution remained
+in force for twenty-two years, during which
+civil wars and factional disputes continually racked
+Colombia.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 788px;">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">[Pg 463]</a></span>
+<img src="images/i463.jpg" width="788" height="600" alt="POST-OFFICE AT BOGOT&Aacute;." title="" />
+<span class="caption">POST-OFFICE AT BOGOT&Aacute;.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Moreno, the clerical dictator of Ecuador, had
+aided Ospina during the civil war, and to punish him
+Mosquera undertook a campaign which resulted in
+a Colombian victory at Cuaspud on the 30th of
+December, 1863. However, he desisted from his
+announced intention of deposing Moreno and installing
+an anti-clerical government in Ecuador, and
+granted peace without the imposition of any onerous
+terms. Murillo was elected president in 1864 for
+the ensuing two years, to which short period the
+term had been reduced. The religious question
+would not down, and he found a conservative revolution
+going on in the state of Antioquia. It
+triumphed, and Murillo prudently recognised the
+successful insurgents as the legal government. He
+followed this same policy in regard to other
+revolutions in the states of Bolivar, Magdalena, and
+Panama, and cautiously refrained from all intervention,
+even when conservative insurrections occurred
+in the neighbourhood of Bogot&aacute; itself, or when the
+clericals of Antioquia invaded Cauca, and defeated
+the liberals. One of the last acts of his administration
+was to impose on the impoverished federal
+treasury the settlement of all the forced loans and
+confiscations made during the three years of terrible
+civil war. Mosquera, who succeeded Murillo in
+1866, was not content to remain a mere figurehead,
+although it was under his leadership that the federal
+system had been definitely established.  He bought<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464">[Pg 464]</a></span>
+ships and artillery without authorisation from congress,
+and claimed the power of intervening by force
+whenever the legal government of a state was unable
+to maintain order. This attack on the right of revolution
+outraged the radical republicans. According
+to their theory and practice the federal government
+was merely an alliance between the peoples of the
+states, but Mosquera's doctrine would tend to make
+it an alliance between the state governments, creating
+a ruling oligarchy whose power might be continued
+indefinitely. Denounced as the assassin of Colombian
+liberty, he broke off relations with the liberal
+majority in congress, and in 1867 assumed dictatorial
+powers. But the Bogot&aacute; garrison was suborned by
+his enemies, and its revolt was followed by his deposition
+and the substitution of Acosta.</p>
+
+<p>The new president renewed Murillo's policy of
+non-intervention. Colombia had begun to reap a
+benefit from the increasing foreign demand for
+tropical products. Exports grew in value, and with
+them, imports and revenue. But expenditures grew
+faster; the poorer states demanded and received
+subsidies from the federal treasury; public buildings
+and local improvements were planned beyond the
+nation's ability to pay; and a swarm of employees
+and pensioners battened on the public revenues.
+Under the concession of 1850 the Panama railway
+had agreed to pay three per cent. of its net revenue
+to the government, and the receipts from this source
+amounted to fourteen thousand dollars a year. Colombia
+had stipulated for the right to purchase the
+road in 1870 for the ridiculously low price of five<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465">[Pg 465]</a></span>
+million dollars, but Acosta's administration had no
+money to invest and was greedy for ready cash. So
+the franchise was extended until 1966 for one million
+dollars down and an annual subsidy of a quarter of
+a million. In 1880, under the pressure of poverty,
+the installments until 1908 were alienated.</p>
+
+<p>Under Gutierrez's administration (1868-69), when
+the governor of Cundinamarca gathered troops and
+assumed a dictatorship, the president deposed him.
+Even a liberal administration found it impracticable
+to carry out the theory of non-intervention. An
+attempt was now made to secure the nation's
+creditors by authorising the hypothecation of specific
+revenue&mdash;a measure which left the administration
+insufficient means to meet ordinary running
+expenses. Under Salgar (1870-72), the acknowledged
+deficits amounted to fifty per cent. of the
+total revenue. The increasing revenues had proved
+a curse instead of a blessing, for the demands of the
+states and officials were insatiable, and the sums
+spent in subsidies and internal improvements grew
+beyond all reason. Meantime the most extreme
+and unrestrained liberalism dominated the politics of
+the country. Congress passed a formal vote of condolence
+for the death of Lopez, Paraguay's unspeakable
+tyrant, who had just succumbed to Brazil and
+Argentina, after having devoted to destruction nine-tenths
+of his people. All honorary and useless
+military titles and employments were abolished,
+and the law on that subject contains the following
+curious provision: "In naming the eight generals
+spoken of by the Constitution, from whom must<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466">[Pg 466]</a></span>
+be chosen the commander-in-chief of the army, all
+Colombians over twenty-one shall be considered as
+generals of the republic."</p>
+
+<p>Murillo was elected for a second term in 1872, and
+at once devoted himself, and with considerable success,
+to the re-organisation and regulation of the
+finances. The law of 1868, which had hypothecated
+the revenues to meet the charges of the public debt,
+was repealed and the foreign bonds were scaled down
+to less than one-third their face. By such measures
+the president succeeded in paying the government
+employees and taking care of pressing home necessities,
+and even showed a nominal surplus at the end
+of his term.</p>
+
+<p>During the administration of Santiago Perez
+(1874-76) the first mutterings of the terrible storm
+of civil war soon to burst over the country were
+heard. The state of Panama defied his authority
+and imprisoned his officers, but he applied conscientiously
+the constitutional doctrine of non-intervention,
+and disavowed a general who on his own
+responsibility had deposed the governor. The governor
+of the state of Magdalena took possession of
+the custom houses at the mouth of the river, and
+the troops of the state of Bolivar attacked federal
+detachments passing along the Magdalena&mdash;a river
+which is inter-state, and whose navigation was free
+by the terms of the Constitution. The popular
+election of 1875 was so disturbed that congress assumed
+the power of selecting a president, and Parra
+was installed the following spring. An internecine
+conflict broke out in Cauca; the president started to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467">[Pg 467]</a></span>
+intervene, and the states of Antioquia and Tolima
+declared war against him. Although guerilla bands
+in Cundinamarca, Boyac&aacute;, and Santander menaced
+the government's rear, twenty-five thousand recruits
+were raised and sent against the rebelling states.
+Antioquia was beaten at Chancos and Garrapata,
+and the rebels of central Colombia at La Donjuana,
+in battles where the largest numbers of soldiers ever
+gathered on Colombian soil were engaged.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 493px;">
+<img src="images/i467.jpg" width="493" height="480" alt="RAFAEL NU&Ntilde;EZ, PRESIDENT OF COLOMBIA IN 1879-1883, 1885-1891." title="" />
+<span class="caption">RAFAEL NU&Ntilde;EZ, PRESIDENT OF COLOMBIA<br />
+IN 1879-1883, 1885-1891.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Peace was followed by a general amnesty, because
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468">[Pg 468]</a></span>
+the victorious liberals dared not proceed to extremities
+against their adversaries. Trujillo was installed
+as president without opposition, and the harried
+country recovered somewhat from the exertions and
+disasters of the terrible year of 1876. The finances
+were, however, in horrible disorder; expenses
+amounted to enormous figures; the deficits became
+greater than the total revenues; interest on the
+public debt, which had been regularly kept up since
+1873, was indefinitely suspended. Disturbances
+soon began to break out again, and the national
+guard deposed the governors of Cauca and Magdalena.
+The president showed an inclination toward
+centralisation; he formed alliances with state governors,
+encouraged them to prolong their terms, and
+systematically fostered divisions in the liberal party.
+Trujillo was succeeded by Nu&ntilde;ez, nominally a liberal,
+but who at heart had also sickened of the federalistic
+system and was looking for an opportunity to
+strengthen presidential prerogatives. The Constitution
+stood during his first term and those of
+his two successors, but when he was re-elected in
+1884 the policy which he followed soon caused him
+to be denounced by the liberals as a traitor to the
+Constitution.</p>
+
+<p>The failure of a liberal insurrection in 1885 was
+followed by a complete unitarian and clerical reaction.
+In 1886 a new Constitution was adopted
+which substituted a consolidated republic for the
+loose confederation. The country's name was
+changed from the "United States of Colombia" to
+"Republic of Colombia" in order to express the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469">[Pg 469]</a></span>
+dominating principle of the new r&eacute;gime. The sovereignty
+of the individual states was expressly denied
+in the document, and the two most refractory ones&mdash;Panama
+and Cundinamarca&mdash;temporarily reduced
+to territorial dependencies. The governors were
+named from Bogot&aacute; instead of being elected and
+the right of federal intervention re-affirmed. Suffrage
+was limited by an educational and property
+qualification; the clergy were admitted to participation
+in politics; the Roman Catholic was declared to
+be the national religion, although individual freedom
+of worship was permitted; the presidential term was
+extended to six years; and an attempt was made to
+insure judicial independence by a life tenure.</p>
+
+<p>Under this Constitution there was for a long time
+less disorder. In Colombia political hatreds are,
+however, incredibly virulent and persistent because
+party differences are fundamental and irreconcilable.
+The clericals regard their opponents as pestilent enemies
+of religion and order, and the liberals anathematise
+the ruling party as a reactionary, corrupt,
+and benighted oligarchy. The exiled liberals have
+made repeated efforts to regain power, and the administrations
+have not been able to avoid a constantly
+mounting national expenditure and the
+continuation of deficits and repudiation. In 1899,
+a formidable insurrection, aided from Venezuela,
+broke out, President Sanclemente was imprisoned,
+and in 1900 Vice-President Marroquin assumed the
+executive functions. This terrible civil war ended
+only in November, 1902, when the insurgents surrendered
+their fleet and stores. President Marroquin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">[Pg 470]</a></span>
+and the conservative government seem now firmly
+established, backed as they are by the tremendous
+influence of the Church among the masses. The
+people are returning to their usual avocations,
+though business has been demoralised by the stupendous
+depreciation of the paper currency.</p>
+
+<p>The vast expenditures of the French canal company
+boomed Panama, but the resulting prosperity
+was confined to the Isthmus. The Bogot&aacute; government
+hoped for a great increase of income when the
+canal should be completed, and the abandonment of
+the enterprise was a disappointment. The principal
+subject of public preoccupation during 1903 was
+the negotiation with the United States concerning
+the permission desired by the latter to continue the
+work. Colombia proper has its outlet down the
+Magdalena to the Caribbean, and therefore has no
+greater special commercial interest in the building
+of a canal than Venezuela, Guiana, or Cuba, but the
+Colombians of the continent regarded the possession
+of the isolated Isthmian region as their most valuable
+national birthright, and believed that this invaluable
+strategic position should be used so as to
+obtain the utmost possible advantages for the
+Bogot&aacute; government as well as for the people of
+Panama. The revenue from the Panama railway
+had been one of the important sources of government
+income and the ruling political classes considered
+that they were entitled to have this income
+largely increased if a canal was built.</p>
+
+<p>The special congress summoned to consider the
+treaty already signed by the executive failed to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471">[Pg 471]</a></span>
+ratify the agreement and adjourned, after empowering
+the president to try and negotiate a new one
+which would give Colombia a larger bonus and
+revenue. But the rejection of the treaty was followed
+by a declaration of independence on the part
+of the people of Panama, who believed that the
+United States would pay no larger sum than that
+already agreed upon and who saw their own interests
+being sacrificed for the sake of a far-distant interior
+region with which they had few commercial ties and
+whence invasion and coercion need not be feared
+because of the lack of practicable routes of communication.
+The United States and other powers
+promptly recognised the new nation, which at once
+made a canal treaty similar to that rejected by the
+Bogot&aacute; congress.</p>
+
+<p>At Bogot&aacute; the first impression was one of profound
+dismay. The executive offered to declare
+martial law, suspend the Constitution, and ratify
+the rejected treaty in spite of the Senate. General
+Reyes, the foremost living Colombian, immediately
+departed for Panama as a special envoy to endeavour
+to persuade the people there to return to their allegiance,
+but his overtures were rejected, and he went
+to Washington on the hopeless errand of inducing
+the United States Government temporarily to abandon
+its policy of forbidding fighting on the Isthmus,
+so that Colombia might reduce the people of Panama
+to obedience. Meanwhile many Colombians blamed
+the Marroquin administration for the irreparable loss
+of Panama and ten million badly needed dollars.
+Some popular demonstrations occurred, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_472" id="Page_472">[Pg 472]</a></span>
+hot-headed demanded that war be declared against
+the United States and an army marched across the
+Atrato swamps to attack Panama from the land.
+But the financial and topographical difficulties were
+so evidently insurmountable that the war talk soon
+died down, the demonstrations against the Government
+ceased, and most elements seem to have
+acquiesced in the election of General Reyes to the
+presidential term which begins in 1904. It will be
+under his able guidance that Colombia will start on
+the tedious road leading to internal peace and regeneration,
+to financial rehabilitation, and to the reconcilement
+of those fierce factions whose wars have
+drenched their country's soil with blood for so many
+decades.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;">
+<img src="images/dec-a.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_473" id="Page_473">[Pg 473]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="bbt">
+<h2><a name="PANAMA" id="PANAMA"></a>PANAMA</h2>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474">[Pg 474]</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475">[Pg 475]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-9.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>PANAMA</h2>
+
+<h3>THE EVENTS LEADING TO INDEPENDENCE</h3>
+
+
+<p>The history of Panama is for the most part
+identified with that of Colombia, which is
+narrated elsewhere in the present volume. It will,
+however, be convenient to review certain movements
+and tendencies of the last half-century in order to
+obtain a just understanding of the position and
+prospects of the new republic.</p>
+
+<p>All the principles of advanced democratic government
+were included in the programme of the party
+which ruled Columbia from 1863 to 1883, and the
+statute books of the time afford ample proof that
+the leaders earnestly tried to put those principles
+into practical effect. They dreamed a Utopia, but
+practically their efforts only aggravated the anarchical
+tendencies bequeathed by the Spaniards and
+Bolivar. Colombian liberals still insist that a persistent
+enforcement of the Constitution and principles
+of 1863 would ultimately transform the
+character of the people&mdash;that religious bigotry and
+priestly influence would gradually disappear; that
+the progressive enlightenment of the masses would<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_476" id="Page_476">[Pg 476]</a></span>
+make military despotism and revolutions impossible;
+and that in process of time the relations of the states
+to the federal government would reach a satisfactory
+and workable basis. But so far as the experiment
+went no progress was made toward unifying the
+nation and pacifying the adverse elements. Discontent,
+disorders, civil wars increased in violence as
+the years went by. Though one-fifth of the federal
+revenues were spent on the public school system,
+and one-tenth of the children were nominal attendants,
+the clergy were permitted to have no share in
+their control, and retaliated by excommunicating
+the parents. The devotedly pious Creole mothers
+and wives, threatened with the closing of the confessionals
+and the denial of absolution, threw their
+incalculable influence against the atheistic government.
+The destruction of the convents and the
+confiscation of the vast ecclesiastical estates violently
+changed the ownership of two-thirds of the
+land in the confederation, but this imposition of
+new landlords on the industrious, oppressed, half-enslaved
+tenantry did not much modify real agricultural
+conditions. No extensive subdivision of
+estates resulted, and the Creole aristocracy continued
+to pay more attention to political intrigue
+than to improving their property.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_477" id="Page_477">[Pg 477]</a></span>
+<img src="images/i477.jpg" width="800" height="496" alt="VIEW OF PANAMA." title="" />
+<span class="caption">VIEW OF PANAMA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Not less disappointing in its practical working
+was the independence of the states. Not only did
+the local bosses constantly abuse autonomy for their
+own selfish purposes, but the presidents at Bogot&aacute;
+often ignored the constitutional rights of the states,
+and selected for coercion precisely those states which
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_478" id="Page_478">[Pg 478]</a></span>
+were farthest from the capital and most needed
+wide autonomous powers. Though Panama's position
+was isolated, its population cosmopolitan, its
+commercial interests and social structure peculiar,
+and though in colonial times its dependence on
+Bogot&aacute; had been only nominal, the liberal presidents
+usually ruled it like a conquered province.
+Members of the Andean oligarchy poured in to
+batten on its revenues; the autonomy guaranteed
+by the Constitution proved illusory, and discontent
+led to repeated efforts to achieve absolute
+independence.</p>
+
+<p>Rival ambitions among its own leaders furnished,
+however, the immediate cause of the downfall of the
+liberal party. A close oligarchy grew up and that
+inevitable corollary, a powerful faction of dissident
+liberals, while the clericals remained formidable and
+irreconcilable even after their bloody overthrow in
+1876. Rafael Nu&ntilde;ez, a brilliant writer, a resolute
+and ambitious party chief, and a leader in the confiscation
+of church property, had been defeated in his
+candidacy for the presidency in 1875. The younger
+and dissatisfied liberals rallied behind him in his war
+against the oligarchy, and in 1880 the old-fashioned
+liberals could not prevent his election to the presidency.
+He vigorously strengthened the prerogatives
+of the federal executive and built up his personal
+following, but although the issue of paper money
+and the discontinuance of interest on the foreign
+debt&mdash;a debt which only ten years before had been
+scaled down to $10,000,000, one-sixth its original
+amount, on a solemn promise that at least this much<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_479" id="Page_479">[Pg 479]</a></span>
+would be faithfully paid&mdash;placed large funds at his
+disposal, the old-line liberals were strong enough to
+prevent his re-election in 1882. Their victory was
+illusory and temporary. Nu&ntilde;ez controlled both
+houses of congress and was able to block President
+Zaldua at every turn. Eighty years old and in
+feeble health, the latter died after a year of fruitless
+struggle.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<img src="images/i479.jpg" width="800" height="555" alt="STEAMERS ON THE MAGDALENA RIVER." title="" />
+<span class="caption">STEAMERS ON THE MAGDALENA RIVER.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>After a short <i>ad interim</i> administration in which
+Nu&ntilde;ez's influence predominated, he was re-elected
+to the presidency and installed in 1884. By this
+time his centralising tendencies were manifest, and
+the measures he adopted unmistakably pointed to
+the substitution of a unified republic for the old
+loose confederation. Many of his liberal supporters<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_480" id="Page_480">[Pg 480]</a></span>
+fell away and he was driven into an alliance with
+the conservatives. Appointments of members of
+that party to important positions were followed
+by the great revolt of 1885. The insurrectionists
+delivered their main attack on the Caribbean coast,
+whither the importation of arms was easy. Much
+of the department of Magdalena fell into their hands,
+and they besieged Cartagena in force. But when
+one of their expeditions invaded the Isthmus, burning
+Colon, and interrupting traffic on the Panama
+Railway, the president appealed to the United
+States, as previous presidents had done in similar
+cases, to carry out the guaranty of free transit contained
+in the treaty of 1846. At the same time the
+government troops attacked and defeated the isolated
+insurrectionists at Colon, and shortly afterwards
+the latter's main army suffered a bloody repulse in
+an assault on Cartagena. This broke the back of
+the movement against Nu&ntilde;ez, and the liberals
+abandoned the hopeless struggle.</p>
+
+<p>The insurrection had been undertaken for the
+purpose of defending the 1863 Constitution, and its
+defeat meant the destruction of departmental independence.
+As the logical and natural result of his
+victory, the president proclaimed the abolishment
+of the Constitution and summoned a convention to
+adopt a new one. Thenceforward until his death
+ten years later Rafael Nu&ntilde;ez and his political ideas
+were supreme in Colombia, and Panama was held
+in the most rigid subjection. The old "United
+States of Colombia" was replaced by the "Republic
+of Columbia," one and indivisible; the departments<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481">[Pg 481]</a></span>
+became mere administrative divisions whose governors
+were appointed from Bogot&aacute;; the presidential
+term was increased to six years; the radical liberal
+projects were abandoned; the clergy regained many
+of their privileges; and the historical conservatives
+continued the dominant party.</p>
+
+<p>As long as Nu&ntilde;ez lived there were few outbreaks
+and no serious civil war, though the ousted liberals
+never ceased to plot the government's overthrow.
+The centralising system held the departments in a
+rigid control from whose inconveniences Panama
+suffered far more than the mountain districts.
+Practically she was allowed no voice in either her
+own or general affairs; the very delegates who
+nominally represented her in the constitutional convention
+of 1885 were residents of Bogot&aacute; appointed
+by Nu&ntilde;ez; military rule became a permanent thing
+on the Isthmus; all officials were strangers sent from
+the Andean plateau; and the million dollars of taxes
+wrung each year from the people of Panama were
+spent on maintaining the soldiers who kept them in
+subjection. In January, 1895, the harassed province
+broke out in a rebellion which was suppressed
+by an overwhelming force of Colombian troops in
+April.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile in Colombia proper the opposition to
+the ruling clique grew stronger and stronger. Persecution
+united the liberals, and they began organising
+for revolt all over the republic. The
+conservatives themselves divided into two parties,
+one of which opposed the administration. Nu&ntilde;ez
+did not live to finish the second term to which he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_482" id="Page_482">[Pg 482]</a></span>
+had been elected in 1892, but his successor managed
+to suppress the premature revolt of 1895, and in
+1898 Sanclemente was elected, the opposition refraining
+from going to the polls. The new president
+soon found his position very difficult, and, unlike
+Nu&ntilde;ez, was unable to dominate his own party and
+hold the opposition in check. The French Canal
+Company, whose concession, granted in 1878, would
+expire in 1904, offered a million dollars for a renewal,
+desiring to recoup, by a sale to the United
+States, a part of the two hundred millions sunk by
+De Lesseps. Sanclemente's government wished to
+accept, but the opposition and even the conservative
+congress insisted on the forfeiture of the French
+rights. The administration rapidly lost prestige,
+the discontented elements saw their opportunity,
+and the long-brewing storm now broke on the hapless
+country. The liberals hurriedly completed their
+preparations, and in the fall of 1899 a civil war began&mdash;the
+most terrible and destructive that has ever
+devastated the republic. Before it ended in 1902,
+more than two hundred battles and armed encounters
+had been fought, and thirty thousand Colombians
+slain. The detailed history of the campaigns has
+not yet been written, but it is apparent that the insurrectionists
+at first gained many successes. The
+president declared martial law, suspending the functions
+of congress, and the extension desired by the
+French Canal Company was granted by executive
+decree. But the pecuniary relief thus obtained did
+not materially help the floundering administration.
+Sanclemente became a mere figurehead for his more
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_483" id="Page_483">[Pg 483]</a></span>resolute ministers, and in July, 1900, the vigorous
+vice-president, Marroquin, seized power by a <i>coup
+d'&eacute;tat</i>, throwing Sanclemente into a prison, where
+he remained until his death. Thereafter the war
+against the rebels was prosecuted with more energy,
+and the tide turned with the defeat of an army of
+Venezuelans, eight thousand strong, which had invaded
+the eastern provinces, to co-operate with the
+insurrectionists.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<img src="images/i483.jpg" width="800" height="488" alt="NATIVE VILLAGE ON THE PANAMA R. R." title="" />
+<span class="caption">NATIVE VILLAGE ON THE PANAMA R. R.</span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_484" id="Page_484">[Pg 484]</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>However, the liberals were still strong in the
+west and north. On the Isthmus four insurrections
+had broken out from October, 1899, to September,
+1901, and though each had been promptly suppressed,
+in 1902 the liberals were able to make a
+last great effort to establish themselves at Panama.
+They had considerable forces near the mouth of the
+Magdalena, and gunboats on the Pacific. The secure
+possession of the Isthmus would have enabled them
+to reinforce this Magdalena army, cut off Marroquin
+from the sea, and undertake a campaign against the
+interior. At first all went well for them; their gunboats
+captured the government's vessels on the
+Pacific side; they concentrated a respectable army
+there and finally defeated and captured two thousand
+of Marroquin's troops at Agua Dulce, near
+Panama. But this was their last success. Marroquin
+poured reinforcements into Colon, and though
+the American admiral at first refused to allow them
+to be transported over the railroad to Panama, permission
+was granted when it became evident that
+there would be no fighting near the line. News
+came of the defeat of the liberal army near the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_485" id="Page_485">[Pg 485]</a></span>
+Magdalena, and General Herrera, the victor at Agua
+Dulce, found himself isolated. In desperation he
+sent an expedition in October which surprised and
+captured Colon, but French and American marines
+were promptly landed to prevent fighting in that
+city. The expedition had no alternative but to surrender,
+and a few days later General Herrera with
+the main body capitulated on the Pacific side.</p>
+
+<p>The three years of war left Colombia in frightful
+demoralisation. The victorious government was
+little better off than the defeated liberals. Commerce
+and industry had been prostrated; revenues
+had dwindled to nothing; the paper currency was
+worth less than one per cent. The exhaustion of
+its adversaries, not its own strength, enabled Marroquin's
+government to continue in power. In such
+a situation the administration welcomed the opportunity
+which now offered of renewing the building of
+the Isthmian canal. The United States government
+determined to undertake this great work itself, and
+finally decided in favour of Panama as against the
+Nicaragua route. Forty million dollars was agreed
+upon as a just price for the work already done by
+the French Company, and nothing remained but to
+obtain Colombia's consent to the transfer. The
+civil war helped to delay the negotiation of a satisfactory
+treaty, but as soon as it was over the Marroquin
+administration lost little time in coming to an
+agreement with the United States. Colombia was
+to receive a bonus of ten million dollars for consenting
+to the transfer and enlarging the terms of the
+original concession; her sovereign rights were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_486" id="Page_486">[Pg 486]</a></span>
+reserved and guaranteed, although she agreed to
+police and sanitary control of the canal strip by the
+United States.</p>
+
+<p>When this treaty was submitted to the Colombian
+Senate for ratification, opposition developed which
+the administration was not strong or resolute enough
+to overcome. Among the politicians at Bogot&aacute;, the
+opinion was almost universal that the executive
+should have demanded more. The Colombian people
+have ever regarded the political control of the
+Isthmus as their most valuable national heritage,
+and cherished extravagant hopes that some day they
+would be vastly enriched by the sale or rental of this
+strategic bit of ground for its natural use as the greatest
+artery of the world's commerce. Many now
+insisted, as they had done in 1898, on enforcing a forfeiture
+of the French rights, or at least on receiving
+a proportion of the $40,000,000 to be paid for them.
+It was also said that the Americans could well afford
+a larger bonus, and the opponents of the treaty made
+the further point that the agreement was unconstitutional
+and contained insufficient guaranties of Colombian
+sovereignty. Against this storm the feeble
+administration probably could do little and certainly
+did nothing. The Senate was allowed to adjourn
+without ratifying the treaty, and an attempt was
+made to negotiate a new one providing for a larger
+bonus and more stringent guarantees of Colombian
+sovereignty.</p>
+
+<p>The United States, however, absolutely refused
+to consider any other terms than those already
+agreed upon, and the civilised world saw the com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_487" id="Page_487">[Pg 487]</a></span>pletion
+of an enterprise promising incalculable
+benefits to mankind indefinitely postponed by the
+opposition of Andean provinces whom the accidents
+of war and international politics had given an arbitrary
+control over a region with which they had no
+natural connection. The situation was particularly
+hard for the people of the Isthmus, whose confident
+hopes were now disappointed of at last receiving,
+by the prosperity which would follow the building
+of the canal, some compensation for the oppression
+and losses they had suffered during eighty years of
+misrule by the Bogot&aacute; oligarchies. Hardly had the
+treaty been rejected when plotting for a declaration
+of independence began. The resident population
+was unanimous, and good grounds existed for believing
+that even the Colombian garrison would offer
+no resistance unless reinforcements should come
+from Bogot&aacute;. In case of an armed conflict with
+Colombia the people of Panama could count on the
+sympathy of all America and Europe. The stockholders
+of the French Company had a direct pecuniary
+interest in their success. If once they could
+establish independence and a <i>de facto</i> government,
+Colombia could not deliver an effective attack without
+violating the neutrality and security of transit
+guaranteed to the Isthmus by the United States.
+Everything pointed to the success of a well-conducted
+movement.</p>
+
+<p>Though the preparations for the revolt could not
+be concealed, the Bogot&aacute; government took no
+effective measures to forestall it. Warned that
+trouble was impending, the United States sent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_488" id="Page_488">[Pg 488]</a></span>
+ships to prevent fighting that might interfere with
+transit. The new republic was proclaimed at
+Panama on the 3rd of November, 1903. The Colombian
+authorities made no resistance; the garrison
+surrendered without firing a shot; and the entire
+population acquiesced in the appointment of a provisional
+government, pending the calling of a convention
+and the adoption of a Constitution. A
+small force of Colombians had been landed at Colon,
+but the revolution at Panama found it still on the
+Atlantic side. On November 4th the American
+naval commander refused to give these troops permission
+to use the railroad for warlike purposes.
+Because the vital portion of the new republic is
+virtually neutral under the treaty of 1846, the provisional
+government having established itself in
+peaceable possession was safe from external attack.
+The useless Colombian troops at Colon either joined
+the people of Panama or retired. The inhabitants
+of Colon and the outlying districts immediately sent
+in their adherence, and the peace of the whole
+Isthmian region remained unbroken. On the 13th
+of November the United States recognised the new
+republic, being followed by France on the 18th, and
+then by all other nations as soon as diplomatic formalities
+could be complied with. Dr. Manuel Amador
+Guerrero was elected first president of the
+Republic of Panama, being inaugurated on February
+19, 1904. A treaty with the United States for
+the building of the canal was framed on substantially
+the same lines as the one which had been negotiated
+with Colombia.  By the end of February it had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_489" id="Page_489">[Pg 489]</a></span>
+been ratified and proclaimed, and the United States
+at once made preparations for the beginning of the
+work.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;">
+<img src="images/dec-c.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_490" id="Page_490">[Pg 490]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="AtEnd" id="AtEnd"></a>
+<img src="images/s-490.jpg" width="600" height="786" alt="MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA" title="" />
+<span class="caption">MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA</span>
+<p class="center"><a href="images/map-490.jpg">Click here for a larger image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_491" id="Page_491">[Pg 491]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-1.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2>
+
+
+<p class="indexquot">
+A<br />
+<br />
+Abascal, General, Viceroy of Peru, <a href="#Page_73">73-78</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a><br />
+<br />
+Abibe Mountains, <a href="#Page_408">408</a><br />
+<br />
+Acha, General, <a href="#Page_276">276</a><br />
+<br />
+Aconcagua River, the, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plain of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Acosta, Juan, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br />
+<br />
+Acosta, President of Colombia, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a><br />
+<br />
+Acre River, the, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br />
+<br />
+"Adelantados," <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a><br />
+<br />
+Agua Dulce, battle of, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br />
+<br />
+Alansi, valley of, <a href="#Page_291">291</a><br />
+<br />
+Alacantra, Francisco, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br />
+<br />
+Alfaro, President of Ecuador, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a><br />
+<br />
+Alfinger, Adelantado of Venezuela, <a href="#Page_349">349</a><br />
+<br />
+Almagro, partner of Pizarro, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at war with Pizarro, <a href="#Page_41">41-43</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">execution of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Almagro the younger, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+Alonso, President of Bolivia, <a href="#Page_281">281</a><br />
+<br />
+Alpaca, the, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a><br />
+<br />
+Alvarado, Spanish adventurer, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Governor of Guatemala, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Amar, Viceroy of Bogot&aacute;, <a href="#Page_430">430</a><br />
+<br />
+Amat, Don Manuel, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br />
+<br />
+Amazon River, the, discovery of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a><br />
+<br />
+Amazon, forested plains of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a><br />
+<br />
+Andagoya, Pascual de, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br />
+<br />
+Andean plateau, the, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a><br />
+<br />
+Andean valleys, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gold in, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Andes, the, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a> et passim<br />
+<br />
+Andes, army of the, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br />
+<br />
+Andrade, Creole revolutionist, <a href="#Page_396">396</a><br />
+<br />
+Andueza, Creole revolutionist, <a href="#Page_396">396</a><br />
+<br />
+Angol, besieged, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br />
+<br />
+Angostura (city), <a href="#Page_374">374</a><br />
+<br />
+Anserma, founded, <a href="#Page_409">409</a><br />
+<br />
+Antigua, founded, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a><br />
+<br />
+Antioquia, great mineral province of Colombia, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407-409</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a><br />
+<br />
+Antioquia, state of, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a><br />
+<br />
+Antofogasta, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br />
+<br />
+Apples, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br />
+<br />
+Apur&eacute; River, the, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374-376</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">army of, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Aragua Valley, the, <a href="#Page_350">350</a><br />
+<br />
+Araucania, colonised, <a href="#Page_216">216</a><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_492" id="Page_492">[Pg 492]</a></span><br />
+Araucanians, the, independent spirit of, <a href="#Page_138">138-147</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treaty of, with Spanish, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">missions established among, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at war with Chile, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Arauco, besieged, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br />
+<br />
+Araure, battle of, <a href="#Page_368">368</a><br />
+<br />
+Arce, President of Bolivia, <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br />
+<br />
+Arenales, General, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br />
+<br />
+Arequipa (city), founded, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br />
+<br />
+Arequipa (province), <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br />
+<br />
+Argentina, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">civilised tribes of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolution in, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">civil wars in, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Argentine, army, the, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">navy, the, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pampas, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Argentine Republic, the, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">expansion of, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">boundary treaty of, with Chile, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Arica (city), <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br />
+<br />
+Arica (province), arrangement between Peru and Chile concerning, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br />
+<br />
+Asses, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br />
+<br />
+Atacama desert, the, <a href="#Page_239">239</a><br />
+<br />
+Atahuallpa, Inca empire divided between Huascar and, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fratricidal war between Huascar and, <a href="#Page_16">16-19</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sends ambassador to Spaniards, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treacherously captured by Pizarro, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">offers ransom, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">murder of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Atrato, River, the, <a href="#Page_403">403-406</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Valley, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Audiencias, royal, established, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a><br />
+<br />
+Auqui Toma, <a href="#Page_294">294</a><br />
+<br />
+Ayachucho, plain of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">battle of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Ayohuma, battle of, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br />
+<br />
+Azuay, nudo of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291-293</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a><br />
+<br />
+Aztecs, the, <a href="#Page_412">412</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+B<br />
+<br />
+Balboa, Nu&ntilde;ez de, discoverer of the Pacific, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a><br />
+<br />
+Balcarce, General, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br />
+<br />
+Ballivian, General, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br />
+<br />
+Balmaceda, Chilean Liberal leader, <a href="#Page_214">214-216</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218-220</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222-225</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death of, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Balta, Colonel, President of Peru, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a><br />
+<br />
+Bambona, battle of, <a href="#Page_444">444</a><br />
+<br />
+Bananas, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a><br />
+<br />
+Baquedano, General, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br />
+<br />
+Barcelona (city), founded, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">captured, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Barcelona (province), <a href="#Page_362">362</a><br />
+<br />
+Barinos (province), <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a><br />
+<br />
+Barley, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a><br />
+<br />
+Barquisimeto, founded, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">destroyed by earthquake, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">captured, <a href="#Page_368">368</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Barreiro, General, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a><br />
+<br />
+Bastida, Rodrigo, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a><br />
+<br />
+Belgrano, General, <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br />
+<br />
+Bello, civil code prepared by, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br />
+<br />
+Belzu, General, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br />
+<br />
+Benalcazar, Sebastian de, conquers Quito, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a><br />
+<br />
+Beni River, the, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br />
+<br />
+Bermudez, Colonel, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a><br />
+<br />
+Biobio River, the, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145-147</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a><br />
+<br />
+Blanco, Guzman, Dictator of Venezuela, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394-396</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Blanco</i>, the, <a href="#Page_119">119-121</a><br />
+<br />
+Bogot&aacute;, (city) <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">founded, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">one of the centres of Spanish-American culture, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Archbishop of, banished, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>;</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_493" id="Page_493">[Pg 493]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolutionary junta in, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">seat of federal government, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">punishment of, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Bogot&aacute; (province), <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">vice-royalty of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">jurisdiction of, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">audiencia of, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">presidency of, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">named New Granada, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">declares itself an independent state, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Bolivar, Simon, the "Liberator" of South America, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dictator of Peru, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">military exploits of, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">President of United States of Colombia, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plan of, for South American Confederation, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320-322</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">constitutions, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">undertakes conquest of Quito, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wins battle of Ayachucho, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">welcomed in Bolivia, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">political theories of, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">forced to retire from Peru, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">drives Spanish from Venezuela and New Granada, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433-435</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">interview of, with San Martin, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">life of, devoted to South American independence, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">army of, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">proclamation of, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">overthrow of, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death of, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">character and education of, <a href="#Page_364">364-366</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">native city of, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">apotheosis of, <a href="#Page_455">455</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Bolivar, State of, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a><br />
+<br />
+Bolivia (Upper Peru), <a href="#Page_235">235-281</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">description of <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Inca conquest of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">military roads in, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish conquest of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Inca cities in, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">capital of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">precious metals found in, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238-242</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245-247</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">railroads in, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">audiencia established in, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a> (<i>see also</i> Charcas);</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the battleground of war of independence, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">republic of, created, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bolivar the Father of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">named, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">first president of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268-270</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">constitutions of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, <a href="#Page_101">101-103</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270-273</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">boundary treaty of, with Chile, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at war with Chile, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">secret treaty of, with Peru, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nitrate territory of, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">early civilisation of, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rainfall in, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fertility of, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">character of population of, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish cities in, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cattle-raising in, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish colonial system in, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">taxation in, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">missions established in, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">printing-press, in, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">battles in, <a href="#Page_257">257-260</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264-266</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sturdy spirit of patriots in, <a href="#Page_258">258-262</a>, etc.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commerce of, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">period of civil war and anarchy in, <a href="#Page_272">272 <i>et seq.</i></a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">slavery abolished in, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">greatest silver producing country of the world, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rubber production of, <a href="#Page_278">278-280</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">without seaports, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treaty of, with Brazil, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">international position of, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_494" id="Page_494">[Pg 494]</a></span><br />
+Bonaparte, Joseph, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a><br />
+<br />
+Bonaparte, Napoleon, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a><br />
+<br />
+Borrero, Antonio, President of Ecuador, <a href="#Page_339">339</a><br />
+<br />
+Bourbon dynasty, the, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a><br />
+<br />
+Boves, organises troop of llaneros, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death of, <a href="#Page_370">370</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Boyac&aacute; River, the, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">battle of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Boyac&aacute;, state of, <a href="#Page_467">467</a><br />
+<br />
+Brazil, treaty of, with Bolivia, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">loyalty of, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Brown, Admiral William, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br />
+<br />
+Buccaneers, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a><br />
+<br />
+Buenaventura, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br />
+<br />
+Buenos Aires, viceroyalty of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">smuggling in, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolutionary junta in, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pampas of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">importance of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Bunes, General, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+C<br />
+<br />
+Cabildos, in Bogot&aacute;, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Bolivia, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Chile, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Ecuador, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Venezuela, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Cacao, native to South America, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a><br />
+<br />
+Cacao industry in Colombia, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Ecuador, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Venezuela, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Caceres, President of Peru, <a href="#Page_126">126-131</a><br />
+<br />
+Cacha, the last Cara shiri, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a><br />
+<br />
+Caciques, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a><br />
+<br />
+Cadiz, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">monopoly, the, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Cajamarca, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br />
+<br />
+Calabozo, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a><br />
+<br />
+Caldas, Colombian scientist, <a href="#Page_438">438</a><br />
+<br />
+Calderon, Garcia, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br />
+<br />
+Cali (city), <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a><br />
+<br />
+Cali (province), part of presidency of Quito, <a href="#Page_420">420</a><br />
+<br />
+Calivio, battle of, <a href="#Page_433">433</a><br />
+<br />
+Callao, engulfed by tidal wave, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Peruvian fleet at, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish fleet at, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Callao Castle, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a><br />
+<br />
+Caluchima, <a href="#Page_296">296</a><br />
+<br />
+Camano, Jos&eacute;, President of Ecuador, <a href="#Page_339">339</a><br />
+<br />
+Camargo, patriot leader, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a><br />
+<br />
+Campero, Narcisco, President of Bolivia, <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br />
+<br />
+Ca&ntilde;an (province), <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a><br />
+<br />
+Ca&ntilde;aris, the, Indian tribe, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a><br />
+<br />
+Candamo, Se&ntilde;or, President of Peru, <a href="#Page_131">131</a><br />
+<br />
+Cancha-Rayada, battle at, <a href="#Page_176">176-178</a><br />
+<br />
+Ca&ntilde;ete (city), founded, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">besieged, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Ca&ntilde;ete, Marquis of, the "good viceroy," <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>. <i>See</i> Mendoza<br />
+<br />
+Canizaries, Do&ntilde;a Manuela, <a href="#Page_313">313</a><br />
+<br />
+Canseco, General, President of Peru, <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br />
+<br />
+Canterac, Spanish commander, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+Canto, Colonel, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a><br />
+<br />
+Cape Codera, <a href="#Page_351">351</a><br />
+<br />
+Cape Gracias &aacute; Dios, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a><br />
+<br />
+Cape Horn, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a><br />
+<br />
+Cape San Roman, <a href="#Page_347">347</a><br />
+<br />
+Captaincies-General, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a><br />
+<br />
+Carabobo, battle of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a><br />
+<br />
+Caracas (city), revolutionary junta in, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">founded, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sacked, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">made a captaincy-general, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">destroyed by earthquake, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bolivar's birthplace, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">under jurisdiction of Bogot&aacute;, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolution in, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_495" id="Page_495">[Pg 495]</a></span><br />
+Caracoles, silver mines of, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br />
+<br />
+Cara Indians, the, confederacy of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">invade Ecuador, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conquered by Incas, <a href="#Page_11">11-14</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288-296</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Caranquis, the Indian tribe, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a><br />
+<br />
+Caras, description of, <a href="#Page_286">286-290</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">staple articles of food of, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conquered by Spanish, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Carbojal, Spanish commander, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br />
+<br />
+Caribbean Sea, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a><br />
+<br />
+Carib Indians, the, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a><br />
+<br />
+Carrasco, Captain-General of Chile, <a href="#Page_159">159-161</a><br />
+<br />
+Carrera, Jos&eacute;, creole leader, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br />
+<br />
+Carrera, Juan, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br />
+<br />
+Carrera, Luiz, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br />
+<br />
+Carrillo, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br />
+<br />
+Cartagena (city), revolutionary junta in, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bolivar takes service with, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">besieged, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435-437</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">oldest fortress in America, <a href="#Page_406">406-409</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">surrender of, <a href="#Page_443">443</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Cartagena (province), <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a><br />
+<br />
+Cartago (city), <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;<br />
+<br />
+Carujo, Venezuelan revolutionist, <a href="#Page_389">389</a><br />
+<br />
+Casanare (province), <a href="#Page_424">424</a><br />
+<br />
+Casanare River, the, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plains of, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Cassava, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br />
+<br />
+Castilla, Don Ramon, President of Peru, <a href="#Page_106">106-110</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">character and ability of, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Castilla, Don Ruiz de, President of Quito, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a><br />
+<br />
+Castilla, Marshal, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;<br />
+<br />
+Castro (city), <a href="#Page_151">151</a><br />
+<br />
+Castro, President of Venezuela, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a><br />
+<br />
+Castro, Vala de, Governor of Peru, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a><br />
+<br />
+Cattle, introduced into South America, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a><br />
+<br />
+Cattle-raising in Bolivia, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Colombia, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Venezuela, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Cauca (province), northern division of Quito presidency, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">State of, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Cauca River, the, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a><br />
+<br />
+Caudillos, the, Bolivian, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a><br />
+<br />
+Caupolican, Arauncanian chief, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br />
+<br />
+Ceballos, Jos&eacute;, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a><br />
+<br />
+Central America, Colombia's claim to, <a href="#Page_429">429</a><br />
+<br />
+Cerro de Pasco Mountains, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a><br />
+<br />
+Chacabuco, battle of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a><br />
+<br />
+Chanca Indians, the, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br />
+<br />
+Chancos, battle of, <a href="#Page_467">467</a><br />
+<br />
+Charcas (Suer&eacute;), Indian capital of Bolivia, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">audiencia of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolutionary junta in, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish capital of Upper Peru, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">jurisdiction of, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Charles IV. of Spain, <a href="#Page_311">311</a><br />
+<br />
+Charles V., Emperor, authorises conquest of Peru, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appoints governor for Venezuela, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Chaves, Francisco, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
+<br />
+Chibcho Indians, the, <a href="#Page_412">412-414</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">civilisation of, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Chile, Inca conquest of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish conquest of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139-149</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">captain-general of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_496" id="Page_496">[Pg 496]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">war of independence in, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">junta established in, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at war with Peru and Bolivia, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">boundary treaty of, with Bolivia, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">boundaries of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeats allies, <a href="#Page_121">121-125</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">captures Lima, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mineral products of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nitrate industry of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gains control of nitrate region, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220-222</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">navy of, <a href="#Page_118">118-121</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183-185</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">characteristics of inhabitants of, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">area of, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rainfall in, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">agricultural conditions in, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">battles in, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143-145</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176-178</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180-182</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223-225</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish cities of, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at war with Araucanians, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the colonial period in, <a href="#Page_148">148-155</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">immigration into, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">growth of commerce in, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">smuggling in, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">taxation in, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prosperity of, <a href="#Page_154">154-156</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">universities in, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the capital of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">seismic disturbances in, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cuyo separates from, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">landed aristocracy of, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">liberal reforms in, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206-208</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214-217</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">slavery abolished in, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish authority re-established in, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">independence of, proclaimed, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">civil wars in, <a href="#Page_189">189 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_200">200-203</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215-226</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">constitutions of, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">strong government established in, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">qualifications for suffrage in, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">becomes dominant power on Pacific coast, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">political conditions in, <a href="#Page_198">198-203</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227-229</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">financial conditions of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211-213</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">religious conditions in, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">adopts civil and criminal codes, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at war with Spain, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">debt of, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">boundary treaty of, with Argentina, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">boundary disputes with Argentina, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">chief exports of, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">paper money issued in, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">under jurisdiction of Buenos Aires, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Chilean (city), <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br />
+<br />
+Chilo&euml; Islands, the, explored, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br />
+<br />
+Chimilas Mountains, <a href="#Page_410">410</a><br />
+<br />
+Chincha Islands, the, seized by Spain, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a><br />
+<br />
+Chinchon, Countess of, cure of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
+<br />
+Chinese coolies in Peru, <a href="#Page_111">111</a><br />
+<br />
+Chiquitos  Indians, the, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a><br />
+<br />
+Chocolate, Europe indebted to Peru for, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ecuador supplies large amount of, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Chorrillos (city), <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br />
+<br />
+Coal mines, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br />
+<br />
+Cochabamba (city), <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br />
+<br />
+Cochrane, Lord Thomas, Admiral, <a href="#Page_79">79-83</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186-188</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Cochrane</i>, the, <a href="#Page_119">119-121</a><br />
+<br />
+Cocoa palm introduced into South America, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br />
+<br />
+Coffee-raising, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a><br />
+<br />
+Colombia (New Granada), plateau of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish exploration of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403-406</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410-414</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">native tribes of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412-414</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_497" id="Page_497">[Pg 497]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first permanent settlement in, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish conquest of, <a href="#Page_407">407-418</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolutionary spirit in, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430 <i>et seq.</i></a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war of independence in, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430-444</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">formation of United States of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">provinces in confederation of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320-322</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bolivar, President of confederation of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">southern part under jurisdiction of Quito, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Constitution of Cucut&aacute;, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">confederation of, breaks up, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at war with Peru, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">civil wars in, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_450">450-458</a>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481-485</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">boundaries of, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gold in, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406-409</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cities founded in, <a href="#Page_404">404-406</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413-416</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">climate of, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rainfall in, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tropical forests of, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fertility of, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indian slavery in, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">negro slaves in, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">early civilisation of, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409-412</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">territorial divisions of, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">royal commissioners sent to, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">erected into a presidency, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">jurisdiction of presidency, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">colonial period of, <a href="#Page_419">419-429</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">names of, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">education in, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">roads built in, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">river transportation in, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">creoles of, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">agricultural products of, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Antioquia, great mineral province of, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commercial conditions in, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">taxation in, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">authors of, celebrated, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mineral products of, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish colonial system in, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">decrease in population of, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">smuggling in, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">religious conditions in, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455-458</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">governors of, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">diseases rife in, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Rebellion of the Communes" in, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">viceroys of, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">exports of, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">claim of, to Central America, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Congress of, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">battles in, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">independence of, recognised, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">financial conditions in, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_463">463-466</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">public debt of, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">credit of, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">liberty of the Press in, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">numerous constitutions of, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>, <a href="#Page_460">460-462</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">political conditions in, <a href="#Page_454">454-462</a>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">right of suffrage in, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>, <a href="#Page_459">459-461</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">steam navigation introduced into, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death penalty abolished, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">campaign of, against Ecuador, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">power of judiciary in, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">receipts from Panama railway, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">franchise of railway extended, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">becomes a consolidated republic, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">name changed to Republic of, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">length of presidential term in, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">paper currency in, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">negotiates treaties with United States, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rejects treaties, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Panama declares her independence of, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">threatens war against United States, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>;</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_498" id="Page_498">[Pg 498]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">future of, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appeals to United States, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">demands of, in regard to Panama Canal, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>, <a href="#Page_486">486</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Colombian army, the, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a><br />
+<br />
+Colon (city), <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">burned, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">captured, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">adheres&nbsp; to Panama, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Colonia (city), <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br />
+<br />
+Columbus, Bartholomew, <a href="#Page_404">404</a><br />
+<br />
+Columbus, Christopher, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a><br />
+<br />
+Concepcion, founded, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">burned, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">destroyed by tidal wave, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">patriots capture, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">southern capital of Chile, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Concordat signed by Ecuador, <a href="#Page_337">337</a><br />
+<br />
+"Conquistadores," the, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a><br />
+<br />
+Copiapo, valley of, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mines of, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Copper, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a><br />
+<br />
+Copper-pan amalgamation process, <a href="#Page_241">241</a><br />
+<br />
+Coquimbo, founded, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">northern capital of Chile, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Cordero, Luis, President of Ecuador, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a><br />
+<br />
+Cordilleras, the, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a><br />
+<br />
+Cordoba, General, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a><br />
+<br />
+Cordoba, Gonzalo de, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br />
+<br />
+Coro (city), <a href="#Page_348">348-350</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a><br />
+<br />
+Corregidors, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">abolished, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></span><br />
+<br />
+"Corregimentos," <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br />
+<br />
+Cortes, Hernando, conqueror of Mexico, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a><br />
+<br />
+Cortes, the Spanish, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>,436<br />
+<br />
+Cotopaxi, eruption of, <a href="#Page_298">298</a><br />
+<br />
+Cotton, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a><br />
+<br />
+Council of the Indies, <a href="#Page_304">304</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Covadonga</i>, the, <a href="#Page_119">119</a><br />
+<br />
+Coya (city), <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br />
+<br />
+Creoles, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">growth of revolutionary ideas among, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359-362</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">characteristics of, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">education among, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">new race of, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Crespo, President of Venezuela, <a href="#Page_396">396</a><br />
+<br />
+Croix, General Theodore de, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br />
+<br />
+Cuaspud, battle of, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a><br />
+<br />
+Cuba, captain-general of, <a href="#Page_429">429</a><br />
+<br />
+Cubagua, island of, <a href="#Page_348">348</a><br />
+<br />
+Cucut&aacute; (city), <a href="#Page_382">382</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colombian Congress meets at, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Cucut&aacute;, constitution of, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a><br />
+<br />
+Cuenca (city), <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br />
+<br />
+Cuenca (province), <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plateau of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Cuman&aacute;, oldest city in South America, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a><br />
+<br />
+Cuman&aacute; (province), <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">transferred to jurisdiction of Venezuela, <a href="#Page_426">426</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Cundinamarca, State of, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a><br />
+<br />
+Cuyo (province), <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">separation of, from Chile, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Cuzco, plateau of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br />
+<br />
+Cuzco (city), Inca capital, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">military road from, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">possessed by Spanish, <a href="#Page_32">32-36</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+D<br />
+<br />
+Darien, gold-mines of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gulf of, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Daza, General, <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br />
+<br />
+De Lesseps, Ferdinand, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br />
+<br />
+Drake, Sir Francis, <a href="#Page_428">428</a><br />
+<br />
+Ducasse captures Cartagena, <a href="#Page_428">428</a><br />
+<br />
+Duchisela, long reign of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+E<br />
+<br />
+Earthquake, of 1751, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of 1812, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_499" id="Page_499">[Pg 499]</a></span><br />
+Echenique, General, President of Peru, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br />
+<br />
+Ecuador, Cara conquest of, <a href="#Page_11">11-13</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286-288</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Inca conquest of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291-296</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">character of inhabitants of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gold and silver in, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">military roads in, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish conquest of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297 <i>et seq.</i></a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Inca cities in, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war of independence in, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">incorporation of, with Colombia, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320-322</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the founder of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">description of, <a href="#Page_285">285-287</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">climate of, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fertility of, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341-343</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">taxation in, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">area of, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">European grains and fruits introduced into, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cacao industry of, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Catholic Church in, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">education in, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the capital of, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">decrease in population of, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">negro slavery in, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">presidency of Quito erected, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">under jurisdiction of New Granada, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">audiencia established in, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">junta appointed in, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">open cabildo summoned, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">battles in, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">independence of, declared, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">named, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treaty of, with Colombia, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">civil war in, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337-341</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">civil and constitutional government in, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reforms in government of, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">financial conditions of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">second South American republic recognised by Spain, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prosperity of, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">numerous constitutions of, <a href="#Page_333">333-335</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">railways of, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">manual industries of, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">future of, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">under jurisdiction of Bogot&aacute;, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colombian campaign against, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Eldorado, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a><br />
+<br />
+Elephantiasis, <a href="#Page_426">426</a><br />
+<br />
+Elias, Campo, patriot leader, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a><br />
+<br />
+Emeralds, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a><br />
+<br />
+Encalada, Blanco, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br />
+<br />
+Encomiendas, system of agricultural, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">abolished, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a></span><br />
+<br />
+England, granted privilege of exporting negroes to South America, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war between Spain and, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fleet of, destroys Venezuelan navy, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">recognises independence of Colombia, <a href="#Page_446">446</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Errazuriz, President of Chile, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Esmeralda</i>, the, capture of, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sale of, to Japan, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Espa&ntilde;a, creole leader, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a><br />
+<br />
+Estremadura (province), <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+F<br />
+<br />
+Falcon, General, <a href="#Page_391">391-394</a><br />
+<br />
+Federmann, explorer, <a href="#Page_414">414</a><br />
+<br />
+Ferdinand VII. of Spain, deposition and imprisonment of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">restoration of, <a href="#Page_435">435</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Fernandez, conspiracy of, <a href="#Page_276">276</a><br />
+<br />
+Flores, Antonio, President of Ecuador, <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br />
+<br />
+Flores, General, the founder of Ecuador, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326-329</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a><br />
+<br />
+France, war between Spain and, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">recognises republic of Panama, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Franciscans, the, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_500" id="Page_500">[Pg 500]</a></span><br />
+Freire, General, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191-194</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br />
+<br />
+French scientists in Quito, <a href="#Page_309">309</a><br />
+<br />
+Fruits introduced into  South America, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+G<br />
+<br />
+Gallo heads insurrection, <a href="#Page_202">202</a><br />
+<br />
+Gamarra, General, Dictator of Peru, <a href="#Page_101">101-105</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a><br />
+<br />
+Garrapata, battle of, <a href="#Page_467">467</a><br />
+<br />
+Gasca, Pedro de la, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a><br />
+<br />
+Gatajo, battle of, <a href="#Page_341">341</a><br />
+<br />
+Gauchos, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a><br />
+<br />
+Gavilan, battle of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br />
+<br />
+Goajira, peninsula of, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a><br />
+<br />
+Goats, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br />
+<br />
+Gold, Spain's desire for, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Bolivia, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Chile, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Colombia, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406-409</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Ecuador, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Peru, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Venezuela, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Goyeneche, General, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a><br />
+<br />
+Grains introduced into South America, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a><br />
+<br />
+Grapes, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cultivation of, forbidden, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Grau, Miguel, Admiral, <a href="#Page_119">119-121</a><br />
+<br />
+Great Britain, action of foreign office in regard to Bolivia, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">threatened rupture between United States and, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">abandons Isthmian colony, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> England.</span><br />
+<br />
+Gr&ouml;ningen, victory of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br />
+<br />
+Guaicaipuro, Indian chief, <a href="#Page_350">350</a><br />
+<br />
+Gual, creole leader, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a><br />
+<br />
+Gual, Pedro, <a href="#Page_391">391</a><br />
+<br />
+Guamanga, founded, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">battle at, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Guano deposits, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a><br />
+<br />
+Guarany, Indians, the, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">language, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Guatamala, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a><br />
+<br />
+Guayaquil (city), founded, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">best port on Pacific coast of South America, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population and wealth of, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Guayaquil (province), <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cultivation of cacao and sugar-cane in, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Guayaquil, Gulf of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a><br />
+<br />
+Guiana (province), under jurisdiction of Bogot&aacute;, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">transferred to jurisdiction of Venezuela, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Guiana, British, <a href="#Page_398">398</a><br />
+<br />
+Guipuzcoa Company, the, <a href="#Page_354">354-356</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a><br />
+<br />
+Gutierrez brothers, the, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a><br />
+<br />
+Gutierrez, President of Colombia, <a href="#Page_465">465</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+H<br />
+<br />
+Hague  international  tribunal, the, <a href="#Page_399">399</a><br />
+<br />
+Hayti, Bolivar flees to, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gold placers of, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Heath, explorer, <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br />
+<br />
+Heredia founds Cartagena, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a><br />
+<br />
+Herran, General, President of New Granada, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a><br />
+<br />
+Herrera, General, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br />
+<br />
+Hides, exportation of, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a><br />
+<br />
+Honda (city), <a href="#Page_420">420</a><br />
+<br />
+Honduras, <a href="#Page_403">403</a><br />
+<br />
+Horses, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br />
+<br />
+Huacho, San Martin lands at, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br />
+<br />
+Huaina Capac, Inca emperor, campaign of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conquest of Quito by, <a href="#Page_12">12-14</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292-294</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Hualcopo, Cara shiri, <a href="#Page_290">290-292</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a><br />
+<br />
+Huanacabamba (province), <a href="#Page_288">288</a><br />
+<br />
+Huanca, Auqui, <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br />
+<br />
+Huanchaca, mines of, <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br />
+<br />
+Huaqui, battle of, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_501" id="Page_501">[Pg 501]</a></span><br />
+Huascar, Inca empire divided between Atahuallpa and, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fratricidal war between Atahuallpa and, <a href="#Page_16">16-19</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">execution of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Huascar</i>, the, <a href="#Page_119">119-121</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a><br />
+<br />
+Humachiri, battle of, <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br />
+<br />
+"Husares de la Muerte," cavalry corps, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+I<br />
+<br />
+Ibague (city), <a href="#Page_416">416</a><br />
+<br />
+Ibarra, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a><br />
+<br />
+Iglesias, President of Chile, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a><br />
+<br />
+Immigrants, into Peru, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">into Chile, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">into Ecuador, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Imperial (city), founded, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">besieged, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Inca Indians, the, home of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">civilisation of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">migration of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Incas, language of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">religion of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">social and industrial organisation of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">capital of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32-35</a>, etc.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">emperors of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8-10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28-32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34-38</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death of last emperor of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conquests of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8-19</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288 <i>et seq.</i></a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">irrigation system of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">empire of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292-294</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">military roads built by, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">armies of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, etc., <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish conquest of, <a href="#Page_20">20-40</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reduced to slavery, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, etc., <a href="#Page_242">242-244</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cities built by, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Independencia</i>, the, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a><br />
+<br />
+Indians of South America, the, early civilisation of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">various tribes of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8-14</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286-289</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">language of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">characteristics of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conquered by Spanish, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27-40</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">oppression and slavery of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63-65</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242-244</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425-428</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rebellions of, <a href="#Page_38">38-40</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish legislation in behalf of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">impressment of, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">missions established among, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Indigo, <a href="#Page_303">303</a><br />
+<br />
+Inquisition established, in Peru, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Colombia, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Ipecacuanha, Europe indebted to Peru for, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br />
+<br />
+Iquique, Peruvian port, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br />
+<br />
+Iquitos (city), <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br />
+<br />
+Irish mercenaries in Bolivar's army, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a><br />
+<br />
+Irrigation in South America, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+J<br />
+<br />
+Jauja (city), <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92-94</a><br />
+<br />
+Jauja, valley of the, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br />
+<br />
+Jemappes, battle of, <a href="#Page_359">359</a><br />
+<br />
+Jesuits, in Bolivia, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Colombia, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Ecuador, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Peru, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Jiron, Governor of New Granada, <a href="#Page_425">425</a><br />
+<br />
+Jubones, plateau of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a><br />
+<br />
+Juncal, battle of, <a href="#Page_372">372</a><br />
+<br />
+Junin, battle of, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a><br />
+<br />
+Jurisprudence, Spanish system of, in South America, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_502" id="Page_502">[Pg 502]</a></span><br />
+<br />
+K<br />
+<br />
+Koerner, Colonel, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+L<br />
+<br />
+La Donjuana, battle of, <a href="#Page_467">467</a><br />
+<br />
+La Fuente, Dictator of Peru, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br />
+<br />
+La Guaira, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a><br />
+<br />
+La Mar, General, President of Peru, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a><br />
+<br />
+La Palma, battle of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br />
+<br />
+La Paz, founded, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">spirit of independence in, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></span><br />
+<br />
+La Puerta, decisive battles of, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a><br />
+<br />
+Lara, General, deported, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br />
+<br />
+Las Casas, famous book of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+La Serna, General, Viceroy of Peru, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">army of, <a href="#Page_93">93-95</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Las Heras, patriot commander, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br />
+<br />
+Lastra, General, <a href="#Page_194">194</a><br />
+<br />
+Las Trincheiras, <a href="#Page_368">368</a><br />
+<br />
+Latacunga, valley of, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a><br />
+<br />
+La Torre, General, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a><br />
+<br />
+Lautaro, Araucanian chief, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br />
+<br />
+Leiva founded, <a href="#Page_420">420</a><br />
+<br />
+Leon, creole leader, <a href="#Page_355">355</a><br />
+<br />
+Leprosy, <a href="#Page_426">426</a><br />
+<br />
+Lima (city), founded by Pizarro, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Incas attempt to take, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pizarro in, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">political, social, and commercial centre of South America, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">viceroyalty of Peru established at, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">jurisdiction of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">earthquakes in, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolutionary spirit in, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81-84</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">evacuated by the Spaniards, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bolivar at, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">insurrections in, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chilian army captures, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">public library of, destroyed, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Linares, Doctor, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a><br />
+<br />
+Linn&aelig;us names chinchona, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
+<br />
+Lircay, victory at, <a href="#Page_194">194</a><br />
+<br />
+Llamas, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a><br />
+<br />
+Llaneros, the, origin of, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cavalry troops of, organised, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">valour of, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371-374</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376-378</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Llanos, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a><br />
+<br />
+Loja (city), built by Spaniards, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Loja (province), <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a><br />
+<br />
+Loncomilla, battle of, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br />
+<br />
+Lopez, General, President of Colombia, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a><br />
+<br />
+Lopez, tyrant of Paraguay, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a><br />
+<br />
+Los Andes, <a href="#Page_396">396</a><br />
+<br />
+Louis XIV. and war of Spanish Succession, <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br />
+<br />
+Loyola, founder of Jesuit order, <a href="#Page_245">245</a><br />
+<br />
+Lugo, adelantado, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a><br />
+<br />
+Luque, partner of Pizarro, <a href="#Page_23">23</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+M<br />
+<br />
+MacGregor captures Barcelona, <a href="#Page_372">372</a><br />
+<br />
+Madeira Falls, the, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br />
+<br />
+Madeira River, the, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278-281</a><br />
+<br />
+Madrid, Pizarro goes to, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">legislation at, in behalf of Indians, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commissions from, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revenue sent to, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">government, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French king on throne of, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Madrid, Dictator of Colombia, <a href="#Page_437">437</a><br />
+<br />
+Magdalena River, the, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408-410</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412-414</a> <i>et passim</i>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">named, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Valley, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_503" id="Page_503">[Pg 503]</a></span><br />
+Magdalena, State of, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br />
+<br />
+Magellan, Straits of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br />
+<br />
+Maipo, battle of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179-182</a><br />
+<br />
+Maize, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Europe indebted to Peru for, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Mallarino, President of New Granada, <a href="#Page_458">458</a><br />
+<br />
+Manabi, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a><br />
+<br />
+Manaos, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br />
+<br />
+Manco Capac, first Inca sovereign, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br />
+<br />
+Manco Capac, brother of Huascar, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38-41</a><br />
+<br />
+Manso, Governor, <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br />
+<br />
+Maracaibo Bay, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a><br />
+<br />
+Maracaibo (city), sack of, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">refused to bend delegates to Caracas, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Maracaibo, Gulf of, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a><br />
+<br />
+Maracaibo, Lake, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a><br />
+<br />
+Maracaibo (province), under jurisdiction of Bogot&aacute;, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">transferred to jurisdiction of Venezuela, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolt in, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">separated from Caracas, <a href="#Page_392">392</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Marco, General, <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br />
+<br />
+Margarita, Island of, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a><br />
+<br />
+Margarita (province), <a href="#Page_362">362</a><br />
+<br />
+Mari&ntilde;o, Dictator of Venezuela, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a><br />
+<br />
+Marquez, President  of  New Granada, <a href="#Page_454">454</a><br />
+<br />
+Marroquin, President  of Colombia, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a><br />
+<br />
+Martin, Alonso, <a href="#Page_405">405</a><br />
+<br />
+Maturin captured, <a href="#Page_367">367</a><br />
+<br />
+Maule River, the, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a><br />
+<br />
+Medina Celi joins patriots, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br />
+<br />
+Melgarejo, Dictator of Bolivia, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br />
+<br />
+Mello, Geronimo, explores Magdalena River, <a href="#Page_414">414</a><br />
+<br />
+Melo, General, <a href="#Page_458">458</a><br />
+<br />
+Mendoza, Andre Hurtado de, Marquis of Ca&ntilde;ete, "the good viceroy," <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Mendoza, Garcia de, campaign of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">founds Ca&ntilde;ete, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Mendoza (province), <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br />
+<br />
+Menendez, President of Peru, <a href="#Page_107">107</a><br />
+<br />
+Mercury, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
+<br />
+Merida (city), founded, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">destroyed by earthquake, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Merida (province), <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a><br />
+<br />
+Meta River, the, <a href="#Page_377">377</a><br />
+<br />
+Meuqueta, zipa of, <a href="#Page_412">412</a><br />
+<br />
+Mexico, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a><br />
+<br />
+Miranda, Francisco, patriot leader, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a><br />
+<br />
+Mississippi River, the, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br />
+<br />
+"Mitta," <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br />
+<br />
+Mocha, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a><br />
+<br />
+Mochica language, the, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br />
+<br />
+Mojos Indians, the, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a><br />
+<br />
+Molina, Governor of Ecuador, <a href="#Page_315">315</a><br />
+<br />
+Mollendo railroad, the, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br />
+<br />
+Monagas, President of Venezuela, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a><br />
+<br />
+Monteagudo, Dr., <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br />
+<br />
+Montes, General, <a href="#Page_316">316</a><br />
+<br />
+Monteverde, General, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a><br />
+<br />
+Montilla, General, <a href="#Page_381">381</a><br />
+<br />
+Montt, Jorge, President of Chile, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a><br />
+<br />
+Montt, Manuel,  President of Chile, <a href="#Page_199">199-201</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">proclaims martial law, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Montt, Pedro, <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br />
+<br />
+Montufar, Carlos, <a href="#Page_314">314</a><br />
+<br />
+Montufar, Juan, <a href="#Page_313">313</a><br />
+<br />
+Moquegua, <a href="#Page_124">124</a><br />
+<br />
+Morales, General, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a><br />
+<br />
+Moreno, Garcia, President of Ecuador, long administration of, <a href="#Page_335">335-339</a>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">character of, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_504" id="Page_504">[Pg 504]</a></span><br />
+Morgan, sacked Maracaibo, <a href="#Page_354">354</a><br />
+<br />
+Morillo, Marshal, in Venezuela, <a href="#Page_370">370-372</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436-439</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">report of, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">resigns, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Mosquera, Tomas, President of Columbia, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>, <a href="#Page_460">460-464</a><br />
+<br />
+Mosquito Coast, the, <a href="#Page_419">419</a><br />
+<br />
+Munecas, priest, <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br />
+<br />
+Murillo, President of Colombia, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+N<br />
+<br />
+Napo River, the, <a href="#Page_300">300</a><br />
+<br />
+Napoleon. <i>See</i> Bonaparte<br />
+<br />
+Nari&ntilde;o, Dictator of Colombia, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a><br />
+<br />
+Narvarte, Doctor, <a href="#Page_390">390</a><br />
+<br />
+Naxichi, battle at, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br />
+<br />
+Negroes, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a><br />
+<br />
+Neiva (city), <a href="#Page_416">416</a><br />
+<br />
+Neiva, President of New Granada, <a href="#Page_420">420</a><br />
+<br />
+New Granada, captain-general of, subject to viceroy of Peru, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">viceroyalty of, created, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">jurisdiction of, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolutionary junta installed in, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war of independence in, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">provinces in Colombian confederation, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opposition to Bolivar's government in, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">recognises independence of Venezuela and Ecuador, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">name of, extended to presidency of Bogot&aacute;, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence of first president of, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">army of, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">constitution of 1832, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">name of, changed, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> Colombia.</span><br />
+<br />
+"New Laws," the, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Nicaragua, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Canal, <a href="#Page_485">485</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Nicuesa, Diego de, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a><br />
+<br />
+Nieto, Dictator of Peru, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br />
+<br />
+Nitrates, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">extent of region, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">taxed, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Noboa, Diego, <a href="#Page_334">334</a><br />
+<br />
+Nombre de Dios founded, <a href="#Page_405">405</a><br />
+<br />
+"Nudos," <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a><br />
+<br />
+Nu&ntilde;ez, Rafael, President of Colombia, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">political ideas of, <a href="#Page_478">478-480</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death of, <a href="#Page_481">481</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+O<br />
+<br />
+Oats, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br />
+<br />
+Obando, General, President of New Granada, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a><br />
+<br />
+Ocana (city), captured, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">national assembly held at, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">founded, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">battle near, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Ocumare, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a><br />
+<br />
+O'Higgins, Ambrose, career of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br />
+<br />
+O'Higgins, Bernardo, gallantry of, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">saves Santiago, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeated, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dictator, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">resignation of, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Ojeda, Alonso de, explorations of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">names Venezuela, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Ola&ntilde;eta, renegade Argentine, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death of, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263-265</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Olives, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a><br />
+<br />
+Opon River, the, <a href="#Page_410">410</a><br />
+<br />
+Oranges, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br />
+<br />
+Oratorio, battle of, <a href="#Page_460">460</a><br />
+<br />
+Orbegoso, Dictator of Peru, <a href="#Page_102">102-105</a><br />
+<br />
+Ordo&ntilde;ez, General, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br />
+<br />
+O'Reilly, General, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br />
+<br />
+Orellana, discoverer of the Amazon, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">refounds Guayaquil, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Orinoco, River, the, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plains, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">valley, <a href="#Page_442">442</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Orton River, the, <a href="#Page_279">279</a><br />
+<br />
+Oruro, silver mines of, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_505" id="Page_505">[Pg 505]</a></span><br />
+Osorio, General, re-establishes Spanish authority in Chile, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeated by San Martin, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176-181</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Osorno, founded, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>; besieged, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br />
+<br />
+Ospina, President of New Granada, <a href="#Page_459">459-461</a><br />
+<br />
+Otavalo, capture of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+P<br />
+<br />
+Pacamdr&eacute; Indians, the, <a href="#Page_293">293</a><br />
+<br />
+Pachacutec, <i>See</i> Yupanqui.<br />
+<br />
+Pacheco, President of Bolivia, <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br />
+<br />
+Pacific Ocean, the, discovery of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a><br />
+<br />
+Padilla, patriot leader, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a><br />
+<br />
+Paez, Jos&eacute; Antonio, patriot leader, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dictator and President of Venezuela, <a href="#Page_389">389-391</a>, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Paillamachu, Araucanian chief, <a href="#Page_144">144-146</a><br />
+<br />
+Paita (city), <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br />
+<br />
+Paita (province), <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a><br />
+<br />
+Pampas, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br />
+<br />
+Pampas River, the, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br />
+<br />
+Pamplona, revolutionary junta in, <a href="#Page_431">431</a><br />
+<br />
+Pamplona (province), <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a><br />
+<br />
+Panama (city), founded, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23-25</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pizarro sends to, for aid, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pan-American Congress at, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Panama Canal, the, <a href="#Page_470">470-472</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485-489</a><br />
+<br />
+Panama, Gulf of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br />
+<br />
+Panama hats, manufacture of, <a href="#Page_342">342</a><br />
+<br />
+Panama, Isthmus of (province), <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a><br />
+<br />
+Panama (province), audiencia of, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">joins Colombian confederation, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rebels against Colombia, <a href="#Page_454">454</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Panama railway, the, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">receipts from, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Panama, State of, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>,466, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colombian misrule in, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">declares independence, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">republic of, recognised, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">neutrality and free transit guaranteed to, by treaty of 1846, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">insurrections in, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">provisional government in, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">canal treaty with United States, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Pando, Jos&eacute; Manuel, President of Bolivia, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br />
+<br />
+Paraguay, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a><br />
+<br />
+Paraguay River, the, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br />
+<br />
+Paran&aacute; River, the, <a href="#Page_249">249</a><br />
+<br />
+Pardo, Don Manuel, first civilian President of Peru, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">aristocratic party founded by, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Parra, President of Colombia, <a href="#Page_466">466</a><br />
+<br />
+Pasco, <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br />
+<br />
+Pasto (city) founded, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a><br />
+<br />
+Pasto (province), <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">part of presidency of Quito, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">high tableland of, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">loyal to Spain, <a href="#Page_432">432-434</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rebellion in, <a href="#Page_451">451</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Paul, Rojas, <a href="#Page_396">396</a><br />
+<br />
+Paya Pass, the, <a href="#Page_377">377</a><br />
+<br />
+Peaches, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br />
+<br />
+Pearl fisheries, <a href="#Page_348">348</a><br />
+<br />
+"Pelucones," <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br />
+<br />
+Peons, impressment of, <a href="#Page_394">394-396</a><br />
+<br />
+Perez, President of Chile, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a><br />
+<br />
+Perez, Santiago, President of Colombia, <a href="#Page_466">466</a><br />
+<br />
+Peru, early inhabitants of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">antiquity of civilisation in, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fertility of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">climate of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Inca empire established in, <a href="#Page_5">5-20</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">system of irrigation in, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_506" id="Page_506">[Pg 506]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">copper mines of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">military roads in, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">battles in, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Inca cities of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish conquest of, <a href="#Page_20">20-40</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mineral wealth of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">extent of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish cities in, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indian rebellions in, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">governors of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">viceroyalty of, <i>see</i> Lima;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">viceroys of, <a href="#Page_50">50-52</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60-63</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78-80</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">slavery prohibited in, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">industrial development of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127-129</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revenue to Spain from, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64-66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">civil wars in, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99-103</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106-108</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish colonial system established in, <a href="#Page_61">61-66</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">taxation in, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">university in, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish language in, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">religious conditions in, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">discovery of virtues of quinine, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">earthquakes in, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jesuits expelled from, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">creoles of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolutionary spirit in, <a href="#Page_72">72-76</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">navy of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war of independence in, <a href="#Page_80">80-97</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spaniards evacuate capital of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">proclaimed a republic, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">financial conditions in, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">congress of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bolivar, Dictator of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bolivarian constitution imposed on, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolts from Bolivar's government, <a href="#Page_99">99-101</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">state of anarchy in, <a href="#Page_101">101-103</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">further constitutions of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at war with Chile, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119-125</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">capital of, captured by Chileans, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at war with Bolivia, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treaty of peace with Bolivia, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commerce in, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">railways in, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">debt of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">insurrections in, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130-132</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">immigration into, encouraged, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treaty of alliance with Chile, against Spain, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">naval battles of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119-121</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at war with Spain, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revenue from nitrates, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">first civilian president of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">guano deposits of, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">currency of, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treaty of alliance with Bolivia, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nitrate region owned by, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">loses nitrate province, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">losses of, in Chilean war, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mediation of United States between Chile and, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treaty of peace with Chile, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reorganisation of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">British creditors of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rubber industry in, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">political conditions in, <a href="#Page_130">130-132</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hopeful signs of the times for, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cause of revolutions in, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Upper, formed into republic of Bolivia, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266-268</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">re-establishes independent existence, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at war with Colombia, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">surrenders southern provinces, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Peru-Bolivian Confederation, the, <a href="#Page_101">101-103</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270-273</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a><br />
+<br />
+Peruvian bonds, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a><br />
+<br />
+Peruvian Corporation, the, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a><br />
+<br />
+Pezet, President of Peru, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_507" id="Page_507">[Pg 507]</a></span><br />
+Pezuela, General, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a><br />
+<br />
+Philip II. of Spain, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br />
+<br />
+Piar, negro chief, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a><br />
+<br />
+Pichincha, battle of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a><br />
+<br />
+Pierola, General, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">President of Peru, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Pigeons, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br />
+<br />
+Pigs, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br />
+<br />
+Pinto, Anibal, President of Chile, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a><br />
+<br />
+Pinto, General, President of Chile, <a href="#Page_193">193</a><br />
+<br />
+"Pipiolas," <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br />
+<br />
+Pisagua captured, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br />
+<br />
+Pisco, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br />
+<br />
+Piura (city) founded, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a><br />
+<br />
+Piura (province), <a href="#Page_288">288</a><br />
+<br />
+Piura, valley of, <a href="#Page_291">291</a><br />
+<br />
+Pizarro, Francisco, the conqueror of Peru, early life of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with Ojeda and Balboa, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">partners of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">failure of first exploring expedition, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">second expedition of, <a href="#Page_23">23-25</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">authorised by Charles V. to conquer Peru, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">third expedition of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reinforced by de Soto, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">lands in northern Peru, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">meets Inca emperor, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treachery of, <a href="#Page_28">28-34</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">establishes Spanish government, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">founds cities, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">territory awarded to, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">crushes Indian rebellion, <a href="#Page_38">38-40</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Almagro quarrels with, <a href="#Page_41">41-43</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treachery of, towards Almagro, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">extends Spanish conquest throughout Inca empire, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conspiracy against, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">murder of, <a href="#Page_47">47-50</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">character of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Pizarro, Gonzalo, valour of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at siege of Cuzco, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">capture of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Governor of Quito, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299-301</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Governor of Peru, <a href="#Page_50">50-53</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeat and death of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Pizarro, Hernando, joins expedition to conquer Peru, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">capture and release of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">capture and death of Almagro by, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">develops mining industry of Bolivia, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">establishes feudal lordships, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Pizarro, Juan, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br />
+<br />
+Plantain introduced into Ecuador, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a><br />
+<br />
+Plate provinces, the, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
+<br />
+Plate River, the, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Valley, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Platinum, <a href="#Page_424">424</a><br />
+<br />
+Plaza, Leonidas, President of Ecuador, <a href="#Page_341">341</a><br />
+<br />
+Poll-taxes, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a><br />
+<br />
+Popay&aacute;n (city) founded, <a href="#Page_409">409</a><br />
+<br />
+Popay&aacute;n (province), <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">part of presidency of Quito, <a href="#Page_324">324-327</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">lost to Ecuador, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Portales, Chilean statesman, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death of, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Porto Bello captured, <a href="#Page_429">429</a><br />
+<br />
+Portuguese, the, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a><br />
+<br />
+Potatoes, native to South America, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">introduced into Europe, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Potos&iacute;, silver mines of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">yield of silver from, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Poultry introduced into South America, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a><br />
+<br />
+Prado, General, President of Peru, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a><br />
+<br />
+Presidencies, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a><br />
+<br />
+Preston, Amyas, <a href="#Page_351">351</a><br />
+<br />
+Prieto, General, President of Chile, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196-198</a><br />
+<br />
+Printing-press, the, <a href="#Page_245">245</a><br />
+<br />
+Promancians, the, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br />
+<br />
+Puerreyedon, Argentine dictator, <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br />
+<br />
+Puerto Cabello, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">British attacks on, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">captured by patriots, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_508" id="Page_508">[Pg 508]</a></span><br />
+Pumacagua, Indian leader, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br />
+<br />
+Puna, bleak plateau of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a><br />
+<br />
+Puna, island of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a><br />
+<br />
+Puno, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+Purus River, the, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br />
+<br />
+Puzuela, General, Viceroy of Peru, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Q<br />
+<br />
+Quartz mining in Bolivia, <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br />
+<br />
+Quesada, Jimenez de, conquest of, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412-414</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">founds Bogot&aacute;, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">exiled, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">names New Granada, <a href="#Page_419">419</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Quiapo, Spanish victory at, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br />
+<br />
+Quichua language, official medium of Inca empire, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reduced to a written language, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Quicksilver, discovery of, in Peru, <a href="#Page_241">241</a><br />
+<br />
+Quillin, treaty of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a><br />
+<br />
+Quillota, <a href="#Page_224">224</a><br />
+<br />
+Quindio mountain range, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a><br />
+<br />
+Quinine, Europe indebted to Peru for, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">discovery of virtue of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">origin of name, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Quinoa grain, the, native to South America, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a><br />
+<br />
+Quintana, Dictator of Chile, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a><br />
+<br />
+Quinua, village of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+<br />
+Quito (city), the Cara capital, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Incas possess, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish occupation of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolutionary spirit in, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">city of convents, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French scientific monuments in, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Quito (province), Cara kingdom of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286-288</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the shiri of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Inca conquest of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish conquest of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">erected into a presidency, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">under jurisdiction of New Granada (Bogot&aacute;), <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">audiencia of, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">declared independent, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">provinces attached to presidency of, <a href="#Page_420">420</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Quizquiz, Indian general, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeats Huascar, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeated by Pizarro, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+R<br />
+<br />
+Rada, Juan de la, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br />
+<br />
+Railroads in Bolivia, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Chile, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Peru, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Ramirez, Spanish general, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br />
+<br />
+Rancagua, battle of, <a href="#Page_167">167-170</a><br />
+<br />
+Reyes, General, President of Colombia, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a><br />
+<br />
+Reyes, Lake of, <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br />
+<br />
+Rice, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a><br />
+<br />
+Riesco, German,  President of Chile, <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br />
+<br />
+Rimac, valley of the, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br />
+<br />
+Riobamba, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a><br />
+<br />
+Rio Negro, battle at, <a href="#Page_457">457</a><br />
+<br />
+Riva Agu&euml;ro, President of Peru, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a><br />
+<br />
+Rivas, patriot commander, <a href="#Page_370">370</a><br />
+<br />
+Riveralta, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br />
+<br />
+Robledo, Jorge, <a href="#Page_408">408</a><br />
+<br />
+Robles, Colonel, <a href="#Page_221">221</a><br />
+<br />
+Robles, President of Ecuador, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a><br />
+<br />
+Roca, Ramon, President of Ecuador, <a href="#Page_333">333</a><br />
+<br />
+Rocafuerte, Vicente, President of Ecuador, <a href="#Page_328">328-330</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wise administration of, <a href="#Page_330">330-332</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Romana, President of Peru, <a href="#Page_131">131</a><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_509" id="Page_509">[Pg 509]</a></span><br />
+Rosas, Doctor, Governor of Chile, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">title of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">founds university, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">establishes radical junta, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Rubber, forests, exploitation of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bolivia furnishes large per cent. of, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+S<br />
+<br />
+Saenz, Manoela, <a href="#Page_450">450</a><br />
+<br />
+Sagamoso, valley of, <a href="#Page_377">377</a><br />
+<br />
+St. Vincent, battle of, <a href="#Page_311">311</a><br />
+<br />
+Salabarrieta, Policarpo ("La Pola"), fate of, <a href="#Page_439">439</a><br />
+<br />
+Salaverry, Dictator of Peru, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br />
+<br />
+Salgar, President of Colombia, <a href="#Page_465">465</a><br />
+<br />
+Salt, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a><br />
+<br />
+Salta, gauchos of, <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br />
+<br />
+Samano, General, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439-441</a><br />
+<br />
+Sanclemente, President of Colombia, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br />
+<br />
+San  Felipe,  university  of, founded, <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br />
+<br />
+San Felix, battle of, <a href="#Page_374">374</a><br />
+<br />
+San Fernando, fortress of, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a><br />
+<br />
+San Francisco hill, battle at, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br />
+<br />
+San Francisco, mining camp at, <a href="#Page_350">350</a><br />
+<br />
+San Juan, valley of, <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br />
+<br />
+San Luiz, valley of, <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br />
+<br />
+San Martin, General, equips "Army of the Andes," wins battle of Chacabuco, and liberates Chile, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168-171</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">creates a fleet, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172-174</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">raises armies for conquest of Peru, <a href="#Page_80">80-82</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171-174</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">proclaims independence of Peru, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">President of Peru, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">resigns presidency, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">famous interview of, with Bolivar, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">declines governorship of Chile, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeat of, <a href="#Page_176">176-173</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wins battle of Maipo, <a href="#Page_179">179-181</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">one of the greatest of South American patriots, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></span><br />
+<br />
+San Miguel founded by Spanish, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a><br />
+<br />
+San Roman, General, President of, Peru, <a href="#Page_111">111</a><br />
+<br />
+Santa Cruz (city), <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a><br />
+<br />
+Santa Cruz, General, commands Peruvian army, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeat of, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dictator of Bolivia, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">President of Peru-Bolivian Confederation, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">overthrow of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Santa Maria, President of Chile, <a href="#Page_213">213</a><br />
+<br />
+Santa Marta (city), <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a><br />
+<br />
+Santa Marta Mountains, <a href="#Page_403">403</a><br />
+<br />
+Santander, <a href="#Page_442">442-444</a>, <a href="#Page_446">446-448</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">first legal President of Colombia (New Granada), <a href="#Page_450">450</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">title of, <a href="#Page_454">454</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Santander (city), "Rebellion of the Communes" in, <a href="#Page_427">427</a><br />
+<br />
+Santander, State of, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a><br />
+<br />
+Santiago (city), <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223-225</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolutionary junta installed in, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">founded, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">discovery of gold near, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">universities established in, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">social centre of Chile, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Sarsaparilla, <a href="#Page_303">303</a><br />
+<br />
+Sayri Tupac, Inca emperor, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br />
+<br />
+Sebastian founded, <a href="#Page_404">404</a><br />
+<br />
+Segoria, battle of, <a href="#Page_460">460</a><br />
+<br />
+Seville junta, the, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a><br />
+<br />
+Sheep introduced into South America, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a><br />
+<br />
+Shiris, the, of Quito, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287-296</a><br />
+<br />
+Silver, in Bolivia, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239-242</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Chile, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Colombia, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Ecuador, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Peru, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_510" id="Page_510">[Pg 510]</a></span><br />
+Sinu River, the, <a href="#Page_408">408</a><br />
+<br />
+Slavery, Indian, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242-244</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">negro, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Smallpox, ravages of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a><br />
+<br />
+Smuggling, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a><br />
+<br />
+Socorro (city), revolutionary junta in, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a><br />
+<br />
+Socorro, plateau province of, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a><br />
+<br />
+Solar, Vice-President of Peru, <a href="#Page_130">130</a><br />
+<br />
+Sorata (city), the rival of Potos&iacute;, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">destroyed, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></span><br />
+<br />
+de Soto, Hernando, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br />
+<br />
+Soublette, General, <a href="#Page_390">390</a><br />
+<br />
+South America, animals native to, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tribes of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, etc.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">productions of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish law in, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">animals introduced into, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">benefits to, from Spanish occupation, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commerce except with Spain forbidden to, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69-71</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lima the political, commercial, and social centre of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">negroes imported into, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">spread of revolutionary ideas in, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, etc.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">character of revolution in, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plan for constitutional monarchy in, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">success of wars of independence in, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Argentine preponderance among republics of, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">description of Andean plateau of, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">theatre of the war of independence in, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolution in, saved from extinction, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plan for one great confederacy in, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">countries of, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">harbours of, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">oldest city of, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">first independent republic in, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">oldest fortress in, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">manner of founding Spanish cities in, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></span><br />
+<br />
+South Sea, the, <a href="#Page_405">405</a><br />
+<br />
+Spain, conquest of South America by, <i>see</i> Peru, Chile, etc.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">royal commissioners sent from, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">colonial system of, <a href="#Page_62">62 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351-356</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">colonial government of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commercial monopoly of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69-71</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352-356</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war of succession in, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at war with France, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolution in, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at war with Peru and Chile, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reforms in system of colonial government of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at war with England, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Spanish, adventurers <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">armies in South America, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258-261</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315-318</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">constitution, the, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">constitutional law, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Spanish crown, revenue of, from Peru, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64-66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">from South America, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Spanish fleet, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">seizes Chincha Islands, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Callao, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Valparaiso, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeated, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Cartagena, <a href="#Page_436">436</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Sucr&eacute; (Charcas), <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br />
+<br />
+Sucr&eacute;, General, Bolivar's great lieutenant, destroys Spanish army, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">takes Colombian army to Peru, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wins battle of Ayachucho, <a href="#Page_93">93-97</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_511" id="Page_511">[Pg 511]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">numbers and quality of army of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">first President of Bolivia, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">administration of, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">overthrow of, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wins battle of Pichincho, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">murder of, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Sugar-cane, introduced into South America, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cultivation of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Sugar Loaf, the battle of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a><br />
+<br />
+Suipacha, battle of, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a><br />
+<br />
+Sun-god, worship of the, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+T<br />
+<br />
+Tacna (city), revolutionary expedition to, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">result of campaign, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Tacna (province), <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">yielded to Chile, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Talca (city), captured, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">independence of Chile proclaimed at, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Talcahuano (city), <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a><br />
+<br />
+Tambo, battle of, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a><br />
+<br />
+Tarapac&aacute;, province of Peru, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nitrate deposits of, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Tarija (city), <a href="#Page_249">249</a><br />
+<br />
+Tarqui, decisive battle of, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a><br />
+<br />
+Taxation, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a><br />
+<br />
+Teques Indians, the, <a href="#Page_350">350</a><br />
+<br />
+Tiocajas nudo, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">battles of, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Titicaca, Lake, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">placer gold around, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jesuit mission at, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">basin, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plateau, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">copper and silver mines of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Titu Yupanqui, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+<br />
+Toa, Cara Princess, <a href="#Page_288">288</a><br />
+<br />
+Tobacco, Europe indebted to Peru for, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Chile, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Colombia, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Venezuela, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Tocaima (city), <a href="#Page_416">416</a><br />
+<br />
+Tocuyo founded, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a><br />
+<br />
+Toledo, Don Francisco de, founder of Spanish colonial system, <a href="#Page_62">62-67</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">arrives at Lima, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">puts to death last Inca emperor, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Libro de Tasas</i> of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Tolima, plateau of, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a><br />
+<br />
+Tolima, State of, <a href="#Page_467">467</a><br />
+<br />
+Tolu founded, <a href="#Page_408">408</a><br />
+<br />
+"Toquis," <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a><br />
+<br />
+Torata (city), <a href="#Page_124">124</a><br />
+<br />
+Torico, General, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br />
+<br />
+Toro, Captain-General, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br />
+<br />
+Torres, Camilo, Dictator, <a href="#Page_437">437</a><br />
+<br />
+Trafalgar, battle of, <a href="#Page_311">311</a><br />
+<br />
+Treaties, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485-489</a><br />
+<br />
+Trinidad, Island of, captured by British, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a><br />
+<br />
+Trujillo, birthplace of Pizarro, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br />
+<br />
+Trujillo (city) founded by Pizarro, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a><br />
+<br />
+Trujillo, province of Venezuela, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a><br />
+<br />
+Trujillo, President of Colombia, <a href="#Page_468">468</a><br />
+<br />
+Tucuman (province), subject to viceroyalty of Lima, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attached to viceroyalty of Buenos Aires, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">thinly populated, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cattle-raising in, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">subject to audiencia of Charcas, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">battle of, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Tumbez (city), <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spaniards land at, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Tumibamba, Huascar captured at, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+<br />
+Tumusla, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br />
+<br />
+Tundama, plateau of, <a href="#Page_413">413</a><br />
+<br />
+Tunj&aacute; (city), founded, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">captured by Bolivar, <a href="#Page_378">378</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Tunj&aacute; (province), <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_512" id="Page_512">[Pg 512]</a></span><br />
+Tupac Amaru, last Inca emperor, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Tupac Amaru, lineal descendant of Inca emperors, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">heads Indian rebellion, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cruel death of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Tupac Yupanqui, Inca emperor, conquests of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289-292</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+U<br />
+<br />
+Uira Cocha, Inca emperor, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br />
+<br />
+Ulloa, &mdash;&mdash;, <a href="#Page_308">308</a><br />
+<br />
+"Ulmens," <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a><br />
+<br />
+Umachiri, battle of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Union</i>, the, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a><br />
+<br />
+United States, the, threatened rupture between Great Britain and, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">recognises independence of Colombia, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">undertakes Panama Canal, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">negotiations of, with Colombia, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appealed to by Colombia, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">neutrality and free transit guaranteed to Panama by, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colombia rejects treaty with, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">recognises republic of Panama, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treaty of, with Panama ratified, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a></span><br />
+<br />
+United States of Colombia, the, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Colombia.</span><br />
+<br />
+Universities, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a><br />
+<br />
+Urbina, General, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a><br />
+<br />
+Urco, Inca emperor, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br />
+<br />
+Urdaneta, General, <a href="#Page_452">452</a><br />
+<br />
+Uruguay in possession of Portuguese, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+V<br />
+<br />
+Valdez, General, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a><br />
+<br />
+Valdivia (city), besieged, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">taken by Dutch, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">size of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">strength of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">possessed by Spanish, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">captured by patriots, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Valdivia, Pedro de, conqueror of Chile, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137-139</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cities founded by, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">capture and death of, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Valencia, founded, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">loyal to Spain, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">patriots in, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Valmy, battle of, <a href="#Page_359">359</a><br />
+<br />
+Valparaiso (city), <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">size of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bombarded, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">battle at, <a href="#Page_223">223-225</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Valparaiso Bay, <a href="#Page_220">220</a><br />
+<br />
+Valverde, Friar, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br />
+<br />
+Varas, Chilean Minister, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a><br />
+<br />
+Vargas, Doctor, President of Venezuela, <a href="#Page_389">389</a><br />
+<br />
+Veintemilla, General, President of Ecuador, <a href="#Page_339">339</a><br />
+<br />
+Vela, Blasco Nu&ntilde;ez de, Viceroy of Peru, <a href="#Page_50">50-53</a><br />
+<br />
+Velez (city) founded, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a><br />
+<br />
+Venezuela, sighted by Columbus <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">named, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cities founded in, <a href="#Page_348">348-350</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">colonisation of, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">governors of, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fertility of, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">granted to Welser family, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">settlement of, <a href="#Page_349">349-351</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">savage tribes of, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">subject to viceroyalty of Lima, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">under jurisdiction of Bogot&aacute; and Caracas, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolutionary spirit in, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358-361</a>, etc.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolts against Bolivar, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war of independence in, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366-370</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378-383</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Colombian confederation, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bolivarian constitution of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">separates from confederation, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cattle-raising in, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">topography of, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">negro labour in, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_513" id="Page_513">[Pg 513]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">agricultural products of, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">exports from, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commercial conditions of, <a href="#Page_352">352-358</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390-392</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gold placers of, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">taxation in, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">education in, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">trading posts in, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">made a captaincy-general, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">captains-general of, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">boundaries of, fixed, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">characteristics of population of, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bonaparte claims allegiance of, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">first independent republic of South America, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">constitution of 1811, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">financial conditions in, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394-396</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">earthquake in, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">important battles of war of independence in, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381-383</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">impoverished by wars, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">constitution of 1831, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">civil wars in, <a href="#Page_387">387-392</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396-398</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">political conditions in, <a href="#Page_389">389-392</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">roads built in, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bank established in, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">slavery abolished, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">liberty of the press permitted, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">religious conditions in, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">smuggling in, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">stable currency of, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">railroads built in, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">debt of, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">boundary dispute with British Guiana, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">foreign relations of, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">navy of, destroyed, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">progress of, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">provinces under jurisdiction of, <a href="#Page_426">426</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Vernon, Admiral, <a href="#Page_428">428</a><br />
+<br />
+Viceroyalties, of Bogot&aacute;, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Buenos Aires, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Lima, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Quito, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Vicu&ntilde;a, Claudio, President of Chile, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a><br />
+<br />
+Vicu&ntilde;as, <a href="#Page_238">238</a><br />
+<br />
+Vidal, Dictator of Peru, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br />
+<br />
+Vilcabamba, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+<br />
+Vilca&ntilde;ota nudo, the, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+<br />
+Villapugio, battle of, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br />
+<br />
+Villarica, gold-mines of, <a href="#Page_144">144-146</a><br />
+<br />
+Viluma, battle of, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a><br />
+<br />
+Vista Florida, Dictator of Peru, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br />
+<br />
+Vivanco, Peruvian general, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+W<br />
+<br />
+Welser family, the, Venezuela granted to, <a href="#Page_349">349</a><br />
+<br />
+Wheat introduced into South America, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a><br />
+<br />
+Wheelwright, William, establishes first Pacific steamship line, <a href="#Page_198">198</a><br />
+<br />
+Windward Islands, the, <a href="#Page_347">347</a><br />
+<br />
+Wool, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Y<br />
+<br />
+Yahuarcocha Lake, <a href="#Page_294">294</a><br />
+<br />
+Yahuar Huaccac, Inca emperor, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+<br />
+Yngavi, decisive battle of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a><br />
+<br />
+Yucay, valley of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br />
+<br />
+Yungay, battle of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a><br />
+<br />
+Yupanqui, Inca emperor, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Z<br />
+<br />
+Zaldua, President of Colombia, <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br />
+<br />
+Zaruma, plateau of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a><br />
+<br />
+Zenufana (Antioquia), <a href="#Page_407">407</a><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_514" id="Page_514">[Pg 514]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-6.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="bblockquot">
+<h3>The Story of the Nations.</h3>
+
+
+<p>In the story form the current of each National life
+is distinctly indicated, and its picturesque and noteworthy
+periods and episodes are presented for the
+reader in their philosophical relation to each other
+as well as to universal history.</p>
+
+<p>It is the plan of the writers of the different volumes
+to enter into the real life of the peoples, and to bring
+them before the reader as they actually lived, labored,
+and struggled&mdash;as they studied and wrote, and as
+they amused themselves. In carrying out this plan,
+the myths, with which the history of all lands begins,
+will not be overlooked, though these will be carefully
+distinguished from the actual history, so far as the
+labors of the accepted historical authorities have
+resulted in definite conclusions.</p>
+
+<p>The subjects of the different volumes have been
+planned to cover connecting and, as far as possible,
+consecutive epochs or periods, so that the set when
+completed will present in a comprehensive narrative
+the chief events in the great <span class="smcap">Story of the Nations</span>;
+but it is, of course, not always practicable to issue
+the several volumes in their chronological order.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'>Nos. 1-61, each</td><td align='right'>$1.50&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Half leather</td><td align='right'>1.75&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Nos. 62 and following Nos., each (by mail,</td><td align='right'>1.50)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>net 1.35&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Half leather (by mail, $1.75)</td><td align='right'>net 1.60&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<p class="center"><i>For list of volumes see next page.</i></p>
+
+
+
+<h4>THE STORY OF THE NATIONS.</h4>
+
+<p class="sblockquot">
+GREECE. Prof. Jas. A. Harrison.<br />
+ROME.  Arthur Gilman.<br />
+THE JEWS. Prof. James K. Hosmer.<br />
+CHALDEA. Z. A. Ragozin.<br />
+GERMANY. S. Baring-Gould.<br />
+NORWAY. Hjalmar H. Boyesen.<br />
+SPAIN. Rev. E. E. and Susan Hale.<br />
+HUNGARY. Prof. A. V&aacute;mb&eacute;ry.<br />
+CARTHAGE. Prof. Alfred J. Church.<br />
+THE SARACENS. Arthur Gilman.<br />
+THE MOORS IN SPAIN. Stanley Lane-Poole.<br />
+THE NORMANS. Sarah Orne Jewett.<br />
+PERSIA. S. G. W. Benjamin.<br />
+ANCIENT EGYPT. Prof. Geo. Rawlinson.<br />
+ALEXANDER'S EMPIRE. Prof. J. P. Mahaffy.<br />
+
+ASSYRIA. Z. A. Ragozin.<br />
+
+THE GOTHS. Henry Bradley.<br />
+
+IRELAND. Hon. Emily Lawless.<br />
+
+TURKEY. Stanley Lane-Poole.<br />
+
+MEDIA, BABYLON, AND PERSIA. Z. A. Ragozin.<br />
+
+MEDI&AElig;VAL FRANCE. Prof. Gustave Masson.<br />
+
+HOLLAND. Prof. J. Thorold Rogers.<br />
+
+MEXICO. Susan Hale.<br />
+
+PH&#338;NICIA. George Rawlinson.<br />
+
+THE HANSA TOWNS. Helen Zimmern.<br />
+
+EARLY BRITAIN. Prof. Alfred J. Church.<br />
+
+THE BARBARY CORSAIRS. Stanley Lane-Poole.<br />
+
+RUSSIA. W. R. Morfill.<br />
+
+THE JEWS UNDER ROME. W. D. Morrison.<br />
+
+SCOTLAND. John Mackintosh.<br />
+
+SWITZERLAND. R. Stead and Mrs. A. Hug.<br />
+
+PORTUGAL. H. Morse-Stephens.<br />
+
+THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE. C. W. C. Oman.<br />
+
+SICILY. E. A. Freeman.<br />
+
+THE TUSCAN REPUBLICS. Bella Duffy.<br />
+
+POLAND. W. R. Morfill.<br />
+
+PARTHIA. Geo. Rawlinson.<br />
+
+JAPAN. David Murray.<br />
+
+THE CHRISTIAN RECOVERY OF SPAIN. H. E. Watts.<br />
+
+AUSTRALASIA. Greville Tregarthen.<br />
+
+SOUTHERN AFRICA. Geo. M. Theal.<br />
+
+VENICE. Alethea Wiel.<br />
+
+THE CRUSADES. T. S. Archer and C. L. Kingsford.<br />
+
+VEDIC INDIA. Z. A. Ragozin.<br />
+
+BOHEMIA. C. E. Maurice.<br />
+
+CANADA. J. G. Bourinot.<br />
+
+THE BALKAN STATES. William Miller.<br />
+
+BRITISH RULE IN INDIA. R. W. Frazer.<br />
+
+MODERN FRANCE. Andr&eacute; Le Bon.<br />
+
+THE BRITISH EMPIRE. Alfred T. Story. Two vols.<br />
+
+THE FRANKS. Lewis Sergeant.<br />
+
+THE WEST INDIES. Amos K. Fiske.<br />
+
+THE PEOPLE OF ENGLAND. Justin McCarthy, M.P. Two vols.<br />
+
+AUSTRIA. Sidney Whitman.<br />
+
+CHINA. Robt. K. Douglass.<br />
+
+MODERN SPAIN. Major Martin A. S. Hume.<br />
+
+MODERN ITALY. Pietro Orsi.<br />
+
+THE THIRTEEN COLONIES. Helen A. Smith. Two vols.<br />
+
+WALES AND CORNWALL. Owen M. Edwards. Net $1.35.<br />
+
+MEDI&AElig;VAL ROME. Wm. Miller.<br />
+
+THE PAPAL MONARCHY. Wm. Barry.<br />
+
+MEDI&AElig;VAL INDIA. Stanley Lane-Poole.<br />
+
+BUDDHIST INDIA. T. W. Rhys-Davids.<br />
+
+THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Thomas C. Dawson. Two vols.<br />
+
+PARLIAMENTARY ENGLAND. Edward Jenks.<br />
+</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 15%;" />
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-1.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="bblockquot">
+<h3>Heroes of the Nations.</h3>
+
+
+<p>A series of biographical studies of the lives and
+work of a number of representative historical characters
+about whom have gathered the great traditions
+of the Nations to which they belonged, and who have
+been accepted, in many instances, as types of the
+several National ideals. With the life of each
+typical character will be presented a picture of the
+National conditions surrounding him during his
+career.</p>
+
+<p>The narratives are the work of writers who are
+recognized authorities on their several subjects, and,
+while thoroughly trustworthy as history, will present
+picturesque and dramatic "stories" of the Men and
+of the events connected with them.</p>
+
+<p>To the Life of each "Hero" will be given one duodecimo
+volume, handsomely printed in large type,
+provided with maps and adequately illustrated according
+to the special requirements of the several
+subjects.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'>Nos. 1-32, each</td><td align='right'>$1.50&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Half leather</td><td align='right'>1.75&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>No. 33 and following Nos., each</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right' colspan='2'>(by mail $1.50, net 1.35)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Half leather (by mail, $1.75)</td><td align='right'>net 1.60&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="center"><i>For full list of volumes see next page.</i></p>
+
+
+<h4>HEROES OF THE NATIONS.</h4>
+
+<p class="sblockquot">
+NELSON. By W. Clark Russell.<br />
+GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. By C. R. L. Fletcher.<br />
+PERICLES. By Evelyn Abbott.<br />
+THEODORIC THE GOTH. By Thomas Hodgkin.<br />
+SIR PHILIP SIDNEY. By H. R. Fox-Bourne.<br />
+JULIUS C&AElig;SAR. By W. Warde Fowler.<br />
+WYCLIF. By Lewis Sergeant.<br />
+NAPOLEON. By W. O'Connor Morris.<br />
+HENRY OF NAVARRE. By P. F. Willert.<br />
+CICERO. By J. L. Strachan-Davidson.<br />
+ABRAHAM LINCOLN. By Noah Brooks.<br />
+PRINCE HENRY (OF PORTUGAL) THE NAVIGATOR. By C. R. Beazley.<br />
+JULIAN THE PHILOSOPHER. By Alice Gardner.<br />
+LOUIS XIV. By Arthur Hassall.<br />
+CHARLES XII. By R. Nisbet Bain.<br />
+LORENZO DE' MEDICI. By Edward Armstrong.<br />
+JEANNE D'ARC. By Mrs. Oliphant.<br />
+CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. By Washington Irving.<br />
+ROBERT THE BRUCE. By Sir Herbert Maxwell.<br />
+HANNIBAL. By W. O'Connor Morris.<br />
+ULYSSES S. GRANT. By William Conant Church.<br />
+ROBERT E. LEE. By Henry Alexander White.<br />
+THE CID CAMPEADOR. By H. Butler Clarke.<br />
+SALADIN. By Stanley Lane-Poole.<br />
+BISMARCK. By J. W. Headlam.<br />
+ALEXANDER THE GREAT. By Benjamin I. Wheeler.<br />
+CHARLEMAGNE. By H. W. C. Davis.<br />
+OLIVER CROMWELL. By Charles Firth.<br />
+RICHELIEU. By James B. Perkins.<br />
+DANIEL O'CONNELL. By Robert Dunlop.<br />
+SAINT LOUIS (Louis IX. of France). By Frederick Perry.<br />
+LORD CHATHAM. By Walford Davis Green.<br />
+OWEN GLYNDWR. By Arthur G. Bradley. $1.35 net.<br />
+HENRY V. By Charles L. Kingsford. $1.35 net.<br />
+EDWARD I. By Edward Jenks. $1.35 net.<br />
+AUGUSTUS C&AElig;SAR. By J. B. Firth. $1.35 net.<br />
+FREDERICK THE GREAT. By W. F. Reddaway.<br />
+WELLINGTON. By W. O'Connor Morris<br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="center">Other volumes in preparation are:</p>
+
+<p class="sblockquot">
+CONSTANTINE. By J. B. Firth.<br />
+MOLTKE. By Spencer Wilkinson.<br />
+JUDAS MACCAB&AElig;US. By Israel Abrahams.<br />
+SOBIESKI. By F. A. Pollard.<br />
+ALFRED THE TRUTHTELLER. By Frederick Perry.<br />
+FREDERICK II. By A. L. Smith.<br />
+MARLBOROUGH. By C. W. C. Oman.<br />
+RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED By T. A. Archer.<br />
+WILLIAM THE SILENT. By Ruth Putnam.<br />
+CHARLES THE BOLD. By Ruth Putnam.<br />
+GREGORY VII. By F. Urquhart.<br />
+MAHOMET. By D. S. Margoliouth.<br />
+</p></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 15%;" />
+<h4>
+G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS, <span class="smcap">Publishers</span>,<br />
+<span class="smcap">New York</span>,   &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp; &nbsp;    &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp; &nbsp;
+   &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp; &nbsp; <span class="smcap">London</span>.<br />
+</h4>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+<div class="notebox">
+<h3>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:</h3>
+
+<p>1. Images have been moved from the middle of a paragraph to the closest
+paragraph break.</p>
+
+<p>2. The punctuation in the idex was made consistent.</p>
+
+<p>3. The following misprints have been corrected:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin">
+    "COLUMBIA" corrected to "COLOMBIA" (page x)<br />
+    "slaughterd" corrected to "slaughtered" (page 43)<br />
+    "agressive" corrected to "aggressive" (page 286)<br />
+    "recalcitant" corrected to "recalcitrant" (page 296)<br />
+    "stategist" corrected to "strategist" (page 375)<br />
+    "familes" corrected to "families" (page 422)<br />
+    "succeded" corrected to "succeeded" (page 460)<br />
+    "surborned" corrected to "suborned" (page 464)<br />
+    "Gautemala" corrected to "Guatemala" (page 491)<br />
+    "Bogatá" corrected to "Bogotá" (page 508)
+</p></div>
+
+<p>4. Other than the corrections listed above, printer's inconsistencies
+in spelling, punctuation, hyphenation, and ligature usage have been
+retained.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
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+</html>
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@@ -0,0 +1,13615 @@
+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The South American Republics, Part II (of 2),
+by Thomas C. Dawson
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The South American Republics, Part II (of 2)
+
+
+Author: Thomas C. Dawson
+
+
+
+Release Date: November 7, 2011  [eBook #37950]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS, PART
+II (OF 2)***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Adrian Mastronardi, Jana Srna, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images
+generously made available by Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries
+(http://www.archive.org/details/toronto)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 37950-h.htm or 37950-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/37950/37950-h/37950-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/37950/37950-h.zip)
+
+
+      Project Gutenberg has Part I of this work. See
+      http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/37920
+
+
+      Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries. See
+      http://www.archive.org/details/p2southamericanr00dawsuoft
+
+
+
+
+
+THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+  Story of the Nations
+
+      A Series of Historical Studies intended to present
+      in graphic narratives the stories of the different
+      nations that have attained prominence in history.
+
+  In the story form the current of each national life is distinctly
+  indicated, and its picturesque and noteworthy periods and episodes
+  are presented for the reader in their philosophical relations to
+  each other as well as to universal history.
+
+  12vo, Illustrated, cloth, each             $1.50
+  Half Leather, each                         $1.75
+  No. 62 and following Nos.              net $1.35
+      Each                         (By mail) $1.50
+  Half leather, gilt top, each,          net $1.60
+                                   (By mail) $1.75
+
+  FOR FULL LIST SEE END OF THIS VOLUME.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: CHURCH OF SAN FRANCISCO IN LIMA.]
+
+
+The Story of the Nations
+
+THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS
+
+by
+
+THOMAS C. DAWSON
+
+American Minister to Santo Domingo
+
+In Two Parts
+
+PART II
+PERU, CHILE, BOLIVIA, ECUADOR, VENEZUELA, COLOMBIA, PANAMA
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+G. P. Putnam's Sons
+New York and London
+The Knickerbocker Press
+1904
+
+Copyright, 1904
+by Thomas C. Dawson
+
+Published, September, 1904
+
+The Knickerbocker Press, New York
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+This history begins when Pizarro and Almagro, Valdivia and Benalcazar,
+led their desperadoes across the Isthmus to the conquest, massacre, and
+enslavement of the prosperous and civilised millions who inhabited the
+Pacific coast of South America. It ends with the United States opening a
+way through that same Isthmus for the ships, the trade, the capital of
+all the world; with American engineers laying railroad iron on the
+imperial highway of the Incas; with British bondholders forgiving
+stricken Peru's national debt; with their debtor bravely facing the fact
+of bankruptcy, and turning over to them all its railways.
+
+The American people, alert, practical, keen, possessing in their press
+and congress admirable organisations for the collection and
+dissemination of exact knowledge, already fully appreciate the
+advantages that will accrue to the United States itself from the
+building of the Panama canal. Hardly less thoroughly do they understand
+the probable effect upon eastern Asia and the great commercial nations
+of western Europe. Few, however, have yet reflected upon the canal's
+vital importance to the peoples of the Pacific coast of South
+America--to four at least of the six countries whose stories I have
+tried to tell in this volume.
+
+Cut off from all practicable communication with the rest of the
+continent by those yawning ravines which lead down the inner declivities
+of the Andes, gullied by gigantic torrents, and choked by impenetrable
+forests, the narrow strip of territory stretching along the mountain
+tops and shore plain from Quito to Central Chile, connects with the
+outside world solely through ports on the Pacific Ocean. Throughout
+colonial times the stream of greedy Spanish office-holders flowed down
+the coast from the Isthmus, and a scanty trickle of trade followed the
+same channel. For three centuries Panama was the _entrepot_ and Lima the
+metropolis of all Spanish South America except Venezuela and eastern New
+Granada. Magellan's famous discovery did not divert these currents
+because the stormy straits that bear his name are practically useless
+for sailing ships, and even Schouten's rounding of the Horn only blazed
+a path which proved too perilous for the vessels of the seventeenth and
+eighteenth centuries. But with the nineteenth century improvements in
+navigation and especially with the use of steam and the freighter built
+of iron, all was changed. Valparaiso became nearer to London or New York
+than Guayaquil, and during the last seventy-five years the ports of
+Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, and Pacific Colombia have been little more than
+remote and unimportant stations on a trade route that stretches its
+interminable length from the commercial emporiums in the North Atlantic
+through Pernambuco, Rio, Buenos Aires, and around the southern end of
+the continent. For centuries Spanish tyranny denied the world access to
+those countries, and hardly had they shaken off the political system
+that strangled their development, when geographical considerations and
+the invention of iron steamships placed them at a disadvantage compared
+with their competitors. Their commercial, and therefore their industrial
+and political progress, has been ten-fold slower than it should have
+been.
+
+The moment the first vessel floats through from the Caribbean to the
+Pacific the course of commerce will reverse its direction. Buenaventura,
+Esmeraldas, Guayaquil, Callao, Mollendo, Iquique, and even Valparaiso
+and Talcahuano will send their ships by the short route of Panama
+instead of around the continent and through the Straits of Magellan.
+Western Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Chile herself will be tied
+by rapidly strengthening bonds of mutual interest and intercourse to
+each other and to the great commercial nations; and a transformation
+will begin whose extent no man can foresee. Every patriotic American
+must hope that his own countrymen will devote the money, energy, and
+attention essential to secure that share of influence and trade justly
+due the United States' geographical proximity and political sympathy;
+that French literature, language, and ideas, British capital, and German
+commerce now so dominant in all South America, will be supplemented by
+American schools, money, and commercial enterprise; and that such
+influences will spread from Panama through Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and
+Bolivia down the coast to prosperous Chile and across into the fertile
+plains of Argentina and southern Brazil.
+
+The author wishes to acknowledge his especial indebtedness to Sir
+Clement Markham's scholarly _History of Peru_, one of the very few
+complete and intelligent histories of a South American country available
+in the English language. The reader who commands Spanish will be
+interested in Torrente's _Revolucion Sud Americana_, Mackenna's
+_Historiade la Independencia_, Paz Soldan's _Narracion Historica_,
+Mitre's _San Martin_, and Bulnes's _Expedicion Libertadora_.
+
+For Chile excellent books in both Spanish and English abound, among
+which are worth special mention, Barros Arana's _Historia General_,
+Mitre's _San Martin_, Banados's _Balmaceda_, Hancock's _History of
+Chile_, and Hervey's _Dark Days in Chile_.
+
+Few authorities exist for Bolivia. Valdes's _Estudio Historico_ is
+admirable for the period which it attempts to cover. Sanjines's
+_Historia_, Mitre's _San Martin_ and _Belgrano_, Torrente's
+_Revolucion_, and D'Ursel's _Sejours et Voyages_, as well as Fernandez's
+recent _Campana del Acre_ have been found valuable.
+
+Wolf's _Geografia del Ecuador_ is more than a geography, and no one
+interested in that country can afford not to study this work carefully.
+Suarez's _Historia General_, and Cevallos's _Compendio_ give a good
+account of military and political affairs but do not bring them down to
+recent years.
+
+For Venezuela Tejera's _Manual de Historia_ has been of much use, as
+also Scruggs's _Colombian and Venezuelan Republics_, Jenny Tallenay's
+_Souvenirs_, and in the war of independence Mitre's great work on the
+life of _San Martin_.
+
+Perez's wonderfully condensed book, _Geografia Politica_, has been the
+main reliance for Colombia, but Mitre's _San Martin_, Torrente's
+_Revolucion_, Holton's _New Granada_, and Scruggs's _Republics_, have
+supplied much information on points not covered by Senor Perez's work.
+
+Intelligible details about comparatively recent times are proverbially
+the hardest to obtain, and the author feels that whatever of accuracy
+these pages may boast is due principally to his friends among present
+South American diplomats--men who understand South American history
+because they have been a part of it. Salvador de Mendonca, Joaquin
+Godoy, Oliviera Lima, Claudio Pinilla, Estanislao Zeballos, Manoel
+Gorostiaga, and Carlos Tobar have kindly tried to help him thread his
+way through the tangled mazes of Latin-American politics, and his
+principal reluctance at giving these pages to the public now is that he
+has not had the good fortune as yet to know and converse with men of
+like ability from Colombia and Venezuela.
+
+                                                              T. C. D.
+
+PETROPOLIS, BRAZIL, March 29, 1904.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER                                                         PAGE
+
+  _PERU_
+    I.  THE INCA EMPIRE                                              3
+   II.  THE SPANISH CONQUEST                                        20
+  III.  CIVIL WARS AMONG THE CONQUERORS                             41
+   IV.  THE COLONIAL PERIOD                                         58
+    V.  THE WARS OF INDEPENDENCE                                    74
+   VI.  FROM INDEPENDENCE TO CHILEAN WAR                            98
+  VII.  THE CHILEAN WAR AND LATTER-DAY PERU                        117
+
+  _CHILE_
+    I.  THE SPANISH CONQUEST                                       135
+   II.  THE COLONIAL PERIOD                                        148
+  III.  THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE                                    156
+   IV.  THE FORMATIVE PERIOD                                       189
+    V.  CHILE'S GREATNESS AND THE CIVIL WAR                        211
+
+  _BOLIVIA_
+    I.  THE CONQUEST AND THE MINES                                 235
+   II.  THE COLONIAL SYSTEM AND TUPAC'S REVOLT                     248
+  III.  THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE                                    255
+   IV.  BOLIVIA INDEPENDENT                                        266
+
+  _ECUADOR_
+    I.  THE CARAS                                                  285
+   II.  THE SPANISH CONQUEST                                       297
+  III.  THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE                                    311
+   IV.  THE FORMATION OF ECUADOR                                   320
+    V.  MODERN ECUADOR                                             330
+
+  _VENEZUELA_
+    I.  CONQUEST, SETTLEMENT, AND COLONIAL DAYS                    347
+   II.  THE REVOLT                                                 357
+  III.  MODERN VENEZUELA                                           384
+
+  _COLOMBIA_
+    I.  CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT                                    403
+   II.  COLONIAL TIMES                                             419
+  III.  THE WAR AGAINST SPAIN                                      430
+   IV.  MODERN COLOMBIA                                            446
+
+  _PANAMA_
+        THE EVENTS LEADING TO INDEPENDENCE                         475
+
+  INDEX                                                            491
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+  CHURCH OF SAN FRANCISCO, LIMA                         _Frontispiece_
+
+  ANCIENT PERUVIAN MONUMENT                                          7
+
+  CHURCH OF THE JESUITS IN CUZCO ON THE SITE OF THE
+  PALACE OF HUAYNA CAPAC                                            15
+
+  OBSEQUIES OF ATAHUALLPA                                           33
+    _From a painting by the Peruvian artist Monteros._
+
+  STONE BRIDGE OVER THE RIMAC RIVER, LIMA, PERU                     37
+
+  RUE MERCADERES, PROCESSION DAY, LIMA                              45
+
+  LITTLE "INFERNILLO" BRIDGE ON THE OROYA RAILWAY.
+  ALTITUDE 10,924 FEET                                              55
+
+  PROMENADE OF THE ALAMEDA, LIMA                                    62
+
+  GENERAL VIEW OF LIMA, SHOWING THE CATHEDRAL                       68
+
+  BAKER ON HORSEBACK, LIMA                                          75
+
+  THE MOLE AND HARBOUR OF CALLAO                                    83
+
+  CHURCH OF SAN FRANCISCO LIMA                                      87
+
+  MILK-WOMAN OF LIMA ON HORSEBACK                                   91
+
+  VILLAGE OF CHICLAY ON THE OROYA RAILWAY, 12,200 FEET ABOVE
+  THE SEA                                                          100
+
+  DON RAMON CASTILLA                                               107
+
+  STATUE OF BOLIVAR, LIMA, PERU                                    115
+
+  GENERAL DON ANDRES A. CACERES                                    129
+
+  MAP OF PERU                                             _Facing_ 132
+
+  BRIDGE ON THE ROAD BETWEEN SANTIAGO AND MENDOZA                  137
+
+  INDIAN ENCAMPMENT                                                146
+
+  HOUSE OF CONGRESS, SANTIAGO                                      153
+
+  PLAZA DEL ARMAS, SANTIAGO                                        157
+
+  BERNARDO O'HIGGINS                                               165
+
+  RAILROAD BRIDGE BETWEEN SANTIAGO AND VALPARAISO                  169
+
+  TALCAHUANO                                                       175
+
+  NATIVE COSTUMES IN CHILE ABOUT 1840                              179
+
+  VIEW OF SANTIAGO, CHILE, ABOUT 1835                              195
+
+  VIEW OF VALPARAISO                                               205
+
+  JOSE MANUEL BALMACEDA                                            221
+
+  THE PLAZA, VICTORIA, VALPARAISO                                  229
+
+  MONOLITHIC DOORWAY AT TRAHUANACO                                 237
+
+  BALSAS ON LAKE TITICACA                                          259
+
+  LOADED LLAMAS                                                    279
+
+  ECUADOR INDIANS                                                  302
+
+  CHURCH OF SANTO DOMINGO AT GUAYAQUIL                             305
+
+  GUAYAQUIL, ECUADOR                                               325
+
+  COSTUMES OF NATIVES NEAR QUITO                                   327
+
+  ECUADOR PEON'S HOUSE                                             332
+
+  PRINCIPAL STREET IN GUAYAQUIL                                    340
+
+  ANCIENT INDIAN ROCK FOR GRINDING MAIZE                           358
+
+  THE PASS OF ANGOSTURA, BOLIVAR CITY                              373
+
+  ROAD NEAR MACUTO                                                 379
+
+  ENTRANCE OF PUERTO CABELLO IN 1870                               386
+
+  VENEZUELAN SOLDIER OF 1870                                       393
+
+  VENEZUELAN GUERILLAS                                             397
+
+  MAP OF ECUADOR, COLOMBIA, AND VENEZUELA                 _Facing_ 398
+
+  OLDEST FORTRESS IN AMERICA, AT CARTHAGENA                        407
+
+  TRAVELLERS DESCENDING A MOUNTAIN ROAD                            411
+
+  NATIVE BOATS, MAGDALENA RIVER                                    415
+
+  THE NATURAL BRIDGE AT GUARANDA                                   421
+
+  FALLS OF TEQUENDAMA                                              423
+
+  NATIVE HOUSES IN COLOMBIA                                        427
+
+  ROPE BRIDGE OVER THE MAGDALENA RIVER                             434
+
+  THE HOME OF BOLIVAR                                              440
+
+  PANAMA FROM THE BAY                                              445
+
+  SCENE IN THE ANDES, EN ROUTE TO BOGOTA                           449
+
+  CATHEDRAL, PANAMA                                                453
+
+  CROSSING THE MOUNTAINS IN 1850                                   456
+
+  TYPES OF COLOMBIAN NATIVES                                       459
+
+  POST-OFFICE AT BOGOTA                                            463
+
+  RAFAEL NUNEZ, PRESIDENT OF COLOMBIA IN 1879-1883, 1885-1891      467
+
+  VIEW OF PANAMA                                                   477
+
+  STEAMERS ON THE MAGDALENA RIVER                                  479
+
+  NATIVE VILLAGE ON THE PANAMA RAILWAY                             483
+
+  MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA SHOWING PROGRESS OF THE MOVEMENT FOR
+  INDEPENDENCE                                                _At End_
+
+
+
+
+PERU
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE INCA EMPIRE
+
+
+For many centuries before the Spanish conquest and before the rise of
+the Incas a succession of great empires existed in Peru. Ruined edifices
+of unknown date prove that at some remote period advanced civilisations
+and powerful nations were developed in the coast valleys and on the
+Andean plateau. In tombs which vastly antedate even these megalithic
+palaces and fortresses, cotton twine, woven cloth, and cobs of maize
+have been found. The domestication and breeding to perfection of the
+llama as a beast of burden, and the alpaca as a fleece-bearer, the
+development of potatoes, maize, and the quinoa grain, must have consumed
+untold cycles of time. There is no doubt of the remote antiquity of the
+civilisation of the Indians who inhabit the Andean plateau south of the
+equator, nor that their culture was wholly self-developed, owing nothing
+to outside influences.
+
+About the year 1000 the Incas were merely one of several tribes living
+on the high, beautiful, and fertile plateau of Cuzco, which lies on the
+eastern edge of the gigantic uplift of the Andes. Down the precipitous
+gorges into the steaming and impenetrable forests of the Amazon plain
+the civilised Indians never cared to go. The maize, quinoa, and potatoes
+upon which they depended for food could not flourish in the intense heat
+and heavy rainfall of those regions. Neither themselves nor their llamas
+and alpacas could thrive in the montana or forested plain. Their natural
+habitat was the rough plateau, broken by numerous valleys, which lies
+between the Eastern and the Central Cordilleras, and extends from the
+Vilcanota "nudo," shutting it off from the Titicaca basin, to the
+transverse range of the "Cerro de Pasco," in the North. The ocean lies
+two hundred and fifty miles south-west, beyond the Central and Maritime
+Cordilleras and the bleak plateau which lies between them.
+
+This great central section, on whose eastern edge near its southern
+border we first find the Incas, is the heart of Peru. Although the
+climate of a few of its gorges is almost tropical, the valleys have the
+temperature of Italy or Spain; higher up the crops of northern Europe
+flourish; then are pasture lands, and above all bleak wilds and peaks
+covered with perpetual snow. At the dawn of authentic Peruvian history
+this favored region was thickly inhabited by many independent tribes;
+probably all speaking dialects of the same language, and certainly very
+similar in their industrial life and social customs.
+
+Tradition recounts that the Incas had migrated to Cuzco from unknown
+ancestral seats--by some conjectured to have been the shores of the
+prehistoric fresh-water sea of the Amazon plain--under the leadership
+of Manco Capac, the first of an unbroken line of sovereigns who claimed
+descent from the Sun-god and ruled the Incas until the Spanish conquest.
+The Incas developed a religion whose elaborate and rigid ritual, which
+regulated every act of their lives, finds its best parallel among the
+Hebrews. Each family had its household god; each sept worshipped an
+imaginary ancestor; the whole nation adored the sun as the progenitor of
+the reigning family, and the monarch's person was revered as divine. So
+profound was the religious feeling of this people that they finally rose
+to the conception of a supreme deity--a creator of the universe. His
+temple filled one side of the great square at Cuzco.
+
+Even more remarkable than their religious system was the social and
+industrial organisation of the Incas. Private property in land did not
+exist. It belonged to the septs and was from time to time allotted to
+the heads of families. Every person was obliged to work, all males being
+divided into classes according to age and strength, and suitable labour
+assigned to each. The produce, whether crops or livestock, was divided
+between the government, the priesthood, and the communes. Scarcity in
+one section was made up from the plenty in others; public officers
+annually revised the allotments, and turns at the irrigation works were
+taken in accordance with fixed rules. Not a spot of cultivable land was
+left unused. Habitations were built on rocky hills; deserts or the sides
+of barren cliffs were used for cemeteries; whole mountain sides were
+terraced up thousands of feet, and land was literally created by years
+of patient labour employed in bringing earth in baskets and laying it on
+the bare rocks. By no people has irrigation been more extensively and
+successfully applied, and in spite of their ignorance of iron and steam,
+of labour-saving appliances and instruments of precision, the Incas
+constructed a system which in real effectiveness has never been
+surpassed. Many of their canals, reservoirs, and terraces were allowed
+to crumble by the Spanish conquerors, but modern Peru still lives upon
+the half-ruined fragments of the mighty works of the Incas.
+
+Secured from want by this intelligent socialism, their lives and rights
+safe under laws administered with inflexible severity, bound closely by
+family and governmental ties, trained from childhood in industry and
+obedience, the Incas seemed destined to dominate and absorb the more
+loosely organised tribes with whom they came in contact, provided that
+they did not become inert, stationary, and unwarlike, and cease to
+produce individuals possessing initiative. The dynamic elements
+indispensable to expansion were furnished by the ruling clan and by
+fanaticism. The offspring of Manco Capac partook of his divinity and
+each emperor left numerous sons, whose descendants constituted a
+privileged class. In the process of time there gathered around the
+emperor thousands of men of his own kindred, devoted from their birth to
+warfare and statecraft.
+
+  [Illustration: ANCIENT PERUVIAN MONUMENT.]
+
+Under the fourth emperor the Incas were successful in a life and death
+struggle against a tribe with whom they had hitherto shared the valley
+that surrounds Cuzco. Under the two succeeding emperors they extended
+their dominions south to the transverse range of mountains which
+separates the Peruvian from the Titicacan plateau. Yahuar Huaccac, the
+seventh sovereign, conquered the tribes on the eastern slopes, and by
+the beginning of the fourteenth century the Inca domain included the
+southern third of the great valley of Peru--an area of fifteen thousand
+square miles, containing probably two millions of people. Uira Cocha,
+the eighth emperor, began that wonderful series of conquests which
+within a century and a half extended over half of South America. On the
+other side of the Vilcanota "nudo" lay the vast basin which takes its
+name from Lake Titicaca. Too high and too cold for cereals, the plateau
+was inhabited by tribes of shepherds, who made no prolonged resistance
+when attacked by the armies of the Inca. Their rapid and complete
+incorporation into the Inca system followed. Colonies swarmed from the
+over-populated provinces of old Peru into the newly acquired
+territories. The Titicacan copper mines furnished the material for
+weapons and tools, and a great commerce in exchanging the wool,
+potatoes, and livestock of the higher regions for the maize and cotton
+of the lower added to the prosperity of the whole empire. This conquest
+doubled the extent of the Inca domain and opened up a vast field for
+colonising expansion within their own territory. Once achieved, the
+nation turned its attention to the conquest of the North. Beyond the
+gorge of the Apurimac--the Inca boundary in that direction--lay the
+rival nation of the Chancas, a vigorous and expanding people who were at
+the head of a great confederation of tribes which covered the northern
+two-thirds of the central plateau of Peru, and probably also included
+the Quichua-speaking tribes of the coast.
+
+The Chancas defeated Urco, Uira Cocha's oldest son and successor, and
+their army advanced toward Cuzco, subjugating the northern allies of the
+Incas. The victors came within sight of the capital, where meanwhile the
+energetic Yupanqui, Urco's younger brother, had gathered the whole force
+of the empire. The battle which decided the fate of Peru was fought on
+the heights above Cuzco; the Chancas were defeated, and fell back only
+to be pursued and overwhelmed by Yupanqui. He returned in triumph and
+was installed as emperor in place of his incompetent brother, assuming
+the title of Pachacutec, or "Reformer of the World." The Incas pressed
+their advantage relentlessly; all the tribes of the Chanca confederacy
+were subjugated; and Pachacutec's generals even extended their conquests
+north of Cerro de Pasco. The Incas had now conquered a practicable route
+to the Pacific, and the coast tribes about Lima soon also fell under
+their control. Pachacutec built a great military road from Cuzco north
+along the fertile plateau, through the smiling valley of Jauja, and down
+the short descent to the neighbourhood of Lima. Colonies were
+established at strategic points, and the new territory became so
+rapidly welded to the Inca system that, when the Spaniards arrived a
+hundred and fifty years later, they found the whole of central and
+southern Peru occupied by a homogeneous people, perfectly loyal to the
+Inca dynasty.
+
+Pachacutec's successor, Tupac Yupanqui, proved even more successful than
+his father. The five hundred miles of rainless coast from Lima to the
+Ecuador border was inhabited by a mysterious race, in civilisation and
+origin entirely distinct from the Quichua-speaking mountain tribes to
+which the Incas belonged. Short rivers, rushing down from the Andes,
+each irrigated a portion of the desert, which only requires water to
+become extremely fertile. The irrigation works of this people were on a
+gigantic scale, one of their reservoirs having its lower end guarded by
+a dam eighty feet thick at the base. The valleys were cultivated to the
+highest degree of perfection, and filled with a swarming and industrious
+population housed in cities whose ruins still survive to attest the
+skill of their builders. Enervated by centuries of peace, the
+inhabitants had long confined their warlike operations to building
+defensive fortresses. Nevertheless, when Tupac advanced up the coast he
+met a desperate and prolonged resistance, until one after another the
+fortresses fell. The capital of the confederacy was laid in ruins and
+great numbers of the people were transported to distant provinces.
+Garrisons and Inca colonies were established and a military road was
+constructed along the coast. However, the country was really held only
+by force, and even in Spanish times Quichua had not displaced the
+Mochica tongue in half the northern coast valleys.
+
+Tupac next turned his attention to enlarging the southern limits of his
+empire. From Titicaca his armies advanced over hundreds of miles of
+bleak plateaux and barren deserts and down the steep Andean slopes into
+the fertile valleys of central Chile. His conquests extended as far
+south as the river Maule,--three hundred miles beyond Santiago,--but the
+tribes retained their autonomy and became rather allies than subjects.
+On the eastern side of the Andes he obtained the allegiance of the
+peoples living in the mountain valleys of north-western Argentine, and
+he completed the incorporation of the vast and fertile plateau which
+extends from the Titicacan basin to the present Argentine border.
+
+Returning to the northern frontier, he reduced the peoples who lived in
+the confused tangle of mountains and gorges which lies between the two
+Cordilleras north of Cerro de Pasco, thus extending his boundaries
+nearly to the present Ecuador line. The rest of northern Peru and all of
+southern Ecuador belonged to tribes who were loosely attached members of
+the confederacy headed by the Caras of Quito. They opposed only a short
+resistance to the arms and diplomacy of Tupac, and he made their
+territory the base for the great war which he proposed to undertake
+against the ancient kingdom of Quito. About the year 1455 he advanced
+with a great army, largely recruited from the tribes recently wrested
+from the Quito monarch, and defeated the Caras in a great battle. The
+whole plateau as far north as Riobamba submitted, reducing the Shiri's
+domain to the neighbourhood of Quito itself and a small region north of
+that city. However, all of Tupac's efforts to force the last barrier
+which interposed between him and the Cara capital failed, and he was
+compelled to content himself with extending his conquests on the coast
+as far as the Gulf of Guayaquil. In 1460 he returned to Cuzco, where
+three years later he was enraged to hear that the Shiri was making a
+desperate and partly successful effort to recover the lost provinces.
+Tupac's preparations for a final campaign to wipe the Quito kingdom out
+of existence were interrupted by his own death.
+
+Huaina Capac succeeded to the throne and continued his father's
+preparations. Bad news, however, from the far southern provinces
+compelled him first to undertake a campaign into Chile, in which he was
+victorious. He then proceeded north and devoted the rest of his life to
+conquering and incorporating the Cara empire. He first constructed a
+military road from the northern Peruvian coast to the plateau in
+southern Ecuador; then he exterminated or reduced to obedience the
+tribes on the Gulf of Guayaquil, and the coast beyond, nearly as far as
+the equator. Returning south, he defeated the wild savages of the
+regions where the Amazon leaves the mountains. Having thus secured
+himself against an interruption of his line of communications, he
+advanced against Quito in overwhelming force. The Caras and their allies
+among the brave tribes of northern Ecuador made a desperate resistance,
+but were overthrown in battle after battle, and Huaina Capac entered
+Quito in triumph. All the tribes of the confederacy submitted except the
+Caranquis, a warlike people who lived north of Quito. These achieved
+some minor successes, but were finally overwhelmed and exterminated.
+
+The Inca empire, now at its greatest extent, included all the
+inhabitable portions of Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, three-fourths of
+Chile, and a large part of the Argentine, stretching two thousand two
+hundred miles north and south, and from the Pacific to the eastern foot
+of the Andes. Except for the plateaux of Colombia practically the whole
+Andean region had been united under one government. The rest of South
+America was occupied by savage peoples, divided into small bands, who
+picked up a precarious existence along the streams; and the Inca empire
+was safe from any serious attack on its continental boundaries. But the
+later conquests of Tupac and Huaina Capac had incorporated peoples in
+civilisation and warlikeness hardly inferior to the Incas themselves.
+Indeed, in the light of subsequent events, it is clear that the later
+campaigns weakened the real military power and homogeneity of the
+empire. While the older parts, southern Peru and Bolivia--the heart of
+the Inca domain--formed a homogeneous and thoroughly loyal centre whose
+inhabitants all spoke the same language and where socialism and the
+worship of the sun according to the Inca rites prevailed, from the
+latitude of Lima north the country had been too recently subdued to be
+counted upon. The northern coast still required to be kept down by
+permanent garrisons; the mountain tribes of northern Peru retained a
+certain measure of autonomy; and the vast territories where the Shiri of
+Quito had held sway for so many centuries were very loosely attached.
+Tupac, the first conqueror, found it advisable to remain there almost
+continuously during the last half of his reign, and Huaina Capac, his
+heir, was born in Ecuador, and devoted his whole life to that region. He
+married the daughter and heiress of the defeated Shiri, and was regarded
+rather as the legitimate successor of the ancient dynasty than as an
+alien conqueror.
+
+In 1525 Huaina Capac died at Quito, leaving a will by which he
+bequeathed the northern kingdom to Atahuallpa, a son born to him by the
+Shiri's daughter. Peru, with the southern provinces, fell to Huascar,
+his son by a princess of Inca blood. As the eldest and the legitimate
+heir according to the rules of succession which governed in the Inca
+dynasty, the latter was to be paramount, thus retaining a semblance of
+unity. Huascar and the Inca nobles who surrounded him at the old
+Peruvian capital were unwilling to acquiesce in this virtual division of
+the empire. The chief of the Canaris, a tribe always hostile to Quito,
+sent a messenger to Cuzco offering to swear allegiance to Huascar. As
+soon as Atahuallpa heard of this derogation of his authority he ordered
+an army to march and unseat the recalcitrant prince, and despatched an
+ambassador to his brother with a conciliatory message, at the same time
+unequivocally asserting his claim to the lordship of all the ancient
+domain of the Shiris. Huascar insisted that southern Ecuador, a region
+which had been wrested from the Caras by their grandfather, and whose
+tribes had only been allies of Quito, should not be included. His bitter
+feeling against his brother was increased by reports that Atahuallpa had
+assumed Incarial insignia which only a legitimate emperor was entitled
+to use. He returned a harsh answer, demanding immediate and
+unconditional obedience. Seeing nothing was to be hoped for from
+Huascar, Atahuallpa began gathering the forces of the Quito kingdom.
+
+  [Illustration: CHURCH OF THE JESUITS IN CUZCO, ON THE SITE OF THE
+  PALACE OF HUAYNA CAPAC.]
+
+Huascar was delayed by insurrections which broke out among the tribes of
+northern Peru, and at first could only send a few troops to the
+assistance of the Canaris. The latter managed to hold Atahuallpa's
+generals in check until Huascar's main army advanced. Atahuallpa retired
+slowly up the plateau to within fifty miles of his capital, pursued by
+the Inca army. It seemed certain that he would quickly be defeated, and
+either slain or brought to his brother's feet to receive a rebel's
+sentence. But against this invasion, inspired by the ruling oligarchy of
+Cuzco, the warlike people of northern Ecuador stood nobly by the
+grandson of the last of their ancient line of monarchs. Though the
+southerners were victorious in the first encounter, Atahuallpa in person
+rallied his army and drew it up in an advantageous position at Naxichi.
+The Incas attacked confidently, but this time they were hopelessly
+routed and the chief generals slain with thousands of the common
+soldiery. The remnant fled in disorder to the territory of the Canaris.
+Atahuallpa could not immediately follow up his advantage, and by the
+time he had organised his forces for an offensive campaign, Huascar had
+sent another great army to the rescue under the command of his younger
+brother, Huanca Auqui. When Atahuallpa crossed the transverse barrier of
+Azuay and descended into the fertile plateau north of Cuenca, a terrific
+battle ensued which lasted two days. Both sides suffered severely, but
+the final advantage lay with the Northerners, and Huanca Auqui sullenly
+retreated, abandoning Ecuador to Atahuallpa. A fearful vengeance was
+taken on the Canaris, while the other tribes joined the victor.
+
+Next year Atahuallpa sent a great force under the command of Quizquiz,
+the ablest Indian general of the time, into northern Peru. Huanca Auqui
+was again defeated, and abandoned the disputed territory, while
+Atahuallpa's troops poured into the northern coast provinces. Having met
+with no serious resistance there, they ascended the Cordillera to the
+neighbourhood of Cajamarca, where they met the reinforced Inca army.
+Again they were victorious and Huascar's forces retreated south of the
+Cerro de Pasco, followed by Quizquiz, whose army grew like a rolling
+snowball by enlistments among the warlike and half-independent tribes of
+northern Peru.
+
+Huascar's resources were, however, by no means exhausted by the crushing
+defeats he had suffered during the last four years. The great plateaux
+of Peru and Bolivia, the most populous and richest portion of the
+empire, remained faithful; the ruling classes regarded Atahuallpa's
+revolt not only as an impious rebellion against the legitimate emperor,
+but as a menace to their own continued supremacy in the state. Tens of
+thousands poured up from the southern provinces to reinforce the army
+which lay in the valleys south of the Cerro de Pasco in daily
+expectation of attack. But Tupac's and Huaina Capac's conquests had
+created a Frankenstein monster. When the ruder nations of the North were
+first attacked by the Inca armies they did not know how to organise and
+were easily reduced in detail. Three-quarters of a century of Inca rule
+had taught them what they lacked without destroying the spirit of
+individual initiative nourished by local autonomy. The older parts of
+the empire had been frozen by rigid socialism and ritual, and the
+people's energies sapped by long centuries of tutelage. The northern
+tribes who followed Atahuallpa's banner were superior in military
+prowess to the Incas who fought for Huascar, uniformly beating the
+latter with numbers constantly inferior. The balance of power had passed
+from Cuzco and the centre to Quito and the north.
+
+Quizquiz's forces finally crossed the Cerro de Pasco and poured down
+into the beautiful and populous valley of Jauja. Again they were
+victorious, and the Incas fled along the road leading toward Cuzco.
+Huascar and his partisans determined to make their last stand at the
+capital itself. Reinforcements were hurried up not only from Bolivia,
+but from Chile, and the Argentine, and an army which is said to have
+numbered seventy thousand, the largest ever seen in South America,
+assembled at Cuzco. Meanwhile Quizquiz was relentlessly advancing along
+the plateau, and his main body reached the neighbourhood of the city
+intact. After some manoeuvres for position in which the able and
+experienced northern generals obtained a decisive advantage, Huascar's
+camp was surprised at early dawn. His soldiers could not form and a
+frightful carnage ensued, in the midst of which he himself was made
+prisoner. As soon as the capture became known his followers fled in all
+directions. Quizquiz advanced his camp to the heights overlooking the
+capital; all idea of further resistance was abandoned; the city
+submitted, and the principal partisans of Huascar perished in a cruel
+massacre.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE SPANISH CONQUEST
+
+
+During the long campaigns by which his general, Quizquiz, had conquered
+Peru, Atahuallpa had never left the North. He received the news of the
+crowning victory and the capture of Huascar, in his palace at Tumibamba
+on the Cuencan plain, and started at once for Cajamarca, the first great
+town on the plateau south of the Ecuador border, accompanied by only a
+small army. While waiting near Cajamarca, Atahuallpa heard the wonderful
+news that two hundred strangers had landed on the coast at Tumbez--a
+port on the southern side of the Gulf of Guayaquil. They were white and
+their faces were covered with hair; they had garments and arms different
+from any his informants had seen; and most extraordinary of all they
+were accompanied by outlandish gigantic beasts who carried them over the
+ground with a terrifying speed.
+
+The effect of this intelligence upon Atahuallpa and his advisers can
+only be conjectured. It was remembered that four years before a ship
+carrying a score or more of these same foreigners had sailed along the
+coast of Ecuador and northern Peru, landing at various places to beg
+provisions and ask questions. Two had been left behind, and were taken
+to the interior, where their fate is unknown. It is, however, probable
+that these unfortunate Spaniards had given to Atahuallpa's officers much
+information about the resources and intentions of their countrymen. The
+Inca emperor seems to have realised that the importance and power of the
+foreigners was out of all proportion to their numbers. The newcomers
+protested that their purposes were amicable, and sent friendly messages
+to Atahuallpa, who resolved to act cautiously and avoid offending them
+unnecessarily. He despatched his own brother as an ambassador with
+assurances of good-will and a polite inquiry as to their wishes and
+intentions. But unfortunately for himself and his country the Inca was
+dealing with a man whose profound and deceitful diplomacy was as much
+superior to his as a musket is to a cross-bow. The Spanish leader
+returned word that he appreciated the kind expressions of the emperor
+and would at once proceed to Cajamarca to pay his respects in person.
+
+This was Francisco Pizarro, one of the greatest practical geniuses whom
+modern Europe has produced. Born out of wedlock at Trujillo, a town in
+Estremadura, the province which during centuries was the great fighting
+ground of Castilian and Moor, he passed his youth as a swine-herd in the
+most abject poverty and illiteracy. Enlisting as a private soldier, he
+spent his young manhood in fighting under Gonzalo de Cordoba, in those
+campaigns which carried the renown of the Spanish infantry to the
+farthest confines of Europe. An admirable soldier, conscious that he
+possessed powers of the highest order, hopelessly handicapped in old
+Europe by his base birth and illiteracy, the discovery of the New World
+opened up a field for his talents. He eagerly embraced the opportunity,
+embarking in 1509 with Alonso de Ojeda for the Darien gold mines. Four
+years later he accompanied Balboa in that memorable journey across the
+Isthmus which resulted in the discovery of the Pacific Ocean. To the
+city of Panama, looking out over the mysterious sea, adventurers flocked
+like a pack of wolves eager for a share in the spoils of its unknown
+shores, and Pizarro was among them. The news of Cortes's conquest of
+Mexico brought to America a horde of soldiers of fortune. Recklessly
+brave, experienced in the most scientific warfare of the time,
+arrogantly proud of their nationality, utterly careless of odds, ready
+to risk their lives on the chance of sudden fortune, a set of men better
+qualified for the work which fate threw in their way could not be
+conceived.
+
+Panama had hardly been founded when rumours of the existence of a
+wealthy and civilised empire lying far to the south reached the ears of
+the Spaniards. In 1522, Pascual de Andagoya, a gentleman of
+distinguished family who occupied a high office at Panama, made an
+expedition for a short distance along the coast and obtained valuable
+confirmation of the vague reports. Obliged to abandon the enterprise by
+his own illness, he turned it over to a partnership formed for the
+purpose by Pizarro, Almagro, and a priest named Luque. The first enjoyed
+a great reputation for good judgment and fertility of resource, gained
+in expeditions along the Caribbean coast, and by mere force of his
+talents had come to be regarded as one of the ablest and luckiest
+captains on the Isthmus. The active command was to be his, while
+Almagro, a soldier of more advanced age and hardly inferior reputation,
+backed him up and sent supplies and reinforcements. Luque was the
+moneyed man of the concern. They bought a small vessel at Panama which
+Balboa himself had built eight years before, and in 1524 Pizarro started
+down the coast. But his supply of provisions was inadequate, it was
+impossible to obtain more from the savage natives of the forested shores
+of Colombia, and the first effort ended in failure.
+
+Nothing discouraged, Pizarro and his partners persevered. They had great
+difficulty in raising money to fit out properly the next expedition, but
+happily they succeeded in interesting the mayor of Panama. Eighteen
+months later Pizarro sailed once more with a better equipment and one
+hundred and sixty men. For five hundred miles he found nothing except
+the hot and swampy seashore of Colombia, inhabited by miserable naked
+tribes, and his companions had begun to believe that the empire they
+were seeking was a myth, when the pilot who had been sent on ahead came
+back with word that he had penetrated south of the equator, and there
+had met a sort of large sea-going raft coming from the south manned by
+a clothed and civilised crew and laden with cloth, silver work, metal
+mirrors, vases, and various other goods.
+
+These Indians said they came from Tumbez, a city in a fertile valley on
+a dry and penetrable coast which lay not more than two hundred miles
+farther south. They were traders bringing up a stock to sell to the
+shore peoples of Ecuador--tribes who had long been compelled to
+acknowledge the suzerainty of the Incas, but who still lived in virtual
+independence under their own chiefs. The men on the raft told the
+Spaniards that the whole interior and the southern coast were inhabited
+by civilised peoples, subjects of an emperor whose capital was a great
+city in the mountains hundreds of leagues to the south. Having received
+this confirmation of their most extravagant hopes, Pizarro and his men
+pushed on until they nearly reached the northern boundary of Ecuador,
+not far from the limits of the Inca empire. It was clear, however, that
+their small force would never be able to cope with the armies of such a
+power. Almagro went back to Panama for reinforcements, while the
+indomitable Pizarro landed his already disheartened adventurers on a
+swampy island where their clothes rotted in the steaming, tropical heat
+and never-ceasing rain; fevers decimated them, mosquitoes tortured them,
+and eatable provisions were impossible to obtain. When Almagro reached
+Panama, the governor flew into a rage on hearing that Pizarro was
+holding his men against their will, and sent a ship to bring back all
+who wished. Nine-tenths of the band deserted Pizarro, but he was
+indomitable and thirteen heroes stood by him in his determination to
+reach Peru or perish. For weary months he waited for provisions, but the
+moment they arrived he set off for the south. Within twenty days he and
+his little band of adventurers reached the Gulf of Guayaquil, four
+hundred miles farther on, and immediately landed at Tumbez. With their
+own eyes they saw full confirmation of what the Indians of the raft had
+told them. Irrigated fields, green with beautiful crops, lined the river
+bank; eighty thousand people, all comfortably housed, lived in the
+valley; commerce was flourishing; large temples profusely ornamented
+with gold and silver testified to wealth and culture; the government was
+well-ordered and stable; and the people received the visitors with
+open-handed hospitality.
+
+After refreshing his followers, Pizarro continued his explorations down
+the coast for a couple of hundred miles, finding a succession of fertile
+valleys interrupting the monotonous desert, each filled with villages
+and farms and a thriving, civilised, and prosperous population. In the
+fall of 1527 he returned to Panama, full of the idea of leading an
+expedition to conquer the great empire about which he had obtained such
+minute and exact information. He wisely resolved himself to go to Spain
+and secure the direct patronage and countenance of the government at
+Madrid. Taking with him natives brought from Tumbez and specimens of
+products, he set off, and on his arrival was granted an audience by
+Charles V. The Emperor was greatly impressed by the story which the
+adventurer told. Naturally of a noble and commanding presence, the
+conscious dignity of Pizarro's manners corresponded to the high
+ambitions which filled his mind. In the doing of great things he had
+dropped all evidences of his base origin, and contact with men and the
+habit of command had given him an ease of address and clearness of
+thought which made his hearers forget the deficiencies of his early
+education. The concession he prayed for was granted. He himself was
+legitimatised and ennobled and received the title of "adelantado," while
+the gallant followers who had refused to abandon him on the Colombian
+island were made gentlemen of coat-armour. Pizarro and his partners were
+formally authorised to conquer and settle Peru in the name of the
+Castilian sovereign and received a grant of money for the purchase of
+arms, agreeing to remit to the royal treasury one-fifth of all the gold
+that they should find.
+
+Pizarro knew just the kind of men needed to assist in this hazardous
+enterprise, and he took every precaution to select only those of whose
+valour and capacity he was well assured. His mother had bred up a family
+of lions in the little old Estremadura town, and his four brothers were
+hardly his inferiors in valour and audacity. Hernando, the oldest and
+only legitimate son of Francisco's father, agreed to go. So did Juan and
+Gonzalo, two illegitimate brothers who were younger, and also Francisco
+Alcantara, a half-brother on the mother's side. Hernando Cortes, the
+noble conqueror of Mexico, exerted himself to help Pizarro fill up his
+ranks with soldiers of the most approved courage, and the latter
+finally sailed for the Isthmus with a small body picked from the very
+flower of the fighting men of the Peninsula.
+
+Pizarro believed that a few hundreds of good men, well provided with
+artillery and horses, would be as effective as thousands in striking
+terror to masses of Indians armed only with spears and swords. Arrived
+at Panama, it was arranged that he should proceed to Peru at once, while
+Almagro would follow later with reinforcements recruited among the
+unemployed adventurers in Nicaragua. All sorts of good fortune favoured
+the daring enterprise. For once the fitful winds which usually baffle
+sailing ships in the Gulf of Panama were kind, and Pizarro's clumsy,
+little caravels traversed in thirteen days the seven hundred miles of
+inhospitable coast which lay between the Isthmus and the first Inca
+provinces. Landing among the half-civilised tribes of Ecuador, he had
+the good luck to find a store of gold and emeralds. This he sent back,
+as an encouragement to Almagro, and marching down the Ecuador coast, he
+reached the Gulf of Guayaquil, on whose southern shore began the
+populous and civilised portions of the empire. He crossed to the island
+of Puna, overcame its fierce inhabitants with great slaughter, and there
+was joined by a large and welcome reinforcement of men and horses under
+the command of Hernando de Soto, afterwards so famous as the discoverer
+of the Mississippi, who had come on his own motion to get his share in
+the spoils.
+
+So far, Pizarro's operations had been among outlying provinces owning
+only nominal allegiance to the Incas, but he now felt strong enough to
+cross over to Tumbez and establish a footing in their real domain. From
+Tumbez he marched south to Paita, where he determined to establish his
+base. The quick eye of the master general appreciated the strategical
+advantages of this valley. At this point the great military road coming
+down from the plateau of Ecuador debouched on the coast plain.
+Communication to the south was easy by a road which connected all the
+coast valleys with branches climbing to the plateaux. An anchorage at
+the valley's mouth afforded a sure means of keeping open that
+communication with Panama which was so essential to success;
+reinforcements could reach him in whatever part of Peru he might
+venture, and a garrison left at Paita would command the main route
+connecting Quito and Cuzco, cutting the Peruvian empire in two.
+
+On receiving Pizarro's answer to his friendly message, Atahuallpa
+resolved to await the promised visit, apparently suspecting no evil. The
+audacious Spaniard had, however, conceived the design of capturing the
+victorious claimant of the throne of the Incas, well knowing that in its
+actual distracted condition the country would be left without a centre
+about which it could rally. Open war, no matter how overwhelming his
+first victory might be, could hardly be ultimately successful.
+Atahuallpa once safe at Cuzco or Quito and surrounded by the disciplined
+soldiers who had overthrown Huascar, a defensive campaign might be
+undertaken in which Pizarro would find every step toward either capital
+bitterly disputed. Hundreds of thousands of Peruvians pouring up from
+the numberless provinces of the empire would be thrown in a
+never-ceasing succession of armies against his little band of Spaniards,
+and the latter would infallibly be driven back to the coast by
+starvation and fatigue if not by defeat in the field.
+
+Apparently foolhardy, in fact Pizarro's plan offered the only chance of
+success. Never dreaming that such a step was in contemplation,
+Atahuallpa took no precautions. Leaving fifty-five men at the little
+post of San Miguel in the Paita valley to secure his retreat, Pizarro
+marched south with one hundred and two foot soldiers, sixty-two horses,
+and two small cannon two hundred miles along the coast plain to a point
+opposite Cajamarca, and ascended along an Inca military road, meeting a
+friendly reception from the wondering natives, and being supplied with
+provisions by Atahuallpa's orders.
+
+On the 15th of November, 1532, Pizarro entered Cajamarca. He found an
+open square in the middle of the town surrounded by walls and solid
+stone buildings, which he received permission to occupy as quarters.
+From his camp outside, Atahuallpa sent word that the following day he
+would enter the town in state and receive the Spaniards. Marvellous good
+fortune favoured Pizarro's treacherous designs. The Indians had
+furnished a trap already made, and now Atahuallpa deliberately walked
+into it. On the morning of the 16th the Indian army broke camp and
+marched to Cajamarca, followed by the Emperor, who was borne in a litter
+and surrounded by his personal attendants, the great chiefs, and the
+nobles belonging to his own lineage. At sunset he entered the square,
+accompanied only by these unarmed attendants, and found Pizarro and a
+few Spaniards awaiting him. The rest were hidden in the houses around
+the square with their horses saddled, their breast-plates on, and
+musketry and cannon ready charged.
+
+From among the group which surrounded Pizarro stepped forward Friar
+Valverde and approached the Inca monarch, who, reclining in a litter
+raised high above the crowd on the shoulders of his attendants, waited
+with dignity to hear what those strangers had to say. The priest
+advanced with a cross in one hand and a Bible in the other and began a
+harangue which, clumsily translated by an Indian boy, the Inca hardly
+understood. But in a few moments he realised that this uncouth jargon
+was meant to convey an arrogant demand that he acknowledge himself a
+vassal of Charles V. and submit to baptism. With haughty surprise he
+threw down the book which Valverde tried to force into his hand--the
+priest shouted, "Fall on, Castilians--I absolve you," and into the
+helpless crowd burst a murderous fire from the doors of the houses all
+around. Aghast and bewildered by this display of powers which to them
+seemed necromantic, the survivors nevertheless manfully stood to the
+attack of the mail-clad horsemen who rode into the huddled mass
+ferociously slashing and slaughtering. The Indians strove desperately to
+drag the Spaniards from the horses with their naked hands, and
+interposed a living wall of human flesh between the murderers and their
+beloved sovereign. At length Pizarro's own hands snatched Atahuallpa
+from the litter. The Indian soldiers outside, hearing the firearms and
+the noise of the struggle, tried to force their way into the square, but
+the Spanish musketry and cannon mowed them down by hundreds, and they
+fled before the charges of the cavalry, dispersing in the twilight.
+
+Pizarro took every precaution to prevent the escape or rescue of his
+prisoner, and for the first few weeks treated him kindly. The Spaniard
+was playing a profound diplomatic game. He well knew that Atahuallpa's
+generals would fear to endanger the latter's life by undertaking any
+aggressive measures, and that Huascar's partisans would take advantage
+of this providential opportunity to reorganise their forces. He
+conversed much with the captive emperor and at length began to hint to
+him the advisability of arbitration with Huascar. But the Inca took
+alarm and secretly sent off orders for his brother's execution. Seeing
+that the Indian was not to be cajoled, the Spaniard adopted a sterner
+attitude, pretended the greatest indignation at the fratricide, and soon
+had Atahuallpa willing to offer anything for his release. Shrewdly
+guessing that for gold the Spaniards would run any risk, the Inca
+negotiated for his ransom, saying: "I will fill this room with gold as
+high as I can reach if only you will liberate me." Pizarro agreed,
+insisting, however, that the ransom be delivered in advance at
+Cajamarca. A formal contract was drawn up and executed before a notary,
+and the deluded emperor ordered all preparations for war on the
+Spaniards to be interrupted and that the temples be stripped of their
+gold ornaments to supply the enormous amount he had promised. Under
+protection of this truce Pizarro sent out expeditions to explore the
+country and to expedite the process of gathering the treasure, and while
+this was going on Almagro arrived with reinforcements which doubled the
+Spanish forces. Finally the agreed sum was all in Cajamarca. It amounted
+to four million five hundred sterling in modern money. One-fifth was
+sent to the royal treasury and the remainder divided, making even the
+private soldiers rich for life.
+
+Nevertheless, Atahuallpa was not released. Large bodies of his troops
+were known to be on their way from Cuzco, and Pizarro realised that,
+once at the head of his forces, the Inca would wage an unrelenting
+warfare to expel the last Spaniard from Peru. If kept a prisoner his
+partisans would no longer hesitate to fight to release him, appreciating
+now the uselessness of relying on Spanish promises. He must be got rid
+of, and so after a mock trial in which he was charged with Huascar's
+murder and with conspiring against the Spaniards, the Inca emperor was
+strangled to death in the public square at Cajamarca. Pizarro knew
+better than to allow the Indians time to settle the disputed succession.
+With masterful sagacity he resolved to strike at Cuzco during the
+confusion. He suddenly evacuated Cajamarca and rapidly marched along the
+northern plateau, and over the Cerro de Pasco into the fertile valley
+of Jauja. From this point a short road led down the Cordillera to the
+sea, making it an admirable base for a campaign against Cuzco.
+
+  [Illustration: OBSEQUIES OF ATAHUALLPA.
+  [From a painting by the Peruvian artist, Monteros.]]
+
+Leaving a garrison to protect his retreat to the ocean, Pizarro advanced
+by forced marches along the great central plateau toward Cuzco. Quizquiz
+and the army, which had defeated and captured Huascar two years before,
+tried to oppose his progress, but all the calculations of the Indian
+general were overthrown by the incredible speed of the Spanish cavalry.
+The horsemen reached the neighbourhood of Cuzco without encountering any
+considerable force of the enemy. Here the advance guard was surprised,
+lost a fourth of its number, and was on the point of being overwhelmed,
+when the opportune arrival of the main body dispersed the Indians.
+Though only a small part of Quizquiz's army had taken part, this defeat
+badly demoralised his soldiers; it seemed impossible to make any headway
+against these strangers clothed in steel, mounted on great beasts, and
+armed with weapons which slew their opponents before the latter could
+got in a blow. Moreover, Quizquiz was in a hostile country, where
+sympathies were all with the Huascar party and where the executioners of
+Atahuallpa were regarded as deliverers.
+
+Manco Capac, Huascar's brother and legitimate successor, went in person
+to the Spanish camp to propose a formal alliance and a joint war of
+extermination against the Atahuallpa faction, Pizarro received him with
+every mark of honour and respect and renewed his assurances that the
+sole object of his march from Cajamarca was to crush the enemies of the
+rightful emperor. Quizquiz tried hard to get his forces into shape for
+resistance, but his position near Cuzco was untenable, and after a
+slight skirmish he was obliged to leave the way open to the capital.
+Just a year from the day he had reached Cajamarca, Pizarro entered Cuzco
+by the side of the legitimate emperor amid the acclamations of the
+people. Manco's inauguration was splendidly celebrated with all the
+ancient rites, but among the procession of rejoicing Incas rode an
+ominous cavalcade--the Spanish soldiers, who now numbered nearly five
+hundred.
+
+The new emperor gathered an army, and, assisted by some Spaniards, set
+off in pursuit of Quizquiz, whom he defeated a short distance north of
+Cuzco. The old northern general, still indefatigable, made a rapid march
+on Jauja to surprise the Spanish garrison, but was repulsed in this
+well-considered effort to cut Pizarro's communications with the coast,
+and had to make his way, the best he could, back towards Quito. The
+central portion of the empire would now have been content to settle back
+into quiet allegiance to Manco. But the latter soon found that his
+allies regarded the country as their own. Under the pressure of
+necessity for help against Quizquiz he had acknowledged, as a matter of
+form, the titular supremacy of the Spanish king, and he was now required
+to carry out his obligation to the letter. A municipal council, framed
+on the Spanish model, was installed as the governing body of the ancient
+capital; the great temples were turned into churches and monasteries;
+other public edifices were seized to be used as residences or barracks
+for the Spaniards; tombs, temples, and private residences were searched
+for gold; and the authorities were required to furnish troops and
+carriers for the expeditions which their oppressors planned against the
+remoter parts of the empire. With the resignation characteristic of the
+race, the Indians submitted to these exactions, and Manco hesitated long
+before deciding to put himself at the head of a revolt.
+
+The transcendant military and diplomatic qualities Pizarro had displayed
+were equalled by the energy and foresight which he now showed as an
+administrator. Realising that his capital should be on the coast in
+order to secure direct communication with Panama, he made a careful
+examination of routes and possible sites and selected the valley of the
+Rimac, just below Jauja, where he founded Lima. From this point the
+military road by which the Incas had kept up communication from Cuzco
+with the coast and the northern provinces ascended to the plateau. Lima
+and Jauja were the strategical keys to central and southern Peru; San
+Miguel gave easy access to Quito, and Pizarro insured the region
+extending from Cerro de Pasco to the Ecuador border by establishing the
+city of Trujillo half-way up the coast.
+
+Their original agreement provided that Pizarro should have the northern
+half of the countries they might conquer, and Almagro the southern.
+Accordingly, about two years after Cuzco was occupied, Almagro started
+for Bolivia and Chile, accompanied by five hundred Spaniards and two
+brothers of the Inca emperor, leading a large native army. In Bolivia,
+where the Inca power had been established for centuries, he encountered
+no opposition, and crossed the bleak plateaux of the Puna, descended the
+Andes, and finally reached the fertile valleys of northern Chile. But so
+little gold was found that Almagro determined to return and set up a
+claim to Cuzco.
+
+  [Illustration: STONE BRIDGE OVER THE RIMAC RIVER, LIMA, PERU.]
+
+In the meantime the Incas of central Peru had awakened from the dream of
+a continuance of the ancient dynasty under Spanish protection. Pizarro
+himself seems to have been guilty of few acts of wanton cruelty, but he
+neither wished nor tried to restrain his followers from reducing the
+Indians to vassalage. The natives were fast crowded to the wall, and the
+Spaniards divided the fairest parts of the country into estates,
+treating the Indians as tenants from whom tribute was due. The
+sovereignty of the emperor soon became a mere fiction. In 1536 Manco
+escaped from Cuzco and raised the standard of rebellion. The moment
+appeared favourable. The Spanish forces were scattered; Pizarro was at
+Lima, and Almagro in the wilds of Chile, but as a matter of fact the
+Incas laboured under almost hopeless disadvantages. Their cities,
+fortresses, and roads were all in the hands of the Spaniards, and the
+kingdom of Quito, the most warlike part of the empire, had meanwhile
+been reduced by a Spanish expedition from San Miguel.
+
+The rebellion was confined at first to the tribes who lived in the
+neighbourhood of Cuzco. These rose _en masse_ and besieged the two
+hundred Spaniards, who, under the command of Hernando Pizarro and his
+two younger brothers, Juan and Gonzalo, occupied the capital. The
+Indians captured the citadel overlooking the town, and poured an
+incessant rain of stones and burning darts on their enemies. The
+Spaniards soon ran out of provisions, and were forced to try to
+recapture the citadel or perish miserably by fire and starvation. Juan
+Pizarro led a desperate assault, ably assisted by Hernando and Gonzalo,
+and all three proved themselves worthy of the name they bore. Juan fell
+mortally wounded in the moment of victory, but the Incas fled in
+confusion, giving the surviving Spaniards an opportunity to procure
+supplies of maize from the neighbouring farms. This defeat disheartened
+the Indians. Numbers and bravery seemed useless against the horses and
+firearms of these strangers, whose reckless courage was only equalled by
+their cruelty. The Incas kept up the siege for several months, but
+without artillery their swords and spears could make little headway
+against men provided with firearms and protected behind solid stone
+walls. While the Spaniards in Cuzco were thus fighting for their lives,
+the Incas near Jauja rose and descended on Lima, but Francisco Pizarro
+with his dreaded cavalry waited for them in ambush, and the Indians were
+surprised and cut to pieces.
+
+In spite of this success the governor's position remained most grave. He
+sent for help to Panama, Guatemala, and Mexico, but meanwhile had no
+means of relieving Cuzco. Its fall meant not only the death of his
+beloved brothers, but would almost certainly be followed by a general
+insurrection and the loss of all the advantages gained in three years of
+fighting and scheming. He hurried forward two hundred and fifty
+men,--all he could possibly spare,--but had little prospect of success
+until news came that Almagro and his five hundred followers had arrived
+at Arequipa on their way back from Chile. From Arequipa there is a pass
+to the north end of Lake Titicaca, and thence to Cuzco the way was easy.
+Manco would be caught between Pizarro's army coming up from Lima and
+Almagro's descending from the south. The Inca gave up hope and with a
+few devoted followers retired into the wild region of Vilcabamba, lying
+north of Cuzco near the Amazonian plain. In those rugged and forested
+defiles he was safe from Spanish pursuit, but his retirement ended all
+hope of organised and general resistance. The Inca empire had fallen
+never to rise again. With stoical resignation the Indians made the best
+of their sad situation, while the conquerors were left free to fight
+among themselves over the division of the magnificent spoils which had
+so miraculously fallen into their hands.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+CIVIL WARS AMONG THE CONQUERORS
+
+
+The edict of Charles V. conceded to Pizarro the territory for two
+hundred and seventy leagues south of the river on the Ecuador coast
+where the conquest had begun, and to Almagro the next two hundred
+leagues. In his heart Almagro was dissatisfied with this award, and,
+even if he accepted the division, there was wide room for
+misunderstandings and disputes. No one knew the exact latitude of the
+river whence the measurement was to be made, nor had any one surveyed
+the distances along the winding roads. Almagro contended that Cuzco and
+Arequipa lay within his province, but this Pizarro vigorously and, as it
+turned out, correctly denied.
+
+Almagro's personal followers were disgusted with the rude poverty they
+had found in Chile, and saw little chance of valuable spoil unless their
+leader should secure the fertile plateaux of Titicaca, Cuzco, and
+Arequipa. They urged him to seize by force what he believed to belong to
+him. After the flight of Manco his army reached Cuzco before the force
+which Pizarro was sending up had penetrated nearer than a hundred miles.
+Hernando Pizarro had two hundred men at Cuzco, but they were exhausted
+with long months of fighting against the Indian besiegers and could
+offer no effective resistance to the night attack by which Almagro
+surprised them. Hernando and his brother Gonzalo were captured and
+imprisoned, and Almagro advanced against the army from Lima and defeated
+it. "This," exclaimed Pizarro, when he heard the news, "is Almagro's
+return to me, after losing a beloved and gallant brother, and spending
+all I possess in pacifying the country. I mourn for the danger of my
+brothers, but still more that two friends in their old age should plunge
+into a civil war to the injury alike of the King's service and of Peru."
+From this moment all the powers of his great mind and the resources of
+his profound cunning were devoted to securing his brothers' safety
+first, and afterwards revenge upon Almagro. Willing to agree to anything
+rather than leave them in the hands of enemies whom he knew to be as
+coldly cruel as himself and far more bloodthirsty, he sent ambassadors
+to treat for the liberation of Hernando and Gonzalo. But Almagro thought
+he held the whip hand, and marched his victorious army across the
+Cordillera opposite Cuzco and up the coast nearly to Lima, declaring his
+intention of founding a capital for his government in the valley of
+Chincha, and announcing that he would be satisfied with nothing less
+than the cession of all Peru from Lima south. To obtain Hernando's
+release the governor was forced to consent that Almagro should remain
+in possession of the disputed territory pending the decision of the
+King, but Hernando was no sooner safe at Lima than Pizarro repudiated
+his promise. He declared war; his army, under the leadership of Hernando
+and Valdivia--afterwards famous as the conqueror of Chile--advanced down
+the coast. Futilely raging at Pizarro's treachery, the old man
+retreated, making his way toward Cuzco over one of the southern passes.
+His pursuers by a rapid march over a difficult and little used pass
+reached the neighbourhood of the Inca capital without resistance.
+Almagro was compelled to accept battle, or to shut himself up in Cuzco
+and let his enemies bring up artillery and batter him out at their
+leisure. His men outnumbered Pizarro's, and were assisted by a large
+contingent of natives, though inferior in discipline and arms. He chose
+the speedier alternative, but the flank attacks of his native
+auxiliaries made no impression on Hernando's carefully disposed infantry
+and his Spaniards fell into confusion when the main bodies met in the
+shock of battle. With a flank cavalry charge the rout became general;
+Hernando Pizarro dashed in, conspicuous with white plume and
+orange-coloured doublet; the most desperate partisans were slaughtered,
+bravely fighting, and the old man fled. He was soon captured and brought
+back to the very prison where he had so long confined Hernando. After
+languishing for a few months, orders were given that he be strangled.
+Francisco made no sign to save the life of his old comrade, and the
+sentence was inflicted.
+
+For the second time Pizarro entered Cuzco in triumph, wearing now an
+ermine robe presented to him by Hernando Cortes, and once more he
+devoted himself to organising his vast dominions and extending the
+Spanish power over the distant provinces. Gonzalo Pizarro went to Quito
+to make that expedition into the Amazon country in search of the
+Eldorado which so miserably failed in its immediate object, but resulted
+in Orellana's discovery of the great river. Hernando Pizarro proceeded
+to Bolivia to develop the mining industry--a labour soon to be rewarded
+by the finding of Potosi. Valdivia undertook the conquest of Chile, and
+Alvarado that of the mountains of northern Peru. The governor travelled
+himself over most of his dominions, founding cities at strategic points
+in the more populous and fertile valleys. He visited Charcas--now
+Sucre--the old Indian capital of southern Bolivia; he founded one city
+at Arequipa, commanding the greatest valley of the southern coast, and
+another at Guamanga in a fertile plateau half-way between Jauja and
+Cuzco. The better parts of the country were divided into great feudal
+estates and distributed among his favourites and faithful followers,
+while the partisans of Almagro made their way as best they could out of
+Peru or hung around in helpless poverty, gnashing their teeth as they
+saw their luckier comrades rapidly enriching themselves by Indian
+tribute and mining.
+
+  [Illustration: RUE MERCADERES, PROCESSION DAY, LIMA.]
+
+Almagro's friends quickly carried the news of his illegal execution to
+Spain, crying for justice against the Pizarros. The Spanish government
+was not unwilling to secure a selfish advantage from the disputes
+among the original conquerors, and sent out Vaca de Castro to
+investigate and report.
+
+When the royal commissioner arrived at Panama early in 1541, the latest
+news from Peru was tranquillising. Pizarro was busily engaged in
+enlarging and beautifying Lima, in regulating the revenue and the
+administration, in distributing "encomiendas," and in restraining the
+rapacity of his Spaniards. However, Lima was full of the "men of
+Chile"--as Almagro's adherents were called--all bitter enemies of the
+governor. They passed him in the street without saluting, and their
+attitude was so menacing that Pizarro received repeated warnings and was
+urged to banish them. Absolutely incapable of personal fear, magnanimous
+when his passions had not been aroused, he only replied, "Poor fellows;
+they have had trouble enough. We will not molest them." He even sent for
+Juan de la Rada, the guide, counsellor, and guardian of the young
+half-breed who was Almagro's heir, and condescended to try to argue him
+into a better frame of mind, saying at parting, "Ask me frankly what you
+desire." But the iron had entered too deeply into Rada's soul; he had
+already organised a conspiracy to assassinate Pizarro.
+
+At noon on Sunday, the 26th of June, 1541, Pizarro was sitting at dinner
+in his house with twenty gentlemen, among them his half-brother,
+Francisco Alcantara, and several of the most illustrious knights who had
+taken part in the conquest. The great door into the public square was
+lying wide open. The conspirators, to the number of a score, had
+assembled in a house opposite. All of a sudden they rushed into the
+square fully armed and carrying their swords naked in their hands. A
+young page standing in front of the governor's house saw them and ran
+back shouting: "To arms! all the men of Chile are coming to kill the
+Marquis, our lord." The guests rose in alarm from the table and all but
+half a dozen fled to the windows and dropped into the garden. Pizarro
+threw off his gown and snatched up a sword, while the valiant Francisco
+Chaves stepped forward through the ante-room to dispute the passage at
+the staircase. The ferocious crowd of murderers rushed up and laid him
+dead on the stairs. Alcantara checked them for a few moments with his
+single sword, but was soon forced back into the dining-room and fell
+pierced with many thrusts. The old lion shouted from the inside, "What
+shameful thing is this! why do you wish to kill me?" and with a cloak
+wrapped round one arm and his sword grasped in the other hand, he rushed
+forward to meet his assassins and strike a blow to avenge his brother
+before he himself should fall. Only two faithful young pages remained at
+his side. Though over seventy years of age, his practised sword laid two
+of the crowd dead before he was surrounded. The two boys were butchered
+and in the melee Pizarro received a mortal wound in the throat, and
+falling to the floor, made the sign of the cross on the boards and
+kissed it. One of the ruffians had snatched up an earthen water jar and
+with this pounded out the old man's brains as he lay prostrate,
+disdaining to ask for mercy and murmuring "Jesus" just as the fatal blow
+fell.
+
+Thus perished by the sword this great man of blood. The measure he had
+meted out to Atahuallpa and Almagro was measured to him again. He who
+had shamelessly broken his oath times without number to gain his own
+high ends was slain by treacherous, cowardly assault. But his great
+vices should not blind us to his greater virtues. Courageous,
+indomitable, far-sighted, patriotic, large-minded, public-spirited,
+possessing a God-given instinct for seeing straight to the centre of a
+problem and the energy to strike at the psychological moment, he was
+equally great as an explorer, a soldier, a general, a diplomatist, and
+an administrator. Even his shocking moral delinquencies lose something
+of their turpitude when we consider the greatness of his aims and the
+baseness of his origin. A bastard, a common soldier, a penniless
+adventurer, a man who had to fight his way up by his own wits, courage
+and parts, in the worst of schools, it was not to be expected that he
+would be scrupulous. But that his real nature was magnanimous, generous,
+and truthful is proven by the many instances in which he forgave his
+enemies and kept his word to his serious loss, and that his ambition was
+not sordid is shown by his self-sacrificing devotion to the public good
+during the later years of his life. Formed in nature's grandest mould,
+circumstances and environment had much deformed his character, but the
+original lineaments are plain.
+
+The news of the murder threw Peru into confusion. In Lima the
+governor's friends hid themselves or fled; a hundred sympathisers joined
+the assassins; the rudders and sails of the ships in port were taken
+away so that no word could be sent to Panama; and all the treasure in
+the city was plundered. Young Almagro assumed the title of governor of
+Peru, but he and Rada soon realised that the vast majority at Lima
+regarded them with execration, while threatening messages came from the
+commanders in other towns. Rada and the boy usurper started up the road
+for Jauja and Cuzco. At the former place Rada died, but his protege,
+though only twenty-two years old, now showed unexpected ability and
+resource. Suppressing with bloody severity a quarrel among his captains,
+he took the road to Cuzco, where his father's party was strongest.
+
+In the meantime the royal commissioner, now become legal governor of
+Peru, had sailed from Panama. Shipwrecked off the coast of southern
+Colombia, he resolved to proceed by land, and disembarking at
+Buenaventura, made his way with infinite difficulty through the tangled
+forests and steep defiles of the Maritime Cordillera to the valley of
+the Cauca River. Thence to Quito over the highlands of Popayan and Pasto
+was easier. As soon as the news of Pizarro's murder reached him he
+hastened south, receiving many offers of help from the friends of the
+dead governor. At Jauja he found a considerable army ready to his
+orders, so he proceeded promptly to Guamanga, to which point Almagro was
+advancing from Cuzco. The soldiers of the young half-breed knew that
+they were fighting with halters round their necks, and the battle was
+the bloodiest since the Spaniards had landed in Peru. Of the twelve
+hundred white men who went into the fight only five hundred escaped
+unwounded. The rebels were practically annihilated. Two days after the
+battle Pizarro's murderers were executed in the great square at
+Guamanga. Young Almagro managed to escape to Cuzco, but he was quickly
+captured and relentlessly put to death.
+
+Upon the death of Francisco Pizarro the right to nominate a governor
+reverted to the Spanish Crown. Though some disappointment was felt that
+Gonzalo Pizarro had not been appointed, Vaca de Castro succeeded without
+opposition. Gonzalo's selection would not have suited the new policy of
+the Spanish government. Las Casas had written his famous book exposing
+the unspeakable iniquities of the earlier conquerors toward the West
+Indian natives. It produced a tremendous effect on public opinion, and
+the authorities at Madrid decided to root up Indian slavery, and
+gradually abolish the existing "encomiendas." Manifestly, such a step
+would excite bitter dissatisfaction among the adventurers in Peru, and
+it seemed best to name a viceroy, who would be _ipso facto_ vested with
+absolute power, and not subject to the influence of the
+"conquistadores."
+
+This dangerous post was entrusted to Blasco Nunez de Vela, an old
+bureaucrat of the Escurial, whose integrity, piety, and rigid obedience
+to orders had pushed him into high positions. Arriving in Peru early in
+1544, he was received with outward courtesy and respect, thinly veiling
+real alarm and distrust. The "New Laws" abolished personal service by
+Indians; the grandees of estates must hereafter be content with a
+moderate tribute from their tenants; encomiendas might not be sold nor
+even descend by inheritance; and--worst of all--public officials and all
+Spaniards who had taken part in the wars between Almagro and Pizarro
+were to be deprived. The provisions were drastic and rumour exaggerated
+them. In his journey down the coast the viceroy had sternly ordered that
+no Indian be forced to carry a burden against his will. To the Spaniards
+this seemed an outrageous violation of the natural order of things. The
+whole fabric of their fortunes rested upon forced Indian labour. Without
+it they could not work their mines, farm their estates, or transport
+their goods, and these "New Laws" enforced by a conscientious and
+stubborn old bureaucrat, would virtually rob them of all that their
+swords had won.
+
+Dismayed "encomienderos" wrote to Gonzalo Pizarro, urging him to espouse
+their cause; his own vast estates would infallibly be wrenched away by
+the viceroy, and he was told that his head was to be cut off as soon as
+Nunez Vela could lay hands on him. With the Pizarro instinct of running
+to meet a danger, he hastened from southern Bolivia to Cuzco, where he
+was proclaimed "procurator general" of Peru; soldiers flocked to his
+camp; he seized the artillery and stores at Cuzco, and soon was at the
+head of four hundred desperate men, well armed and provided. Many,
+however, shrank from open rebellion against the representative of the
+Castilian king, and the Pizarros had enemies. The result was still
+doubtful, when the viceroy himself turned the scale by his own violent
+measures. He imprisoned Vaca de Castro on suspicion of favouring the
+revolt; quarrelled with the judges of the royal court; and finally in an
+altercation with the popular factor of Lima, stabbed his opponent with
+his own hand, and then attempted to conceal the murder. Frightened at
+the burst of public indignation, he fled to Trujillo, while the royal
+judges took the direction of affairs into their own hands. They ordered
+the arrest and deportation of the viceroy, and sent a conciliatory
+message to Gonzalo. But he knew better than to rely upon the
+unauthorised promises of the judges. His answer was to send a detachment
+to Lima, which seized three deserters and hanged them on trees outside
+the town. The judges having no troops upon whom they could rely, were
+forced to recognise Pizarro as governor. A few days later he made his
+triumphal entry, riding at the head of twelve hundred men. There was no
+mistaking the sincerity of the acclamations with which the Spaniards
+welcomed the devoted champion of their privileges. Nevertheless in the
+minds of most there lurked an uneasy consciousness that all this was in
+fact flat treason against the lawful sovereign, and that no government
+could in the long run prevail without recognition from Madrid.
+
+The sea-captains to whose custody the blundering old viceroy had been
+entrusted did not know what to do with their embarrassing prisoner, and
+set him ashore at Tumbez, whence he proceeded to Quito to get help from
+the anti-Pizarro faction. The governor of southern Colombia joined him
+and he soon had five hundred men under his orders. Gonzalo flew to the
+point of danger; the viceroy retreated to Popayan, but being joined by
+more recruits, rashly returned to the neighbourhood of Quito to offer
+battle. He was defeated and killed; Pizarro went back to Lima, while his
+lieutenant, Carbajal, hunted down and put to death every loyalist who
+remained under arms in southern Peru.
+
+Gonzalo's administration lasted three years' and they were golden ones
+for the Spanish adventurers. The marvellous silver mines of Potosi and
+the gold washings of southern Ecuador were discovered. Encomiendas were
+lavishly granted; the Indians went back to their fields; the mining
+industry began that marvellous development which soon made Peru the
+treasure box of the world and Potosi a synonym for limitless wealth. But
+the dazzling sunlight of prosperity was dimmed by the shadow of
+Pizarro's scaffold slowly creeping across the Atlantic and down the
+coast. His chief lieutenants, knowing they had sinned past forgiveness,
+urged him to declare himself king of Peru, but he was at once too proud
+and too patriotic to fling away his right to die a loyal Spaniard.
+
+Philip, the leaden-eyed, close-mouthed despot, was regent of Spain.
+Bitterly chagrined that the stream of Peruvian gold had ceased to flow
+into the royal treasury, his vindictive heart held no mercy for the
+gallant soldier whose sword had helped win the riches now temporarily
+diverted. He selected a man after his own heart--Pedro de la Gasca, an
+ugly, deformed little priest, hypocritically humble, though astute and
+untiring, whose success as an inquisitor was a guarantee that he would
+be as pitilessly cruel as even Philip could wish. Gasca landed at Panama
+in the character of a modest ecclesiastic, a humble man of peace who had
+been commissioned to investigate the sad situation of Peru and
+re-establish peace. He said he would recommend the repeal of the
+obnoxious New Laws, and had authority to suspend them. Gonzalo refused
+to put his head into the noose and demanded substantial assurances. But
+many Peruvians were more easily beguiled, and welcomed the excuse to
+renew their allegiance to lawful authority. While Gasca remained at
+Panama, gathering troops from the neighbouring provinces, Pizarro's
+fleet deserted, leaving the coast open to attack. An advance guard came
+sailing down the coast, sending letters ashore at every port promising
+amnesty and rewards. Desertions were so numerous that Gonzalo was forced
+to give up the hope of defending Lima and retreated toward Arequipa.
+Gasca ascended to Jauja, while Pizarro's old enemies in the Titicacan
+region rose, gathered a thousand men, and sent word to Gasca that they
+could overwhelm without help the five hundred soldiers who remained
+faithful. But a Pizarro never waited to be attacked. By forced marches
+he crossed the dizzy pass where the Mollendo and Puno Railway now runs,
+and fell upon his enemies near the southern end of Lake Titicaca. Though
+outnumbered two to one, the superior discipline of his men, his
+admirable dispositions, Carbajal's skilful handling of the artillery,
+and his own cool and intrepid leadership of the cavalry charges, gave
+him a decisive though dearly bought victory.
+
+  [Illustration: LITTLE "INFERNILLO" BRIDGE ON THE OROYA RAILWAY.
+  ALTITUDE 10,924 FEET.]
+
+Meanwhile Gasca was coming up the road from Jauja to Cuzco, his army
+increasing by accessions from every direction until it numbered over two
+thousand. The wisest of Gonzalo's counsellors advised him to retire to
+southern Bolivia and make a defensive campaign in that remote region,
+but he preferred bold methods. For once, however, he could not inspire
+his men with his own confidence. They followed with heavy hearts his
+eager march against Gasca's overwhelming army. He drew them up for the
+attack and the battle was about to begin when, to his despair, he saw
+several captains desert to the enemy and his soldiers surrendering
+without a blow. Knowing that all was over, he turned to Juan Acosta, who
+rode at his side, saying, "What shall we do, brother Juan?" "Sir, let us
+charge them and die like Romans." "Better to die like Christians,"
+replied Pizarro, and he rode across the plain and gave himself up. The
+exulting priest grossly insulted the fallen warrior, and called a
+court-martial to condemn him and his captains to immediate execution.
+Though only forty-one years old when he went to the scaffold, Gonzalo
+had for sixteen years taken a leading part in nearly every one of the
+battles and expeditions of Peru, and is justly regarded as the best
+fighting man among the "conquistadores."
+
+The property of Pizarro's friends was confiscated; the prisons filled
+with wretched victims; many were put to death; many more mutilated or
+flogged; even the staunchest loyalists were not safe. Gasca evaded and
+delayed as long as possible the distribution of land-grants among those
+who had earned and been promised such rewards, and when he had to
+announce the list he sneaked to Lima by an unfrequented route in
+cowardly fear of his miserable life. He never dared to try to put the
+New Laws into effect, and when a peremptory order came from Spain that
+enforced Indian labour must cease, he kept it secret until he could
+resign the government to the royal judges, leaving instructions that it
+should be published immediately he was at sea.
+
+Peru was left in confusion. The prohibition of Indian slavery added to
+the dissatisfaction felt over Gasca's awards. The _ad interim_
+governments could make little progress in securing its enforcement.
+Rebellion after rebellion broke out, and civil war continued to desolate
+Peru, with a few intervals of quiescence during which the government
+allowed the proprietors to do as they pleased, until the arrival of the
+Marquis of Canete, the "good viceroy," on the 29th of June, 1556.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE COLONIAL PERIOD
+
+
+The Spanish occupation of Peru was a conquest, not a colonisation. The
+narrow plateau from Colombia to Chile and the adjacent dry valleys on
+the Pacific and in north-western Argentina had been found fully
+populated by civilised races. The work of subjugating them was
+practically accomplished within eight or ten years after Pizarro landed
+in Ecuador, and this marvellous result was achieved by private
+adventurers who, though they held commissions from Madrid, really acted
+on their own responsibility. A very few appreciated the advisability of
+well treating the Indians and thereby preserving the effective
+industrial organisation, but the vast majority concerned themselves only
+with immediate profit. For eighteen years the original conquerors and
+the adventurers who followed in their track fought over the spoils. When
+the Marquis of Canete was appointed viceroy he found eight thousand
+Spaniards in Peru alone, four hundred and eighty-nine of whom had grants
+of lands and Indians.
+
+We can never know the sufferings of the Indians during these civil
+wars. The chronicles tell us minutely the stories of the battles,
+marches, sieges, surprises, assassinations, and deeds of military
+prowess, but little of the destruction and abandonment of the irrigating
+canals and terraces, the ruin of the magnificent roads, the breaking up
+of the ancient socialistic system, the impressment of natives into the
+rebel bands, the death by exhaustion of thousands dragging artillery
+over the steep mountain paths, the starvation of whole villages robbed
+of their crops. But the sturdy physique of the Andean Indians and their
+perfect adaptation to the climatic conditions saved them from
+extermination. In the midst of the devil's dance of Spanish carnage, the
+Inca officers reported minutely the crops stolen or destroyed, and the
+deficiencies were made up as far as possible from the villages which had
+escaped for the time being.
+
+Naturally the Spanish government was anxious to put an end to such a
+state of affairs. Considerations of self-interest reinforced the
+eloquent indignation of Las Casas, but the New Laws could not be put
+into effect, notwithstanding the sentiment of fidelity to the Castilian
+king and the growth of considerable cities in which Spanish law and
+custom were dominant. The only real cities which the Incas had built
+were Cuzco in central Peru, Quito in Ecuador, and Charcas in Bolivia,
+and after the conquest they continued a village-dwelling people, but the
+Spaniards, true to the instinct inherited from Roman times, preferred to
+live in cities. Within a few years they had established municipalities
+not only at the three Inca capitals, but at Piura, Lima, Trujillo, Loja,
+La Paz, Guamanga, Jauja, and numerous other places.
+
+The enlightened advisers of Charles V. came to the conclusion that Peru
+could never become a loyal and profitable appanage of the Crown until
+freedom of action was granted to its government. Don Andres Hurtado de
+Mendoza, Marquis of Canete, accepted the difficult post of viceroy. He
+was a scion of the noblest House of Spain, distinguished alike in arms
+and letters, capable and resolute, of mature years and wide experience.
+His salary was fixed at the then fabulous sum of forty thousand ducats
+in order to enable him to maintain regal state, and, accompanied by his
+vice-queen and an imposing retinue, he assumed power with ceremonial
+splendour. He prohibited further immigration from Spain and ordered that
+no Spaniard in Peru should leave his district without permission. Though
+the encomienderos were left in possession of their estates, they were
+made to understand that they must cease the more outrageous forms of
+oppressing the natives. He sent for the most notorious disturbers, and
+they came joyfully expecting to receive grants, but were summarily
+disarmed and banished. He employed the more adventurous in expeditions
+to the interior and in completing the conquest of Chile. All the
+artillery in the country was gathered under his eye, and the corregidors
+were required to dismiss most of their soldiery. Finally, the viceroy
+continued Pizarro's policy of founding cities into which were gathered
+the Spaniards who remained scattered over the country.
+
+He did much to alleviate the lot of the natives, though he dared not
+venture on giving them all the rights guaranteed by Spanish law. No
+efforts were spared to Hispaniolise the Inca nobles, and native chiefs
+who could prove their right by descent were formally allowed to exercise
+jurisdiction as magistrates. Even the rightful emperor, Sayri Tupac, who
+had maintained his independence in the wilds of Vilcabamba, was induced
+to swear allegiance and accept a pension and estates in the valley of
+Yucay. When the Inca had attested the documents by which he renounced
+his sovereignty, he lifted up the gilded fringe of the table-cloth,
+saying: "All this cloth and its fringe were mine, and now they give me a
+thread of it for my sustenance and that of all my house." Retiring to
+Yucay, he sank into a deep melancholy and died within two years.
+
+In the meantime Charles V. had been succeeded by Philip II. The Marquis
+of Canete's liberal and enlightened policy did not wring money from the
+unhappy country fast enough to suit the greedy despot. He listened to
+the slanders against the "good viceroy" brought home by disappointed
+Spaniards, and Canete's reward for five years of brilliant service was a
+recall. Only his death saved him from hearing with his own ears the
+reproaches of his ungrateful sovereign.
+
+Several years elapsed before Philip found a man who possessed the
+courage, capacity, mercilessness, and obstinacy to devise and apply a
+system which would make Peru a mere machine to produce gold and silver
+for the Spanish Crown. Such a one was Don Francisco de Toledo, a member
+of the same ancient house to which the Duke of Alva belonged. To him
+belongs the distinction of founding the infamous colonial system--the
+origin of the misery and disorder from which Spanish South America has
+suffered ever since, and a potent if not the principal cause of the
+decline of Spain herself and the loss of her magnificent colonial
+empire. Toledo reached Lima 1569, leaving Spain just after the news had
+been received that William the Silent and his Hollanders had risen in
+revolt against the cruelties of Alva and gained the victory of
+Groeningen.
+
+  [Illustration: PROMENADE OF THE ALAMEDA, LIMA.]
+
+The new viceroy first devoted himself to the destruction of the native
+dynasty. Sayri Tupac's younger brothers, Titu Yupanqui and Tupac Amaru,
+still roamed free in the forests of Vilcabamba. The Spaniards had
+hitherto not interfered with the Indians' celebrating their national
+festivals with the ancient solemnities, and Toledo came to Cuzco to be
+present at one which he had determined should be the last. As soon as it
+was over he sent for Titu to come in and take the oath of allegiance.
+Titu died of an illness, but the chiefs swore fealty to the boy Tupac
+Amaru, and refused to put him in the power of the Spaniards. The
+exasperated viceroy sent a force which captured the young emperor.
+Brought to Cuzco, Toledo ordered him to be decapitated, and the head was
+stuck upon a pike and set up beside the scaffold. One moonlight night a
+Spaniard went to the window of his bed-chamber, which overlooked the
+great square, and saw the whole vast space packed with a crowd of
+kneeling, silent people, their faces all turned to the Inca's grisly
+head; it was the Indians devoutly worshipping the last relic of their
+beloved and unfortunate sovereign. But there was no spirit left in them
+for rebellion--and no centre for them to rally around. Toledo's
+executions exterminated the leading Incas and half-castes; the
+celebration of Indian rites was forbidden, and everything which might
+remind the people of the fallen _regime_ destroyed or removed.
+
+Toledo's "Libro de Tasas," or code of regulations, is the basis of the
+system under which the Spanish colonies were governed for more than two
+centuries. The Spaniards were practically recognised as belonging to a
+privileged and governing caste. The country was divided into about
+fifty districts, called "corregimentos," each under the rule of a
+corregidor. This official was substantially absolute so far as the
+Indians were concerned, although an effort was made to keep up parts of
+the ancient Inca organisation, and in practice the hereditary village
+chiefs administered justice and exercised considerable power.
+
+Every male Indian between the ages of eighteen and fifty was compelled
+to pay a certain tribute or poll-tax, for whose collection their chiefs
+were responsible. About one-sixth of the Indians belonged to estates
+already granted, and these paid their tribute to the proprietors, the
+Crown deducting one-fifth. The other five-sixths paid directly to the
+representatives of the government. In consideration of this tribute,
+general and indiscriminate personal service was declared to be
+abolished, but the commutation was not in full. One-seventh of the
+Indians were required to work for their masters, and the wretched
+victims of this "mitta" were sent by their caciques to the nearest
+Spanish town, where they could be engaged by any one who required their
+services. But these were not all the burdens. The natives of the
+provinces near the mines were compelled to furnish the labour necessary
+to work them, and the poor creatures to whose lot it fell to go might
+never hope to return. Oppressive as was the letter of these laws, their
+practical application was made infinitely worse by evasions practised
+with the connivance of the corregidors. Hundreds of Indians were hunted
+down and carried away to work on farms and in factories under the
+pretext that the "mitta" returns had not been honestly made, and though
+the population decreased, the survivors were required to furnish the
+same number of victims every year.
+
+In spite of the slaughter during the civil wars, the Peruvian Indians
+numbered eight millions in 1575. Including the outlying provinces, the
+population of the Inca empire must have reached twenty millions in the
+heyday of its prosperity. Horrible as had been the decrease of the first
+forty years of Spanish domination, it was a trifle to that which
+followed the establishment of Toledo's system. In 1573 the impressment
+for the Potosi mines produced eleven thousand labourers; one hundred
+years later only sixteen hundred could be found. In the non-mining
+provinces the destruction was not so stupendous, but some encomiendas,
+originally containing a thousand adults, were reduced to a hundred
+within a century, and the miserable survivors were compelled to pay the
+same sum as had been assessed to their ancestors. The total population
+of Peru proper had fallen to less than a million and a half within two
+centuries and that of the whole empire to not more than four millions.
+So great had been the mortality among the feebler inhabitants of the
+warm coast valleys that they had practically died out, and their places
+were taken by negro slaves whose importation began shortly after the
+conquest.
+
+The Indians were the worst but not the only sufferers. The Creole
+descendants of the early Spanish settlers, though they nominally enjoyed
+the same rights as the later arrivals, in reality had small chance to
+participate in the offices and fat concessions. Each new viceroy brought
+a new swarm of needy noblemen, who regarded the Creoles with lofty
+disdain. Commerce except with Spain was forbidden, and even that was
+burdened with almost intolerable burdens. As time went on new taxes were
+devised until it seemed the deliberate purpose of the Spanish government
+to transfer all the gold and silver in Peru's mountains to the royal
+treasury. Not only were both imports and exports taxed, but also every
+pound of provisions sold in the markets and shops. One-fifth of the
+products of the mines and one-tenth of the crops went directly to the
+Crown. All kinds of businesses had to pay licences; quicksilver and
+tobacco were monopolies; and offices were regularly sold to the highest
+bidder.
+
+Nevertheless the Spanish occupation brought many incontestable benefits
+to South America. To say nothing of the civilised system of
+jurisprudence, the letters and the religion which have made the peoples
+of the continent members of the great western European family, the
+introduction of new and valuable animals, grains, and fruits raised the
+level of average well-being among the surviving inhabitants. Horses,
+asses, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, chickens, pigeons, wheat, barley,
+oats, rice, olives, grapes, oranges, sugar-cane, apples, peaches and
+related fruits, and even the banana and the cocoa palm were introduced
+by the Spaniards. In return Europe owes to Peru maize, potatoes,
+chocolate, tobacco, cassava, ipecacuanha, and quinine.
+
+Toledo had put his colonial system in full operation by 1580, and from
+that time to near the close of the Spanish epoch the story of Peru
+offers little of interest. Expansion ceased; the colonists made no
+effort to spread over the Amazon plain, or to prevent the Portuguese on
+the Atlantic coast from occupying the interior of the continent almost
+to the foot of the Andes. On the seacoast of Venezuela and the plains of
+the lower Plate the Spanish race still showed a scanty fraction of that
+vigour and enterprise which had enabled the early conquerors to spread
+over half the continent in a few short years, but in Peru, Ecuador, and
+Bolivia the country slowly decayed. Though the viceroys who followed
+each other in rapid succession were selected from among the greatest
+grandees of Spain, they were held to an increasingly rigid account, and
+the smallest concession to commerce or a failure to send home the utmost
+farthing which could be wrung from the people was severely and
+peremptorily punished. Their jurisdiction extended over all Spanish
+South America; the captains-general of New Granada, Venezuela, and
+Chile, the royal audience of Bolivia, the president of Ecuador, and the
+governors of Tucuman, Paraguay, and Buenos Aires being all nominally
+subject to their orders. But in practice these widely separated
+divisions of the continent were largely independent. Lima was, however,
+the political, commercial, and social centre of South America. To its
+port came from Panama the goods destined for Peru, Chile, Bolivia, and
+even Paraguay and Buenos Aires. Many of the viceroys were lovers of
+letters, and the university produced scholars and authors not unworthy
+comparison with those of the Old World. The continual influx of
+Spaniards of distinguished Castilian ancestry and gentle training made
+the language of even the common people singularly pure, and the sonorous
+elegance of the Spanish tongue as spoken during the classical period has
+been best preserved in the comparative isolation of Peru. The influence
+of the bishops and priests, the Jesuits and the Franciscans, was hardly
+inferior to that of the officials. The clergy controlled education;
+every village had its parish priest who compelled the Indians to go to
+mass and made them pay heavily for the privilege; the Inquisition was
+early introduced and performed its dreadful functions without let or
+hindrance.
+
+  [Illustration: GENERAL VIEW OF LIMA, SHOWING THE CATHEDRAL.]
+
+The regulations which attempted to confine the oppression of the Indians
+within bearable limits were persistently violated, not only by private
+individuals, but by the corregidors themselves. Kidnapping was reduced
+to a system, and often all the male adults of a village were dragged off
+to work in the mines, leaving only the women and children to till the
+fields. The corregidors went into partnership with merchants, and the
+poor Indians were compelled to purchase articles for which they had no
+use, and thrown into slavery to work out the debt if they failed to pay.
+The wiser viceroys did not waste their energies in vain efforts to
+mitigate the profitable abuses. They devoted their attention rather to
+the exaction of the last penny of taxes, to be spent in maintaining the
+horde of office-holders, or to be remitted to Spain. So rigidly was
+taxation enforced and so successful were the Spaniards in finding rich
+mines of silver, gold, and mercury, that early in the seventeenth
+century the revenue had reached the sum--enormous in those days of low
+prices--of nearly five hundred thousand pounds, of which about half was
+regularly sent to Madrid. Foreign nations could not effectively
+interfere with Spain's commercial and fiscal monopoly. The Isthmus was
+in her hands, and the voyage through Magellan's Straits or around Cape
+Horn was too stormy and uncertain for the slow, clumsy ships of that
+age, and only a few English and Dutch expeditions, half-trading,
+half-piratical, ravaged the coast towns in the seventeenth century.
+
+The most memorable event of Peru's history during the seventeenth
+century was the revelation of the sovereign virtues of quinine. The Lima
+physicians were unable to cure the Countess of Chinchon, the viceroy's
+wife, of a stubborn attack of malarial fever, but the rector of the
+Jesuit college had received some fragments of an unknown bark from a
+Jesuit missionary to whom they had been given by an Indian in the
+mountain wilds of southern Ecuador. Doses of this quickly restored the
+vice-queen, and when Linnaeus named the world's plants in scientific
+order, he called the genus to which the tree belongs chinchona, from the
+viceroy, through whom its virtues had come to notice.
+
+The succession of the Bourbons to the Spanish Crown, at the beginning of
+the eighteenth century, brought about a considerable change of colonial
+policy. To England was conceded the privilege of exporting negroes to
+South America, and French vessels were permitted to come round the Horn
+and trade at Peruvian ports. The latter concession was soon revoked and
+the commerce of the Pacific coast again became a monopoly for the ring
+of merchants at Cadiz. The Atlantic, however, by this time swarmed with
+ships of all the European maritime Powers, and it was impossible to
+prevent smuggling at the Caribbean and Argentine ports. The Madrid
+government reluctantly came to the conclusion that it was impossible to
+administer effectually from Lima the provinces which were commercially
+tributary to the Caribbean Sea. In 1740 Bogota, on the populous plateau
+of eastern New Granada, was made the capital of a new viceroyalty, under
+whose jurisdiction were placed the captaincy-general of Venezuela and
+the presidency of Quito. Buenos Aires was a resort for contraband
+traders under non-Spanish flags, and smuggling through that port so
+increased that goods coming from Spain by the Panama route were
+undersold in the markets of Argentina, Paraguay, Chile, Bolivia, and
+even Peru itself. In 1776 the southern Atlantic region was detached from
+Lima, and to the new viceroyalty of Buenos Aires were attached not only
+the Plate provinces--Buenos Aires and Paraguay--but also that part of
+Chile which lay east of the Andes, as well as Tucuman and the audiencia
+of Charcas as far north as Lake Titicaca. By these changes Peru was
+reduced to its present dimensions, except that Chile remained attached
+as a semi-independent captaincy-general.
+
+Three times since its foundation had Lima been nearly destroyed by
+earthquakes, but none of them was to be compared with the convulsion
+which in 1746 reduced the whole city to a shapeless mass of ruins. More
+than a thousand people perished; a great wave engulfed Callao, drowning
+half the population and carrying great ships far inland.
+
+The expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767 was effected without difficulty. In
+the neighbourhood of Lima alone they owned five thousand negro slaves
+and property to the value of two million dollars, and every penny of
+their immense accumulations was confiscated by the government.
+
+The great Indian rebellion which had so long been expected broke out in
+1780 under the leadership of Tupac Amaru, the lineal descendant of the
+last of the reigning Inca emperors. In Peru proper it did not spread
+beyond the southern frontier provinces and the story of its suppression
+belongs to Bolivia. The authorities were so alarmed that the reforms, to
+procure which Tupac had risked and lost his life, were shortly after
+voluntarily adopted. The vitality and fighting qualities of the
+half-breeds now stood revealed, and the Creoles, jealous of imported
+officials and dissatisfied at their exclusion from places of honour and
+profit, realised that a weapon lay ready to their hand when they should
+determine upon revolution.
+
+General Theodore de Croix, a Fleming, was entrusted with the
+reorganisation and reform made necessary by the Indian rebellion. The
+corregidors, petty tyrants over whom no effective control could be
+maintained, were abolished; the country was divided into a few great
+provinces, each ruled by an intendente to whom were responsible the
+subdelgados who had charge of local affairs, and measures were taken for
+the enforcement of the laws intended to protect the Indians.
+
+By the year 1790 these valuable reforms had been put into effect, but
+they came too late. Ideas of liberty had begun to infiltrate into the
+educated classes, and among the Creoles the abstract right of Peru to
+autonomous government became the subject of secret though widespread
+discussion. A succession of able and liberal viceroys, however, averted
+the danger for the time, and the outbreak of the revolution in the rest
+of South America found Peru ruled by Abascal, whose energy, foresight,
+and determination not only prevented an insurrection at Lima, but nearly
+saved all South America to Spain.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE WARS OF INDEPENDENCE
+
+
+The storm soon to burst over South America was gathering when Viceroy
+Abascal assumed the reins of power in 1806. He made no pretensions to
+statesmanship, but it did not escape his shrewd soldier's eye and common
+sense that French revolutionary ideas would soon make trouble. Her very
+existence threatened in the titan conflict then devastating Europe,
+Spain could not be relied upon to spare any of her soldiers to guard her
+colonies. He must take care of himself. Wasting no time in seeking to
+propitiate the revolutionary elements, he quietly set to work to
+organise and arm an efficient army while vigilantly watching the course
+of events.
+
+  [Illustration: BAKER ON HORSEBACK, LIMA.]
+
+Although less infected than any other province, being the one where the
+Spanish bureaucracy was most numerous and powerful, even in Peru Creole
+society was honeycombed with revolutionary sentiment. The plots to
+secure autonomy came to Abascal's notice, and with the first overt act
+he pounced upon the plotters. Two republican visionaries, named Ubaldo
+and Aguilar, were the first martyrs for liberty. A few learned and
+respected professors in Lima dared to speculate on the future of America
+as affected by recent events in Europe, but the viceroy summoned them to
+his presence and his stern warnings silenced them. Two young lawyers
+held evening parties where politics were discussed by the rising youth
+of the capital. One of the ringleaders was condemned to ten years'
+imprisonment and the other sent to Spain, while several more were
+shipped off to southern Chile. Although the liberals continued to meet
+and conspire, and the priests were particularly active, for the present
+nothing definite came of all this.
+
+Even the news of the deposition of the Spanish authorities at Quito, La
+Paz, and Charcas, in 1809, met with no response from the liberals at
+Lima. Abascal banished Riva Aguero, their leader; his expeditions
+quickly suppressed the insurrections in Bolivia and Ecuador; and he
+redoubled his exertions to strengthen his army, recruiting among the
+Indians and half-breeds, and casting cannon. That his apprehensions were
+justified was proved by the events of the following year. In rapid
+succession Buenos Aires, northern New Granada, Caracas, and Santiago
+installed revolutionary juntas in place of the Spanish governors. The
+flames of revolution spread rapidly from these centres. Soon the Spanish
+officials were overthrown throughout Argentina, Chile, New Granada, and
+Venezuela; Bolivia and Ecuador were divided; and only Peru remained
+steady. But Abascal, resolute and unshaken, sent his armies against the
+triumphant revolutionists. The story of these campaigns is elsewhere
+told in connection with the countries where they were conducted. Though
+the patriots won some important victories, the loyal arms steadily
+advanced.
+
+The redemption of Ecuador, Chile, and Bolivia had been mainly achieved
+with the resources which Abascal had picked up in South America. Until
+1813 the people of the Peninsula were fighting desperately for national
+independence against the armies of the great Napoleon. No money or men
+could be spared for South America, and Abascal even managed to remit two
+million dollars to Spain in a single year--that of 1811. The armies with
+which his generals won their early victories were recruited almost
+entirely from the native population of Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador. In
+this struggle between Spaniard and Creole, the sturdy Indian of the
+plateau, who was dragged reluctant from his home, took no great
+interest, but any sympathy he felt was anti-Spanish. Nevertheless, so
+ingrained was the habit of obedience that when drilled and commanded by
+Spanish officers the half-breeds and Indians made excellent soldiers.
+During these six years, only one insurrection touched the territory of
+Peru proper. In 1814 the Indians of the Cuzco region rose under the
+leadership of one of their own caciques. The whole population of this,
+the most southern province of Peru, seems to have sympathised with the
+insurrection, and the same feeling extended over the Bolivian border.
+When Pumacagua, the Indian leader, advanced into Bolivia the people
+about La Paz joined him. But his army was an undisciplined, unarmed mob,
+only eight hundred of the twenty thousand who followed him possessing
+muskets. The Spanish general, Ramirez, hastened up from southern
+Bolivia; the Indians retreated over the Cordillera to Arequipa, where
+they were followed by the Spaniards. When Ramirez approached they again
+retired to the Bolivian plateau and the game of hide-and-seek ended with
+the horrible slaughter of Umachiri near Lake Titicaca.
+
+In 1816 Abascal thought that his work was virtually completed and that
+he had earned the right to retire. Resistance was confined to Buenos
+Aires, to the thinly populated provinces of Tucuman and Cuyo, and to the
+banks of the Orinoco. The Argentine revolutionists were fighting among
+themselves, and that they must succumb before an advance in force from
+the Bolivian plateau appeared certain. The last act of his
+administration was to send out a fleet that compelled four Argentine
+ships which Admiral William Brown had brought around the Horn to
+withdraw to the Atlantic. He was succeeded by General Pezuela, a
+strategist of no mean abilities, who had borne a brilliant part in the
+Bolivian campaigns. The new viceroy straightway set about final
+preparations for a decisive advance across the pampas to Buenos Aires,
+but like a thunderbolt from a clear sky came the news that San Martin
+had made a sudden descent on Chile and won the battle of Chacabuco,
+annihilating the Spanish forces in that country. Pezuela saw himself
+obliged to begin a war to reduce Chile to obedience--an undertaking sure
+to be long and arduous, and in which he must encounter a general whose
+technical mastery of the profession had enabled him to create an army
+equal in discipline and effectiveness to any the viceroy might hope to
+throw against him. Pezuela abandoned the idea of an immediate Argentine
+campaign, and contented himself with maintaining a defensive attitude
+on the Bolivian frontier. He managed to repulse the armies which the
+Buenos Aireans sent against Bolivia, but it was in vain that he poured
+into Chile all the troops he could possibly spare. They were overthrown
+and annihilated in the decisive battle of Maipo. The viceroy sent for
+help to Spain and New Granada, but Venezuela had risen in insurrection
+under Bolivar and Paez; and it was impossible to spare any considerable
+number of troops from the Caribbean.
+
+So long, however, as Spanish ships commanded the Pacific, Peru itself
+was safe from attack and the viceroy could securely await the arrival of
+reinforcements, and then attack Chile where he chose. Happily for the
+cause of South American independence, the war-ship of the beginning of
+the nineteenth century was not the expensive, complicated, slow-built
+machine it has since become. San Martin subordinated everything to the
+creation of a fleet. He forced the Argentine and Chilean governments to
+furnish him money, and his agents hastened to Europe and North America
+to buy ships and engage British and American captains. The Spaniards had
+four frigates and thirteen smaller ships, mounting in all three hundred
+and thirty guns, while San Martin was able to improvise only three
+frigates and as many brigs, mounting about one hundred and eighty
+cannon. This disparity of force was more than made up by the superior
+skill and experience of the foreign seamen. His admiral was Lord
+Cochrane, a Scotchman of noble family, but radical principles and
+adventurous disposition. A daring and reckless fighter, inventive and
+fertile in resource, he excelled in leading cutting-out expeditions and
+surprises. His marvellous activity and the capture by Blanco Encalada of
+their largest frigate dismayed the Spanish captains. When Cochrane
+sailed up the coast he found the Spaniards huddled under the guns of
+Callao castle. Returning to Valparaiso, he reported to San Martin that
+he could guarantee the unmolested transport of an army to any point on
+the Peruvian coast, and again sailed away for Callao. Though his attempt
+to destroy the Spaniards with fire-ships and rockets was unsuccessful,
+he captured and sacked several towns and terrorised the Spanish
+authorities all along the coast. San Martin after many disappointments
+and interruptions succeeded in preparing an army of invasion. For ten
+years war had desolated every other part of Spanish South America, while
+Peru had remained untouched. At length the conflict was to be
+transferred to the very centre of Spanish power.
+
+On September 7, 1820, Lord Cochrane's fleet dropped anchor in a bay near
+Pisco, one hundred and fifty miles south of Lima. San Martin's army,
+numbering four thousand five hundred Argentines and Chileans,
+disembarked without opposition and occupied the fertile, vine-covered
+valleys. To undertake a campaign for the conquest of Peru with such a
+force seemed absurd. The viceroy's troops were five times as numerous;
+at Lima alone he had nearly nine thousand men; as many more were
+quartered at Cuzco, Jauja, and Arequipa, besides the six thousand
+veterans who guarded the Bolivian frontier against an invasion from
+Buenos Aires. The contest was, however, really not so unequal as it
+appeared. The Spanish armies were made up of native Peruvians and
+Bolivians, with some Venezuelans; sympathisers with the patriot cause
+swarmed in their ranks; many were waiting an opportunity to desert; the
+viceroy had little control over his generals, and the arrival of the
+Argentine army stimulated the activity of the patriot societies in the
+Peruvian cities.
+
+From Pisco San Martin detached a force of twelve hundred men under the
+command of General Arenales, which ascended the Cordillera, roused the
+population of the plateaux immediately back of Lima, and defeated a
+detachment under General O'Reilly near Cerro de Pasco. The Indians rose,
+but when the Spaniards came up in force Arenales retired to the coast,
+leaving his allies to be mercilessly slaughtered. Meanwhile San Martin
+with the main body had taken ship at Pisco and, sailing north, landed at
+Huacho, seventy miles beyond the capital. His three thousand men could
+not hope to succeed in a direct attack on the city, defended by thrice
+that number of disciplined troops. On the other hand, the Spanish army
+was shut off from the sea; its base was now far back in the interior;
+its line of communication might be cut at any moment by other
+expeditions like that of Arenales. Lima and the coast towns were
+decidedly disaffected. San Martin's plan was to wait patiently until a
+rising should compel the Spaniards to retire to the interior, and then
+to organise the country and gather an army for the final campaign on the
+plateau. He kept, therefore, at a safe distance from the Spaniards; sent
+out detachments which scoured the country up to the walls of Lima; and
+entered into communication with the conspirators in the city. Crowds of
+young enthusiasts hastened out to join him; Cochrane daringly cut out
+the frigate _Esmeralda_ under the very guns of Callao castle; an
+expedition sent to Tacna, on the extreme southern coast, was
+enthusiastically received; and numerous desertions from the Spanish army
+culminated in a battalion of Venezuelans coming over in a body. The
+viceroy was sorely puzzled. He hesitated to send his army to attack San
+Martin, fearing an insurrection or surprise during his absence, and
+knowing that defeat meant irretrievable ruin. Really only two courses of
+action lay open to the Spaniards--they must either fight San Martin, and
+the sooner the better, for he was becoming stronger every day--or they
+must abandon Lima and concentrate on their base in the mountains. The
+viceroy could not make up his mind to abandon the ancient capital, and
+he was reluctant to expose his family to the hardships of a guerilla
+warfare in the mountains.
+
+  [Illustration: THE MOLE AND HARBOUR OF CALLAO.]
+
+San Martin drew closer and closer, the attitude of the Lima liberals
+became more and more threatening, and still Pezuela made no move. News
+came of the revolution in Spain and of the overthrow of absolutism, and
+all the principal commanders united in demanding his resignation. He had
+no alternative, and retired to Spain, while the generals selected one
+of their number, La Serna, to succeed him. The new viceroy entered into
+negotiations looking toward an amicable accommodation of the whole
+question at issue between Spain and her colonies. The Argentine was
+nothing loath, well knowing that every month strengthened the patriot
+feeling among the coast Peruvians and brought him nearer his goal. San
+Martin proposed that South America become a constitutional monarchy and
+accept a Bourbon prince as its king in return for a recognition of its
+independence--a concession which even the revolutionary Spanish
+government could not confirm. The suggestion reflects little credit upon
+the political acumen of the great Argentine general. San Martin, in
+fact, seems never to have appreciated the motives and instincts which
+had pushed the Creoles into rebellion. The revolutionary movement in
+South America was in its essence separatist and republican; no monarch,
+whether the scion of a European House, or a Bolivar trying to play the
+role of a Napoleon, could ever have kept the Spanish colonies together.
+
+The first six months of 1821 were consumed in these fruitless
+negotiations, and by this time the position of the Spaniards at Lima had
+become untenable. It was necessary for them to retire to the plateau,
+where the sturdy natives furnished a supply of excellent recruits and
+the mines, fields, and pastures would maintain an army. On July 6, 1821,
+La Serna evacuated the capital and retired to Jauja, leaving a
+well-provisioned garrison at Callao against the hoped-for arrival of a
+fleet from Spain. Even then a dozen well-fought frigates might have
+undone all San Martin's work and changed the fate of South America.
+Three days later the Argentine general entered the city, and on the 28th
+of July, 1821, Peru was proclaimed an independent republic, with San
+Martin as temporary dictator under the title of Protector. During the
+rest of the year he was occupied with trying to secure the adhesion of
+the whole coast, and made no effort to undertake the redemption of the
+interior. When the Frenchman Canterac, the most enterprising of the
+Spanish commanders, made a descent on Lima, San Martin merely maintained
+the defence, being well assured that the enemy must soon retire on
+account of want of provisions. But he found himself hampered in
+consolidating coast Peru by the fact that he was a foreigner. The
+Peruvians were jealous and suspicious, and he feared that troops
+recruited among them might turn their arms against him, while his
+Argentine officers regarded the country as their own property, and
+monopolised the positions of honour and profit to which the Peruvians
+thought themselves more justly entitled.
+
+Matters remained virtually at a standstill until the summer of 1822. San
+Martin had been unable to make his position stable enough to justify his
+devoting himself to military operations, nor had he succeeded in
+gathering and equipping an army with which he was willing to undertake a
+decisive campaign. Canterac even took the offensive, although he made no
+effort to re-occupy permanently the coast plain. Outside help was
+necessary, and San Martin, despairing of obtaining it from Chile or the
+Argentine, turned his eyes to the north. Bolivar's battles of Boyaca and
+Carabobo had redeemed northern Granada and Venezuela in 1819 and 1821,
+and he was now advancing toward Quito to complete the expulsion of the
+Spaniards from that viceroyalty. With a force of Colombians Sucre went
+to Guayaquil by sea and climbed to the Ecuador plateau. Defeated and
+driven back on his first attempt, he was reinforced by a division sent
+by San Martin, and renewed the effort with better success. Although
+Bolivar had in the meantime been checked in his southward march on Quito
+by the loyalists of southern Colombia, Sucre alone destroyed the Spanish
+army which had held Ecuador for so many years. The battle of Pichincha,
+fought in May, 1822, left Bolivar and Sucre free to employ their
+numerous and well-disciplined troops in completing the liberation of
+Peru and Bolivia.
+
+  [Illustration: CHURCH OF SAN FRANCISCO IN LIMA.]
+
+Bolivar joined his victorious lieutenant at Quito, incorporated Ecuador
+with his new republic of Colombia, and proceeded overland to Guayaquil,
+where San Martin lost no time in going to meet him for a conference. The
+Argentine expected to find as unselfish a patriot as himself, but the
+"liberator" was not single-minded. He had formed plans for his own glory
+and aggrandisement to the accomplishment of which San Martin might be an
+obstacle. When the latter broached the subject of a joint campaign
+against the Spaniards in Peru and Bolivia, Bolivar gave him no
+satisfaction, and evaded the Argentine's noble offer to serve in a
+subordinate capacity. The silent soldier made no protest and uttered
+no reproaches. Confiding not even in his closest friends, he calmly
+considered his plight on his way back to Lima. His situation in Peru,
+bad already, would be made ten times worse by Bolivar's intrigues.
+Seeing that he could be of no further service to the cause of South
+American independence, he formally resigned his authority to a national
+congress, deliberately sacrificing his own future for the cause he
+loved, but leaving behind him a name untarnished by any suspicion of
+self-seeking or personal ambition.
+
+Bolivar waited in vain for the expected invitation to come with his
+veterans. The leaders in Peru did not propose to jeopard their own
+supremacy. They thought they were strong enough to whip the Spaniards by
+themselves, and made great efforts to drill and equip an efficient army.
+By the end of the year four thousand men under the command of Alvarado
+were sent to the southern coast to make an attempt to reach Lake
+Titicaca and thereby get between the Spanish armies. It failed before
+the astonishing energy of the Spanish general, Valdez, who by forced
+marches reached the pass which the Peruvians were trying to climb, and
+taking up a strong position, beat them back with great slaughter.
+Alvarado retreated, but was caught by Valdez and completely routed;
+hardly a third of the army escaped to the seashore. The news of this
+defeat brought about a change of government at Lima. A revolution,
+headed by the principal officers, made Riva Aguero, the leader of the
+Peruvian liberals, president, while General Santa Cruz, a Bolivian,
+received chief command of the forces, in place of Arenales. Word was
+sent to Bolivar that his offer of help would be accepted; and another
+Peruvian army was recruited. Before the six thousand men promised by
+Bolivar had arrived, the Peruvians had regained confidence. With the aid
+of a London loan, the patriots got seven thousand soldiers ready for
+service, and in May, 1823, five thousand men under the command of Santa
+Cruz sailed from Callao for southern Peru. This time they advanced so
+promptly that the Spanish generals could not get to the passes in time
+to dispute the way. Santa Cruz entered La Paz and defeated the first
+army which came against him. But the two main Spanish bodies hastened up
+from Cuzco and Charcas, outmanoeuvred Santa Cruz, united their forces,
+and routed his army in a panic, not a fourth ever reaching the seaboard.
+
+Shortly after Santa Cruz's departure on this ill-fated expedition, Sucre
+arrived at Lima with the first instalment of the promised Colombian
+auxiliaries. The Spanish general, Canterac, had concentrated a large
+army at Jauja and descended on the capital; Lima was denuded of Peruvian
+troops; the government helpless against the Spaniards or Sucre. The
+Colombian was made commander-in-chief, and retiring to the
+fortifications of Callao before Canterac's overwhelming numbers,
+procured Riva Aguero's deposition and the nomination of one of his own
+tools as nominal president, while he sent off an urgent message to
+Bolivar to come in person. Canterac, after holding Lima for a few weeks,
+went back to the mountains, and Bolivar himself landed at Callao on the
+1st of September, almost at the very moment when Santa Cruz's army was
+getting involved in that snarl out of which it never extricated itself.
+The news of its destruction left Bolivar undisputed master of the
+situation, and in February the submissive rump of the Peruvian
+parliament conferred upon him an absolute dictatorship. He now devoted
+all the wonderful energy with which nature had endowed him to
+preparation for a campaign which he meant to be final; and united ten
+thousand men under his command, two-thirds of whom were Colombian
+veterans and the rest Peruvians, Argentines, and Chileans who fought for
+the sheer love of fighting. His officers were the pick of South America,
+men who had proven their bravery and skill on all the hundred
+battle-fields from Venezuela to Chile. With such a force he did not
+hesitate to attack the Spaniards, although the latter were nearly twice
+as numerous.
+
+Suddenly, however, his plans were seriously disturbed by a revolt of the
+garrison in Callao castle--Argentines and Chileans who had not received
+their pay. The mutineers hoisted the Spanish flag and sent word to
+Canterac that he might come in and take possession. This event produced
+a great sensation at Lima. Many citizens who distrusted Bolivar or were
+fearful of the final result vacillated in their allegiance. Even men who
+had been prominent liberals went over to the royalists. Bolivar
+abandoned the capital and removed his base of operations to Trujillo,
+three hundred miles north. But discouragement gave place to confident
+enthusiasm when news came that the Spanish generals were fighting among
+themselves. Olaneta, the renegade Argentine, who commanded in Bolivia,
+had quarrelled with La Serna, whom he regarded as a pestilent liberal
+and an enemy of the absolute pretensions of the Spanish king. The
+viceroy sent Valdez against him, and some hard fighting had taken place,
+when this fratricidal war was interrupted by the news of Bolivar's
+preparations.
+
+  [Illustration: MILK-WOMAN OF LIMA ON HORSEBACK.]
+
+Though just recovering from a dangerous illness, Bolivar lost no time in
+taking advantage of Olaneta's revolt. His army numbered nine thousand
+men; it was well supplied with cavalry, and the troops received their
+liberal pay punctually. The patriots advanced rapidly and unopposed over
+the Maritime Cordillera, covered by a cloud of Peruvian guerillas, under
+whose protection Sucre marked out the daily route and brought in
+provisions. The city of Pasco, just south of that transverse range which
+forms the northern limit of the great Peruvian plateau, was reached and
+Bolivar's army hastened south along the western shore of the lake of
+Reyes to the marshy plain of Junin at its southern end, where he met
+Canterac hurrying up from Jauja with a slightly inferior force.
+
+When Bolivar caught sight of the royalist army he held his infantry back
+in a defensible position, and sent his cavalry toward the enemy.
+Canterac rashly charged in person at the head of all his cavalry, but
+instead of the easy victory he expected, his squadrons were thrown into
+some disorder when they encountered the patriot lancers. The latter,
+however, were compelled to retreat, and fled into a defile, followed by
+the royalists. The royalists did not notice that a Peruvian squadron had
+been drawn aside, and scarcely were they in the defile than they were
+charged from the rear. The fugitive patriots in front rallied, and the
+disordered and huddled royalists, caught between two fires, could make
+no effective resistance. They were quickly cut to pieces and driven from
+the field. The whole affair had not lasted three-quarters of an hour;
+the numbers engaged did not much exceed two thousand; the royalist loss
+was only two hundred and fifty, yet this battle of Junin produced almost
+decisive results. As the fugitive cavalry rode up to the protection of
+the muskets of the infantry, the latter retreated. Though Canterac was
+not pursued, he did not stop in his precipitate flight until he had
+nearly reached Cuzco, five hundred miles away, losing two thousand men
+by desertion on the road.
+
+Leaving Sucre in command of the army, which now threatened Cuzco itself,
+Bolivar returned to Lima to look after his political interests, collect
+money, and urge the sending of reinforcements from Colombia. La Serna
+called in all his outlying divisions, while Sucre confidently scattered
+his forces. He underestimated the strength of the royalists, for to his
+consternation La Serna suddenly broke out of Cuzco at the head of ten
+thousand men, and before Sucre could concentrate, his opponent was
+threatening his rear and manoeuvring to cut him off from his base.
+Happily, the royalists were compelled to march in a semicircle, and
+Sucre, by desperate exertions, united his forces and cut along the
+radius, coming in sight of La Serna just as the latter had succeeded in
+getting between him and the road to Jauja. Sucre's position was
+desperate. The valleys to the north were rising in favour of the
+royalists; a patriot column advancing from that direction to reinforce
+him was driven back; his provisions and ammunition were beginning to
+fail. Sucre's army was La Serna's real objective. Even if he could
+shake off the pursuit, another march to Lima would be as barren of
+results as Canterac's last descent, and to leave the Colombian army at
+Guamanga would expose Cuzco and Bolivia to invasion. During three days
+the opposing armies marched and counter-marched among the ravines on the
+west bank of the Pampas River, and finally Sucre took the desperate
+resolution of crossing the deep gorge in which the river runs in order
+to reach the high grounds on the other side. He managed to get his main
+body over safely, but the Spaniards fell upon his rearguard, killing
+four hundred men and capturing one of his two cannon. The two armies
+were now opposite each other on the high, narrow, and broken plateau
+which lies between the Eastern and Central Cordilleras, separated only
+by the gorge of the Pampas. They marched in plain sight of each other,
+the royalists along the slopes of the Central Cordillera, while the
+patriots skirted the foothills of the Eastern. Sucre hoped to outrun the
+enemy and reach the main road to Jauja, but La Serna again outflanked
+him; he offered battle, but the viceroy had determined to engage under
+conditions where not a patriot could escape, and by skilful manoeuvres
+the royal army succeeded in getting into the protection of the eastern
+range at a point north of Sucre. Irretrievably cut off from the Jauja
+road, convinced by his previous failures that he could not better his
+position by any further manoeuvres, the Colombian general resolved again
+to offer battle, although this time upon a field chosen by La Serna. He
+ceased marching and allowed the enemy to dispose their forces at will.
+
+On the 8th of September, 1824, La Serna's army, numbering eight thousand
+five hundred men--of whom only five hundred were Spaniards--encamped on
+the high grounds overlooking the little plain of Ayacucho, which sloped
+gently eastward to the little village of Quinua. To the left the level
+ground was bounded by a deep and precipitate ravine, and on the right by
+a valley which, though less difficult, was impracticable for fighting.
+Sucre's army lay at the eastern extremity of the plain, at the edge of
+the slope which rises from Quinua. Behind was no cover to re-form in if
+defeated. His forces were a little less than six thousand, and he had
+only one cannon against the enemy's eleven, but three-fourths of his men
+were the pick of the Colombian veterans and the rest Peruvians of the
+highest spirit. Tired of interminable marching through the mountains,
+isolated in a hostile region, starvation staring them in the face,
+confident of their superiority, man for man, to the royalists, and led
+by fiery young generals,--Sucre was only thirty-one and his chief
+lieutenant twenty-five,--they welcomed the opportunity to fight it out
+once for all, face to face and man to man.
+
+The morning sun of the 9th rose radiant behind the mountains where the
+Spaniards lay encamped. Sucre deployed his army in the open plain,
+riding down the line exclaiming, "Soldiers, on your deeds this day
+depends the fate of South America," while the Spanish columns descended
+in perfect order from the heights. La Serna realised that his men would
+not fight with the same spirit as the patriots and that defeat might be
+followed by wholesale desertion, but he counted on his artillery and the
+reserve he had left on the high ground as a sure refuge in case of a
+reverse.
+
+The story of the battle is soon told. The patriots advanced to meet the
+Spanish attack; musketry volleys on both sides did terrific execution,
+and the two armies met bayonet in hand. On the left the Spanish columns
+were unable to make any impression on the Colombian infantry, and while
+the conflict was still undecided the royalist cavalry rashly charged,
+hoping to strike a deciding blow. But they were met by a counter-charge
+of the patriot squadrons and rolled back in defeat. The whole left of
+the royalist army dispersed, and such was the confusion that the
+impetuously pursuing Colombians reached the Spanish camp and spiked the
+artillery, defeating on their way the enemy's centre. In the meantime
+the Spanish right under Valdez had outflanked the Peruvians who held
+that part of the line and driven them back, but before he could reach
+the patriot centre the battle had been decided. Attacked by the
+victorious cavalry, Valdez's men were cut to pieces, and by one o'clock
+in the after noon the Spanish army, except the reserve under Canterac,
+had ceased to exist as an organised body. Of the royalists fourteen
+hundred were dead and seven hundred wounded, while the patriots had lost
+six hundred wounded and three hundred dead. The viceroy was wounded and
+a prisoner, his men deserting and dispersing by hundreds. Canterac sued
+for terms, and that afternoon fourteen generals, five hundred and
+sixty-eight officers, and three thousand two hundred privates became
+prisoners of war. Never was a victory more complete and decisive than
+Ayacucho. The war for independence was over. Only under Olaneta in far
+southern Bolivia and at Callao castle did a Spaniard remain under arms.
+Sucre marched to Cuzco, where he rested and refitted and then went on to
+Puno and La Paz. Olaneta's troops deserted as the Colombian approached,
+and the last of the Spanish generals fell at the hands of his own men as
+he was bravely trying to suppress a mutiny. Callao castle held out for
+thirteen months, and with its surrender was hauled down the last Spanish
+ensign which floated on the South American mainland.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+FROM INDEPENDENCE TO THE CHILEAN WAR
+
+
+If ever country began an independent existence without any basis for a
+strong, ordered, and stable government, that country was the Peru of
+1826. The interior inhabited by Indians long held in abject subjection
+by the Spanish generals, the long strip of coast divided by local and
+factional jealousies, the nation had already miserably failed to unite
+in face of defeats suffered from the Spaniards, or of the military
+preponderance first of the Argentines and then of the Colombians.
+
+In 1825 all thought of open resistance to Bolivar was manifest folly.
+Peru was his to do with as he pleased. He went through the farce of
+summoning a congress and offering to resign his dictatorship, but with
+thousands of Colombian troops encamped at Lima, it was natural that he
+should be begged to retain the direction of affairs on his own terms.
+The "liberator" devoted all his energies to laying the foundations for a
+great military confederation with himself as its life head. Venezuela,
+New Granada, and Ecuador were already united under the name of the
+United States of Colombia, of which he was president. He hoped to make
+his tenure permanent by imposing an aristocratic and centralising
+constitution providing for a life president. The submissive Peruvian
+congress agreed to adopt his system, and the dictator set out on a
+triumphal tour to put it in application in upper Peru. Travelling along
+the coast to Arequipa, he crossed the Cordillera to La Paz, and thence
+proceeded over the Titicacan plateau to Charcas and Potosi. There he
+created a new nation which, in his honour, was named Bolivia; wrote its
+Constitution with his own hand; and, having installed Sucre as life
+president, returned to Lima at the beginning of 1826.
+
+Apparently Bolivar's system was dominant from the Caribbean to the
+Argentine pampas, and he regarded himself as certain soon to be virtual
+emperor of all South America. But the instinct of local pride was
+growing; the signs of Peru's wish to be rid of him could not be ignored,
+and the new congress he had summoned was abruptly dismissed. In
+September the news of disturbances in Venezuela, which foreshadowed the
+breaking up of Colombia, made it necessary for Bolivar to hasten north.
+He left General Lara at Lima, but that officer failed to keep the unruly
+mercenaries upon whom his power depended in good humour. A mutiny broke
+out; Lara was arrested and deported, and the mutineers entered into
+negotiations with the Peruvian leaders. The money demanded was soon
+raised and the Colombian soldiers shortly embarked, leaving the field
+free for the local chiefs to fight among themselves for supreme power.
+General Santa Cruz, though by birth a Bolivian, had great influence
+anions the few Peruvian troops, and tried to forestall his competitors
+by seizing the direction of affairs and summoning a congress, but
+General La Mar, himself born at Cuenca in Ecuador, was stronger. The
+latter secured the selection of his friends, and when congress met he
+had a two-thirds majority and became president. So long as Sucre
+remained in control of Bolivia there could, however, be no certainty
+that Colombian rule might not be re-established, but he was already in
+trouble on account of the mutinous disposition of his troops. When the
+Peruvians sent against him a hastily gathered force he was compelled to
+withdraw, the Bolivarian Constitution was abolished, and Santa Cruz made
+himself supreme in Bolivia.
+
+  [Illustration: VILLAGE OF CHICLAY ON THE OROYA RAILWAY, 12,200 FEET
+  ABOVE THE SEA.]
+
+Encouraged by this success, La Mar determined to wrest Guayaquil and
+Cuenca from Colombia. Bolivar, already furious over the defection of
+Peru and Bolivia, made a formal declaration of war, although he was too
+much occupied with his own troubles in New Granada and Venezuela to go
+in person to the frontier. General Flores, whom he had put in charge of
+Ecuador, made preparations to resist La Mar, Sucre came to direct the
+operations, a Peruvian naval expedition captured Guayaquil, and La Mar's
+main army of four thousand men occupied the province of Loja and
+penetrated within forty miles of Cuenca, only to be defeated. The
+Peruvian president signed a treaty giving up his conquests, but he was
+no sooner safe in his own country than he repudiated it and refused to
+surrender Guayaquil. His defeat had, however, cost him his prestige at
+home, and one of his generals, Gamarra, revolted and declared himself
+dictator.
+
+Gamarra had been chief of staff at Ayacucho; he was a good soldier, but,
+like most of his companions, had no conception of constitutional
+government, and thought the men whose bravery had redeemed Peru from the
+Spaniards' _ipso facto_ entitled to govern. Force was the only method he
+knew to secure obedience, and under his administration taxes were
+arbitrarily increased, citizens exiled without trial, and the country
+virtually governed by martial law. Until the last year of his
+administration Gamarra held the country fairly quiet, but as the end of
+his legal term in 1833 approached, the question of the succession
+plunged Peru into an indescribable anarchy. Gamarra's enemies got
+control of the assembly called to frame a permanent Constitution and
+illegally named a president, while Gamarra proclaimed one of his own
+partisans. Every military chief who could command the support of a few
+soldiers acted on his own responsibility. Dictators and _soi-disant_
+presidents were put up and pulled down one after another in a
+bewildering succession. Orbegoso, La Fuente, Vista Florida, Nieto, San
+Roman, Vidal, Gamarra, and Salaverry were each proclaimed supreme within
+the next year. Combinations of the different chiefs formed, dissolved,
+and re-formed with perplexing rapidity. Two bands would fight a bloody
+battle one day and the next would fall into each other's arms and swear
+eternal friendship.
+
+Salaverry, a chief only thirty years old and remarkable for his dash and
+energy, succeeded in establishing himself pretty firmly at Lima, while
+Gamarra held Cuzco. Orbegoso, who had received a majority of votes in
+congress, entered into negotiations with Santa Cruz, the strong dictator
+of Bolivia, agreeing to everything to get help against Salaverry and
+Gamarra. The wily Bolivian had planned to divide Peru and unite the
+fragments with Bolivia into a confederation. At the head of five
+thousand men he advanced on Cuzco and wiped out Gamarra. The fiery
+Salaverry did not wait to be trapped at Lima, but left the capital with
+his whole force and hastened south. Not daring to attack Santa Cruz's
+vastly superior army, he slipped around to Arequipa, laying that unhappy
+town under contribution and impressing its citizens into his army. The
+Bolivians followed; he evacuated Arequipa, and evaded them for a time,
+but they finally caught him as he was making a daring attempt to cut
+their line of communication. His army was dispersed and destroyed and he
+and his principal officers were taken prisoners and mercilessly shot.
+
+It seemed as if Peru might now, under the strong rule of Santa Cruz,
+enjoy the peace and order with which he had blessed Bolivia. The country
+was partitioned, Orbegoso becoming sub-president of North Peru, which
+included Lima, and General Herrera of South Peru. Santa Cruz was
+proclaimed protector of the Peru-Bolivian confederation and the new
+government formally inaugurated in the fall of 1836. He was an able and
+laborious administrator, zealous for economy and purity in public
+affairs, a friend of orderly government, a ruler who knew how to
+organise an efficient army while maintaining it in due subordination.
+But from the beginning it was evident that he held supremacy by a very
+uncertain tenure. The Peruvian military classes, so long and so
+absolutely dominant, were unanimously against him and his methods. The
+mercantile, professional, and moneyed classes were bound by a hundred
+ties to the officers, and the agricultural peasantry, composed of
+Indians and negroes, took no part in public affairs. Sooner or later he
+must have come again into conflict with men of the Gamarra-Salaverry
+type, but the immediate peril was from Chile, whose power and
+energy--great even then, but so far unknown and underestimated--were
+thrown into the balance against him. The civil war of 1831 had resulted
+in the defeat of the Chilean liberals, and Freire, their leader, had
+fled to Peru and there received aid and comfort. The Chilean
+remonstrances remained unnoticed, and Santa Cruz's commercial policy was
+adverse. The defeated Peruvian generals swarmed into Chile and promised
+to aid an invasion.
+
+The Chilean aristocracy could not resist this temptation to make their
+country the dominant power on the Pacific coast, and without any warning
+their ships sailed up from Valparaiso and captured the Peruvian fleet at
+Callao. This left the way clear to land troops on the Bolivian or
+Peruvian coasts. The first expedition went against the province of
+Arequipa. It landed without resistance and climbed to the city, while
+Santa Cruz's army maintained a defensive attitude. Lack of provisions
+soon compelled the Chilean general to promise that the war should not be
+renewed if he were allowed to depart. His government refused to ratify
+this agreement, and sent another expedition to the neighbourhood of
+Lima, which was accompanied by Gamarra and a large number of Peruvian
+exiles. Orbegoso declared his independence of Santa Cruz and gave
+battle to the Chileans on his own responsibility, but was defeated and
+fled to Guayaquil.
+
+A year elapsed before Santa Cruz could march an adequate army to the
+neighbourhood of Lima. As he approached, Gamarra and the Chileans
+evacuated the capital, retiring up the coast, whither the Bolivians
+followed. Repulsed in an attack on the rearguard of the fleeing allies,
+and feeling that he could not rely upon the Peruvians in his army, he
+took the defensive and posted his forces near the town of Yungay,
+occupying a hill called the Sugar Loaf. The allies stormed this hill by
+a brilliant assault in which they suffered greatly, but their unexpected
+success completely demoralised Santa Cruz's army. His men scattered in
+all directions, and though he escaped with his life, his prestige was
+destroyed. Gamarra became president of Peru, Bolivia revolted, and Santa
+Cruz made his way to a European exile.
+
+During two years Gamarra kept his turbulent rivals in check, but he then
+rashly undertook a campaign against Bolivia, giving as a pretext the
+refusal of its government to expel the old adherents of Santa Cruz. The
+Peruvian army advanced into Bolivian territory, only to be overthrown in
+the bloody battle of Yngavi. Gamarra was killed and his best officers
+taken prisoners. The Bolivians made a counter-invasion, but a treaty of
+peace was soon signed. The removal of the common danger was the starting
+signal for a race to power among the Peruvian generals. Each of them had
+raised troops on his own account and now proposed to use them for his
+own benefit. They ignored the claims of Gamarra's constitutional
+successor. La Fuente, Vivanco, and Vidal formed an alliance and
+proclaimed the latter dictator; Torico seized Lima and declared himself
+supreme chief; Vidal hastened down from Guamanga and defeated him; then
+Vivanco rebelled against Vidal and in his turn descended on the capital.
+
+Twenty years of independence had brought Peru no nearer a stable
+government. Anarchy and civil war had been her lot, and the situation
+seemed to grow more desperate year by year. The country's only hope was
+a man in whom military talent would be combined with such strength of
+will and pertinacity of purpose that he would crush out lesser despots
+and restore and maintain order by the strong hand.
+
+  [Illustration: DON RAMON CASTILLA]
+
+The Porfirio Diaz of Peru was at hand, a little, quiet, rough, and
+unpretentious soldier, who for twenty years had been modestly doing his
+duty, observing events and slowly maturing in character. All Peruvians
+knew him as one of the heroes of Ayacucho, but none appreciated his
+latent possibilities, and he had been passed by while his more showy
+companions of that historic day had pushed themselves to the front.
+Ramon Castilla had been a colonel on Gamarra's staff at Ayacucho,
+and was rewarded by being appointed prefect of his native
+province--Tarapaca, the most southern part of Peru. About 1830 he began
+to take part in the civil wars, but he never started a revolution on his
+own account, and always seems to have chosen the side that best promised
+stability and respect for the Constitution. To Orbegoso. Castilla was
+long faithful but abandoned him when he made alliance with the
+Bolivians. He went into exile when Santa Cruz was victorious, and
+returned with Gamarra and the Chileans. At the battle of Yungay he
+commanded the Peruvian contingent of the allied cavalry, and when
+Gamarra became president gave him his adhesion; but was taken prisoner
+at the fatal battle of Yngavi, where his chief was killed. Returning
+from captivity he found Peru torn to pieces by the armed rivalry of
+contending generals, and Menendez, the legal president, a fugitive.
+Unhesitatingly he threw himself into the conflict against those whose
+claims rested on their own pronunciamentos. Landing at Arica with only
+five men, his cool audacity saved his life in the first attack; his
+little band increased; Vivanco's partisans were confounded by the
+rapidity of his movements; their opponents hastened to join him.
+Castilla obtained control of Arequipa and Cuzco, and finally, in July,
+1844, completely overthrew Vivanco's army, putting an end to the civil
+war. The first use he made of his victory was to declare a general
+amnesty; the second to restore Menendez to the position of acting
+president. The latter called a convention, and ten months later Castilla
+was elected president of Peru without opposition.
+
+The country realised at once that it was in the hands of a master--a man
+strong enough to be generous, but with whom it was not safe to trifle.
+Almost instantaneously commerce felt the impulse which assured peace
+always gives. The turbulent military leaders found their occupation
+slipping away, while the orderly elements of the community grew in
+power. At heart the vast majority of the people were law-abiding, and
+the class which promoted revolutions was numerically an insignificant
+element of the population. But it was not alone Castilla's personal
+force of character, his shrewdness as a politician, his prestige as a
+general, his popularity so nobly won by generosity and moderation, which
+made his position secure. At the moment he assumed supreme power
+bountiful Providence placed in his hands riches untold. Holding the
+strings of a purse into which poured the millions from the guano and
+nitrate deposits, he could reward his friends, keep his troops contented
+by regular pay, relieve agriculture of taxation, place the disordered
+finances on a sound footing, and promote general prosperity by works of
+public utility. Europe suddenly realised the value of the bird manure
+found on the desert islands of the Peruvian coast, and soon hundreds of
+ships were coming annually to load the precious fertiliser.
+
+Instead of squandering this fairy gift on the enrichment of his
+creatures, or on the creation of a vast, useless, and wasteful swarm of
+office-holders,--the hardest of all temptations for a South American
+politician to resist,--Castilla paid interest on the foreign debt which
+Peru had incurred during the war of independence, and refunded it, with
+the accrued interest, that already amounted to more than the principal.
+The internal debt was also consolidated, care being taken to admit no
+fictitious claims; telegraphs and railways were constructed; steam
+vessels added to the navy; and all legitimate branches of the
+administration adequately provided for. But the moment Castilla's strong
+hand was removed, extravagance and corruption grew to alarming
+proportions. Under General Echenique, his successor, public offices and
+pensions were multiplied; concessions were granted not to promote
+honestly new industries, but to favourites to be sold for what they
+would bring; and finally a measure was rushed through congress to extend
+the time fixed by Castilla for presenting claims to be funded in the
+internal debt. It was openly charged that the ministerial ring had
+arranged to put themselves on the roll of national creditors. Public
+opinion was scandalised, and the discontent and jealousy soon showed
+itself in open revolt. The first insurrection was suppressed, but in the
+beginning of 1854 Castilla decided to put himself at the head of the
+movement against Echenique. Though the government regulars were better
+armed and provided than the militia which rallied around Castilla, the
+latter advanced from one position to another and finally overthrew the
+president in the decisive battle of La Palma. Echenique fled the country
+and Castilla assumed the reins of power once more, not to lay them down
+until 1862, when he voluntarily retired to private life. His second
+administration was as orderly as his first except for a local
+insurrection at Arequipa. He was not, however, so successful in
+restraining the predatory disposition of the Peruvian politicians and
+was unable to restore the administration to its old economical basis.
+The eighteen years of almost uninterrupted peace which elapsed between
+the beginning of Castilla's first administration and his retirement
+changed the face of Peru. A generation had grown up to whom the early
+years of independence were only a tradition. War, age, banishment,
+discouragement had thinned the ranks of the Ayacucho veterans, and the
+days were gone when one of them had merely to issue a pronunciamento to
+be forthwith hailed as president, dictator, supreme chief, protector,
+regenerator, by a turbulent soldiery and a fickle, ambitious Creole
+aristocracy. Peru's subsequent troubles have been financial, not
+military.
+
+In 1860 the Constitution which still governs the country was adopted.
+Framed under Castilla's influence it retains the centralised system of
+provincial government through prefects appointed from Lima, and gives
+the executive preponderant powers, although it is liberal and humane in
+its guaranties to the citizen. Slavery and Indian tribute, which
+continued to exist until 1855, are forbidden; forced recruiting, the
+scourge of old revolutionary days, is a crime; all Peruvians who can
+read and write, who own property or pay taxes, are entitled to vote.
+
+Castilla was succeeded by his old friend and companion in arms, General
+San Roman, a straightforward soldier who resembled his chief in his
+unquestioning obedience to lawful authority, but whose unfortunate death
+six months after his inauguration prevented him from demonstrating
+whether he possessed the same statesmanlike qualities. Vice-President
+Pezet peacefully took his place. Castilla had encouraged foreign
+immigration into the coast valleys, so admirably adapted to cotton and
+sugar, but where labour was scarce. Chinese coolies had come in large
+numbers, and the flattering offers had also attracted some Europeans.
+Among the latter were seventy Basque families, who shortly claimed that
+they were badly treated. Making a protest against a breach of contract
+committed by the proprietor of the estate on which they were working,
+they were attacked and some of them killed. The criminals escaped
+punishment, and the Spanish government made an international question of
+the affair, finally demanding an apology and three millions of dollars
+as indemnity. This being refused Spain broke off diplomatic relations
+and sent a powerful fleet, which seized the Chincha guano islands. Too
+weak alone to bid defiance to the Spanish ships, Pezet temporised,
+meanwhile asking Chile for help, and hoping for the early arrival of
+war-ships ordered in Europe. But the Spaniards pressed him so hard that
+he thought himself forced to yield to their demands. He concluded an
+agreement derogatory to the national honour, and a terrific outburst of
+public indignation followed. Prado, prefect of Arequipa, made
+preparations to march on Lima and depose the pusillanimous president;
+the Chileans, who had meantime determined to join in resistance to
+Spanish aggression, supported the insurrection; the terrible old
+Castilla went himself to the presidential mansion and gave Pezet a sound
+rating. The latter gave in and offered his resignation. Prado became
+supreme chief, issued a declaration of war against Spain, and signed a
+treaty of alliance with Chile. During the absence of the Spanish fleet
+the batteries at Callao were heavily reinforced, and an immense force of
+volunteers flocked to man the guns. When the Spanish ships appeared and,
+gallantly running into range, opened fire on the 2d of May, 1866, they
+were met by a determined resistance. Though the Peruvians suffered most
+severely--two thousand being killed and wounded--their opponents were
+unable to effect a landing or obtain the slightest concession, and their
+ships were so badly damaged that they abandoned further hostilities.
+
+Prado now found that the unconstitutional character of his position had
+only temporarily been ignored when he attempted to hold the power
+against General Canseco, second vice-president, who was Pezet's lawful
+successor. Castilla, now over seventy years old, landed in his native
+province, determined to unseat him. But the enfeebled frame of the aged
+warrior was unable to withstand fatigues and he died of exposure on the
+march. Canseco, however, roused Arequipa. Prado failed to take the place
+by assault, and gave up further opposition. Meanwhile Colonel Balta had
+headed a formidable insurrection in the north, and though Canseco was
+allowed to fill out his legal term, Balta's friends controlled the
+electoral college, and he was inaugurated president in August, 1868.
+
+With his accession Peru entered definitely upon a new era. The race for
+fortune absorbed the energies of the ruling class; cane and cotton
+planting, nitrate mining, railroad building under foreign direction,
+opened up vistas of profit without labour; social and civil intrigue
+replaced fighting and pronunciamentos. Castilla's liberal refunding of
+the old debt, the scrupulous regularity with which international
+obligations had been met, and the immense and increasing revenue from
+nitrate and guano, gave Peru credit in the money markets of Europe.
+Balta and his advisers were full of schemes for the material progress of
+the country and their own enrichment. A great railway system was
+projected and more than two thousand miles constructed at a cost of near
+forty million pounds. Enormous sums were spent on port works; expensive
+moles and piers built in the wave-lashed roadsteads which are Peru's
+only harbours; for the first time serious efforts were made to explore
+and develop the forested plain east of the Andes; the city of Iquitos
+was built at the head of deep-water navigation on the Amazon;
+office-holders multiplied; and new parks and public buildings
+embellished the cities. English capitalists eagerly took the bonds which
+the Peruvian government recklessly issued, and the foreign debt
+increased from five millions sterling to forty-nine millions before the
+end of Balta's term--a sum upon which two-thirds of the gross revenue
+would hardly suffice to pay interest. Such a debt was truly stupendous
+for a country most of whose population of scant two millions and a half
+was poor, non-commercial, non-industrial, and without other resources
+than a rude agriculture. Leaving out the proceeds of the guano monopoly
+and the nitrate royalties, the total revenues could not pay the
+interest.
+
+  [Illustration: STATUE OF BOLIVAR--LIMA, PERU]
+
+Don Manuel Pardo, Peru's first civilian president, had already been
+constitutionally selected as Balta's successor, and the latter was
+within a few days of the end of his term, when a terrible catastrophe
+happened. Among the poor relations whom the luckless president had
+preferred to positions in the army were four brothers named
+Gutierrez--the sons of a muleteer near Arequipa. Suddenly one brother
+appeared at the head of his battalion and took possession of the great
+square in the centre of the capital, while another forced his way into
+the president's study, revolver in hand, arrested the chief of state,
+and locked him up. Warned in time the president-elect escaped on board a
+man-of-war, and the eldest Gutierrez was proclaimed supreme chief. The
+people of Lima soon recovered from their stupefaction and a scene of
+terrific street-fighting followed. One of the conspirators was shot by
+the mob as he went to the railway station on his way to Callao. His
+brothers retaliated by murdering the captive president, but they soon
+fell before the rifles of the populace. Their bodies were hung up in the
+cathedral by the infuriated people, while the president-elect returned
+and assumed his functions.
+
+Pardo's four years were one continual struggle against impending
+bankruptcy. Though he brought some order into public accounts, it was
+only by all sorts of expedients that he managed to keep up interest
+payments. He easily suppressed an insurrection led by Pierola in 1874;
+his intellectual and moral force united about him the educated and
+property-holding classes in a party which survives to this day; and he
+left the reputation of having been the best president who ever ruled
+Peru. However, no efforts could avail more than merely to put off the
+evil day of reckoning. The rapid exhaustion of the guano deposits
+precipitated the disaster. Payment of interest was suspended in 1876 and
+the same year Pardo turned over the government to General Prado with the
+currency at fifty-per-cent. discount and Peruvian bonds selling in
+London at twelve.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE CHILEAN WAR AND LATTER-DAY PERU
+
+
+The nitrate region extends along the narrow desert coast of the Pacific
+for three hundred and fifty miles. Peru owned the northern one hundred
+and fifty, and prior to 1866 Bolivia claimed the remainder. After the
+discovery of the precious mineral the industrious and energetic Chileans
+crowded up the coast, while the Bolivians were shut in behind their high
+Andes. Chile insisted that her true boundary lay as far north as the 23d
+degree, and took vigorous measures to safeguard the interests of the
+Chilean nitrate companies. In 1866 Bolivia reluctantly made a treaty by
+which the 24th degree was agreed upon as the formal boundary, although
+the Chilean miners were allowed to continue their operations in the
+productive regions north of that line and their taxes were not to be
+increased without their government's consent. This treaty gave rise to
+constant disputes, and as the nitrate, silver, and copper business of
+the neutral zone became more profitable, the Bolivian government pressed
+harder for a larger revenue. The Peruvian government had planned to
+secure a control of the output by the state purchase and operation of
+nitrate properties, and such a trust would prove ineffective unless the
+Bolivian government had a free hand with the Chilean companies. In 1872
+Peru and Bolivia made a secret treaty of alliance. Its provisions soon
+became public, and Chile not unreasonably believed it to be aimed
+especially at her miners' operating on Bolivian soil. She promptly began
+purchasing iron-clads. It was a favourite saying of old Marshal Castilla
+that when Chile bought a battle-ship Peru should buy two, but the Lima
+government was too poor to follow the good advice, and the fatal year of
+1879 found her naval force inferior to that of her rival.
+
+At this juncture the Bolivian congress voted not to ratify a treaty
+negotiated with Chile four years before, and passed a law imposing heavy
+taxes on the nitrate business. The Chilean companies protested and
+resisted; their government backed them up, and sent a fleet to protect
+their interests. Enraged at the seizure of her ports, Bolivia declared
+war in March, 1879. Peru could not be expected to remain quiet. Not only
+was she bound by the solemn agreement of the treaty of alliance, but she
+had an imperative selfish interest in preventing the disputed nitrate
+territory from falling into Chile's hands. She began to gather an army
+on the southern frontier, but she was illy prepared for war and Chile
+knew it. Her offers of arbitration were promptly rejected; the Chilean
+government had determined to strike both allies at the same time, and
+presented an ultimatum, demanding that Peru abrogate the secret treaty,
+cease warlike preparations, and remain neutral in the war with Bolivia.
+Failing immediate and categorical compliance war was declared in April.
+
+What had proven true in the time of Pizarro, San Martin, and Santa Cruz,
+was still true--the successful invasion or defence of Peru depended on
+the control of the Pacific. Whichever power should obtain a naval
+preponderance would surely get the nitrate territory--a rainless,
+cropless region where an army must be sustained by supplies brought by
+sea--and then could attack the other at its capital. Chile had two new
+iron-clads, the _Cochrane_ and the _Blanco_, besides two good cruisers
+and several gunboats. The two Peruvian iron-clads, the _Huascar_ and the
+_Independencia_, were older, though their speed was superior. The
+Chileans opened the war on the ocean by blockading the Peruvian ports in
+the extreme south, but Miguel Grau, the able seaman and intrepid fighter
+who commanded the Peruvian fleet, at once attacked the Chilean cruisers
+which were lying off Iquique. The _Huascar_ rammed and sank the
+_Esmeralda_, but while his other iron-clad was pursuing the _Covadonga_,
+she ran upon the rocks and was lost. This was in reality a deathblow to
+Peru, but the gallant Grau devotedly determined to see what his single
+ship, rapidly manoeuvred, could do to make unsafe the embarkation of a
+Chilean army. For four months he terrorised the coast from Antofagasta
+to Valparaiso. Chile could not take a step until she had disposed of
+Grau and his dreaded _Huascar_. The blockade of Iquique was abandoned
+as useless; the iron-clads ordered back to Valparaiso to be cleaned and
+repaired so that they might match the _Huascar_ in speed; new officers
+were put in command; and on October the first the Chilean fleet set sail
+from Valparaiso on a systematic chase for the Peruvian iron-clad. On
+reaching Antofagasta it was divided into two squadrons, the _Cochrane_
+leading one and the _Blanco_ the other, and they immediately began
+patrolling the coast.
+
+The _Huascar_, accompanied by a consort, the _Union_, was cruising in
+the neighbourhood, and at daylight on the 8th of October the first
+Chilean division sighted her. Grau fled, and was gradually drawing away
+from his pursuers when, to his horror, three columns of smoke appeared
+on the horizon directly forward. He was caught between the two Chilean
+squadrons. The _Union_ had speed enough to slip by the enemy, but the
+_Huascar_ was too slow. Grau's only chance was to close with the
+_Cochrane_ before the _Blanco_ could come up astern, and he went
+straight for the former. At half past nine the _Huascar_ fired the first
+shot, the distance being about three thousand yards. It fell short and
+only the fourth shot took effect. The _Cochrane_ then replied, and
+though the practice on both sides was wild, the two ships soon came so
+close that the machine guns were brought into effective play. A shot
+disabled the _Huascar's_ turret, and in desperation Grau tried
+repeatedly to ram, but was foiled by the quick turns which the
+_Cochrane's_ twin screws enabled her to make. Just half an hour after
+the action began a shell struck his conning-tower, blowing the heroic
+Peruvian into atoms. A few minutes later the _Blanco_ came up and added
+her missiles to the storm of shots which the _Cochrane_ and the smaller
+consorts were pouring upon the doomed _Huascar_. Nevertheless no one
+thought of striking. Hardly had Grau been blown to pieces than the
+executive officer had his head taken clean off by a shell from the
+_Blanco_, and the officer next in seniority was severely wounded. A few
+moments later the lieutenant who succeeded to the command was killed,
+and his successor, in turn, was wounded before the end of the action.
+When the ship finally struck, an hour and a half after the first shot
+was fired, one of the juniors was in command, and sixty-four of the
+complement of one hundred and ninety-three officers and men lay killed
+or wounded on the deck.
+
+The Chileans were now in absolute control of the sea, and could land an
+army when and where they pleased. The Bolivian sea-coast, inhabited
+almost exclusively by Chilean miners, and inaccessible overland from
+Bolivia proper, had fallen into Chile's hands at the opening of the war,
+but Grau's success in immobilising the Chilean navy had been taken
+advantage of by the Peruvians to ship nine thousand troops to their own
+nitrate province, where they could conveniently attack the Chileans who
+occupied the Bolivian territory to their south, or defend their own most
+valuable piece of property. But although this army was in Peruvian
+territory the naval victory of the Chileans isolated it almost
+completely. A hundred miles of rough, rainless desert, intercepted by
+deep ravines transverse to the coast, separated it from Tacna, where
+fertile valleys begin and communication with the rest of Peru becomes
+possible.
+
+By the end of October the Chilean army embarked at Antofagasta ten
+thousand strong and well provided with cavalry and the most modern
+artillery. Of Iquique and Pisagua, the two principal ports of the
+Peruvian nitrate country, the latter, which lies forty miles north of
+the former, was chosen as the less likely to be defended in force. Only
+a thousand men were found, who, in spite of a gallant resistance from
+their two small batteries and their rifle pits, were unable to prevent
+the landing of the Chileans protected by a tremendous fire from the
+fleet. Driven from the town the Peruvians could not even hold the top of
+the precipitous bluff until the arrival of reinforcements from Iquique.
+The Chileans relentlessly pushed their advantage and soon were in
+possession of the railroad for fifty miles into the interior and had six
+thousand men entrenched on a hill called San Francisco. Abundantly
+supplied with provisions and water they could afford to wait, while the
+allies, cut off from communications, must either attack at once or
+abandon the province. The Peruvian general chose the former alternative,
+but his troops arrived in front of San Francisco exhausted and thirsty
+after a twenty-miles' march across the dry desert. Only a small part of
+the army took part in the assault, and it was easily repulsed.
+Disheartened the allies fell back to the foot of the giant range which
+inexorably barred their way to the east, and after a few days of
+suffering from hunger and thirst, took their way north among the barren
+foothills. The enemy sent a detachment to harass their march, but they
+turned on their pursuers and defeated them, and reached Tacna province
+hungry, ragged, half-armed, and generally demoralised.
+
+Not only was the great nitrate province, the treasury of Peru,
+irretrievably lost, but every point on the coast, including Lima itself,
+laid open to attack. President Prado left the army at Tacna, went to
+Lima, and thence sailed for Europe, announcing that he was going to buy
+iron-clads. Hardly was he on board ship when a revolution broke out in
+the capital, and the restless Pierola, who had headed the latest
+attempts at insurrection, declared himself supreme chief. The Bolivians
+also deposed their unsuccessful president. Peru's revolutionary
+government, rushed into power on a wave of wounded national pride,
+embodied the more than Spanish haughtiness of the Creole aristocracy,
+and refused all concessions. The allies still had a large army at Tacna,
+not too demoralised to make a creditable resistance, although it was cut
+off from easy communication with the rest of Peru and Bolivia, and stood
+badly in need of arms, clothing, and ammunition. The Chilean ships
+blockaded Arica, the Tacna port, but the fast _Union_ again showed her
+heels to the enemy's whole fleet, ran the blockade, and landed stores
+which put the allied army on a fighting footing.
+
+Late in February, 1880, the Chileans disembarked a fine army of
+fourteen thousand men at a seaport sixty miles north of the allies' main
+position, and lost no time in occupying the interior as far as Moquegua
+at the foot of the Andes. Their first object was to cut the allied
+armies off from any communication with their respective countries. A
+small Peruvian force made an attempt to hold Torata, a point
+strategically important because it commanded the entrance into the Andes
+from Bolivia and Peru, but was unsuccessful. The allied armies were now
+bottled up in a little valley where provisions would surely shortly
+fail. The Chileans advanced south across the desert upon Tacna, and the
+allies took a strong defensive position on a ridge, flanked by steep
+ravines, with a sloping glacis in front. Vastly superior in artillery,
+though only slightly outnumbering the allies, the Chileans thought
+themselves justified in assaulting the position. They opened the battle
+by a cannonade in which their magnificent Krupp guns did terrific
+execution, and under cover of the fire the infantry advanced in four
+columns of twenty-four hundred men each. Approaching the trenches they
+were met by a storm of rifle bullets through which they charged bayonet
+in hand.
+
+Meanwhile the allies on the crest of the sand-hills suffered terribly
+from the plunging artillery fire. The Bolivians, holding the weakest
+part of the line, bore the brunt of the attack. Once the Chileans
+wavered, but a supporting cavalry charge quickly drove back the
+advancing enemy, and after two hours of desperate fighting the sturdy
+Bolivian Indians gave way, their position was carried, and the allied
+army fled all along the line. Though the Chileans had lost over two
+thousand, the losses of the allies were greater. No way of retreat lay
+open; they scattered in confusion; and their army virtually ceased to
+exist. A couple of thousand Peruvians held out in Arica for a month,
+deliberately devoting themselves to certain death, but the place was
+carried by an assault in which quarter was neither given nor asked.
+
+Peru now lay helpless at the mercy of the Chilean armies and fleet. The
+ports were blockaded and bombarded, while expeditions ravaged the
+fertile coast valleys. Nevertheless the Peruvians would not yield. The
+United States offered her mediation, and plenipotentiaries met to see if
+terms of peace could be arranged. Chile demanded the formal cession of
+the nitrate territory and an indemnity. The Peruvians refused such hard
+terms, hoping against hope for foreign intervention. This passive
+obstinacy enraged the Chilean government, and after a delay of several
+months it was determined to capture the capital and dictate terms at
+Lima. Late in December, 1880, a splendidly equipped army of twenty-six
+thousand men landed a short distance south of Lima and marched on the
+city. Only a few fragments of the Peruvian regular army had survived the
+defeats in the south, but the population rallied _en masse_ to resist
+the invaders. At Chorrillos, a few miles south of Lima, the militia
+waited behind a hastily constructed line of defence. The assault of the
+Chilean regulars was irresistible; four thousand Peruvians perished, and
+as many more were taken prisoners. The survivors fell back on a second
+line of defence, only six miles from Lima, and were there defeated in a
+second battle in which two thousand were killed and wounded. The Chilean
+losses in the two fights reached five thousand. On the following day the
+mayor of Lima formally surrendered the city, and on the 17th of January
+the Chilean army took possession. The helpless citizens were required to
+make up a contribution of a million dollars a month; the customs duties
+were confiscated, and the Chileans violated all the rules of civilised
+warfare by wantonly destroying the great and valuable public
+library--the best in South America.
+
+Pierola escaped to Guamanga, but succeeded in rallying no forces. He
+gave it up and went to Europe. It became necessary to organise a
+government which could treat for peace. The citizens of Lima, with the
+consent of Chile, made Garcia Calderon provisional president, but when
+the discussion of terms began the Chileans repeated their demand for the
+unconditional cession of the nitrate territory, and Calderon did not
+dare assent. The enemy sent him prisoner to Santiago, while Iglesias in
+the northern departments, Caceres in the centre, and Carrillo in the
+south each kept up an independent resistance with a few militia. The
+Chileans made no serious attempt to conquer the interior, contenting
+themselves with pocketing the Peruvian customs revenues. This situation
+lasted two years and a half, until Iglesias came to the conclusion that
+peace could only be obtained by complete submission. Caceres was,
+however, resolved upon further resistance and quarrelling with Iglesias,
+advanced into the latter's territory. He was intercepted by a Chilean
+expedition and his forces destroyed. This left Iglesias a clear field;
+he declared himself president and entered into negotiations with the
+Chileans, arranging a treaty of peace which was signed on the 20th of
+October, 1883. Five days later the Peruvian flag was once more hoisted
+in the capital. Sporadic risings against Iglesias were easily suppressed
+by Chilean bayonets; four thousand men remained to see that the treaty
+was ratified, and a convention finally ratified it in March. Its
+provisions differed little from the demands made by Chile three years
+before. The money indemnity was waived and half the guano proceeds were
+left to Peru's creditors. On the other hand, the provinces of Tacna and
+Arica were to be held by Chile for ten years, and at the end of that
+time a popular vote would decide who should retain them, the losing
+country receiving ten million dollars from the other. Better far for the
+interests of permanent peace had the fate of the provinces been
+definitely determined. Chile and Peru have never been able to agree upon
+the terms under which the plebiscite should be conducted; the former
+still retains the provinces and the latter still agitates for their
+recovery.
+
+No sooner had the Chilean army left than Caceres began a civil war to
+oust Iglesias. For eighteen months the fighting continued with varying
+fortunes, but in December, 1885, Caceres surprised Lima when undefended;
+Iglesias resigned; a general amnesty was proclaimed, and peace was
+restored to the distracted country. A junta assumed power and in the
+election which followed Caceres was chosen president, and in the middle
+of 1886 he entered upon the dreary task of re-organising Peru. The
+treasury was empty, the population had been decimated by a horribly
+destructive war during four years, the flourishing coast valleys with
+their cotton and sugar plantations had been laid under contribution, the
+mines had ceased to be worked, the guano and nitrate revenue was gone,
+the country was weighed down with a debt which could never be paid, and
+foreign creditors pressed for a settlement utterly beyond the abilities
+of the impoverished country. Rigid economies were enforced in all
+departments of the administration, but the most that could be hoped was
+to meet ordinary expenditure.
+
+Peru had nothing to offer towards the immense foreign debt except her
+railways, and the British creditors finally agreed to the Grace
+contract, by which she was released from all responsibility for a sum
+amounting to over fifty millions sterling, in return for the cession of
+the state railways, the payment of eighty thousand pounds annually, and
+certain rights to the guano deposits, mines, and public lands. British
+pressure induced Chile to give up a large proportion of the guano
+proceeds, and in 1890 the contract was ratified and the "Peruvian
+Corporation" took over the vast properties conceded. Though disputes
+have arisen from time to time, the corporation has made some progress in
+extending lines to open up the mineral wealth on the plateau, and a
+successful beginning has been made toward the exploitation of the rubber
+forests of the Amazon plain. It cannot be doubted that the industrial
+development of Peru must be greatly aided by the existence of this
+gigantic private enterprise which will apply the energy and economy
+characteristic of individual enterprise to undertakings governmental in
+magnitude.
+
+  [Illustration: GENERAL DON ANDRES A. CACERES]
+
+Caceres made no change in the centralised system of government by
+prefects,--and the administrative fabric survived, substantially
+untouched, the horrors of the Chilean war and the fighting between rival
+chiefs. Liberal tendencies were shown in efforts to place the Indians on
+an equal political footing with the Peruvians of Spanish descent,
+although naturally the Creole aristocracy still dominates by reason of
+its intelligence. Considerable dissatisfaction was felt with Caceres'
+management of finances, but in 1890 he was succeeded by his friend,
+Colonel Bermudez, who continued his policy. Unfortunately for the peace
+of the country the latter died in 1893. His legal successor was Solar,
+first vice-president, but an intrigue in the cabinet prevented the
+latter's peaceable recognition. Caceres' influence was dominant in the
+administration, and a semblance of an election recalled him to power.
+General Pierola, who had led two unsuccessful insurrections--those of
+1874 and 1878--and who had got power in 1880, only to lose it after the
+fall of Lima, saw his opportunity. Solar joined forces with him and
+revolt broke out against Caceres. The latter had completely lost the
+popularity won as the most determined champion of the national rights
+against Chilean aggression; his administration was bad; the public
+employees were unpaid; the meagre resources of the country were wasted
+on his favourites. Though his troops were at first successful against
+Pierola's and Solar's hasty levies, the revolution recovered from each
+defeat until finally the insurrectionists entered Lima itself. The
+enemies of Caceres within the town arose and for two days its streets
+were the scene of bloody barricade fighting. Rarely does a civilised
+city pass through such a frightful experience as Lima on the 18th of
+July, 1895. There had been no time to extinguish the street lamps, and
+all night long the bands of revolutionists advanced, fighting by the
+lights which brightly illumined the carnage except where extinguished by
+rifle balls. Though his forces were gradually driven back, Caceres
+stubbornly refused to resign, and at last only yielded to the urgent
+representations of the foreign ministers, leaving power in the hands of
+a junta.
+
+With his withdrawal peace was restored, except for the resistance which
+his partisans kept up for a short time in Arequipa, and this peace has
+never since been disturbed. The junta served until an election could be
+held, in which Pierola was chosen president by an overwhelming and
+really popular majority. In 1899 he was succeeded by Romana, an engineer
+who had been a member of the outgoing ministry, and he, in his turn, had
+as successor, Senor Candamo, who took his seat in 1903. Historically the
+new president represents the old aristocratic party founded by Pardo--a
+party which had been pushed to one side in the financial confusion which
+preceded and the civil disorders which succeeded the terrible Chilean
+war by the more radical and democratic elements known as Pierolistas and
+constitutionalists. The return to a participation in affairs of elements
+which include so large a proportion of the intelligence, self-respect,
+and wealth of the nation is one of the most hopeful signs of the times.
+The Peruvian aristocracy has learned its lesson in the hard school of
+adversity, and vies with the commercial classes in sober, serious
+attention to industrial and governmental matters. Each division of the
+people seems to wish to bear its share in the financial, political, and
+moral regeneration of their country.
+
+Peruvian politics are conducted _en famille_. Economic and social
+questions are discussed and settled amicably among the ruling coteries
+and do not as in Europe and North America form the basis for the
+organisation of political parties. Though the country is steadfastly
+Catholic, clericalism is not, as in Ecuador, Colombia, and Bolivia,
+regarded as a menace by those who hold liberal views, and the provinces
+have never made any insistent demand for a larger share of autonomy, as
+in Argentina and Colombia. As a rule the elections are free and
+translate the popular will. Peru has long since passed the stage of
+pronunciamentos and military government; since Castilla's time the
+successful revolutions have been few, and have always been undertaken
+for the maintenance of the regular constitutional order--not its
+overthrow--or have been inspired by national feeling when the fatherland
+was in danger.
+
+  [Illustration: PERU]
+
+
+
+
+CHILE
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE SPANISH CONQUEST
+
+
+About a century before Pizarro landed, Tupac Yupanqui, the greatest of
+the Inca conquerors, crossed the rough mountains, bleak plateaux, and
+waterless deserts which lie between the habitable part of Bolivia and
+the irrigable valleys of northern Chile, and rapidly overran the coast
+for six hundred miles. As one goes south the plain broadens, the short
+rivers flowing from the mountains grow larger, the rainfall and the area
+available for cultivation increase, and from Santiago a wide valley, the
+heart of Chile, stretches between the Andes and the coast range,
+sustaining a dense population. As far south as the river Maule, the
+limit of Tupac's conquests, irrigation is necessary for crops. In all
+these valleys dwelt various tribes whose system of agriculture and
+civilisation was similar to that of the Incas. Only the southern peoples
+inhabiting the rainy and forested regions beyond the Maule refused to
+submit. Huaina Capac, Tupac's son, was once obliged to undertake a
+campaign to consolidate the Inca power, but Chile north of the Maule
+became thoroughly attached to the Cuzco dynasty.
+
+Little resistance was encountered when Almagro invaded this country just
+after Pizarro's entry into the Peruvian capital. He advanced as far as
+the Maule, finding everywhere a population probably as dense as that of
+the present day. Agriculture was highly developed; the people were
+clothed in substantial stuffs of their own manufacture; they mined
+copper, tin, and lead, and possessed excellent arms and tools. The
+tribes all spoke the same language, but each enjoyed a degree of
+autonomy under its own chiefs. Their habits were democratic; they loved
+freedom and independence; the Inca socialistic system did not prevail;
+and each farmer owned his own field and could transmit it to his
+children. The race was large and vigorous, the selected survivors from
+among immigrants who had been greatly improved by countless generations
+of struggle in the more rigorous climate. As one approached the cold and
+rainy mountains of southern Chile their characteristics became more
+pronounced and south of the Maule warlike, half-savage tribes proudly
+maintained their independence. Almagro's sole pre-occupation was gold,
+but he vainly searched the valleys as far as the southern boundary of
+the Inca empire. Here he encountered serious resistance from the
+independent tribes, and though victorious in his fights, concluded that
+it was not worth while remaining in such a cold and goldless country. He
+abandoned Chile and returned to Peru, there to meet his death at
+Pizarro's hands.
+
+  [Illustration: BRIDGE ON THE ROAD BETWEEN SANTIAGO AND MENDOZA.]
+
+Pizarro soon took measures to extend the Spanish conquests to all parts
+of the Inca empire, and for Chile he selected his quartermaster, Pedro
+de Valdivia, an active and experienced soldier. Late in 1540--the summer
+season in those latitudes--Valdivia, with two hundred Spaniards and a
+large number of Indian auxiliaries, crossed the Andes and arrived at
+Copiapo, the northernmost inhabited valley. Like Almagro he met no
+opposition as he pushed his way south for four hundred and fifty miles.
+Arriving at the great valley of Chile, in that favoured region he
+founded the city of Santiago, which has ever since remained the capital
+and most important place in the country. The people of the neighbourhood
+attacked the settlement and burned half the houses, but they were soon
+decisively defeated. Nevertheless, the invaders position was critical;
+many of them wished to return; a mutiny was on the point of breaking
+out; but at this juncture the fortunate discovery of valuable gold mines
+near Santiago hushed all talk of abandoning the country.
+
+Firmly established at Santiago, Valdivia next turned his attention to
+the northern provinces, and founded a city at Coquimbo, about two
+hundred and fifty miles north of the capital, which became the centre of
+Spanish power in that region. In 1545 he advanced into the country south
+of Santiago, where the Promaucians welcomed him as an ally against their
+hereditary foes, the Araucanians, a fierce and powerful confederacy
+dwelling beyond the river Biobio, which flows into the Pacific in
+latitude 37 deg. By the following year Spanish influence was dominant
+north of that river. Valdivia, with many of his men, temporarily returned
+to Peru to aid in the suppression of Gonzalo's revolt, but as soon as
+civil war was over he came back to Chile with his title of governor
+confirmed by viceregal authority. He had found Lima swarming with hungry
+adventurers who eagerly followed him, hoping for grants of lands and
+Indian slaves, or to make their fortunes in mining. With their help the
+conquest and settlement of all Chile as far south as the Maule was
+effectually completed. The land was apportioned among the cavaliers,
+each becoming a sort of feudal baron, and in effect creating a landed
+aristocracy which has continued to rule the country to the present day.
+
+The process of incorporation did not stop at the Maule, but included the
+Promaucians and most of the other tribes between that river and the
+Biobio. Beyond the latter stretched the Araucanian territory for two
+hundred miles, and Valdivia now undertook the conquest of the southern
+forests where the Inca arms had never been able to penetrate. His first
+step was to found Concepcion near the mouth of the Biobio. The
+neighbouring territory belonged to allies of the confederacy, and the
+Araucanians felt great alarm at such an aggression. The grand council
+was summoned, composed of the head-chiefs of the four nations, and the
+chiefs--called ulmens--of the provinces and tribes into which these
+nations were divided and subdivided. In accordance with immemorial
+custom, the deliberations lasted three days, and the humblest warrior
+was permitted to give his opinion before war was voted. Once the
+determination reached and a general, or "toqui," elected, each soldier
+put on his leather cuirass, picked up his heavy war club, and, four
+thousand strong, the tribesmen sallied forth to attack the Spaniards.
+Musketry volley and cavalry charge compelled the Araucanians to retreat,
+after a hotly contested combat which lasted several hours. These
+Indians, strong and sturdy dwellers in an invigorating climate, were
+more formidable foes than the Spaniards had yet encountered in South
+America. Though amazed at the deadly effect of the strange weapons which
+the invaders used, they were not demoralised. Like the Saracens they
+believed that death in battle was a passport to paradise, war was their
+principal business, and the youth were trained up to the trade of arms.
+At close quarters they were almost irresistible; their clubs and
+spears, wielded with reckless bravery, matched the swords of the
+Spaniards, and as soon as they learned how to take advantage of cover in
+approaching an enemy provided with firearms, the result of a battle
+between them and the Castilians became doubtful.
+
+During the year 1551 Valdivia occupied himself in fortifying Concepcion
+and making preparations for an invasion of Araucania. Heavy
+reinforcements came and he advanced encountering at first no serious
+opposition. He founded the city of Imperial, one hundred and fifty miles
+south of Concepcion, and thence pushed a hundred miles farther on, where
+he established a seaport, calling it by his own name. Returning north in
+1553, on his way he built several forts in the Araucanian territory, and
+at Santiago found a fresh body of troops, and, what was even more
+important, a supply of horses. Two hundred men were despatched across
+the Andes to begin the conquest of what is now known as the province of
+Mendoza in the Argentine Republic. Fancying that he had practically
+completed the subjection of Chile, Valdivia sent a messenger to Spain to
+sue for the title of Marquis and a perpetual governorship, and fitted
+out an exploring expedition to the Straits of Magellan in the vain hope
+of opening up direct sea communication with the mother country.
+
+The Araucanians had, however, not relaxed their determination to rid
+themselves of the white invaders. News came that the confederacy had put
+an army of ten thousand men in the field, and that the outlying forts
+had been stormed. Valdivia at once advanced from Concepcion at the head
+of his forces, numbering two hundred Spaniards and five thousand Indian
+auxiliaries. A hundred miles south of the city he came in sight of the
+Araucanian army. For some time the Indian commander manoeuvred
+cautiously, endeavouring to draw the Spaniards into a position where he
+could charge without suffering too much from the dreaded artillery.
+Finally battle was joined, and despite the destructive fire the Indians
+managed to come to close quarters. As soon as these fierce warriors
+reached the enemy's line all was up with the invaders. The Spanish army
+was literally annihilated. Valdivia himself fled, but was pursued and
+quickly captured. Brought before the Indian general he begged for his
+life, agreeing to quit Chile with all the Spaniards, but his
+protestations were cut short by the war club of an old chief standing
+near.
+
+The Spanish settlers south of Concepcion fled for refuge to the ports of
+Imperial and Valdivia, abandoning the other towns and forts. A young
+chief named Lautaro, who had been captured and baptised years before by
+Valdivia, but who had escaped to his own people, led a considerable army
+to the Biobio, destroyed an expedition sent against him, and drove the
+enemy out of Concepcion. If the Indians had understood the art of
+besieging fortified places, Imperial and Valdivia and probably Santiago
+itself would now have fallen, and the Spaniards would have been expelled
+from the southern and better half of Chile. Lautaro led north two
+thousand Araucanians, ravaged the lands of the Promaucians beyond the
+Maule, and penetrated to the neighbourhood of the capital. Repeated
+expeditions sent against him were defeated; the dismayed Spaniards
+urgently called for help from Peru and recalled the adventurers from
+Argentina. Happily the civilised tribes of northern and central Chile
+remained faithful, and the bulk of the Araucanian forces was occupied
+besieging Valdivia and Imperial,--a fruitless undertaking so long as
+provisions could be thrown in by sea. Worst of all for the Indians
+smallpox broke out among them. At last the Spaniards surprised Lautaro's
+encampment near Santiago; the Araucanian leader fell dead, pierced by a
+dart; and his companions fought like wild beasts until every man was
+slain. This victory secured the safety of Santiago, and the Araucanians
+retired behind the Biobio.
+
+Meanwhile Mendoza, the great pacificator and organiser, had come out to
+Lima and assumed the viceroyalty. Turbulent adventurers swarmed into
+Peru whom he thought could be better employed elsewhere. Southern Chile
+seemed just the place for these reckless, needy cavaliers, who were so
+anxious to carve out fiefs for themselves. Early in 1557, Garcia de
+Mendoza, son of the viceroy, was appointed captain-general and enjoined
+to reduce the Araucanians to obedience. He came accompanied by ten ships
+and a considerable force of Spaniards. Still larger forces were on their
+way overland from Peru. Cautiously landing troops and artillery at the
+deserted city of Concepcion, he had finished his defences before the
+confederacy could mobilise its army. Though the Araucanians attacked
+with desperate fury, their charges were beaten back by the artillery
+fire. Re-forming on the other side of the Biobio, the Indians waited
+until Mendoza, who had meanwhile received a large reinforcement of
+cavalry, advanced. In the battle which followed they were defeated, but
+they had learned a lesson of prudence and they fought in front of
+forests into whose depths the Spanish cavalry could not pursue.
+Retreating slowly, they again gave battle, and, though again defeated,
+inflicted great losses on the Spanish infantry. Mendoza hanged his
+prisoners, and once more advanced, this time to the place where Valdivia
+had met his death. Here he founded a fortified town, naming it Canete,
+after the hereditary title of his family. Leaving it heavily garrisoned,
+he went on to Imperial for provisions. In his absence the Indians
+unsuccessfully tried to carry Canete by assault, and seeing the
+hopelessness of aggressive movements, they withdrew to the wooded
+districts and mountains, abandoning the open country and the sea-coast
+to the Spaniards. Mendoza pushed on beyond the southern limits of the
+Araucanian territory and discovered and explored the populous
+archipelago of Chiloe. On his way back he founded, on the mainland a
+hundred miles south of Valdivia, the city of Osorno.
+
+The Araucanians were now shut in between the Andes and a semicircle of
+towns and forts; it seemed as if their final subjection would only be a
+question of time. Mendoza returned to Santiago, leaving a lieutenant to
+undertake a campaign of raids and surprises. A few of the Araucanians
+remained in the field, and it was not until their veteran chief,
+Caupolican, was betrayed and pitilessly shot to death with arrows, that
+the whole confederacy again flew to arms under the command of his son.
+Marching on Concepcion, the Indians cut to pieces first one Spanish
+force of five hundred men and then another; and blockaded the city from
+the land side. The Spaniards, holding the sea, had no difficulty in
+pouring in reinforcements from Peru and Valparaiso, and the Indian army
+finally retreated. At Quiapo, between Concepcion and Canete, it was
+defeated and nearly annihilated, its most celebrated chiefs and heroes
+perishing in the slaughter. Once more the Araucanians retired to their
+forests and mountains while the Spaniards rebuilt and improved the line
+of fortifications and took possession of the valuable gold mines of
+Villarica. But they could make no further impression on these
+indomitable Indians. For forty years the war continued, sometimes
+active, sometimes desultory, and with constantly varying fortunes. Year
+after year the Spaniards poured in reinforcements, and their expeditions
+more than once ravaged the remotest parts of the Araucanian territory.
+But as soon as the armies retired the unflagging Indians would return to
+the attack, cutting off isolated bands of settlers and surprising forts
+and towns.
+
+About 1593, the able chieftain Paillamachu was toqui of the confederacy.
+The incessant wars against the Araucanians had made the province such a
+continual drain on the Peruvian treasury, that Mendoza, who had been
+promoted to the viceregal throne, determined to end this impossible
+situation in one way or another. A general was sent to Chile with full
+powers either to treat or fight, but the haughty and intractable Indians
+rejected with scorn his overtures for peace. He then fortified the line
+of the Biobio and erected new fortresses to serve as bases for a
+campaign of extermination to be undertaken as soon as reinforcements
+arrived. These came slowly and the Indians themselves took the
+offensive, considerable bands invading the Spanish settlements, storming
+some forts and blockading others. The Spanish general exerted himself to
+concentrate his scattered forces, but while making a hasty journey,
+accompanied only by a small escort, from Imperial toward Concepcion, he
+was surprised and killed by a band of Indians. Forty-eight hours later
+not only the whole of Araucania, but also the provinces south of
+Valdivia, rose in arms. All the Spanish towns south of the
+Biobio--Osorno, Valdivia, Villarica, Imperial, Canete, Angol, Coya, and
+Arauco--were simultaneously besieged. Paillamachu crossed the river and
+burned first Concepcion and then Chillan, a town a hundred miles north
+of the Araucanian boundary, ravaging the country to the river Maule.
+Alarmed for the safety of Santiago, the Lima viceroy sent a new governor
+with a well-equipped army, but it was as much as he could do to force
+the Indians back into their own territory. The Indian general suddenly
+assaulted the city of Valdivia, carried it by storm, slaughtered or
+captured the inhabitants, and seized two millions of booty with many
+arms and cannon. Villarica and Imperial managed to hold out for three
+years but finally they, with Osorno, were reduced by starvation. When
+Paillamachu died in 1603 the Spaniards had no foothold on the mainland
+south of the Biobio except the Valdivia citadel.
+
+  [Illustration: INDIAN ENCAMPMENT.]
+
+Two or three years later the government made a last effort to reduce the
+Araucanians. An army of three thousand Spaniards besides a large
+contingent of natives advanced across the Biobio. To such an
+overwhelming force the Araucanians dared not offer open battle, but they
+hung on its flanks, skirmishing and harassing, and the host was
+compelled to return without having accomplished anything decisive. From
+the protection of the forts on the Biobio, the Spanish general sent
+expeditions to lay waste the Indian country, but these smaller bodies
+were roughly handled and the first period of Araucanian wars closed with
+the nearly complete destruction of the Spanish forces operating in
+southern Chile. The authorities at Lima and Madrid gave it up as a bad
+job. Thenceforward the Biobio remained the southern boundary of the
+Spanish possessions. An army of two thousand men and a line of forts
+guarded the frontier, and though hostilities were frequent, for
+centuries no real progress was made toward depriving the Araucanians of
+their independence. In the progress of time the slow infiltration of
+Spanish blood and Spanish customs modified their characteristics, but it
+was not until 1882 that they became real subjects of the Chilean
+government.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE COLONIAL PERIOD
+
+
+The Araucanian wars made Chile a school of arms for all South America.
+The appointment to its captaincy-general was eagerly sought by ambitious
+soldiers, and the place, especially after the seventeenth century, was a
+stepping-stone to the magnificent and lucrative position of viceroy at
+Lima. Preoccupied with the southern wars, passing most of their time on
+the frontiers, the governors paid little attention to central and
+northern Chile. The Indians peacefully cultivated the great estates of
+their feudal masters; and although the mining industry was considerable
+it never threatened the extinction of the neighbouring population. The
+few towns were mere villages, built of one-story, thatch-covered houses,
+commerce was insignificant, portable wealth small, money almost unknown.
+However, the landed proprietors of Chile mostly lived upon their
+estates, and came into more intimate contact with their Indian tenants
+than in the richer and more tropical provinces, a circumstance which
+has had a profound effect upon the character and racial composition of
+the modern Chilean.
+
+Although unsuccessful in Araucania, the governors prospered in their
+efforts to extend the Spanish dominion east of the Andes and before the
+end of the sixteenth century the fertile valleys of the province of
+Cuyo--Mendoza, San Juan, and San Luiz--as far as the central desert
+which separates them from the grass-covered pampas of Buenos Aires, were
+incorporated with Chile. At the same time the green and populous island
+of Chiloe--the Ireland of the Pacific--was added to the
+captaincy-general.
+
+The first comers were adventurous soldiers looking for sudden riches,
+but Chile furnished these gentlemen small returns for hard knocks. The
+reasons which led the Spanish government to discourage emigration to
+Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador, did not apply to Chile, and when, early in
+the seventeenth century, the Madrid authorities abandoned the useless
+and expensive effort to conquer Araucania, they permitted a considerable
+number of real colonists. A heavy immigration followed--composed mostly
+of Basques and Aragonese--hardy and industrious settlers who made
+thrifty farmers and merchants. These people were no mere army of
+occupation--a privileged class living parasitically upon the Indians;
+they set about developing the real resources of the country, and their
+blood, mixing into the fine and strong aboriginal strain, vastly
+improved it. The lower classes in Chile are industrious, enduring, and
+brave, and though at times they show a touch of that primitive ferocity
+characteristic of young peoples, their innate energy and great physical
+strength have been of incalculable value to the nation.
+
+Little worth detailing is recorded in the annals of Chile during the
+seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. For many years the Araucanians
+refused to make any treaty with the Spaniards. The chronicles are filled
+with accounts of the incursions made by the Indians into Spanish
+territory--often successful, more often repulsed, with sieges,
+ambushes--tales of reckless valour and unspeakable cruelty. Sometimes
+the Europeans carried the war over the Biobio, and during the ten years
+prior to 1640 they were so successful in carrying fire, slaughter, and
+pillage to the homes of the Araucanians, that the latter finally
+consented to an armistice and a formal treaty of peace. The Spanish
+governor went to the plain of Quillin, escorted by more than ten
+thousand persons, and the Araucanian general appeared in state at the
+head of all the toquis, ulmens, and chief warriors of the confederacy.
+Into the open space between the high contracting parties was led a llama
+for sacrifice, whose sprinkled blood remained a pledge that the historic
+Biobio would henceforth be respected by both nations as the boundary,
+and that the Araucanians would never permit colonists of third nations
+upon their shores, or aid the English and Dutch buccaneers. The Indians
+faithfully adhered to this pact of friendship and refused to furnish the
+Dutch with provisions when the latter took possession of Valdivia in
+1643. But in 1655 the cupidity of Spanish officers caused trouble, and
+war devastated both sides of the border for the next ten years. In 1665
+a new treaty, identical in terms, was negotiated, which continued in
+force until 1722. However, Spanish priests pushed their evangelising
+among the Indians, and officers, called "Capitanos de los amigos,"
+appointed to guard the interests of the missionaries, assumed authority
+highly offensive to the Araucanians. The great council was summoned, a
+general selected, and the missionaries expelled. When the Spanish
+governor marched to the frontier with five thousand men the Indians
+offered battle which the Spaniards dared not accept. The former
+continued firm in their demands, and peace was only re-established by
+abolishing the obnoxious officials.
+
+Meanwhile nothing of moment had disturbed the slow and even current of
+colonial progress in northern and central Chile. The country was poor,
+its exports small and its imports smaller. Great fortunes were not
+accumulated as in other South American countries, though the national
+life rested on a broader, surer basis. The wheat and cattle, the fruits
+and poultry introduced by the Spaniards raised the standard of
+alimentation and the vitality of the people, while the continual
+admixture of Spanish blood augmented individual initiative and
+intelligence. The towns at first grew very slowly. Santiago itself had
+only eight thousand inhabitants at the end of the seventeenth century,
+while the other so-called cities, Coquimbo, Castro, Valparaiso, Chillan,
+Concepcion, and Valdivia, were in fact little more than villages. The
+rural districts were populous, for the soil was fertile, the climate
+healthful, and the means of a simple subsistence abounded. Imported
+vices and diseases, and the oppressions suffered at the hands of the
+first Spanish proprietors, had somewhat thinned out the native
+population, but these losses were largely made up by a rapid increase of
+the element which boasted white descent, and in the latter part of the
+eighteenth century Spanish Chile was more densely populated than the
+Atlantic seaboard of North America.
+
+  [Illustration: HOUSE OF CONGRESS, SANTIAGO.]
+
+Spanish legislation gave a monopoly of South American commerce to a
+favoured ring of merchants at Cadiz, forbidding any communication with
+Chile except by the circuitous Isthmian route. Freights were enormous,
+profits and taxes exorbitant, and in spite of the repressive measures of
+the Spanish authorities, smuggling was carried on by way of the route
+over the Andes to Buenos Aires and Colonia. The war of the Spanish
+Succession, following the death of the last of the descendants of
+Charles V., disorganised Spanish administration, and during the
+confusion of the first few years of the eighteenth century illicit
+trading increased apace. The triumph of Louis XIV., and the seating of a
+French prince on the throne of Madrid, resulted in a temporary
+permission to French ships to trade with South America. For a time
+French manufactures were brought directly to Chile by way of Cape Horn.
+The customs receipts--hitherto merely nominal--rapidly increased, and
+although the license was soon revoked at the demand of the Cadiz
+monopolists, a permanent impetus had been given to commerce. Improving
+conditions gave a fresh start to immigration, and the comparatively
+rational policy of the Bourbon dynasty removed many of the more crying
+abuses of colonial administration. A little before the middle of the
+eighteenth century Governor Manso, with the approval of Madrid, founded
+a dozen cities scattered through all the provinces as far south as the
+Biobio, and settlements spread to the frontier of Araucania. Manso's
+successor, Rosas, was even more diligent in establishing new towns and
+received the title of "Conde de Poblaciones." He founded the University
+of San Felipe at Santiago, and stimulated commerce by opening a mint. In
+his administration occurred the great earthquake of 1751, which engulfed
+and destroyed Concepcion by a tremendous wave from the sea, and
+inflicted great damage upon Santiago and many other towns. These
+convulsions are very frequent in Chile and in early times people
+supposed that it was not safe to build houses of more than one story. It
+has since been ascertained that two-story edifices are as secure as
+lower ones and Chilean cities contain many handsome buildings.
+
+Rosas' successor was Don Manuel Amat. Under his administration the
+erection of new cities continued, and he is remembered as the
+captain-general who helped suppress the robbers and bandits who had
+infested the country. Vigilance committees were organised, volunteer
+patrols guarded the city streets and country roads, and a coast militia
+fought the pirates who infested the seashore. Chile in the middle of
+the eighteenth century presents the characteristics of a frontier
+country--rapid founding of towns, disorders and lawlessness effectively
+suppressed by lynch law, and a childish display of newly acquired
+wealth.
+
+The encroachments upon the Araucanians finally grew irksome to those
+indomitable and intractable savages. What the Spanish armies and priests
+had failed in, the settlers who poured into the fertile plains and
+valleys of southern Chile seemed about to achieve. The next
+captain-general even tried to incorporate the independent tribes into
+the Spanish system, but when he attempted to gather them into towns the
+spirit which had animated their forefathers proved too strong. A war
+broke out which lasted several years and ended only when the Spanish
+government renewed the treaties guaranteeing them practical
+independence, and allowing them to keep an ambassador at Santiago. Just
+about this time the trans-Andean province of Cuyo was separated from
+Chile and transferred to the newly created Buenos Aires viceroyalty.
+Taken purely for reasons of administrative convenience, this measure
+resulted in shutting off Chile from expansion over the vast plains of
+the Plate Valley, confining her between the Andes and the sea, and
+ultimately securing to the Argentine a territorial and numerical
+preponderance among Spanish-American republics.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE
+
+
+The last years of Spanish rule were the most prosperous Chile had known.
+A brisk coasting trade sprang into being; a small merchant marine grew
+up; the removal of the prohibition against free commerce with the rest
+of Spanish South America raised prices. The opening of Buenos Aires
+reacted upon her western neighbour, and Chile ceased to depend on the
+Isthmus route. A spirit of enterprise was awakened by a freer
+intercourse with the outside world and by the immigration of hardy
+adventurers who came through Buenos Aires, the great South American
+rendezvous of that day.
+
+  [Illustration: PLAZA DEL ARMAS, SANTIAGO.]
+
+Among these immigrants was the famous Ambrose O'Higgins, a poor Irish
+lad, who landed at Buenos Aires, made his way to Chile, started as a
+peddler, became an army contractor, made a fortune, got a commission in
+the army, distinguished himself in an expedition against the
+Araucanians, ingratiated himself with everybody by his wit, courage, and
+good-natured shrewdness, and finally was selected as captain-general.
+He ruled the country wisely and well until promoted to be viceroy at
+Lima. His successors were mostly able and honest men, and under their
+government the natural causes making for the prosperity of Chile had
+free scope. Wealth increased, and with it love of display, honours, and
+letters. Santiago became a real capital, the favourite residence of the
+landed aristocracy and a social centre where fashions were prescribed.
+The English war into which France pushed Spain in 1796 much damaged
+Chilean commerce, but not sufficiently to stop the impulse already
+received. The old ignorant content with Spanish rule gave place to a
+growing demand for the removal of all restrictions, and the appetite for
+commercial freedom grew with what it fed on.
+
+Chile was still comparatively poor and backward. The rude population
+were engaged in a harsh struggle with fierce savages and in laying the
+foundations of material prosperity. Most of these people were the
+descendants of Indians accustomed for centuries to implicit obedience to
+a rustic, unlettered aristocracy. The genius of the race was rather
+practical than ideal, and the long, careless government by men
+invariably chosen for their military abilities rather than their
+qualities as civil administrators had not tended to make Chile a fertile
+soil for the development of revolutionary ideas. Chilean society was
+less favourably constituted for sudden changes than that of Buenos
+Aires--the boom town of the time, with its active commerce, its restless
+recently arrived population,--or that of the northern viceroyalties,
+controlled by professional and office-holding classes and parish
+priests.
+
+Two or three hundred families held most of the lands of Chile, and the
+power of this aristocracy was especially predominant in the provinces
+around Santiago. In the southern provinces long wars had thinned the
+native population and dispossessed the original grantees. Estates were
+more widely distributed and opinion more radical, but in the rest of the
+country the newer immigrants had been forced to accept the system, and
+the comparatively few families who owned the land and thereby controlled
+the means of subsistence of the whole people, enjoyed unquestioned
+ascendancy. But conservative as this aristocracy was, among its members
+there rankled a profound jealousy of the Spanish officials who wrung
+excessive taxes from their reluctant fingers; who enforced the Spanish
+regulations forbidding the culture of grapes, olives, and tobacco; who
+until recently had closed the ports, cutting off the profitable sale of
+crops, and compelling the payment of extravagant prices for manufactured
+goods; and most irritating of all, who still monopolised the lucrative
+offices.
+
+The news of Ferdinand's imprisonment and the invasion of Spain by
+Napoleon's armies reached Chile in the late summer of 1809, creating
+great excitement among the Spanish office-holders and the Creole
+aristocracy. Sentiment was universal against submission to the French
+usurpation and discussion at once began of how the government should be
+carried on during the King's captivity. Carrasco, the captain-general,
+hesitated and vacillated between the conflicting suggestions.
+
+In preparation for an emergency, whose exact nature no one could
+foresee, the city authorities gathered arms, drilled troops, and levied
+extra taxes. The property-owning and governing classes divided into two
+currents of opinion. The government officials, with their friends and
+hangers-on, saw that their interests would best be served by the
+recognition of the revolutionary juntas which had assumed the _ad
+interim_ direction of affairs in Spain. The leading Creole families
+proposed the establishment of an independent junta, pending Ferdinand's
+return, or the definite defeat of the national cause in Spain. Although
+the latter party warmly protested their faithfulness to the
+mother-country, at bottom they designed to secure for Chile and Chileans
+virtual independence while Spain's troubles lasted, and the Spanish
+officials did not hesitate to characterise their opponents as rebels.
+Feeling rapidly grew intense, and in May, 1810, the captain-general
+ordered the arrest of several prominent Creoles. This arbitrary measure
+aroused such a fierce clamour that Carrasco lost his nerve, and
+consented to the release of the prisoners. This indication of weakness
+encouraged the agitators, and when news came across the Andes that the
+people of Buenos Aires had deposed their viceroy, Santiago broke into
+revolution.
+
+The captain-general had summoned an open cabildo to enjoin obedience to
+certain orders received from Spain, but this assembly tumultuously
+demanded his resignation. Helpless against the popular outcry and the
+hostile attitude of the city government, he turned over his authority to
+Toro, a wealthy nobleman, whose venerable age and pacific disposition
+seemed likely to preserve the peace. Nevertheless, the Creoles persisted
+in their demand for an independent Chilean junta. Another meeting of all
+the qualified electors was called; the arrival of a representative of
+the new junta at Buenos Aires, who strongly urged Chile to follow
+Argentina's example, had its influence; and on the 18th of September,
+the date observed as the anniversary of Chilean independence, Toro
+resigned his authority to the cabildo. The office of captain-general was
+abolished and power passed to a junta of seven. Chile's ports were
+opened to all nations, quadrupling the customs receipts in a single
+year, and the country began a virtually separate existence, although the
+acts of the junta ran in the name of the Spanish King.
+
+However, the junta's power rested upon a basis too narrow for stability.
+Representing only the Santiago aristocracy, there was no certainty that
+its orders would be respected in the provinces, or that independent
+juntas would not be set up in other cities. To remedy this difficulty a
+national congress was summoned, but the junta allotted to Santiago
+almost as many members as to all the other municipalities together. The
+elections took place in April, 1811, and while they were going on the
+Spanish officer in command of a detachment at Santiago revolted. A
+member of the junta, Jose Carrera by name, an active and ambitious
+young man, who belonged to one of the most influential Creole families,
+distinguished himself by attacking and defeating the Spaniard with an
+improvised force of armed patriots. When congress met it voted many
+reforms; abolishing slavery, reorganising the judiciary, freeing
+commerce of vexatious restrictions, decreeing the payment of the clergy
+out of the public treasury instead of by tithes, and conferring on the
+elective bodies of the municipalities the right to elect their own city
+officers. However, divisions soon arose among the members. The
+representatives of the outside provinces bitterly complained of the
+unfairness of the apportionment; the radicals wished to reorganise
+everything, while the conservatives insisted on preserving many of the
+old institutions. The Santiago representatives, chosen from the landed
+aristocracy, were mostly conservative, while the members from the South
+were largely radical. Under the leadership of Doctor Rosas, the latter
+withdrew. The Santiago conservatives, left in undisputed control of
+congress, displaced the old junta, but Carrera and his two brothers had
+made themselves all powerful in the army by cleverly seizing its Spanish
+officers. He determined to ally himself with the radicals and assume
+supreme power. Marching to the hall of congress at the head of his
+troops, he compelled the selection of a new junta with himself as chief,
+and expelled the members upon whom he could not rely. Rosas had
+meanwhile established a radical junta at Concepcion, and Carrera offered
+to associate him in the government. Rosas declined, and the Santiago
+leader, now frankly a military dictator, advanced with an army to reduce
+the South to obedience. But the news that the Spanish party had gained
+the ascendancy in Valdivia and Chiloe intimidated him, and he made peace
+with Rosas, retiring to Santiago. His emissaries nevertheless continued
+to intrigue in Concepcion and finally stirred up a riot which resulted
+in Rosas' expulsion.
+
+For nearly two years Carrera and his brothers remained in power,
+governing by military force, confiscating the property of their enemies,
+allowing their friends to loot the public funds, and committing many
+enormities. Conspiracy after conspiracy was formed against them, only to
+be detected and suppressed, while the patriots divided into hostile
+factions each selfishly ambitious for control. Meanwhile Abascal, the
+able and resolute viceroy at Lima, had succeeded in keeping Peru
+submissive, in crushing out the revolution in Ecuador and Bolivia, and
+in repelling the northward march of the Argentine patriots. He now
+prepared to send an army to re-establish royal authority in Chile. Early
+in 1813 a large force landed at Talcahuano and, advancing to Concepcion,
+was joined by the garrison of that place. Reinforcements came up from
+Valdivia and Chiloe, and the Spanish general took the road for Santiago
+at the head of four thousand men. In the face of this imminent danger
+the bickerings of the patriots were hushed. Carrera advanced to the
+South in command of twelve thousand men, poorly armed and disciplined.
+On the Spanish side the officers were, however, suspicious, and had
+little confidence in their raw levies. A sudden and successful attack on
+an outpost near the river Maule was followed by a panic among the
+royalists, and they retreated in disorder, but with no great loss, to
+the fortifications of Chillan, only fifty miles from Concepcion.
+Detachments of patriots pushed on to Concepcion and captured that place
+and Talcahuano. The Spanish army was completely isolated in Chillan, but
+had found there an abundant supply of provisions, and successfully
+resisted Carrera's efforts to take the place. His hastily gathered
+levies, without means of sheltering themselves from the rain and cold,
+melted away by desertion. Finally he retired toward Concepcion followed
+by the Spaniards and the remnants of his army were only saved from total
+rout by the gallantry and steadiness of Bernardo O'Higgins. This
+military chief, a natural son of the old Irish captain-general, and heir
+to his Chilean estates, had made common cause with the patriots at the
+beginning of the revolution, and attached himself to the fortunes of
+Rosas, the leader of the Concepcion radicals. When the latter was
+banished by Carrera, O'Higgins retired from the army. The Spanish
+invasion had roused him; he offered his sword to Carrera, and his
+dashing military talents sent him quickly to the front.
+
+  [Illustration: BERNARDO O'HIGGINS.]
+
+Carrera's failure at Chillan cost him his prestige, his rivals at
+Santiago took advantage of his absence to expel him from the junta, his
+violent measures at Concepcion exasperated its people to revolt, and his
+own troops became mutinous. The new Santiago junta formally nominated
+O'Higgins to the chief command and Carrera was compelled to withdraw.
+The new general inspired some vigour into the patriot operations, but
+the arrival of reinforcements from Lima gave the royalists an
+overwhelming preponderance in cavalry and artillery. The junta had
+recalled a large part of his forces to defend Santiago, when an
+unexpected movement by one of the Spanish divisions resulted in the
+capture of the important city of Talca, half-way between the capital and
+Concepcion. Though O'Higgins and the troops left in the South managed to
+repulse an attack of the main Spanish army, an army sent from Santiago
+failed to retake Talca and its destruction left the capital unprotected.
+O'Higgins by forced marches succeeded in beating the Spaniards to the
+Maule, saving the city for the moment. Meanwhile, a revolution had
+overthrown the junta responsible for the fatal Talca expedition and the
+new dictator entered into negotiations with the Spanish commander. The
+latter, confronted by O'Higgins' army, and anticipating a desperate
+resistance, thought it best not to press his advantage too far. He
+agreed to an armistice, and Chile offered to acknowledge allegiance to
+Spain, send members to the Cortes shortly to assemble, and accept any
+Constitution which might be promulgated by that body, if the viceroy
+would recognise _ad interim_ the present Santiago government and
+withdraw the Spanish army within two months.
+
+One result of the armistice was the liberation of the Carreras from the
+Spanish prison in which they had been confined since their deposition
+the year before. They hastened to Santiago and started an intrigue for
+the overthrow of Lastra and O'Higgins. Such was their popularity with
+the troops in Santiago and the extent of their family influence that
+they got possession of the city and were preparing to dispute the
+supreme control of Chile with O'Higgins by force of arms when news
+arrived that the viceroy refused to sanction the compromise, and that an
+army of peninsular veterans was on its way. Though Carrera and O'Higgins
+pretended a reconciliation, each distrusted the other, and took the
+field virtually independent. Under such conditions Chilean success was
+impossible. O'Higgins' division was annihilated at Rancagua, Carrera
+abandoned the capital, and fled with a few hundred followers over the
+Andes, where he was joined by O'Higgins and the more determined
+patriots. This influx of the pick of the fighting men of Chile was a
+valuable reinforcement for the army which San Martin was already
+organising behind the shelter of the eastern foothills. Between the
+rival Chilean leaders, Carrera and O'Higgins, he chose the latter, gave
+him his confidence, and made him his chief lieutenant, while Carrera,
+finding no place in San Martin's entourage, went on to Buenos Aires,
+never again to return to his native country.
+
+Both aristocracy and people in Chile were tired of the military misrule
+which they had suffered during the dominance of the patriot chiefs. A
+deputation of the most prominent citizens went to welcome General Osorio
+as he advanced to Santiago after the battle of Rancagua. Within a month
+the Spanish power was securely re-established throughout the country.
+The leading revolutionists who remained in Chile were executed or
+banished, more than a hundred being exiled to the desolate island of
+Juan Fernandez. During two years and a half--from 1814 to 1817--Osorio
+and his successor, Marco del Ponte, ruled Chile with a rod of iron. So
+far as possible everything was restored as it had been before 1810. The
+Spanish judges were reinstated, elective municipal councils abolished,
+the newspapers suppressed, and all the liberal reforms revoked.
+
+Meanwhile San Martin, behind the screen of the Andes, and only a hundred
+and fifty miles from Santiago, was forging a thunderbolt destined to
+shatter into fragments the edifice which Abascal had been so skilfully
+constructing through seven laborious years. The story of how the silent
+Argentine gathered and equipped the "Army of the Andes" has already been
+told. In the chapter devoted to Argentina the reader will find a meagre
+description of his marvellous march over the cloud-high passes, the
+descent into the plain of Aconcagua made so suddenly that the Spanish
+forces could not hurry up to bar his way, the prompt advance over the
+low transverse range which forms the northern boundary of the plain
+where Santiago stands, and the overwhelming victory in the gorge of
+Chacabuco against the pick of the Spanish veterans, who confidently
+stood to the attack, never dreaming until San Martin was right upon them
+that his main body had had time to reach the spot. The Spanish
+authorities at Madrid and Lima had made the irretrievable mistake of
+underestimating the efficiency of his army. They thought the troops in
+Chile amply able to take care of any four thousand men the patriots
+could get together, but San Martin's army was differently provided and
+organised than the undisciplined masses which had been routed at Huaqui,
+Villapugio, and Rancagua. The Spanish generals were not so much
+surprised at his crossing the Andes as at finding the troops which
+reached the Chilean plains to be well furnished with artillery, cavalry,
+and ammunition, perfectly ready for an aggressive campaign, and a match
+man for man for any force that could be brought against them.
+
+  [Illustration: RAILROAD BRIDGE BETWEEN SANTIAGO AND VALPARAISO.]
+
+The royalists lost twelve hundred of their best men at Chacabuco; only a
+thousand escaped from the field to fly in disorder toward Santiago. On
+the way they met the Spanish cavalry riding to join them, but
+Captain-General Marco, instead of rallying the three thousand men who
+remained under his orders, hurried out of town toward Valparaiso,
+anxious for his personal safety. San Martin had expected to be obliged
+to fight another battle and kept his army together, instead of pursuing
+and annihilating the dismayed Spaniards. More than half the latter
+managed to escape to Valparaiso, where they embarked for Peru. Santiago
+received the conqueror with no great enthusiasm. The moneyed classes
+feared another prolonged civil war with its attendant confiscations,
+forced contributions, and general disorder; the common people cared
+little whether a Spaniard or an Argentine occupied the governmental
+palace. However, no one dreamed of resistance; the partisans of the
+proscribed patriots and the votaries of independence and liberalism were
+delighted; San Martin with his host of hardy gauchos and Chilean exiles
+assumed full control of the capital. He summoned an assembly of notables
+who promptly and unanimously elected him "Governor of Chile with plenary
+powers." But this was not what the far-sighted and patriotic soldier
+wanted. He realised that Chile could never give that unquestioning
+support so vital to the success of his cherished campaign against Peru
+so long as any stranger, even himself, governed by force. San Martin
+peremptorily declined the honour, but intimated that he would be glad to
+see his staunch friend, O'Higgins, selected dictator, and accordingly
+the enemy of the Carreras was placed at the head of the new Chilean
+government.
+
+With eyes fixed on a Peruvian campaign it was only natural that San
+Martin should leave immediate details in Chile to others. Though all
+central Chile submitted with good grace, the South remained a stronghold
+of the Spanish sympathisers. Among its warlike people the royalist
+armies had been recruited, and there lay the two strongest
+fortresses--Talcahuano and Valdivia--both of them still in possession of
+the Spaniards. After two months' delay, Las Heras, with a thousand men,
+was despatched, but his force was inadequate and his advance slow.
+Before he arrived near Concepcion, an able Spanish general, Ordonez, who
+had fought side by side with San Martin in Spain, had organised a
+division equal in numbers, with which he retired to Concepcion and there
+was joined by the sixteen hundred troops who had escaped after the rout
+at Chacabuco, and who had been ordered back to Chile the moment they
+made their appearance at Callao. The Spanish general now thought himself
+strong enough to annihilate Las Heras, but the sortie which he led was
+beaten back in the battle of Gavilan. However, this victory was in no
+way decisive, and the patriots were not able to make any impression on
+the fortifications at Talcahuano or to advance south of the Biobio.
+Southern Chile remained hostile and Talcahuano and Valdivia were open
+doors through which the Spaniards could send reinforcements and supplies
+as long as they held command of the sea.
+
+San Martin remained in Santiago only a short time after Chacabuco.
+Prepossessed with the idea that Chile could never be safe or Peru won
+until he had organised a fleet to wrest control of the Pacific from the
+Spaniards, he hastened across the Andes to arrange with his friends in
+the Argentine government for the necessary money. The Chilean campaign
+had saved Buenos Aires from impending invasion; the Argentine patriots
+would certainly be crushed if Chile should fall back into Spanish hands;
+they could never feel secure so long as Peru and Bolivia remained
+royalist. The promises which he asked were readily given, on his
+agreeing that Chile should contribute three hundred thousand dollars
+toward the purchase of a squadron on the Pacific, and forty thousand for
+the support of the Argentine army on the Bolivian frontier, besides
+taking the responsibility of the pay and maintenance of the Army of the
+Andes. Argentina was to aid in purchasing the fleet and hold back the
+Spaniards on the Bolivian border.
+
+San Martin returned to Chile, where he was shortly followed by an
+official representative of the Argentine government and the alliance
+created by Chacabuco received formal sanction. He found Chilean affairs
+in a very unsatisfactory condition. O'Higgins was hated by the powerful
+partisans of the Carreras, and distrusted by Chileans generally as too
+much under Argentine influence. His power really rested upon Argentine
+bayonets; his appointment of Quintana, an Argentine and San Martin's
+aide-de-camp, as acting dictator at Santiago was bitterly resented. San
+Martin's presence did something to allay the feeling, but as a matter of
+fact he had little sympathy for the Chilean people, being a man who
+despised the arts by which popularity is gained, and who made few
+friends. Meanwhile the three Carreras were actively plotting from their
+exile at Buenos Aires for the overthrow of O'Higgins and San Martin.
+Their friends and agents swarmed in Chile and preparations were made for
+a rising as soon as they should set foot in the country. The two younger
+brothers attempted to cross the Andes in disguise, but were detected and
+arrested at Mendoza. Quintana ordered the imprisonment of many persons
+suspected of being Carrera partisans, but his severe measures raised
+national feeling to such a height that it was thought safest to carry
+out San Martin's suggestion and appoint a Chilean as acting dictator in
+his stead.
+
+In the Argentine the position of the patriot government was even worse.
+With civil war actively raging in the one country and only held in check
+by foreign bayonets in the other, and with both governments struggling
+against financial difficulties, it is no wonder that the war-ships which
+were expected to sweep the Spanish frigates from the Pacific did not
+arrive. The delay cost the patriots dear. In January, 1818, four Spanish
+ships, mounting two hundred and thirty cannon sailed into Talcahuano,
+and landed three thousand four hundred well-equipped soldiers, most of
+them peninsular veterans. San Martin, a master of the art of recruiting,
+had raised a second army composed principally of Chileans and nearly
+equal in numbers to the original Army of the Andes, so that his total
+force amounted to nine thousand men, while the Spanish troops did not
+exceed five thousand. The Argentine general was in the dark as to where
+the enemy would land, and had already issued orders for O'Higgins, who
+was in command near Concepcion, to retreat, resolved on concentrating
+his forces near Valparaiso. Even after the Spanish army had disembarked
+at Talcahuano, San Martin was in doubt whether Osorio would not
+re-embark and strike at some unexpected harbour near Santiago. But the
+latter came up steadily by the land route, encountering no opposition
+though somewhat hampered by broken bridges and the bareness of the
+country of horses and supplies, for the retreating O'Higgins had left
+his track a desert. The farther the Spaniards penetrated toward
+Santiago the more difficult became the feeding of their army and the
+more certainly disastrous a retreat in case of reverse.
+
+  [Illustration: TALCAHUANO.]
+
+O'Higgins stopped at Talca to await orders, and there, on the 20th of
+January, 1818, he defiantly made proclamation of Chile's absolute
+independence of Spain. Three weeks later the approach of Osorio's army
+forced him to abandon the place and he retired to form a junction with
+San Martin. The latter completed his concentration and advanced with an
+army of over seven thousand men, superior in all arms and especially in
+cavalry and artillery. About a hundred miles south of Santiago he met
+the Spaniards and won some cavalry skirmishes. The enemy retired toward
+Talca, unwilling with inferior forces to bring on a general action where
+defeat meant annihilation, and even contemplating a retreat to
+Talcahuano. But behind them lay the deep river Maule, and San Martin
+made a dash to reach it first. The two armies marched rapidly on
+parallel lines with the patriot cavalry harassing the Spanish rear. On
+the afternoon of the 19th of March the Spaniards wheeled into line in
+excellent position just outside the city of Talca, with their west flank
+protected by a stretch of broken ground called the Cancha-Rayada. San
+Martin was following close, but the partial attack which be immediately
+made was interrupted by darkness before any decisive results were
+obtained. Hastily going into camp too near the enemy's lines and all
+unprepared for battle, the patriots were surprised at about nine o'clock
+in the evening by the assault of the whole Spanish army. The alarm was
+given by the cavalry pickets, but only a few had time to get into line
+of battle before the enemy was upon them. San Martin over on the extreme
+right heard a few volleys and then the noise of confused flight,
+scattering shots, and the thundering hoof-beats of the pursuing cavalry.
+O'Higgins had been wounded while trying to get his men into order, and
+from that moment the patriots in his neighbourhood thought of nothing
+but escape through the darkness. The centre and left, including the
+cavalry, dispersed in the wildest confusion, abandoning the artillery.
+The right wing, composed of three thousand five hundred infantry, was
+not attacked and waited in stupefaction for two or three hours not
+clearly understanding what had happened. Its officers held a council,
+put Las Heras in command, and by daybreak the division was sixteen miles
+from the field of battle. In the meantime San Martin and O'Higgins had
+found each other, and soon were busily engaged in collecting the
+scattered cavalry. The patriot loss in killed and wounded had been
+small, but a third of their number had deserted and many of the
+remainder searched in vain for their regiments. However, the royalist
+army had been nearly as badly dispersed in making this night attack as
+the patriots in receiving it. No effective pursuit could be made, and
+San Martin retreated on Santiago practically unmolested. The first news
+of the disaster was carried to the capital by fugitive officers. They
+reported that San Martin was killed and O'Higgins mortally wounded, and
+everything lost. Shouts of "Viva el rey" resounded through the streets;
+leading citizens opened communication with Osorio, and the republicans
+prepared for flight to Mendoza or Valparaiso. But the next day word came
+that San Martin himself was safe; and the day following a despatch
+saying he had four thousand men under his orders. With O'Higgins's
+arrival in the city the revolutionary disorders were suppressed, and
+soon San Martin rode into the city. Though half dead through loss of
+sleep, as he drew rein at his house he made the one speech of his life,
+laconically assuring the people that he expected to win the next battle,
+and that right soon.
+
+  [Illustration: NATIVE COSTUMES IN CHILE ABOUT 1840.]
+
+Not forgetting precautions which ensured a safe retreat to the northern
+provinces or the Argentine, he devoted himself to re-organising the
+army, and within ten days after its dispersal had five thousand men
+together, well provided and resolute to give a good account of
+themselves. He took a position on a low line of chalk hills seven miles
+south-west of Santiago, and waited for the enemy, whose numbers were now
+slightly superior to his own. Meanwhile the Spanish officers were
+greatly disappointed at the negative results of Cancha-Rayada; mutual
+reproaches flew back and forth in their council of war; many advocated
+maintaining the defensive and even retreating to the south to be nearer
+their base. Their indecision gave San Martin the needed opportunity to
+gather his dispersed forces and to inspire them with his own confidence.
+Finally, however, Osorio advanced cautiously on Santiago, hoping that
+the Argentine would not risk another battle for the defence of the
+capital, and manoeuvring to the west so as to get between the city and
+the sea. In front of San Martin's position lay another line of chalk
+hills, separated from the first by a narrow stretch of low ground. At
+their western end ran the road from Santiago to Valparaiso. Like the
+Union position at Gettysburg this line of hills was admirably adapted
+for a defensive battle, and Osorio resolved to occupy it, especially as
+he thought his left wing extended far enough west to command the
+Valparaiso road, thereby securing him a communication with a new and
+more convenient base on the coast and giving him a line of retreat in
+case of a reverse. But San Martin's quick eye saw that this opinion was
+mistaken; and that his opponent might easily be cut off.
+
+San Martin's tactical dispositions were admirably made on the momentous
+morning of April 5, 1818. He divided his army into two divisions and a
+reserve, stationing the latter on the extreme east of his line. Under
+cover of a heavy artillery fire the west division rushed down the slope,
+across the bottom, and up the hills commanding the Valparaiso road. The
+counter-charge of the Spanish horsemen was repulsed by the superior
+patriot cavalry, and the Spanish west wing was isolated from the rest of
+the army. Meanwhile the patriots' east division, composed of the bulk of
+their infantry, had charged straight across the narrow part of the
+bottom and reached the high ground opposite without seeing an enemy, but
+there was met by a terrific charge from the royalist infantry, and
+rolled in confusion back down the hill. Regardless of the artillery
+fire, the Spaniards were pursuing triumphantly over the low ground, when
+suddenly their eastern flank received the charge of the patriot reserve,
+which had advanced obliquely from its original position on the extreme
+east. This movement decided the battle. The Spanish infantry could not
+re-form to meet it, and were rolled up in helpless confusion. The flying
+patriot infantry rallied and returned to the attack; their cavalry,
+already victorious at the other end of the line, turned and charged the
+west flank of the Spaniards, who, simultaneously taken at both ends and
+in front, were cut down by hundreds. A few managed to keep their
+formation and fell back to the farm of Espejo, behind whose extensive
+buildings and garden walls they entrenched themselves, determined to
+sell their lives as dearly as possible. Joined by their left wing,
+which, unable to reach the centre where the hard fighting had taken
+place, had suffered little loss, they withstood the attack of the
+victorious patriot army. But the artillery was brought up, the walls
+knocked to pieces, and the position carried in the midst of the most
+frightful carnage. The infuriated patriots gave no quarter until General
+Las Heras rode among them and begged them to desist from the inhuman
+slaughter.
+
+Maipo was the hardest fought battle in all the wars of South American
+independence. Of five thousand royalists, twelve hundred were killed,
+eight hundred wounded, and two thousand two hundred made prisoners. Only
+eight hundred escaped, flying south toward safety at Talcahuano, of whom
+less than a hundred held together until they reached the Spanish
+fortifications. Of the patriots more than a fifth were killed and
+wounded--the greatest sufferers being the freed negroes whom San Martin
+had recruited in the Argentine. Half of these brave fellows were left on
+the field.
+
+Juan and Luiz Carrera, imprisoned at Mendoza, had been an embarrassment
+and menace to San Martin and O'Higgins. The latter hated them too much
+to be willing to make terms, and yet he feared that their execution
+would cause an insurrection by their family and party friends in Chile.
+A criminal prosecution had been trumped up against them and proceedings
+delayed on various pretexts. The news of the disaster at Cancha-Rayada
+was their death sentence. Dr. Monteagudo, O'Higgins's representative,
+acting as judge, sentenced them to death at three o'clock one afternoon
+and sent them to the shooting bench at five. Every Chilean who did not
+belong to the O'Higgins faction was profoundly shocked at this murder.
+Though the victims were agitators and revolutionists they belonged to
+one of the most respected families in Chile; with their older brother
+they had been the leaders in the first war against Spain; their devotion
+to the cause of independence was unquestioned, and they embodied the
+national sentiment which opposed the Argentine army's remaining on
+Chilean soil.
+
+Pursuit of the Spaniards flying from the field of Maipo was hardly over
+when open opposition to O'Higgins and his policy broke out. A cavalry
+corps--the "Husares de la Muerte"--composed of Carrera partisans had
+volunteered after the rout at Cancha-Rayada and rendered valuable
+service at Maipo. O'Higgins ordered it to disband. An open cabildo met
+which voted the dictator's deposition, but his soldiers arrested the
+Carrera leader, shot him in cold blood, and the citizens had no
+alternative but to disperse and submit. O'Higgins undertook to crush the
+opposition by ferociously persecuting his republican enemies and
+rapaciously confiscating the property of the royalists. This so occupied
+him that he was unable to pay much attention to the Spaniards in the
+south. Osorio gathered a small force at Talcahuano, easily beat off some
+desultory expeditions which the patriots sent against him, and from May
+until September held the whole country south of the Maule. But after the
+slaughter at Maipo the viceroy had all he could do defending Peru and
+Bolivia. Late in the year Osorio withdrew with most of his troops,
+leaving only meagre garrisons in the fortresses of southern Chile.
+
+San Martin had remained only a few days in Santiago, hurrying back to
+Buenos Aires to try to induce the Argentine government to carry out its
+promises of the year before and aid in the purchase of a fleet. Just
+before his departure an East Indiaman, carrying forty-four guns, had
+arrived at Valparaiso and the Chilean treasury was emptied to pay for
+her. When he reached Buenos Aires his friend Puerreyedon, the Argentine
+dictator, agreed to raise a loan of five hundred thousand dollars and
+send around two ships of the Argentine navy. San Martin immediately took
+the road for Chile, but at Mendoza a letter came forbidding him to draw
+on the Argentine treasury. He resigned, but the Argentine authorities,
+dismayed at the consequences of his withdrawal, finally gave him two
+hundred thousand dollars.
+
+The winter storms make the Andean passes impracticable, and it was
+October before the general reached Santiago, where to his delight he
+found that O'Higgins had already got together a considerable squadron.
+The East Indiaman, bought just before Maipo, and manned by British and
+North American officers, had succeeded in capturing a Spanish brig. Two
+American privateers were shortly afterwards bought by the Chilean
+government, and their arrival was followed by that of an English vessel
+purchased by San Martin's agent in London. Others were on their way from
+the United States and two Argentine ships were reported to be coming
+around Cape Horn. A few days prior to San Martin's return to Santiago,
+Chile's two frigates with two smaller consorts had sailed south from
+Valparaiso in the hope of intercepting a fleet of transports, carrying
+two thousand troops and a great quantity of arms, which the Spanish
+government had sent around the Horn from Cadiz convoyed by a fifty-gun
+frigate. Stormy weather had, however, scattered the royalist fleet and
+more than half the transports gave up the attempt to weather the
+formidable promontory, though the frigate and the others succeeded. The
+transports evaded the Chileans and reached Callao in safety, but the
+frigate was caught lying at anchor in Talcahuano, and proved an
+important addition to the patriot navy.
+
+The object for which San Martin had been planning and working during two
+years was achieved. His naval force, manned by professional sailors
+picked from among the best sea-fighting people of the world, was too
+formidable for the enemy to dare to attack. Chile was safe from invasion
+and Peru lay open to a descent. San Martin's first care was to wrest
+southern Chile from the Spaniards. To leave them in control of a fertile
+and populous territory where they could recruit troops, collect
+provisions, and menace Santiago was not safe. Toward the end of 1818 he
+sent his lieutenant, Balcarce, an Argentine, against them at the head of
+thirty-five hundred men. Such a force was irresistible; Chillan,
+Concepcion, and Talcahuano were abandoned and the Spanish commander shut
+himself up in the fortress of Valdivia.
+
+But when San Martin came to face the question of organising and
+equipping an army adequate for the invasion of Peru he found the
+Chileans cold and indifferent. The success of their fleet had insured
+them against assault, and they appeared to be chiefly interested in
+getting rid of the Argentine army of occupation. The soldiers had not
+received their pay, and though O'Higgins issued a proclamation
+announcing an expedition to Peru, San Martin waited around for months
+without receiving the promised aid. Finally he presented his resignation
+as general-in-chief of the proposed Peruvian expedition, and withdrew
+the Army of the Andes from Santiago, leading a part over the Andes to
+Mendoza and leaving the rest on the Chilean side near the entrance to
+the pass. This measure quickly brought the governments of both Chile and
+Argentina to terms. His presence east of the Andes intimidated the
+rebels against the authorities at Buenos Aires, leaving the latter's
+hands free to aid him, while the O'Higgins party in Chile realised that
+it could not maintain itself without his support. He required five
+hundred thousand dollars for the equipment of an army six thousand
+strong. Chile agreed to furnish three hundred thousand and Argentina
+the remainder, and he returned to Santiago in the middle of 1819 to
+complete his arrangements. While actively engaged in preparations word
+came that civil war had again broken out in the Argentine. San Martin
+was compelled to make his choice between deferring to an indefinite
+future his cherished expedition against Peru, or abandoning his native
+country to probable disintegration. He remained in Chile and though the
+Argentine government, under whose commission he was acting, had ceased
+to exist, he did not shrink from the responsibility of disposing of the
+Army of the Andes. His men cheerfully agreed to follow him, but months
+went by with little accomplished, and it was not until late in 1820 that
+he was able to sail for Peru, and then with only four thousand men
+instead of the six he had counted on. With his departure his influence
+on the affairs of Chile ceased.
+
+Lord Thomas Cochrane, a very able but very erratic British naval
+officer, who had gone into politics and got into trouble in his native
+country, arrived in November, 1818, to take command of the patriot navy.
+Under his dashing and restless leadership no time was lost in pushing
+naval operations. The year 1819 was spent in expeditions to the Peruvian
+and Ecuadorian coast; Callao was repeatedly bombarded, and the Spanish
+fleet took refuge under the guns of the fortresses, leaving the sea free
+to the patriots. Failing in a desperate attempt to cut out the Spanish
+ships from under the very guns of the Callao batteries, Cochrane sent
+all his vessels except his flag-ship to Valparaiso, and sailed with her
+for Valdivia, the last port held by the Spaniards on the Chilean
+mainland. The place was a very Gibraltar of natural strength, and had
+been well fortified. Nine forts and batteries disposed on both sides of
+the narrow estuary were garrisoned by over a thousand men; nevertheless
+Cochrane prepared to capture them by assault with his single ship.
+Stopping at Talcahuano he took on board two hundred and fifty Chilean
+soldiers, and was fortunate in finding two smaller ships. His flag-ship
+stranded; he transferred the marines to the other ships and went on;
+reaching the Valdivia bar, he landed without giving the Spaniards a
+moment's time to bring up reinforcements, and at the head of his
+soldiers and marines he attacked the outermost fort. Though defended by
+three hundred and sixty men its resistance was short. While Cochrane's
+main body advanced up a narrow path drawing the garrison's fire, a
+detachment found a neglected entrance in the rear through which they
+poured a volley on the defenders. Panic-stricken, the Spaniards fled to
+the next fort, but the patriots followed so close that no stand could be
+made. One after another all the forts on the south side of the estuary
+were rushed. Next day Cochrane's two smaller ships sailed into the
+harbour under the fire of the northern forts, and soon after the
+half-disabled flag-ship made her appearance. Seeing the long-boats
+filling with men and the cannons of the ships ready to open fire, the
+Spaniards fled to the city and surrendered the following day. This
+capture deprived the royalists of their last base of operations in
+Chile, and only the Chiloe Islands and a few scattered guerilla bands
+among the Indians of Araucania remained faithful.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE FORMATIVE PERIOD
+
+
+The long struggle against Spain accustoming Chileans to military service
+and uprooting the system under which the country had been ruled for
+centuries, necessarily placed the control of government in the hands of
+the generals. Like all other Spanish-American countries Chile had to
+pass through a period of irresponsible pretorian rule and the
+sterilising horrors of wars in which one ambitious chief tried to
+displace another. But anarchy lasted only a short time; the civil
+element was powerful even at the beginning; and Chileans never acquired
+the revolution habit. Her government has been stable longest and her
+political history the least checkered of any Spanish-American country.
+To this result, so happy for the internal prosperity and external power
+of the nation, several causes have co-operated. First of all has been
+the existence of a powerful landed aristocracy whose interests lay
+rather in cultivating their estates in the security of peace and order
+than in trying to make fortunes by taxes wrung from a poverty-stricken,
+reluctant proletariat. The people are by climate and inheritance
+industrious, naturally inclined toward industrial progress, agricultural
+rather than pastoral, prolific and colonising, and though pugnacious,
+they are not, like the inert Indians of the Andean and Central American
+countries, to be bullied into following the first revolutionary chief
+who comes along. Further the country is geographically compact--a narrow
+strip of plain with easy communication between its provinces, and,
+unlike the Argentine and Colombia, not divided into widely distant
+districts, each with its isolated capital, its local chiefs, its
+ambition for hegemony and autonomy.
+
+In the throes of the first war for independence Carrera was hardly able
+to maintain himself, and a civil revolution had as much to do with his
+overthrow as his military misfortunes. O'Higgins, even while supported
+by San Martin's army of Argentine veterans, held control by a very
+precarious grip. During 1819 and 1820 there were no serious troubles
+because attention was absorbed by the war against Peru and over
+Cochrane's naval victories, but no sooner had San Martin left, than
+symptoms of discontent again appeared on the surface. Complaints against
+the arbitrary and corrupt practices of O'Higgins's ministers were loud
+and unrestrainable; the aristocracy opposed his measures, and the very
+senate he had appointed to assist in the government openly obstructed
+him. Theoretically a radical, he called a national congress to establish
+the new nation on a democratic basis. However, even his own nominees
+moved slowly, while Coquimbo, the northern, and Concepcion, the
+southern capital, were hotbeds of opposition. In the latter part of 1822
+General Freire, the hero of the campaign which had redeemed southern
+Chile, took the initiative at Concepcion. The southern provinces
+declared against O'Higgins; Freire prepared to advance on Santiago.
+Coquimbo followed--an old Carrera partisan assuming the governorship.
+The northern revolutionists invaded the centre, while news came that
+Freire was rapidly coming up from the south. In January, 1823, O'Higgins
+handed his resignation to a committee of Santiago citizens, who
+appointed a temporary junta and summoned a congress. A few days later
+General Freire landed at Valparaiso with sixteen hundred soldiers, and
+on his advancing to the neighbourhood of the capital, congress very
+prudently offered him the dictatorship. The aristocracy and the people
+soon found that they had gained nothing in this exchange of masters.
+After a short spasm of reform, the public finances fell into horrible
+disorder, while the ruling clique enriched itself at the expense of the
+treasury.
+
+Freire permitted congress to promulgate a Constitution which in effect
+recognised the aristocracy as the dominant political element, but at
+heart he was a radical and an absolutist, and the document soon proved
+to be only so much waste paper. He showed his anti-clerical tendencies
+by refusing to come to any agreement with the Pope's representative, who
+arrived in 1824 charged with the reorganisation of the Chilean
+hierarchy. He summarily banished the Bishop of Santiago because of his
+royalist leanings, and issued decrees confiscating Church property. In
+1825 he dissolved congress and for some months ruled frankly as a
+dictator. When he issued writs for a new national assembly he solemnly
+promised not to interfere in the elections, but so little confidence was
+felt that, outside of Santiago, no one participated and from there only
+a few members were returned. Freire soon quarreled with this rump
+parliament, and its dissolution was followed by political confusion in
+which parties became daily more sharply defined and acrimonious. There
+were "federalists," who advocated provincial assemblies; "pipiolas," who
+followed the strong liberal chief, General Pinto; "o'higginistas," who
+favoured the return of the former dictator; and finally the
+conservatives, nicknamed "pelucones" from the perukes--pelucas in
+Spanish--which old-fashioned Chilean gentlemen wore. Only the military
+power and prestige of Freire, coupled with his real abilities and
+resolution, prevented attempts at forcibly displacing him.
+
+Early in 1826 the Spaniards who until then had held out on the island of
+Chiloe, surrendered, and this signal service to the country somewhat
+strengthened the dictator. In July of that year a congress met, composed
+of men favourable to Freire, and a majority of the members were
+federalists, who divided Chile into eight autonomous provinces. But it
+soon became evident that such a system must encounter strong opposition.
+The provincial assemblies would pass laws at variance with the measures
+of the central government, and in the next moment adopt resolutions
+instructing their delegates in the national congress to oppose the
+permanent establishment of a federated republic, declaring emphatically
+in favour of national unity. Nevertheless, the liberals persisted in
+their efforts to impose on the reluctant country a brand new form of
+government. Doctrinaires and soldiers were still in the saddle, and only
+close observation of the signs of the times revealed the fact that
+discussion was becoming broader and the military elements in danger of
+losing their preponderance. By the beginning of 1827 Freire had sunk to
+be little more than the doubtful leader of a fraction of a party. His
+administration was in horrible financial straits, the expenditures were
+twice the income, and in May he resigned in favour of the
+vice-president, General Pinto. The latter was an eminent lawyer as well
+as a brave soldier, who held very radical views. Continuing the policy
+of his predecessor he summoned a congress which swept away the old
+Constitution and framed one that was frankly federalistic, and during
+1828 and 1829 he and his party struggled to put it into application. But
+the sullen resistance of the aristocrats and the rivalries among the
+jealous liberal leaders were too much for him. Party passion became so
+acute and politicians so irritated and aggressive that it became
+impossible to carry on any regular government. In November Pinto
+resigned and Vicuna, president of the senate, tried his hand at holding
+the liberals together and suppressing the now confident and aggressive
+conservatives.
+
+Not only political but also social anarchy obtained throughout the
+country. Disorders were prevalent, robberies occurred daily, life was
+unsafe, foreigners were fleeing to Valparaiso. General Prieto,
+commanding the army on the Araucanian frontier, revolted and began a
+march on the capital. Vicuna hurried to the northern provinces to try to
+hold them quiet, while General Lastra went against Prieto. Under the
+leadership of Portales, the ablest statesman Chile has ever produced,
+the conservatives at Santiago organised a junta and bade open defiance
+to the liberals. When Lastra and Prieto met there was no fighting. The
+two generals held a conference and arranged a compromise by which Freire
+was to be recalled. But affairs at Santiago were in more resolute hands
+than theirs. Portales absolutely refused to agree, and back of him stood
+the conservative party, well organised and knowing clearly what it
+wanted. The conservatives had the land, the wealth, the prestige of
+social position, the ardent support of the clergy; their influence
+ramified everywhere; they had been welded together during the long
+dominance of the liberals; and, best of all, they followed a strong
+leader. The army could not be united in unquestioning support of any one
+general. Prieto decided to cast his lot with the conservatives, and
+occupied Santiago. The congress which was hastily elected naturally
+proved frankly and aggressively conservative. The liberals flew to arms,
+calling on Freire to lead them, and two thousand Chileans perished in
+battle before the final and decisive conservative victory at Lircay
+(April 17, 1830). Freire fled to Peru, Prieto was elected provisional
+president, and Portales became vice-president.
+
+  [Illustration: VIEW OF SANTIAGO, CHILE, ABOUT 1835.]
+
+Though he owed his elevation to his military successes the new president
+did not attempt to rule as a dictator, and co-operated cordially with
+the vice-president in organising a parliamentary civil government on an
+enduring basis. Prieto played not illy the role of a Washington to
+Portales' Hamilton. Militarism, radicalism, and federalism had been
+tried and found wanting and the great conservative statesman took care
+that the new order should be tainted with none of them. Two years were
+spent in careful experiment and deliberation, and the Constitution
+framed in 1833 has remained, with a few amendments, the fundamental law
+of Chile to this day. The most aristocratic and centralised of American
+Constitutions, it has given Chile the strongest and stablest government
+in Spanish America. The foundation of political power is the
+property-holding class. No man may vote unless he possesses land,
+invested capital, or an equivalent income from his trade or profession,
+and congress may fix the amount of the qualification as high as it
+pleases. Political power originated in the oligarchy, and its exercise
+was delegated to a president whose functions are even more extensive
+than those of the chief magistrate of the United States. _Ipso facto_
+commander-in-chief of the armed forces, free to select his cabinet and
+the chief functionaries of state without the confirmation of a senate,
+not subject to impeachment, possessing an effective control over the
+judiciary, given a practically absolute veto, with the intendentes of
+the provinces and the governors of the departments receiving from him
+their commissions and acting as his agents, it would seem that the
+president of Chile is little less than an absolute and irresponsible
+ruler. But from the beginning the executive was in practice dependent
+upon the oligarchy as represented in congress. The instances in which a
+president has tried to rule in defiance of the wishes of the aristocracy
+have been rare, and never successful.
+
+When Prieto's first term expired in 1836, many of the conservatives
+pressed Portales to accept the presidency, but he was satisfied with his
+place as chief minister. Under his vigorous and intelligent direction
+the courts and clergy had been reformed, the police organised, a
+national guard created, the budgets balanced, the executive and congress
+worked harmoniously together, peace and order had replaced confusion.
+Chile's feet had been placed on the path of social and industrial
+progress.
+
+The exiled Freire meanwhile was receiving aid from Santa Cruz who had
+recently created the Peru-Bolivian Confederation with himself as its
+chief, and whose ambitious designs included the installation of a
+government in Chile which would be his complaisant and obliged friend.
+With arms obtained in Peru, General Freire made a descent upon the
+island of Chiloe, but the rebellion was quickly suppressed, war declared
+against Santa Cruz, and the Peruvian fleet surprised and seized. While
+the army of invasion was waiting for the order to embark a few companies
+engaged in a mutiny which brought about a horrible tragedy. Portales had
+come to the camp to watch the preparations. The mutineers seized him as
+hostage, and fleeing to the interior carried him along locked in a
+closed carriage. In the middle of the winter night they encountered a
+detachment of government troops, and with the first volley the guards
+stopped the carriage. A man got out, walked unflinchingly to the side of
+the road, a half dozen shots rang out in the still air, and he fell.
+When the first light of dawn illumined the field, the victorious
+national guards found a body lying pierced by four bullets--it was
+Portales. But his work had been too thoroughly done for even his own
+death to affect it. He had found his country feeble and divided, torn by
+feud and faction; he left her prosperous, united, possessing surplus
+vitality for a successful foreign war. Prieto and the conservatives were
+not shaken; the expedition to Peru proceeded, and though the first
+failed, the second won the battle of Yungay, overthrew Santa Cruz, and
+made Chile the dominant power on the Pacific coast.
+
+At the end of his two terms of five years each, Prieto was succeeded by
+General Bulnes, the hero of the war. Foreign commerce was increasing by
+leaps and bounds; the growth of the customs revenues put government
+finances on a sound footing; the expenses of the war against Santa Cruz
+had been provided for out of current income. William Wheelwright had
+established the first steamship line on the Pacific. The political
+policy of Bulnes was as repressive toward the liberals as his
+predecessor's. However, education and literary activity were encouraged;
+a new university was inaugurated at Santiago in 1843. The opera and the
+drama flourished, and society took on a more intellectual and
+cosmopolitan tone. Even religious doctrine and the relations of Church
+and State were discussed with considerable freedom and warmth, and
+everywhere were signs of an awakening--a flowering out of the
+industrial, commercial, and intellectual life of the nation. German
+colonists were induced to settle in the forested valleys and mountains
+of the South, and that part of Chile became and has remained more
+Teutonic than Latin. The discovery of gold in California opened a market
+for Chilean wheat and gave a fresh impetus to commerce and agriculture,
+while the mines of Copiapo began to yield their inexhaustible wealth.
+
+Bulnes was re-elected without opposition in 1846, but a new Chile had
+grown up in the fifteen years of peaceful order. Though the old liberals
+had disappeared, a new party had arisen all the more formidable because
+its principles were moderate and it sought not dictatorships, military
+government, or federalism, but only administrative reforms, such as
+restraining the clergy and widening the suffrage. By 1849 the liberals
+had a majority in congress and an agitated session ensued. The
+conservative president was pushed into an attitude of uncompromising
+resistance to the liberal demands. Manuel Montt, the intellectual leader
+of the conservatives, a strong and ambitious man, who was known to have
+the courage and firmness to maintain himself against odds, was selected
+as Bulnes' successor. His elevation in the spring of 1851 was followed
+by an armed outbreak, which the government troops suppressed, but in
+September the revolution flamed forth with redoubled fury.
+
+From Concepcion, the liberal headquarters, marched an army which gained
+several victories and even threatened the capital. But the conservatives
+rallied and in December the issue was decided by the bloody battle of
+Loncomilla. In Chile, a narrow plain shut in between the Andes and the
+sea, losers cannot hide; a single encounter in force is enough; civil
+wars cannot be prolonged in remote provinces or by the flight of the
+defeated to inaccessible deserts. Though the destruction of life and
+property had been frightful--four thousand Chileans perishing and
+commerce and industry being paralysed for the moment--peace was
+immediately re-established and the nation rapidly recovered. A general
+amnesty buried the doings of the insurgents in oblivion, and former
+liberals were welcomed as members of the party which Montt and Varas,
+his able minister, organised. Though their faces were set against
+political innovations they adopted many important administrative
+reforms. The admirable civil code prepared by Bello was given to the
+country, replacing the complicated and confusing mass of old Spanish
+laws by clear and systematic legislation. The tariff was lowered and
+differential duties as between foreign countries were abolished.
+Commercial courts were installed, decimal coinage adopted, church tithes
+converted into a moderate fixed tax, treaties of commerce and amity
+negotiated with the great commercial nations, missions established
+among the Araucanians, and public libraries and schools were multiplied.
+
+On the other hand, Montt and Varas relentlessly pursued a policy of
+centralisation, subjecting even the affairs of the municipalities to the
+control of the Santiago bureaucracy. Re-elected as a matter of course in
+1856, Montt's second term was even more intransigent than his first.
+Many leading liberals were driven from the country, and minor
+insurrections broke out more than once, only to be sternly suppressed.
+The landed aristocracy had, however, ceased to be unanimous against
+concessions; its more progressive members belonged now to the liberal
+party; and the "montt-varistas" in congress were compelled to ally
+themselves now with the clericals, now with the liberals, in order to
+secure a working majority. In 1858 Montt came to an open rupture with
+congress because it insisted on passing a law permitting the return of
+his banished political enemies. Meanwhile he had alienated the clergy by
+compelling the ecclesiastical authorities to submit to the decisions of
+the civil tribunals, and some conservatives united with the liberals
+against him in the elections in the fall of 1858. His measures became
+arbitrary and oppressive. Newspapers were suppressed, meetings
+dispersed, and agitators imprisoned. At the end of the year a great
+meeting was called at the capital to promote a reform of the
+Constitution. The government forbade it as a menace to public order, and
+the dissatisfaction was so wide-spread that Montt proclaimed martial
+law.
+
+The liberals in the southern and northern provinces simultaneously rose
+in rebellion and for four months civil war raged furiously. Gallo, a
+young, rich, and powerful leader, was at the head of the insurrection in
+the North and at first he defeated the government forces and occupied
+Coquimbo. But his hopes were crushed by the news that the southern
+liberals advancing from Concepcion had been repulsed at Chillan,
+enabling Montt to concentrate the whole army against him. Four thousand
+regulars routed the two thousand men who followed Gallo, and the
+remnants fled across the Argentine border. Defeated and banished, the
+liberals in reality had won. The seriousness of the rebellion had
+convinced the aristocracy that concessions must be made or a renewal of
+the conflict would be inevitable. Montt did not seek a re-election, and
+it was necessary to unite on some man of high personal prestige, and of
+distinguished family, who had remained neutral in the recent struggle.
+Such a one was found in Perez, who accordingly received the unanimous
+vote of the electoral college and was inaugurated in 1861. That the new
+president's policy would be one of reconciliation and compromise was
+soon made evident by his procuring the passage of a law granting amnesty
+for political offences. A coalition of moderate liberals and
+conservatives threw Montt and Varas with their party of "nationalists"
+into opposition along with the radicals or "reds" under the leadership
+of Gallo. The curious spectacle was presented of two sets of men, united
+in an alliance against the administration, who only two years before had
+been fighting in the field, and who now professed the most radically
+divergent political opinions. Fierce parliamentary struggles ensued, but
+they were confined to the floor of congress and to changes in the
+ministry.
+
+The country had now recovered from the commercial panic of the fifties
+and from the devastations of the brief civil war, and proceeded again on
+the even tenor of its prosperous commercial way. The railroad from
+Valparaiso to Santiago was completed in 1863; lines were extended up and
+down the great central valleys; the telegraph system was enlarged;
+Chilean capitalists began to push up the desert northern coast to engage
+in the guano business; the German immigration to southern Chile
+continued and European colonisation was fostered. Indeed, no South
+American country has incorporated such a large proportion of North
+European blood; and British, German, and French names are common not
+only in commerce and industry, but also in the political, naval, and
+military services--witness Mackenna, O'Higgins, Beauchef, Godoy, Montt,
+Walker, Edwards, MacIver, Tupper, Prat, Larrain, MacClure, Koenig,
+Mathieu, Stuven, Ross, Marchant, Cumming, Day, Stephan, and a hundred
+others.
+
+In 1865 a war with Spain interrupted domestic progress, political as
+well as commercial. Engaged in a dispute with Peru, the Spanish
+government had sent an overwhelming fleet to enforce its demands, and
+seized the Chincha Islands. The Spanish admiral was reported to have
+justified this high-handed act upon the ground that Peru was still
+subject to Spain. If this was true of the one country it was of the
+other, and the Chileans believed their territorial integrity and even
+their independence menaced. Government and people manifested an active
+sympathy with Peru; Peruvian vessels were allowed to coal; newspapers
+were filled with abuse of Spain; and a riot occurred in front of the
+Spanish legation. In September, 1865, the Spanish fleet sailed into
+Valparaiso Bay and its admiral presented an ultimatum. Four days were
+given for a satisfactory explanation, an apology, and a salute to the
+Spanish flag. Failing this he would blockade the coast and procure
+indemnification by force. The Chilean government rejected the
+humiliating proposition; the blockade was established, and the
+administration, backed by the enthusiastic approval of the whole
+country, refused to make any concessions, though Chile's fleet consisted
+of one small vessel and her ports were at the enemy's mercy. The single
+Chilean steamer succeeded in capturing a Spanish gunboat, which so
+humiliated the admiral that he committed suicide, and when, in March,
+1866, Chile refused even to disclaim an intention of insulting Spain, or
+to exchange salutes, the Spaniards proceeded to bombard Valparaiso. The
+town was totally without defences and open to cannon fire; ten millions
+of property were destroyed in the three hours and a half that the
+cannonading lasted, nine-tenths of it being on the water-front and
+belonging to foreign merchants. The Spanish fleet then withdrew,
+although the original question remained exactly as at the outset.
+
+  [Illustration: VIEW OF VALPARAISO.]
+
+An indirect result of the common danger of the Pacific nations was an
+agreement in 1866 between Chile and Bolivia as to their boundary on the
+coast. The line was fixed at the 24th degree, but Chileans were allowed
+to continue to exploit guano and nitrate as far north as the 23d--an
+arrangement which gave their country substantial claims in a region
+which shortly proved a marvellous producer of ready money. The German
+colonisation in the South continued on an increasing scale during the
+late sixties; free land was given to immigrants and their passage paid.
+The Araucanians, resenting the influx of whites so near their own
+territory, began to make trouble, and a war went on through 1868, 1869,
+and 1870, which finally resulted in their suing for peace. A line of
+forts kept them in order and they ceased to be a disturbing factor in
+Chilean affairs.
+
+Perez had been re-elected in 1866, and his second term marks the
+beginning of a new era in Chilean politics. The dynamic elements had
+finally become stronger than the static, and the pressure for amendments
+to the Constitution could no longer be resisted. But in the forty years
+since Portales had fixed the form of the government in its aristocratic
+mould, political traditions had hardened into habits. No really radical
+changes had any serious chance of success. A measure forbidding the
+president to be re-elected was passed, and a desperate fight made to
+extend the suffrage to all who could read and write. Though favoured by
+President Perez the last failed to carry, and the most the liberals
+could obtain was a law reducing the property qualification.
+
+The election in 1871 was warmly contested. The advanced liberals pressed
+hard on the conservatives, who resisted further changes desperately. The
+latter united with the moderate liberals upon Errazuriz as presidential
+candidate to succeed Perez, and receiving the support of the outgoing
+administration he was elected. At first the elements who had elected him
+controlled a majority in congress, but the aggressiveness of the
+liberals and rival ambitions in the government coalition soon overthrew
+the reactionary ministry. Errazuriz changed as congress did and soon
+found himself pushing liberal reforms. The great issue was the
+amenability of the clergy to the civil tribunals. Though fifteen years
+previously President Montt had compelled the reinstatement of two church
+dignitaries deprived of their places by the archbishop, the clergy had
+nevertheless persisted in their claims. The liberals now insisted on the
+adoption of a criminal code which would leave no doubt, and amid bitter
+opposition it was passed. The clericals were further outraged by
+concessions as to Protestant worship and the obligatory teaching of the
+Catholic religion in the state colleges. Though the bill establishing
+civil marriage failed, the anti-clerical movement went so far that the
+old-line conservatives withdrew in disgust from the alliance which had
+existed between them and the moderate liberals since the revolt against
+Montt. Thenceforth the conservative party ceased to be an important
+factor, and the predominant liberals divided into factions who intrigued
+among themselves to organise working congressional majorities, which
+supported ministries and controlled patronage. Political reform went on
+with increasing momentum. To curb the control of elections which the
+ministry in power exercised through the local officers who made up the
+voting lists, minority representation was provided for, but only after
+the moderates had forced the radicals to a compromise, which exempted
+presidential and senatorial elections.
+
+Meanwhile material prosperity was steadily increasing and population
+growing at the rate of one and a half per cent. a year. Coal mines had
+been discovered in southern Chile, railroad building continued, and the
+finding of the rich Caracoles silver mines in 1870, lying near the
+northern limit of the jointly occupied territory, not only opened up
+vistas of wealth, but brought to the front the troublesome question of
+the Bolivian boundary. Peru became alarmed at Chile's rapid progress in
+the nitrate and guano business, Bolivia feared aggressions on the part
+of her powerful neighbour, and in 1872 these two powers entered into a
+defensive alliance intended to protect their joint interests on the
+Pacific coast. The reaction inevitably consequent on rapid commercial
+expansion came in the middle of Errazuriz' term, and was aggravated by a
+fall in the prices of Chilean exports caused by the world panic of 1873.
+The already burdened government finances quickly felt the strain; outgo
+exceeded income, and it was necessary to reduce expenses. Happily the
+debt, though large, was not excessive. Chile had gone in for no such
+reckless carnival of borrowing as Peru and the Argentine, and her bonds
+had been opportunely refunded at a low rate of interest.
+
+As the time for the election approached the radical liberals put forward
+Mackenna on a programme which included not only religious freedom in its
+widest sense, the extension of the common schools, and the abolition of
+the tobacco monopoly, but also railways and internal improvements enough
+to bankrupt the treasury. The moderate liberals were opposed to Mackenna
+and his programme, so the party split. The convention of moderates was
+at first unable to agree on a candidate, but on a second attempt Anibal
+Pinto was nominated. Favoured by the outgoing administration, his
+election was a foregone conclusion.
+
+By this time the dispute with the Argentine over the possession of the
+southern extremity of the continent had become acute, and public feeling
+in both countries had risen to a height perilous to the maintenance of
+peace. The only boundary treaty between Chile and Argentina--that of
+1856--provided that the limits should be as they had been during
+colonial times, but these were not certain because throughout the
+Spanish occupation the territory now disputed had been uninhabited, and
+neither the viceroy of Buenos Aires nor the captains-general of Chile
+had concerned themselves about it. Since independence Chile had always
+claimed to the Andes on the east and to Cape Horn on the south,
+including the region about the Straits of Magellan over to the Atlantic
+side. As early as 1843 she had established a post at the eastern end of
+the straits, and Argentina at first did not seriously dispute her
+possession. In 1870 guano was discovered in the region, and when Chile
+promptly proceeded to treat it as her own the Argentine government
+protested. For ten years the two countries bickered, but with the
+Peruvian war impending Chile thought it wiser to make some concessions,
+and the dispute was finally settled by a treaty in 1881 by which the
+territory was divided, Chile getting the more valuable part with the
+control of both ends of the straits, although this great interoceanic
+waterway was declared neutral and no fortifications may be erected
+there.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+CHILE'S GREATNESS AND THE CIVIL WAR
+
+
+Since 1873 the low prices of Chile's chief exports, wheat and copper,
+had turned the balance of trade against her. The government could not
+make both ends meet, and in 1878 the banks were compelled to suspend
+specie payments. They resorted to the issue of more notes, backed by the
+government's guaranty. Just at this juncture the Bolivian government
+levied a heavy royalty on the nitrate extracted by the Chilean companies
+operating in Bolivian territory. This threatened ruin to the most
+promising enterprise in which Chilean citizens were engaged, and was
+believed to be a manifest violation of the terms of the treaty of 1866.
+The government determined not to stop short of war itself if necessary
+to defend Chilean interests, though war on Bolivia also meant war on her
+ally, Peru.
+
+A meagre description of the stirring events of this contest will be
+found in that part of this volume devoted to Peru. Chile's overwhelming
+victory not only profoundly affected her international position, but
+also her internal condition. The preparations of the spring of 1879
+plunged the government into expenditures which ordinary revenues were
+totally insufficient to meet. A new issue of paper money was resorted
+to, but the interest on the foreign debt was kept up. The first nine
+months of 1879 were an anxious time for Chileans. Pitted against two
+nations whose combined population was nearly double her own, her
+treasury empty, while that of Peru was supplied by the marvellous
+nitrate deposits of Tarapaca, the result appeared doubtful and the
+consequences of failure almost too horrible to face. When the Peruvians
+lost their iron-clad, _Independencia_, hope rose, but the ease with
+which the _Huascar_ eluded the Chilean ships made the people again lose
+confidence in their navy, and the coast towns were terror-stricken. But
+the destruction of the dreaded iron-clad in the naval battle of the 9th
+of October changed in the twinkling of an eye fear into confidence,
+apprehension of national ruin into the joyful assurance that a Chilean
+army would soon be in possession of the Golconda of the Pacific. Within
+a month the Chilean forces were landed in the nitrate country, the
+Peruvians and Bolivians had been chased across the desert, and the
+Chilean collectors were receiving a million and a half a month from the
+royalties of the nitrate mines. A net sum nearly equal to the total
+revenue which Chile previously had been collecting from all sources was
+added to her income, and she was no longer driven to painful expedients
+in order to raise money to meet her military expenses. Although the
+issues of paper money were continued and prices consequently rose,
+business flourished and a period of abundance replaced the hard times
+which had reached a crisis in 1878. The government was able to abolish
+the odious tobacco monopoly, and the war rather lightened than increased
+the burdens of commerce. The centralised government of Chile proved an
+admirable instrument for times of war. The president and his ministry,
+backed by a compact congress, wielded the whole force and resources of
+the country like a weapon fitted to the hand, striking heavy and
+relentless blows until Peru lay prostrate.
+
+After the complete destruction of the allied army by the Tacna campaign
+in March, 1880, the government, confident that a treaty of peace would
+soon be signed, delayed further aggressive operations for several
+months. But the Peruvians were obstinate and later in the year it was
+resolved to carry the war to the centre of the enemy's country. Lima
+fell on the 17th of January, 1881, and the glorious news was received
+while the liberals were contending over whom they should select as a
+candidate to succeed Pinto. There was much striving among the rival
+chiefs and one convention had already adjourned without coming to any
+agreement. Pinto ventured to interfere in a more decided way than any
+previous president had done and his influence was sufficiently powerful
+to induce the liberal party to unite on his personal choice, Santa
+Maria. The opposition tried to rally around the candidacy of General
+Baquedano, the greatest general of the war, but the prestige of the
+administration was too powerful.
+
+Although his nomination had been bitterly opposed by many prominent
+liberals, once in office Santa Maria found means to unite in his support
+a great majority of congress. The members who took their seats in 1882
+were divided into three factions: the liberals proper, as the moderates
+were called, the radicals, and the nationals--few in number but counting
+in their ranks some of the ablest and wealthiest aristocrats in Chile.
+The conservatives, no longer an important factor, had abandoned their
+opposition to the civil reforms which the liberals pressed forward,
+concentrating their efforts on a hopeless but desperate resistance to
+religious innovations. Santa Maria was in full accord with his party,
+and his message of 1883 proclaimed that the time had come for the
+realisation of the oldest and dearest aspirations of Chilean
+liberals--civil marriage and registry, entire liberty of conscience, and
+the secularisation of the cemeteries. In the fierce discussion which
+followed, the eloquent prime minister, Balmaceda, took the lead.
+Although educated for the priesthood he had developed into an
+intransigent radical, a passionate advocate of the completest separation
+of Church and State.
+
+The civil-marriage law was pushed through in spite of the sullen
+resistance of the conservatives and clericals. The women of Chile, the
+old-fashioned elements of society, and the clergy would not accept the
+result. The priests refused to perform a religious ceremony for any one
+who had been married by the civil law, and excommunicated the president
+and his cabinet. Devout Chileans of all classes would not yield on this
+point of conscience, and cursed the liberal politicians as betrayers of
+their God. All other political questions were held in abeyance. Urged by
+their wives and the priests, the conservatives abandoned the attitude of
+abstention from politics which they had so long maintained, and went to
+the polls to do what they could to secure a majority for the repeal of
+the law. But ladies' entreaties and priests' absolutions availed little
+against the government's control of the election machinery, and the law
+remained on the statute books. Opposition centred against the
+presidential candidacy of Balmaceda--the radical, the Anti-Christ, the
+uncompromising. In vain Santa Maria tried to unite the four liberal
+groups--the government liberals, the radicals, the nationals, and the
+new division called dissidents. They refused to meet in a general
+convention. However, a majority, composed of the government liberals,
+the nationals, and a portion of the radicals, decided to support
+Balmaceda and he was triumphantly elected in 1886.
+
+The dissidents, conservatives, and opposition radicals formed a
+formidable minority, determined to obstruct his administration. In the
+closing days of 1885 scenes were enacted on the floor of the Chilean
+congress which resembled recent sessions of the Austrian parliament. The
+revenue and appropriation bills were about to expire, and fresh ones for
+a new fiscal period had to be adopted. Under the regulations every
+member had a right to speak twice on each section, and the minority
+filibustered until the constitutional period for adjournment had
+expired. Santa Maria would have to finish out his administration and
+Balmaceda begin his without supply bills. Under a strict construction of
+the Constitution all government would cease, but Balmaceda was not the
+man to shrink from enforcing the right of self-preservation inherent in
+all governments. The executive calmly proceeded to collect taxes and pay
+expenses according to the provisions of the expired law until a new
+congress met shortly after Balmaceda's inauguration, and this solution
+was peacefully accepted by the country.
+
+Chile had never known a time of such material prosperity as the first
+three years of Balmaceda's administration proved to be. The revenues,
+well-nigh doubled by the nitrate and copper of the provinces wrested
+from Peru, were further increased by the flourishing condition of
+commerce and industry. The administration initiated and carried forward
+many important public works. Large sums were voted for railways,
+colonisation, and schools. Public salaries were raised, the Araucanian
+country colonised, and the Indians finally incorporated as real citizens
+of Chile. The clericals made the best of their defeat, and the liberal
+majority in congress, inspired by Balmaceda's energy, pushed forward
+rapidly on the road of reform and change. A new election law was passed
+and a beginning made toward making the Constitution more democratic.
+
+Balmaceda's first idea was to unite all the liberal factions, conciliate
+the conservatives, and devote himself to a policy of material
+development. Although owing his election to three political parties out
+of the six, he was unwilling and perhaps unable to govern solely by
+their assistance. Instead of regarding himself as the chief of a
+combination of parties, entrusted by it with the direction of affairs
+and under obligations to act in harmony with it, he did not hesitate to
+accept the help offered by his former political opponents when that help
+was needed to carry into effect his personal ideas of what was best for
+the public interest. On the other hand, the party which had elected him
+was really no party at all--it was only a temporary coalition of three
+discordant factions. It is not necessary to follow the many changes in
+his cabinet, the continual substitution of one group for another, the
+details of the efforts which he made during three years to govern as he
+pleased, and at the same time to govern in harmony with congress. His
+difficulties lay not so much in reconciling conflicts of opinion on
+matters of policy as with the personal rivalries and ambitions of the
+factions. Suffice it to say that toward the end of 1889 he found himself
+without a majority in congress and with no prospect of obtaining one.
+Heretofore the rival groups had been only too anxious to trade their
+votes in exchange for a share of patronage. Now, satisfied that the
+president was determined upon depriving them of their secular influence
+in public affairs, all the factions of the ruling aristocracy fought him
+bitterly. They feared that the president was plotting the formation of a
+personal party, cemented by hopes of office, responsible to him alone,
+and that the system of parliamentary government which had grown up by
+tacit consent and long-continued custom, would be replaced by a real
+presidential government in which the executive would be the source of
+power and not merely its channel.
+
+Indeed, circumstances and his own characteristics were rapidly forcing
+Balmaceda into this position. Conscious of his own integrity and the
+disinterestedness and patriotism of his motives, his irritation against
+the stubborn self-seeking of the cliques ended in convincing him that
+the old interpretation of the Constitution must be abandoned, and the
+president in person in reality vested with all the powers given by the
+letter of the fundamental law. He devoted the remainder of his life to
+an effort to free the presidency from the practical control which
+congress had exercised since the days of Portales. In January, 1890, he
+threw down the gauntlet by appointing a cabinet composed exclusively of
+personal supporters. The new ministers announced that, considering their
+power to be derived from the president, they would hold office so long
+as they continued to be satisfactory to him, regardless whether or not
+they were supported by a parliamentary majority. In May, Balmaceda went
+a step farther by selecting another cabinet at whose head he placed San
+Fuentes, his own intimate friend and a man regarded with particular
+hatred by the president's opponents because it was understood that he
+had been selected as the president's successor, pledged to the
+continuance of the same policy. Congress replied by passing a vote of
+censure. Balmaceda insisted that the cabinet should remain in power.
+Congress refused to pass any appropriation bills and summoned the
+ministers to the bar of the House. But the president was confident that
+he could carry the elections, and, sure of ultimate victory, felt he
+could afford to make present concessions. In August a compromise was
+agreed upon by which Balmaceda dismissed the San Fuentes cabinet and
+selected one composed of neutral men, while congress consented to pass
+the appropriation bills. The truce did not last long. The new ministers
+soon found that they were mere figureheads and that the Balmacedist
+executive committee was the real power in the administration. They
+resigned and Claudio Vicuna formed a ministry which was a re-edition of
+the May cabinet. The announcement of its appointment was in effect a
+notification that the armistice was at an end. Congress accepted the
+gage of combat and immediately began to organise for civil war.
+
+The wealth, social distinction, and professional classes of the country
+were mostly on the side of the congressionalists, and all who were
+conservative and fearful of disturbance in the established order rallied
+around them. The democratic elements, the reformers, the radicals, the
+dissatisfied, supported Balmaceda, but the great mass of the common
+people, used for centuries to political subordination to the upper
+classes, remained inert. His opponents met with no encouragement in
+their efforts to suborn the army and General Baquedano refused the
+leadership of the insurrection which they offered him. However, the
+officers of the navy, recruited from among the aristocratic classes,
+enthusiastically assured their undivided support, and Jorge Montt, who
+held a high position in the navy, was chosen as chief of the revolution.
+
+The congressionalists resolved to make the issue upon the point whether
+the president had a right to maintain any military force, land or naval,
+after the 31st of December, the day upon which the existing
+appropriation law expired. Balmaceda did not hesitate an instant, but
+issued a proclamation that he would follow the precedent established in
+1886--collect taxes and maintain the public service by executive
+authority until the assembling of the next session of congress. He
+expressly disclaimed any designs of establishing a permanent
+dictatorship, while expressing his firm determination not to permit the
+refusal of congress to interrupt the functioning of government. The
+issue was sharply drawn; neither side would recede; either congress
+would cease to exercise its immemorial control of the executive or would
+depose him.
+
+  [Illustration: JOSE MANUEL BALMACEDA.]
+
+Five days after Balmaceda's proclamation the congressionalist chiefs
+embarked on board the war-ships lying in Valparaiso Bay, and the civil
+war was on. The army remained faithful to Balmaceda and he was in
+undisputed possession of the whole country, although his opponents had
+powerful sympathisers everywhere. The latter's plan of campaign was
+simple. Once again power on the sea was to decide the fate of the
+Pacific coast. The navy sailed away to the nitrate provinces, a region
+separated from the rest of Chile by the impassable Atacama desert and
+to which, therefore, Balmaceda could not send re-inforcements. The small
+garrison under Colonel Robles made a desperate resistance, but was soon
+overpowered, and there the revolution established its base of
+operations. The population of sturdy miners, used to discipline under
+their bosses, furnished an admirable supply of recruits, and a revenue
+of two millions a month fell at once into the hands of the
+congressionalists. Possessing the sinews of war, it was only a question
+of a few months to equip an army with the most modern weapons and have
+it thoroughly drilled and organised by experts. The blockade of the
+southern ports intercepted Balmaceda's supplies and the congressionalist
+partisans escaped by hundreds to make their way up the coast and join
+the revolutionary army. By August they were ready with a force of more
+than ten thousand men.
+
+In the meantime Balmaceda had been making desperate efforts to get a
+navy, but iron-clads cannot be improvised, and the congressionalist
+agents in New York and Europe had money enough to outbid him and to
+command influences which effectually hindered prompt action. In Chile
+itself he adopted stern repressive measures against the plots of his
+enemies and vigorously recruited his army, putting into the field nearly
+thirty thousand soldiers. But the blockade prevented his procuring
+modern arms and they had to go into battle with old-style rifles whose
+range was only half that of those carried by their opponents. He was
+also at a disadvantage in that the enemy could strike where he pleased
+on a coast nine hundred miles long. Balmaceda was obliged therefore to
+keep his forces divided. Nine thousand were at Coquimbo, three hundred
+and fifty miles north of Santiago; as many at Concepcion, four hundred
+miles south of the capital; and five thousand at Valparaiso, a hundred
+miles north-west. At Santiago he kept the remainder as a reserve to be
+sent to the assistance of whichever of the three divisions might be
+attacked.
+
+On the 20th of August the fleet of seventeen vessels carrying the whole
+revolutionary army suddenly appeared a few miles north of Valparaiso.
+Balmaceda had short warning and was not able to oppose the landing,
+which was skilfully conducted by Colonel Canto, the able strategist who
+commanded the congressionalist forces, with the valuable assistance of
+Colonel Koerner, a Prussion tactician of the first rank whose services
+had been hired. There was no time to get troops from Coquimbo and
+Concepcion. The congressionalist generals moved so rapidly that the best
+the president could do was to send the Santiago division, which, united
+with that at Valparaiso, made a force nearly equal in numbers to the
+enemy. The revolutionists landed with their rations in their haversacks
+and within a few hours were marching straight south along the seashore
+on Valparaiso. The Balmacedists tried to defend the passage of the
+Aconcagua River, which enters the ocean twenty miles north of the city,
+but they had hardly got into position on the heights which overlook its
+southern bank when the enemy was upon them. The latter's artillery was
+twice as strong and his infantry more numerous besides being armed with
+longer range rifles. In spite of the advantage of position and the
+fatigue of their opponents the Balmacedists were flung back in complete
+defeat by the volleys of the Mannlichers and the furious cannonading
+from both batteries and ships. The battle lasted the whole day and at
+its close two thousand of the government troops lay on the field, three
+thousand had been dispersed or deserted to the enemy, and scarcely three
+thousand held together for the retreat to the neighbourhood of
+Valparaiso, where three regiments of the Santiago division who had taken
+no part in the fight were waiting. Canto followed, but failing in a
+tentative attack on the strong northern defences of Valparaiso, he
+determined to make a circuit to the east, cut the railroad between
+Santiago and Valparaiso, and either take the latter place in the rear or
+march on the capital as seemed best. The movement, so masterfully
+conceived, was skilfully carried out without a moment's loss of time.
+The essential thing was to act so promptly that Balmaceda could not
+concentrate his forces. On the 25th the whole congressionalist army had
+reached Quillota, on the railroad twenty-five miles back of Valparaiso.
+But Balmaceda had also been active, and during those three days the
+Concepcion division had arrived at Santiago, and reinforcements had been
+got through to Valparaiso which raised the army to nearly ten thousand
+men. Four thousand troops defended Santiago and more were momentarily
+expected from Coquimbo.
+
+Canto resolved to give him no time for any further concentration, but to
+fall upon the Valparaiso army before the railroad could be repaired and,
+by destroying Balmaceda's largest force, end the war. A forced march
+across country brought him to the old carriage road which comes into
+Valparaiso from the south. By the 27th his army had covered the
+incredible distance of forty miles and was within six miles of the
+government forces, who occupied a strong position between the
+congressionalists and Valparaiso. Tired though the congressionalists
+were, they were forced to attack without delay. The only provisions
+which they could count on were the rations that they had brought in
+their haversacks; and Balmaceda might at any moment receive
+reinforcements from Santiago. So they advanced resolutely to the
+assault. The Balmacedists fought with little enthusiasm or hope; the
+desertion of part of their cavalry and the inactivity of the rest
+discouraged the infantry and artillery, but at first they met the
+charges with the steadiness characteristic of the race. The battle was
+decided by a flank movement executed by Koerner, who turned the
+Balmacedist left, while the cavalry charged recklessly up the hill.
+Thrown into confusion, the government troops were simply swept out of
+existence by furious volleys and determined charges. Some had stood
+steady long enough to kill and wound a sixth of the enemy who charged up
+the hill, but more than a quarter of their own numbers perished in the
+battle and the pursuit.
+
+The fight was over at half-past ten in the morning, but the news of the
+utter ruin of all his hopes did not reach Balmaceda until half-past
+seven. It was his wife's saint's day and friends were coming to dine at
+his house. Characteristically he did not recall the invitations, and not
+until the dinner party was over did he arrange to turn over the
+government of the city to General Baquedano. Then he quietly walked to
+the Argentine legation and received asylum. Vicuna, the recently elected
+president, who would have succeeded Balmaceda on the 18th of September,
+was in Valparaiso and fled to a foreign warship followed by the
+principal Balmacedist chiefs. No further resistance was made and the
+congressionalist junta, with Jorge Montt at its head, assumed the
+supreme direction of affairs. Balmaceda's fall was followed by some
+riots, but the arrival of the responsible chiefs of the victorious party
+ensured the re-establishment of order. Like the Anglo-Saxon, the Chilean
+fights desperately on the field of battle, and when his blood is up he
+is relentless, but when beaten he phlegmatically accepts the
+consequences, and when victorious he is not cruel. The Chileans resemble
+their prototypes of the northern hemisphere in lacking the vivid
+imagination which makes the inhabitants of warmer climates vengeful.
+Slow, silent, serious, practical-minded, hard to themselves as well as
+to others, they turned at once to the work of reconstruction.
+
+No one suspected that the defeated president was at the house of the
+Argentine minister. It was supposed that he had escaped in disguise, but
+on the 18th of September, the day upon which his legal term as president
+expired, the country was astounded to hear that he had shot himself that
+very morning. The unhappy man feared that he might get his generous host
+into danger, and his theatrical temperament could not bear the
+humiliation of a public trial or the risk of being torn to pieces by a
+mob in case he were discovered. He offered himself as an expiatory
+sacrifice, knowing that his death would save his friends from further
+persecution and hoping that it might do for the cause of democratic
+government in Chile that which his life had so signally failed to
+accomplish.
+
+An election had been called and Jorge Montt chosen president of Chile
+with all due regard to legal forms. The aristocratic and parliamentary
+form of government, under which Chile had so long lived in peace, order,
+and prosperity, growing at home in intellectual and moral graces and in
+material welfare, while abroad the nation had waxed great in the
+consideration of the world, was restored as it had been before Balmaceda
+attacked it. Not only the arbitrament of battle, but the verdict of the
+people, so far as the latter can be gathered from the convinced
+enthusiasm shown by the congressionalists and inferred from the
+passiveness of the masses, had decided that there should be no radical
+change; that the president should be advised by the congress and rule in
+harmony with its majority; that the ballot should be guarded by both an
+educational and a property qualification; that political evolution
+should proceed by slow amendment and not by radical innovation--by
+experiment, not by theory.
+
+The last twelve years of Chile's internal political history offers
+little of special interest to the foreign student. Jorge Montt, though
+raised to power by force of arms, proved a modest and non-aggressive
+president. For two years the anti-Balmacedist groups managed to keep a
+majority together, but incompatible ambitions rather than differences
+of principle soon divided them. Balmaceda's old partisans quickly
+rallied and elected nearly a quarter of the members of the congress of
+1894, holding the balance of power amid the warring factions. Curiously
+enough, it was with the conservatives that the Balmacedists formed a
+combination, and though they held no cabinet position in Montt's time,
+they were a principal factor in the coalition which elected Errazuriz to
+the presidency in 1896. The jealousies among the rival factions of the
+liberals were too bitter to permit the bulk of that party to make any
+effective combination against the conservative-Balmacedist-liberal
+alliance, and the latter remained in power during most of Errazuriz's
+administration. At its end, the liberals having failed to agree, German
+Riesco was nominated and elected by much the same influences over Pedro
+Montt, son of the old president.
+
+The present Chilean parties do not embody any definite and conflicting
+political principles. Each one derives its origin from some great
+conflict which took place under a former administration. Once welded
+together in battling for a common cause, friendship, gratitude, the hope
+of mutual aid in their ambitions have kept the members united. The
+latter-day Balmacedists are not enemies of parliamentary dominance; the
+nationals are now classed as liberals, though they started as
+ultra-conservatives under Montt; the conservatives do not especially
+oppose reforms, though they defend the Catholic universities against
+radical attacks. The property qualification for suffrage is liberally
+construed; any one who has an income of a thousand pesos is legally
+entitled to vote, and if the elector can read and write he is not
+rigidly cross-examined as to the exact amount of the wages he receives.
+However, this wide extension of the suffrage has not brought about any
+material change in the personnel of congress. Discussion of the
+advisability of changing the present system is purely academic, and if
+dissatisfaction exists it ferments far beneath the surface. Like the
+English aristocracy that of Chile is truly representative, wielding its
+power with a keen sense of its responsibility to the nation, and rarely
+refusing to adopt a reform which is clearly demanded by the country.
+
+  [Illustration: THE PLAZA VICTORIA VALPARAISO.]
+
+Chile recovered with some difficulty from the industrial disorganisation
+and tremendous expenditures caused by the civil war. Balmaceda's vast
+issues of paper money disturbed government finances and made the returns
+of private enterprise uncertain. The world-wide fall of prices in the
+years following 1893 hurt Chilean exports, and an era of economy made
+necessary by closely balanced budgets succeeded the flush times.
+Meanwhile, the marvellous material growth of the Argentine Republic
+began to make Chileans doubt if their country could retain that military
+and naval hegemony which she had possessed since her great victories
+over Peru and Bolivia. Shut in between the Andes and the sea, on the
+north an uninhabitable desert and on the south the bleak Antarctic
+waste, Chile naturally envied the limitless and fertile plains over
+which her neighbour might spread her population, and the Argentine navy
+was fast approaching her own in size and efficiency.
+
+By the year 1895 Argentina's revenue exceeded Chile's nearly twenty per
+cent., while the former's foreign commerce was seventy per cent. and her
+population fifty per cent. greater. Their rivalry, none the less real
+because tacit, explains the seemingly unreasonable bitterness of the
+dispute over the differing interpretations of the treaty of limits. That
+treaty fixed the boundary at the crest of the Andes, but when the joint
+commissioners appointed to make the surveys reached southern latitudes
+where the range becomes ill-defined and runs off into the sea they found
+it difficult to determine just where the crest was. The Argentines
+insisted on a line drawn between the highest peaks because that would
+give them more territory, while the Chileans contended for the watershed
+between the two oceans. Another dispute also arose about the line which
+ought to divide the Argentine from the province which Chile had taken
+from Bolivia. Though in both cases the disputed territory was
+comparatively valueless, national feeling rose to an extraordinary pitch
+and more than once war has been imminent. The northern dispute was at
+length settled in 1898 by the arbitration of the American minister to
+Buenos Aires, but, though a similar method of settlement had been agreed
+upon as to the other and more important question, its final submission
+was delayed from year to year, and meanwhile each nation suspected the
+other of aggressions. Argentina ordered new iron-clads, which she could
+ill afford; Chile ordered still better ones, and Argentina kept pace. In
+1898 and again in 1901 the two countries were on the brink of a war
+which certainly would have ruined either one or the other. Happily,
+better counsels prevailed and arbitration by the English government was
+hurried forward, resulting in 1902 in a settlement with which both
+parties are in reality satisfied, and the fine iron-clads building in
+Europe are now for sale.
+
+
+
+
+BOLIVIA
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE CONQUEST AND THE MINES
+
+
+Between latitudes fourteen and a half and twenty-three and a half, the
+mighty Andean chain is massed into a plateau five hundred miles wide,
+over twelve thousand feet high, and interspersed with a complex system
+of mountains and ridges, parallel, transverse, and interlaced.
+Geographers estimate that this central portion of the Andean system
+contains nearly five hundred thousand cubic miles of matter above sea
+level, and that it would, cover the entire area of South America to an
+average depth of four hundred feet. The great ranges which stretch north
+to the Caribbean and south to Cape Horn are mere arms of this massive
+elevation of the earth, the highest and largest in the new world. Within
+a few miles of the coast rises a lofty and continuous range of mountains
+which can be scaled only over a few passes, none of which fall far below
+fourteen thousand feet. From the top a vast plateau stretches to the
+lofty chain which forms the inland rim of the Andean massif. This
+plateau is Bolivia. The northern portion forms the Titicaca basin, the
+whole of which was formerly covered by an immense fresh-water sea, fed
+by the snows of the surrounding mountains, and draining south-east into
+the Plate Valley. Now, however, the rainfall has so decreased that the
+great lake is shrunk to a mere tithe of its original dimensions, and
+none of its waters escape out of the dry plateau. In its southern part
+the plateau is bifurcated by a high central range, which divides
+southern Bolivia into two portions, the western of which, called the
+Puna, is too high, cold, and dry for cultivation. To the east the plains
+are lower and moister, sloping very gradually toward the east until they
+plunge off abruptly into the great central valley of South America.
+
+The northern part of the Titicaca basin was the cradle of civilisation
+in South America. On the shores of the lake are ruins of great buildings
+erected by a race who occupied this plateau unknown centuries before the
+rise of the Inca power. One doorway exists in an almost perfect state of
+preservation, carved out of a single block of stone seven feet high and
+twice as long, covered with figures elaborately sculptured in high
+relief, while dozens of heroic statues, and walls containing hewn stones
+twelve yards long, remain to attest the skill of the old workmen.
+
+  [Illustration: MONOLITHIC DOORWAY AT TRAHUANACO.]
+
+Bolivian history emerges from the realm of conjecture with the invasion
+of the Incas, a warlike and civilised tribe who inhabited the slightly
+lower plateaux and valleys north-east of the Titicaca basin. The ancient
+Titicacan civilisation had long since fallen from its high estate and
+the Inca armies easily overcame the resistance of the scattered
+shepherd tribes. The conquered aborigines were incorporated with the
+Incas and Quichua became the principal although not the only language.
+Great colonies of the dominant race spread south and east over the
+massif into the fertile regions of Yungas, Cochabamba, and Charcas.
+Bolivia became one of the principal seats of the Inca power. There they
+built their most magnificent palaces; in the northern mountains they
+found the copper for their tools and weapons, and the gold which they
+used to ornament their temples. Over the higher plains roamed flocks of
+llamas and vicunas. The slightly lower parts of the plateau produced
+potatoes and quinoa, and the warmer valleys maize, cocoa, and cotton.
+The broad lake, the rivers, and the roads over the comparatively level
+country favoured intercommunication and social and industrial
+consolidation.
+
+In the terrible civil war which broke out about 1525 between Atahuallpa
+and Huascar, Bolivia suffered less than the Peruvian and Ecuadorean
+provinces, but thousands of her sons were drafted into the armies which
+Huascar successively launched against Quizquiz and the horde of northern
+tribes which relentlessly marched from Quito to Cuzco, and after five
+years of slaughter captured the southern capital and the legitimate
+emperor. But before Quizquiz had had time to pursue his conquering way
+into Bolivia, news came that Pizarro had imprisoned and murdered
+Atahuallpa, and that the Spaniards were on their way to Cuzco to give
+battle to Quizquiz and restore the legitimate succession. The northern
+Indians were defeated and at the close of 1533 Pizarro entered Cuzco in
+triumph riding at the side of Huascar's heir. The people of southern
+Peru, Bolivia, Tucuman, and Chile regarded the Spaniards as deliverers
+and allies. Within a few months after the occupation of Cuzco the
+strangers rode out of the city along the splendid stone-flagged Inca
+roads, crossed the transverse range into the Titicaca basin, and
+followed south-east to the extremity of the plateau, encountering little
+resistance and regarded as ambassadors from the Inca emperor. They found
+the country teeming with a docile and prosperous population, and the
+mountains on its borders were reported to abound in silver, gold, and
+copper. Almagro, Pizarro's partner and associate, to whose share had
+fallen the southern half of the empire, resolved not only to take
+possession of Bolivia, but also to conquer the great province which the
+Indians told him lay far to the south in fertile valleys on the western
+side of the Andes and hard by the Pacific Ocean.
+
+In 1535 Almagro marched from Cuzco with five hundred Spaniards and ten
+thousand Indians, the latter under the command of a brother of the
+Emperor. After crossing the Titicaca basin, he surmounted the
+difficulties of the bleak and icy Puna, the snowy passes, and the
+Atacama desert, and descended finally into Chile. But he found the
+people poor and warlike, and encountered little gold. Returning in 1538
+to make war on Pizarro, he was defeated and died strangled in prison by
+his relentless rival. Hernando and Gonzalo Pizarro, Francisco's
+brothers, became dominant on the Titicacan plateau, and began
+establishing great feudal lordships, dividing the country among their
+followers and exacting tribute and forced labour from the Indians. In
+1540 the great Marquis himself visited Charcas, the southern capital and
+only large Indian city in Bolivia.
+
+Late that same year his quartermaster, Pedro de Valdivia, led another
+expedition along the route over the Bolivian plateau into northern
+Chile. Meanwhile the Spaniards were diligently searching Bolivia for the
+Indian gold mines. Though the Incas were known to have extracted immense
+quantities of the metal from the placers around Lake Titicaca, the
+surface deposits had been pretty well exhausted, and the Spaniards were
+disappointed. Silver, however, existed in abundance and the strangers
+began to work the mines shortly after they reached the plateau. About
+1545 the great deposits of Potosi were discovered on a bleak
+mountainside four hundred miles south-east of Titicaca and near Charcas,
+in the regions where Gonzalo Pizarro possessed immense estates. At that
+time Gonzalo was virtually independent monarch of the whole Inca empire,
+having headed a successful revolt against a viceroy sent out to
+reorganise the country and put a stop to Indian slavery. But he did not
+long enjoy his riches, for in 1548 he risked his all in a hopeless
+battle with a new Spanish governor and ended his stormy life on the
+scaffold.
+
+The discovery of Potosi revolutionised Upper Peru--as Bolivia was then
+called. It is probable that the high and inaccessible plateau would
+have largely escaped Spanish settlement if it had not been for the
+marvellous riches now offered to Spanish cupidity. Pizarro's original
+followers came as conquerors and not as settlers. They overran a great
+and civilised empire whose revenues they proposed to absorb and whose
+inhabitants they subjected to tribute, but after they had obtained all
+the gold accumulated in the hands of the Indians there would have been
+little to have induced them to remain in Bolivia. But as soon as the
+unprecedented extent of the silver deposit at Potosi was recognised,
+Bolivia became the greatest source of that metal in the known world and
+the most important province of the transatlantic dominions of the
+Castilian king. That one mountain has produced two billion ounces of
+silver. Even by the early rude processes which the Spaniards found in
+use among the Indians seventy million ounces were taken out in the first
+thirty years, and the discovery of quicksilver in Peru, with the
+invention of the copper-pan amalgamation process in 1575, quadrupled the
+output. A great mining camp sprang up on the Potosi mountainside; royal
+officials, contractors, and merchants flocked to this Eldorado; the
+mountain roads to Lima swarmed with mule trains, carrying down silver
+and painfully toiling back again laden with supplies; the routes of the
+Bolivian plateau became the greatest arteries of travel in Spanish
+America.
+
+The year of Gonzalo's execution the city of La Paz was founded in a
+valley lying in the open plains just south of Lake Titicaca, and soon
+became a great emporium of Spanish trade. On the fertile plateau to the
+east of Potosi the city of Charcas flourished and was made the political
+and ecclesiastical capital of Upper Peru, Potosi being too high for
+Europeans. Soon other great mines were found, among which those of
+Oruro, on the south-eastern edge of the Titicaca basin, proved
+especially rich. Nearly ten thousand abandoned silver mines testify to
+the activity of the Spaniards in hunting the precious metal, and the
+total production of silver in Bolivia during the colonial period
+exceeded three billion ounces. To work these mines the Spaniards
+ruthlessly impressed the helpless Indians. Each village was required to
+furnish a certain number of labourers annually. Lots were drawn as if
+for a proscription, and the unhappy creatures who drew the bad numbers
+went off to meet a certain death in the dark wet pits and galleries,
+bidding good-bye to their wives and children like men stepping on the
+scaffold. The destruction of life was frightful, the official returns
+made by the officials charged with the impressment demonstrating that in
+the neighbourhood of Potosi the Indian population fell within a hundred
+years to a tenth of its original numbers.
+
+The influx of Spanish adventurers and officials also stimulated the
+extension of the system of agricultural encomiendas--that is, the grants
+of large tracts of land with the privilege of enslaving the Indian
+occupants. Sheep were introduced from Spain within twenty years of the
+conquest, and immense herds belonging to the Spanish proprietors and
+tended by Indian slaves soon covered the vast pasture grounds which are
+found even on the higher and colder portions of the plateau. Horses had
+come with the first conquerors and the breeding of mules flourished,
+especially in Cochabamba, the great agricultural centre which was
+founded in 1573, as well as in Charcas and the far southern districts of
+Tucuman. Cattle spread quickly over these same regions, and their beef,
+maize, mules, and horses found a good market in the mining districts.
+
+By the year 1580 the Spanish colonial system affecting the natives had
+been perfected, codified, and put into general operation. The whole
+country was divided into about thirty districts, each governed by a
+corregidor who in theory was controlled by a complicated and carefully
+drawn system of regulations, but who in practice was a petty tyrant
+against whom the white Creoles had little chance of redress, and who
+held the Indians absolutely at his mercy. The regulations framed by the
+distant viceroy at Lima for the protection of the natives were evaded by
+the corregidors, intent solely on extorting money from the poor
+creatures committed to their charge. Encomiendas had nominally been
+abolished, but landed proprietors still exercised the right to exact
+tribute from the Indians on their estates and great numbers were forced
+to serve as life servants under various pretexts. Those Indians who
+retained a semblance of freedom obeyed their own caciques, who were
+often the descendants of the royal Inca family. The principal duty for
+which the Spaniards held these chiefs responsible was the collection of
+the head-tax in their respective villages.
+
+The letter of the law required a seventh of the adult male population to
+work for the benefit of the Government, and in practice this resulted in
+an unlimited farming out of Indians as slaves to the rural proprietors.
+As much as possible the Indians retired to their villages to escape the
+notice of the officials, hoping to find under their own caciques a
+measure of security and a chance to live in modest poverty. Misrule,
+slavery, labour in the mines, neglect of that intensive and
+government-directed agriculture which had alone rendered it possible to
+sustain the dense population of Inca times, decimated the Indians.
+
+Few parts of the plateau escaped coming under Spanish rule, but the
+white conquerors, like their Inca predecessors, stopped short when they
+reached the dense forests and steep valleys, eroded by wildly rushing
+rivers, which cover the eastern slope of the great mountain region. Down
+these terrific gorges no progress was made, and only occasionally did
+some devoted priests manage to establish a mission among the intractable
+Indians who inhabit the open prairies interspersed among the beautiful
+forest-covered plains drained by the tributaries of the Madeira. The
+roads the Incas had built to the Pacific continued even in Spanish times
+to be the only practicable way of communication between Bolivia and the
+outer world. Transportation over the steep and tedious route from Potosi
+to La Paz, thence around Titicaca, and along the high valleys of
+southern Peru to the beginning of the tremendous descent to Lima, was
+too expensive to permit any export except of the precious metals. To
+the south there was a somewhat easier route to the valleys of
+north-eastern Argentina, into which the Spaniards had spread within a
+few decades after the discovery of Potosi, and whence food and pack
+animals were drawn for the mining regions. Spanish law forbade the use
+of the Atlantic ports at the mouth of the Plate, and for more than two
+centuries Bolivia continued under both administrative and commercial
+subordination to Lima.
+
+Jesuit missionaries arrived in Bolivia within twenty-five years after
+Loyola had founded the order. They established an important mission on
+the banks of Lake Titicaca in 1577, and five years later introduced the
+printing-press in order to distribute among their proselytes grammars
+and catechisms in the native tongues. In the seventeenth century they
+succeeded in penetrating down the eastern slope of the Andes and across
+the great central plain to the outlying hills of the Brazilian mountain
+system where they established several missions among the Chiquitos
+Indians. They even reached the grassy prairies which lie three hundred
+miles north of the inner angle of the great plateau, converted the
+Mojos, and taught them to herd cattle. But in the forests and along the
+base of the Andes the fierce tribes held their own as they had against
+the Incas and as they have continued to do against the Spanish-Americans
+to this day.
+
+In 1619 another great silver find was made, this time near Lake
+Titicaca. A few years later civil war broke out among the Potosi miners
+caused by the rancorous greed of the speculators who worked the mines
+under contract. Official authority could do little to suppress the
+bloody encounters, and the factions were only reconciled after three
+years of fighting. The discovery, in 1657, of another very rich silver
+mine near the lake brought on desperate fights among the miners who
+flocked to the place. The chief contractor enraged the other Spaniards
+by his exactions, and the situation became so serious that in 1665 the
+viceroy went in person and summarily tried and executed forty-two
+persons, among them the contractor's own brother.
+
+For one hundred and fifty years the Spaniards had failed to find gold
+deposits equal to those from which the Incas had drawn the fabulous
+treasures that paid Atahuallpa's ransom, but about the end of the
+seventeenth century rich placers were discovered in the mountains east
+of Lake Titicaca. The town of Sorata soon rivalled Potosi in opulence.
+Shortly thereafter other great gold deposits were found on the eastern
+slope of the inner Andes by adventurous Brazilians who had made their
+way across the continent to the eastern headwaters of the Madeira and
+ascended the Beni River as far as the escarpment of the great plateau.
+The news of the discovery brought a crowd of Spanish miners from Chile,
+and as the placers were rich and Indian labour abounded, fortunes were
+rapidly accumulated. The gold was sold in annual fairs which continue to
+be held to this day, but as is always the case in gold washings the
+first results were the best. The region is too difficult of access for
+quartz mining, and the production rapidly fell off. Activity in that
+part of Bolivia ceased in the eighteenth century and only a few Indians
+continued to wash a little gold in the remoter streams. In 1781 Sorata
+was destroyed and the gold country virtually abandoned.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE COLONIAL SYSTEM AND TUPAC'S REVOLT
+
+
+During the two hundred years which followed the Spanish conquest, life
+on the Bolivian plateau was vegetative and changeless except for the
+occasional excitement caused by the discovery of a rich new silver mine.
+The Indians lived in their villages, herding their masters' sheep or
+cultivating maize and potatoes, paid tribute to the encomenderos or the
+Crown collector, and submitted with dull patience to all the exactions.
+They reverenced their caciques, listened submissively to the parish
+priests, and meekly suffered the tyranny of the corregidors. The
+language of the conquerors was unintelligible to most of the people.
+When summoned to work in the mines they went to slow misery and certain
+death with the stoicism of their race. The South American Indian changes
+his attributes but slowly, and we find a moral resemblance in tribes
+differing widely in material culture. The Inca emperor exacted and
+received the same blind, unquestioning obedience which the Paraguayans
+gave to Lopez four centuries later, and the rude Guaranies on the banks
+of the Parana, who had hardly entered the stone age, were no more
+readily submissive to the Spaniards than the Quichuas of Bolivia, whose
+engineering, agriculture, and architecture had reached a high degree of
+development.
+
+Except the floating population of miners, the Spaniards and their
+descendants lived in the cities--La Paz, Cochabamba, Oruro, Charcas,
+Tarija, Santa Cruz. Each city had its plaza, its townhouse, its
+officials, and its law-courts. Administrative centres for the
+surrounding districts, their inhabitants were mainly functionaries and
+hangers-on, who varied the sleepy monotony of their existence by
+factional quarrels and political intrigues. In these cities the slow
+process of amalgamating the white and red races began, and the dynamic
+restlessness of the Caucasian infiltrated by degrees into the static
+calm of the Indian. The lower classes of the towns became half-breed,
+while in the country districts pure Indians predominated. Late in the
+colonial period the Spaniards were still occupying the position of alien
+taskmasters, and the process of fusing the different races into a
+homogeneous mass had made little progress after two centuries and a half
+of contact. In a word, the social and political organisation of Upper
+Peru was largely a continuation of the Inca system, but that system had
+been deformed and deprived of its efficiency and was subject to constant
+arbitrary interference from the Spanish corregidors, while the cities
+were separately governed by military governors and their own cabildos.
+
+Until the middle of the eighteenth century the authority of the Lima
+viceroy nominally extended over the whole of Spanish South America.
+However, boards of high judicial and civil functionaries called
+audiencias, responsible directly to the Crown, exercised very important
+and independent judicial and administrative functions, each over a great
+division of Spanish America. Hardly had the conquest been completed when
+an audiencia was established at Charcas and that city became the
+political and ecclesiastical capital not only of all Upper Peru but of
+the vast regions to the south. The viceroy was too far away to
+interfere, and in effect a great semi-independent province was created,
+whose boundaries extended indefinitely south and east from the
+transverse range which separated the Titicaca basin from the region
+immediately governed by the viceroy and known as Lower Peru. To the
+jurisdiction of this province the governors of Tucuman, Paraguay, and
+Buenos Aires were subject, as well as the missions among the Chiquitos
+and Mojos on the headwaters of the Paraguay and Madeira.
+
+The Bourbon kings, who succeeded the House of Austria early in the
+eighteenth century, were forced to abandon the effort to centralise the
+administration and commerce of the whole continent at Lima. The Atlantic
+and Caribbean coasts could not be effectively governed from the Pacific
+and the rising currents of trade and immigration must be allowed more
+liberty to follow their natural channels. The viceroyalty of Bogota was
+created in 1740 including the northern and north-western portions of the
+continent, and in 1776 the south-eastern parts were erected into the
+viceroyalty of Buenos Aires. The whole audiencia of Charcas was
+separated from Lima, and to its territory was added that portion of
+Chile which lay east of the Andes. Though the Bolivian plateau was the
+most populous and important division of the new viceroyalty, Buenos
+Aires, far away on the Atlantic and in a region then considered of
+little value, was chosen as the capital.
+
+In spite of prohibitive regulations goods had long been smuggled into
+Buenos Aires and thence carried over the Argentine plains up the
+comparatively easy passes leading to southern Bolivia, and the selection
+of the Plate city was a recognition by the Spanish government of the
+futility of longer trying to divert the trade of the Atlantic slope from
+its natural channels. But the greater length of the Atlantic route
+largely overcame the advantage of easier gradients, and social and
+commercial habits centuries old could not be revolutionised by statute.
+Most of Bolivia's small intercourse with the outside world continued to
+be conducted along the old Inca routes to the Pacific, and political
+union brought about no organic and commercial incorporation with the
+provinces near the mouth of the Plate.
+
+Before the new viceroyalty was in good running order, a great Indian
+insurrection broke out which involved a large proportion of the Indians
+of the plateau. Tupac Amaru, the legitimate heir of the Inca emperors,
+and a wealthy and influential cacique in one of the valleys between
+Cuzco and the Bolivian border, had received a good Spanish education
+and possessed many friends among the whites. But his heart went out to
+his own people, and he had the courage to protest against the
+intolerable oppressions of the corregidors. Failing to obtain redress
+after repeated prayers to the Spanish authorities at least to enforce
+their own laws honestly, he resolved to appeal to arms, and in 1780 he
+captured and killed a particularly demoniacal corregidor, his own
+immediate superior, and summoned the Indians of southern Peru to fight
+for their rights under his banner. Tupac had secured some firearms and
+out of the vast multitudes which assembled at his call he equipped three
+thousand men. The Spaniards advanced from Cuzco with a force of twelve
+hundred men, but Tupac defeated them and hastened across the range to
+arouse the population around Titicaca. At every village he addressed the
+people from the church steps, saying that he was come to abolish abuses
+and punish the corregidors, and the Indians responded with acclamations
+for the Inca and redeemer. Meanwhile the Spanish officials were
+assembling a large force in Cuzco which, strange as it may seem, was
+mostly composed of Indians. The race possessed little instinctive
+capacity for organisation, was deficient in initiative, moral courage,
+and independence, and had not the resolution to refuse to follow the
+Spanish officers. There were only a few like Tupac who possessed the
+mental energy and originality to plan and to fight on their own account.
+Receiving news of the Spanish preparations, the Inca hurried back to his
+home province and attempted to negotiate. He recounted to the Spanish
+authorities his own earnest endeavours to obtain a measure of justice
+for his people, the habitual violation of Spanish law by Spanish
+officials, and the intolerable oppression of the system of impressment.
+He proposed a negotiation by which reforms might be attained without
+further bloodshed. Tupac's fame as an enlightened and unselfish patriot
+rests securely on the contents of the noble and able despatch which, on
+this occasion, he sent to the Spanish authorities. But the latter
+refused all compromise and ordered an advance on Tupac's position. He
+was surrounded, his army destroyed, and he himself sentenced to be torn
+in pieces by horses after witnessing with his own eyes the fearful
+tortures and death of his innocent and harmless wife and children.
+
+The perpetration of such atrocities goaded even the dull and stoical
+Indians into a fury. They rose everywhere on the plateau and the
+Spaniards in northern Bolivia fled for refuge to La Paz and Puno. The
+Spanish army which had overcome Tupac advanced into the Titicaca basin,
+but was compelled to retreat before overwhelming numbers. Puno was
+evacuated and in 1781 the Spaniards had lost all foothold in northern
+Bolivia. But the habit of obedience was too strong; their first fury
+over, the Indians listened to promises of fair treatment and offers of
+compromise. Tupac's cousin, who had been made chief of the insurrection
+after the former's murder, was persuaded to submit on the promise of
+pardon, only to be arrested, tried, and executed as soon as his
+followers had laid down their arms. The family of the Inca was
+extirpated, ninety of its members, including women and children, being
+sent on foot, loaded with chains, over the hundreds of miles of mountain
+road to Lima and thence conveyed to Spain, where they rotted away in
+prison.
+
+Many of the reforms to secure which Tupac had lost his own life and
+devoted his kin to destruction, were voluntarily put into effect by the
+Spanish government a few years later. The office of corregidor was
+abolished, and the district governors were made directly responsible to
+the governor of the province, who was in turn responsible to the viceroy
+and audiencia. Courts were established to protect the rights of the
+Indians and the higher authorities made a sincere effort to secure the
+enforcement of the laws. However, the reforms did not materially change
+the condition of the country, and the Indians apparently settled back
+into the same apathetic obedience to the whites. The anti-Spanish
+feeling took no active form for the present, but the events had proved
+that the Indian population had become a field well prepared for the
+springing up of a crop of bloody insurrections.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE
+
+
+The South American war of independence began and ended on the plateau of
+Upper Peru. On Bolivia's soil the first blood of the great revolt was
+spilt and there the last Spanish soldiers laid down their arms. Lying on
+the great route from Lima to Buenos Aires, her territory inevitably
+became the battle-ground for the hardest and most continuous fighting on
+the continent, and her population, having been the most oppressed by
+Spanish misrule, showed itself the most tenacious in efforts to drive
+out the Spanish authorities.
+
+From 1809 to 1825, with scarcely an intermission, battle succeeded
+battle, campaign campaign, and insurrection insurrection, as the
+Spaniards and patriots, alternately victorious, marched and
+counter-marched along the great mountain road that winds through the
+plateau from Humahuaca on the Argentine frontier to the barrier north of
+Lake Titicaca. Not a village but what was captured and pillaged, not
+merely once but many times, and the tale of garottings and hangings, of
+massacres, burnings, and depredations, of heads and hands spiked up by
+hundreds along the highways, wearies in the telling. The Indians and
+half-breeds who formed the bulk of the Bolivian population joined by
+tens of thousands the bands that were continually being recruited by the
+patriot caudillos, or were impressed into the Spanish armies. Like
+Missouri in the American Civil War, Bolivia furnished more than her
+contingent to both sides, and her geographical position was similar to
+that of Virginia. The fighting on her soil was the longest continued and
+the severest, although the decisive battles were fought outside her
+territory. Suipacha, Huaqui, Ayohuma, Viluma correspond to Seven Pines,
+Chancellorsville, and Fredericksburg; while Chacabuco, Boyaca, and
+Ayacucho, like Donelson, Vicksburg, and Chattanooga, were the fights
+that brought the real results.
+
+The patriots from the Argentine wished to carry the war to the seat of
+Spanish power and made continual efforts to get to Lima by way of
+Bolivia, but though they often reached the plateau they could never long
+maintain themselves. The farthest that they ever penetrated was to the
+south end of Lake Titicaca, where they were still distant from their
+goal by more than a thousand miles of difficult mountain road. The
+Spanish generals were more successful, but any army in possession of the
+plateau was immediately impelled to dissipate its forces in keeping open
+lines of communication with the seaboard and in tedious marches.
+
+The news of the French usurpation in 1808 and the consequent civil
+disturbances in Spain demoralised the Spanish authorities in the
+Bolivian cities, and the Creoles immediately conceived the hope that
+they might possess themselves of the offices and the revenues. Early in
+1809 a few influential native Bolivians and disaffected Spaniards took
+forcible possession of the government buildings in Charcas and La Paz
+and deposed the Spanish officials. The insurgents managed to arm a few
+troops, but were able to make no effective resistance to the forces
+which the viceroys at Buenos Aires and Lima promptly sent to quell the
+movement. The rebellion was quenched in blood. Goyeneche, the Lima
+general, ordered wholesale executions among those who had taken part,
+and the news of his dreadful cruelties roused a bitter desire for
+revenge in the hearts of the Creoles of all South America.
+
+The deposition by Buenos Aires of her viceroy on the 25th of May, 1810,
+was shortly followed by the advance of an Argentine army into Bolivia,
+and the forces which the Spanish authorities at Potosi and Charcas had
+been able to collect were defeated at Suipacha, near the southern border
+of the plateau. All the cities of Bolivia fell into the hands of the
+patriots, while the villages rose in revolt against their Spanish
+tyrants. The Buenos Aireans wished to subject the Bolivian provinces to
+a centralised government and rule them from the capital on the Plate,
+but every town in Upper Peru had its ambitious Creole leaders who wished
+to control their own country. These disagreements had much to do with
+the crushing defeat which the Argentine army shortly suffered at Huaqui
+on the southern shore of Lake Titicaca. The projected triumphal advance
+through Cuzco and Lower Peru to Lima was turned into a precipitate
+retreat through La Paz, Oruro, and Potosi into the Argentine. Alone the
+Bolivian patriots were not strong enough to prevent the re-establishment
+of the Spanish authority in the cities along the main route. But in the
+villages and the outlying cities like Cochabamba and Santa Cruz the
+insurgent bands kept up a desperate resistance.
+
+The main body of the victorious Spanish army pursued the fleeing
+Argentines into their own territory, only to be defeated by General
+Belgrano in the battle of Tucuman--a victory which probably saved Buenos
+Aires from capture and the South American revolution from extinction. In
+1813 the Argentines again invaded Bolivia, but they had not proceeded
+far beyond Potosi when they were met and routed in the battles of
+Villapugio and Ayohuma. The Bolivian patriots were once more left to
+their own resources, and their country subjected to the most awful
+devastations. Though unable to concert a general plan of action or to
+assemble one large army, nevertheless they had courage to die in battle
+or on the scaffold. The most famous leaders in the south were Camargo
+and Padilla, whose daring forays helped prevent the Spaniards from
+advancing into the Argentine, while Arenales at Santa Cruz and other
+patriot leaders farther north continually threatened the line of
+communication to Titicaca, Cuzco, and Lima.
+
+  [Illustration: BALSAS ON LAKE TITICACA.]
+
+Late in the year 1814 the region north of Lake Titicaca to and beyond
+Cuzco burst into insurrection under the lead of an Indian cacique and
+an indefatigable agitator of a priest named Munecas. The Indians rose
+_en masse_ and the Spanish army in southern Bolivia was cut off from
+Lima. Twenty thousand insurgents assembled near the north end of Lake
+Titicaca, but they possessed neither arms, officers, nor organisation.
+Not one in twenty had a musket, and though their invasion down the
+Maritime Cordillera to Arequipa was at first successful, a comparatively
+small force of Spanish regulars chased them back over the passes to the
+region of the lake and there dispersed them at the battle of Humachiri.
+Meanwhile the guerilla bands in southern Bolivia and the Argentines in
+Salta had been more successful. The Spaniards were compelled to retire
+from the Argentine border back beyond Potosi. The Argentines again
+invaded the plateau and advanced in force on the road to La Paz and
+Lima. Once again the Spanish forces which concentrated to meet them were
+victorious and the allied patriots were completely overthrown in the
+battle of Viluma, November, 1815, which marks the end of the first
+period of the war of independence. Thenceforward for seven years the
+Spanish generals were dominant on the plateau, and the Bolivian patriots
+made only a desultory and scattered resistance.
+
+With admirable foresight the victorious Spanish general, Pezuela, went
+to work to subdue thoroughly the whole of Upper Peru. The viceroy,
+Abascal, backed him up in establishing in this natural fortress a strong
+military state, whence money and soldiers could be drawn for offensive
+operations against the insurrection in any part of the continent. The
+mines supplied the funds of which the viceregal government stood in such
+desperate need, and the hardy, sturdy Indians of Bolivia afforded a
+stock of excellent recruits whose fidelity might be enforced by white
+officers and severe discipline. Pezuela remorselessly pursued the
+patriot chiefs; Camargo was finally run to earth, captured, and
+garrotted; Padilla fell in the midst of his little band and was brutally
+beheaded as he lay wounded on the ground. Garrisons occupied all the
+towns and important positions, the irregular excesses of the Spanish
+soldiery were sternly forbidden, a measure of order and security
+replaced the confusion of the previous years, and the whole resources of
+the people were carefully husbanded and devoted to the upbuilding of an
+army. Before the end of 1816 Pezuela had a well-equipped and efficient
+force of eight thousand men ready for an advance into the Argentine.
+
+The year 1816 was the blackest for the patriot cause since the beginning
+of the revolution. Chile had been reduced to obedience; the Argentine
+was convulsed by civil war; Uruguay had fallen into the hands of the
+Portuguese king; the Spaniards were triumphant in Venezuela, and New
+Granada, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia were making no resistance. Pezuela
+had been promoted to be viceroy at Lima and La Serna in the beginning of
+1817 led the Spanish army into the Argentine and advanced far beyond the
+frontier. But he made his campaign according to the rules of regular
+European warfare, and though the gauchos of Salta did not venture to
+give him battle they kept up a harassing series of night attacks,
+ambushes, and daring forays into his very lines. Mounted on their fleet
+and hardy plains horses, living on wild cattle, and needing no baggage
+or provision train, their mobility was phenomenal, and they rendered the
+advance of the Spanish army through the long stretches of desert and
+pampa almost impossible.
+
+Meanwhile San Martin's great victory at Chacabuco in Chile completely
+changed the situation throughout the continent. It was necessary for the
+viceroy to drain the other provinces of troops to attempt Chile's
+recovery. Even if La Serna did succeed in pushing toward Buenos Aires,
+San Martin could recross the Andes and strike him in flank with a
+victorious army. So the Spanish general withdrew from the northern
+Argentine and took up the old position near the Bolivian border. The
+Argentines never attacked him in force, although they kept up a war with
+incursions over the frontier, and the indomitable Bolivian patriots rose
+in one local revolt after another during the next four years. The
+country was never pacified, although the relentless vigilance of the
+Spanish commanders prevented the insurrection from becoming general.
+
+In 1820 San Martin sailed from Valparaiso and landed his army of
+Argentines and Chileans on the Peruvian coast near Lima. His masterly
+dispositions soon compelled the Spaniards to evacuate the capital and
+thenceforth their power was confined to the Andean region which extends
+south-east from the Cerro de Pasco to the southern boundary of Bolivia.
+The patriots had the advantage of being able to land troops at any point
+on the coast, and the Spanish generals, to meet these invasions, were
+compelled to move their armies over the tortuous mountain paths. Late in
+1822 an expedition attempted to reach the Bolivian plateau by the pass
+which leads directly up to La Paz. Valdez, the Spanish general, managed
+to get to the threatened point before the patriots had pushed their way
+up the mountain. They attacked at a disadvantage, and their army was
+destroyed.
+
+A year later a similar effort was made by an army of five thousand
+Peruvians under the command of Santa Cruz, a Bolivian half-breed of
+noble Inca lineage who had been engaged in the Spanish service until
+1821, and then, deserting, had risen to supreme power in the patriot
+army after the retirement of San Martin. Northern Bolivia had been
+denuded of troops by the Spanish generals in the course of their
+operations near Lima. No army disputed the pass, and Santa Cruz
+penetrated to La Paz without opposition. Valdez hastened from Peru, and
+the Spanish army in southern Bolivia moved toward the threatened region.
+Santa Cruz's position lay directly between them; his forces were
+superior to either of the Spanish armies and apparently it would not be
+difficult for him to whip them in detail. But he made the mistake of
+dividing his own forces, and Valdez came up with such unexpected speed
+that he failed to unite his two divisions before the Spaniards reached
+La Paz. He retreated to the south in order to join his other division,
+closely followed by the enemy, and scarcely had he effected the junction
+when Valdez skilfully outflanked him and united his forces to the army
+of southern Bolivia. By this manoeuvre the patriot army found itself
+hopelessly outnumbered and fled north in disorder. By the time it
+reached the coast it had been practically annihilated. One body of
+Spaniards resumed at its leisure a position threatening Lima, while the
+Bolivian division occupied itself with crushing the insurgents who had
+risen at Cochabamba and other points during Santa Cruz's stay upon the
+plateau.
+
+This disastrous campaign seemed to destroy all hope of Bolivian freedom
+for years to come. But Olaneta, the renegade Argentine who commanded the
+Spanish army in Bolivia, quarrelled with La Serna and the northern
+generals. They sent a force to fight him, and while the Spaniards were
+thus warring among themselves word was received that Bolivar had arrived
+on the Peruvian coast, accompanied by his great lieutenant, Sucre, and a
+large army of Colombian veterans. To meet this pressing danger the
+viceroy abandoned his efforts to reduce Olaneta to submission, recalled
+the troops he had sent into Bolivia, and sent north as large a force as
+he could muster. Bolivar climbed the coast range unopposed and met the
+Spanish army not far south of Cerro de Pasco. On the 24th of August,
+1824, he won the cavalry action of Junin, and the Spaniards were
+compelled to retire to Cuzco. Bolivar went to Lima to consolidate his
+political position, leaving the command with Sucre. Four months later
+the viceroy suddenly broke out of Cuzco, outmanoeuvred Sucre, and
+marched toward Lima closely followed by the Colombian forces. The two
+armies finally met at Ayacucho, December 9, 1824, and though the
+royalist army fought on a field of its own choosing and had the
+advantage in numbers and artillery, it was annihilated.
+
+The only Spanish troops which remained in the field were Olaneta's in
+southern Bolivia. He struggled desperately to hold his men together and
+make another stand, but the news of Ayacucho was the signal for an
+uprising of the patriots all around him. The royalist officers and
+troops had no heart for a hopeless fight, and as Sucre approached the
+detached garrisons deserted. In March Olaneta received word that one of
+his lieutenants, Medina Celi, who was in command at Tumusla near
+Potosi, had declared for the patriots. The Spanish general promptly
+marched with the few troops who remained faithful, and, on April 1,
+1825, fought the last action of the war of independence. Olaneta was
+defeated and himself slain, probably by a ball fired by one of his own
+men.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+BOLIVIA INDEPENDENT
+
+
+After his great victory at Ayacucho, Sucre advanced rapidly to Cuzco and
+thence into the Titicaca basin. By February he had reached Oruro in what
+is now central Bolivia, and Upper Peru rose as one man to welcome the
+deliverer. The next step was to decide upon the future government. For
+thirty years before the beginning of the revolution this country had
+been part of the viceroyalty of Buenos Aires, and when the city on the
+Plate had expelled its Spanish rulers the patriots there had expected
+that Upper Peru would continue to be connected with the new nation.
+Although in the early years of the war these provinces sent delegates to
+congresses which assembled in the Argentine cities, the Creoles of the
+plateau never showed any anxiety to incorporate their country with the
+Argentine, and the successes of the Spanish generals virtually renewed
+Bolivia's ancient connection with Lima. Now that the Spaniards were
+expelled, the Bolivian Creoles were no more willing to unite with Lower
+Peru than with Buenos Aires, and Bolivar encouraged this sentiment. The
+ambitious and lucky soldier had formed the Napoleonic conception of
+making himself supreme dictator of a confederation of small states, each
+of which was to be ruled by a subordinate dictator named from among his
+creatures. To organise Upper Peru into a separate country with Sucre at
+its head would be a long step in this direction. Bolivar himself was
+president of the confederation of Venezuela, New Granada, and Ecuador,
+as well as dictator of Lower Peru, and at the head of a victorious army
+of Colombians. Argentina's influence was nullified by civil war. Chile's
+strength was as yet unsuspected. For the moment Bolivar was supreme in
+South America. At his dictation Peru and Buenos Aires promulgated
+decrees leaving to the provinces of Upper Peru the right "to decide
+freely and spontaneously as to what form of government would be most
+conducive to their prosperity and good government."
+
+When Bolivar himself reached the country he was received in a delirium
+of joy and gratitude, and the enthusiastic Bolivians acclaimed him
+father of their country. In a literal sense he deserved the title, for
+his intervention had conferred independence on Bolivia, and his decrees
+now fixed her boundaries. In general he followed the ancient limits of
+the audiencia of Charcas. Peru retained the seacoast directly to the
+west as well as all the Titicacan basin north and west of the lake,
+compelling Bolivian commerce to pass through foreign territory in order
+to reach the ocean. Far to the south Bolivia was conceded a little
+ribbon of coast, but the route thither lay over the bleak and barren
+Puna and was too long to be of any practical service.
+
+On the 11th of August, 1825, official proclamation was made that the new
+republic had begun its existence, taking the name "Bolivia," in honour
+of the liberator. Congress said in the act of independence that: "Upper
+Peru is the altar upon which the first blood was shed for liberty, and
+the land where the last tyrant perished. The barbarous burning of more
+than a hundred villages, the destruction of towns, the scaffolds raised
+everywhere for the partisans of liberty, the blood of thousands of
+victims that would make even Caribs shudder; the taxes and exactions, as
+arbitrary as inhuman; the insecurity of property, life, and of honour
+itself; an atrocious and merciless inquisitorial system; all have not
+been able to extinguish the sacred fire of liberty and the just hatred
+of Spanish power."
+
+Early in the following year Bolivar presented a Constitution all ready
+for the approval of congress. Written in his own hand, it stands a
+curious proof of his political ideas. After laying down the somewhat
+vague principle that liberty is a mere island which the waves of tyranny
+and anarchy alternately threaten to engulf, and establishing a
+legislative system, too complicated to be workable, he shows the cloven
+hoof by providing for a president elected for life and possessing the
+right to nominate a successor. Sucre was made the president as a matter
+of course, but hardly had he begun his regular government when troubles
+broke out. His own character, the internal conditions of Bolivia, and
+the international jealousies felt against him as the friend and
+representative of Bolivar, combined to make his position untenable. A
+general of the first order, a statesman of enlightened ideas, and a
+single-minded and unselfish patriot, Sucre would not deign to impose
+himself by force of arms on a reluctant people, nor make undignified
+compromises with the turbulent caudillos. He had accepted the presidency
+only after it had been repeatedly pressed upon him by the Bolivian
+congress, and though he was probably influenced by his loyal wish to aid
+Bolivar in the latter's scheme of uniting all Spanish-America under a
+strong, semi-monarchical government, he was unselfishly anxious to
+restore peace and order. The heterogeneous population of about a million
+who lived upon the plateau was, however, demoralised by the terrible
+experiences through which it had passed in the previous fifteen years.
+Three-fourths were Indian, a stoical, docile race which would not make
+much trouble, but which was divided into two nations speaking different
+languages and possessing little capacity for organisation. The few
+whites and the more numerous people of mixed blood were the dominating
+elements, and these had been trained to lawlessness and ferocity by the
+long war.
+
+Sucre vainly tried to replace anarchy by some semblance of orderly
+government. The revenues of the country had fallen from the two millions
+annually of colonial times to almost nothing. His attempt to substitute
+a rational system of direct taxation for the countless Spanish imposts
+failed. Money to pay the Colombian troops could not be raised and the
+mercenaries became mutinous. At the same time symptoms of rebellion
+appeared among the Bolivian caudillos. Troubles in Colombia and
+Venezuela had forced Bolivar to retire from Peru and the troops he left
+behind almost immediately mutinied, and Santa Cruz pushed himself to the
+head of affairs at Lima. The Bolivarian Constitution of Peru was
+overthrown, and Santa Cruz and Gamarra advanced upon Bolivia to expel
+Sucre. The latter's Colombian troops mutinied and bands of
+insurrectionists rose in various parts of the country to aid the
+Peruvian invaders, while Argentina and Chile plainly showed their desire
+for Sucre's overthrow. On the 28th of July, 1828, a little more than
+three years after his triumphant entry into Bolivia, Sucre made a treaty
+with the leader of the Peruvian army agreeing to withdraw from Bolivia
+with all the natives of Colombia. General Santa Cruz was named
+president, and the Peruvians occupied many of the Bolivian provinces for
+several months, only to withdraw when it became evident that their
+continued presence would surely provoke a universal uprising. Santa Cruz
+soon triumphed over all opposition and established himself as master of
+the country.
+
+The new president was a man whose general intelligence and ability and
+knowledge of diplomacy, law, and economics gave the country a successful
+and rational government. Though he abandoned Sucre's premature attempt
+to reform the taxing system, he energetically applied and improved the
+old imposts and soon brought some order out of the financial chaos. His
+army was the best organised, disciplined, and equipped in South America.
+He also tried to attract European immigration and to improve
+agricultural, commercial, and social conditions and methods. The
+difficulties of communication and the conservative and industrially
+unenergetic character of the population, however, prevented any rapid
+development. Peru was distracted by civil commotions, and Santa Cruz
+pressed hard on the northern country. He probably could have forced the
+cession of adjacent seacoast to the inestimable and lasting benefit of
+Bolivia, but his ambition led him farther. Appealed to for help by one
+of the rival Peruvian factions, he gave it upon the condition that that
+country should be divided, the two parts uniting with Bolivia in a
+confederation of which he was to be the supreme head. In 1835 he invaded
+Peru and made himself master of the country.
+
+The creation of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation was an especial menace
+to Chile and the Argentine. The latter country, still a prey to the most
+lamentable civil disorders, was in no position to undertake any
+effective intervention, but Chile's already strong and well-established
+government determined to restore the balance of power. Pretexts for war
+were soon found, and the more solid texture of Chile's social and
+political organisation, the energy of her people bred in cold regions,
+and her command of the sea, quickly made themselves felt. The first
+expedition sent to Arequipa in 1837 was compelled to retire by an army
+which Santa Cruz despatched down the Cordillera from La Paz. The
+factions in Peru, however, rose and in the following year Chile renewed
+the war. On the 20th of January, 1839, with the aid of the Peruvian
+auxiliaries, the Chileans overwhelmingly defeated an army of Bolivians
+and Peruvians under Santa Cruz at the battle of Yungay.
+
+The fragility of the foundations upon which Santa Cruz had rested his
+system was now apparent. The "Peru-Bolivian Confederation" disappeared
+from the map. Peru re-established her independent existence with her old
+boundaries. Santa Cruz's enemies in Bolivia rose in rebellion and he
+fell without a struggle. As a matter of fact the ten years of his more
+or less orderly government had not changed the character of the Bolivian
+Creoles and mixed-bloods. His government had been military, reactionary,
+and a mere makeshift; the Indians still occupied their inferior
+position, the lower classes regarded the ruling coteries as self-seeking
+aristocrats, a dull discontent fermented among the whole population, and
+the ambitious chieftains found little difficulty in seducing the
+soldiery. Bolivia, definitely cut off from the Pacific, helpless to
+defend her interests in the plains surrounding the plateau, unable to
+attract the fertilising and civilising currents of commerce and
+immigration, entered upon an epoch of civil war, pronunciamentos, and
+dictatorships which lasted nearly half a century. A recital of the
+literally countless armed risings, and of the various individuals who
+exercised, or claimed to exercise, supreme power, would throw little
+light on the progress of the country. Foreign commerce and domestic
+industry were so small that the government was always poor and unable to
+meet its expenses. Peru's possession of the seaports held Bolivian
+commerce at her mercy, and the military and naval power of Chile was a
+continual menace. Either of Bolivia's larger neighbours could easily
+bring on a revolution by opportune aid to ambitious factions, and the
+turbulence of the Creole military classes was not restrained by any
+powerful and intelligent commercial and industrial population.
+
+In the midst of the fighting which followed the overthrow of Santa Cruz,
+a liberal Constitution was proclaimed which attempted to take from the
+executive his preponderance in the government. Negro slavery was
+abolished and the movement was altogether in the direction of democracy
+and against the property-holding classes. In 1840 General Ballivian
+overcame all his rivals and gained supreme power. In the following year
+the dictator of Peru, taking advantage of the continual disputes over
+questions of transit through Peruvian territory, and thinking that in
+Bolivia's enfeebled condition she would not be able to resist
+incorporation, led a large army over the border and occupied the
+province of La Paz. But the Bolivians rallied around Ballivian and
+defeated the Peruvians in the battle of Yngavi near the end of 1841, a
+victory which definitely assured the independence of Bolivia.
+
+Ballivian had risen to power by brute military force and crushed out the
+feeble attempt at popular government made after the fall of Santa Cruz.
+Despotic, irritable, and ambitious, he had not the wide knowledge or
+administrative capacity of Santa Cruz, and he gave the country a much
+worse government. The pride of the turbulent half-breeds was roused by
+the victory over the Peruvians, and conspiracies and insurrections
+occurred more frequently. Ballivian ordered the liberal Constitution of
+1839 to be repealed and the preponderance of the executive in the
+governmental system was restored by the Constitution of 1843. He ruled
+until 1848, but the partisans of Santa Cruz grew bolder and bolder. In
+spite of the president's efforts to surround himself with officials of
+talent and intelligence, the power of the government decreased. The
+irrational and artificial boundaries given to Bolivia by Bolivar
+continued to involve her in disputes with Peru, and in 1847 the
+imposition of practically prohibitive duties nearly brought on war.
+Ballivian assembled an army, but Castilla, the Peruvian president, found
+means to foment an insurrection, and the Bolivian president was soon
+engaged in a desperate conflict with the very men whom he had expected
+to lead against the foreign enemy. Successful at first in his
+operations, one mutiny was suppressed only to be followed by others more
+formidable, and he finally gave it up in disgust and retired to exile.
+
+A year of confused struggling followed and at last General Belzu
+succeeded in establishing himself as dictator. Of low origin and
+uneducated, passionate and violent, the new ruler owed his elevation to
+his popularity with the common soldiery and the lowest classes of the
+population. His so-called policy of conciliation amounted in fact to
+permitting the guerilla bands to do as they pleased. Rapine, robbery,
+and riot became almost the normal condition of the country, while the
+better elements never ceased their conspiracies. Doctor Linares, a man
+of probity and learning, though stubborn and uncompromising, persisted
+untiring in his efforts to rid the country of the dictator. For seven
+years, however, Belzu maintained himself, while Bolivia fell lower and
+lower into the pit of anarchy, disgraced abroad by the actions of an
+ignorant tyrant who broke treaties, refused to listen to the protests of
+foreign ministers, and finally bundled them all out of the country,
+secure that on his mountain-tops no army could reach him to avenge the
+insult. The British foreign office literally wiped Bolivia from the map,
+declaring that she could no longer be recognised as a civilised nation.
+At last the dictator tired of his place and voluntarily resigned it,
+leaving as his successor a bastard son-in-law, named Cordova. The latter
+suppressed nine revolutionary movements in three years before he was at
+last overthrown by the indefatigable Linares.
+
+The new dictator started in with the good wishes of the respectable
+elements, and earnestly tried to raise his country from the abyss into
+which she had fallen. But the nation had been so thoroughly demoralised
+that there was no foundation to build upon. The public offices were
+filled by political favourites, but when he threw them out and tried to
+put honest and competent men in their places he lost the good-will of
+the office-holding class. He tried to reform the army and dismissed the
+useless swarm of officers without commands, but this gained him the
+enmity of the military. The very ministers whom he had selected to aid
+him in putting reforms into effect plotted against him, and it was a
+conspiracy led by Fernandez, the member of his cabinet in whom he placed
+his greatest confidence, that brought about his fall after he had ruled
+three stormy and anxious years.
+
+A period of frightful confusion, known as the presidency of General
+Acha, ensued. The chiefs fought among themselves with such ferocity that
+in Chile and Peru the partition of Bolivia was seriously discussed.
+Finally, at the end of 1864, a remarkable man came to the front out of
+the tangle. This was the celebrated dictator, Melgarejo, who frankly
+abandoned all pretence of governing by any sanction except that of brute
+force and terror. He kept up a great army of spies, and the conspiracies
+which they reported were ruthlessly crushed by the well-paid ruffians
+who composed his army and blindly obeyed his capricious commands. One
+day the dictator, drunk, as was his habit, called the guard and ordered
+them to jump out of the windows in order to show a visiting foreigner
+the superior discipline of the Bolivian soldier. Several had broken
+their arms or legs, but he did not even look to see, and continued his
+demonstration by ordering his aide-de-camp to "lie dead" like a poodle
+dog. Taxes were arbitrarily levied; peaceable citizens were exiled and
+shot; around him circulated a crowd of parasitic functionaries. But in
+spite of his extravagances and cruelties Melgarejo gave some solidity
+and consistence to the governmental structure. The production of silver
+had been declining until about 1850, but at the beginning of Melgarejo's
+administration had again reached ten millions annually, and thereafter
+rapidly increased with the encouragement given by him to the investment
+of foreign capital. Money was freely spent on public works, and the
+Mollendo railroad, extending to the head of Lake Titicaca, dates from
+this time. It is the principal route for Bolivia's foreign commerce,
+though it does not touch Bolivian territory. The isolated desert region
+on the coast began to be exploited and the guano, nitrate, copper, and
+silver found there vastly increased the country's revenues, although a
+considerable foreign debt was incurred.
+
+Melgarejo's enemies succeeded in overthrowing him in 1871, and their
+leader, General Morales, succeeded to the supreme power. There followed
+some relaxation of the system of personal tyranny, but in the main the
+form of the administration changed little, either under Morales or his
+immediate successors. The first named was able to negotiate a European
+loan to be employed in the building of railways, and in fact one was
+constructed--running from Antofagasta on the nitrate coast over the
+Cordillera and across the Puna table-land to the centre of the country
+at Oruro. Heavy gradients, the unproductive character of the region
+along the line, and its length, have prevented its furnishing the cheap
+and practical outlet to the sea which had been hoped for. Insurrections
+continued to break out from time to time, and in 1876 General Daza
+usurped supreme power. His rule lasted until the Chilean war of 1879,
+but the first decisive defeat was the signal for his fall.
+
+Narciso Campero became president, and the Bolivian nation, hopeless of
+recovering its coast provinces by force of arms, began the task of
+re-adjusting itself to the new conditions. The Constitution was
+re-written in its present form, and a succession of presidents have
+since ruled the country in a peace and security which forms a happy
+contrast with the anarchy that preceded Melgarejo's advent. The
+production of silver rapidly increased, reaching fifteen million dollars
+in 1885, when Pacheco was president, and growing to twenty millions in
+1888 with Arce in the executive chair. Potosi still yields three million
+ounces per annum, and the great Huanchaca mines far surpass Potosi,
+making Bolivia the third silver-producing country in the world. But her
+great resources can never be profitably utilised until a practical
+outlet to the sea has been found. On the Pacific she has been absolutely
+shut in since the Chilean war--Peru controlling the northern fourth of
+the coast which separates her from that ocean and Chile the remainder.
+Bolivia is without a seaport, though she retains a hope of receiving
+compensation for the loss of her nitrate territory in the cession of one
+such outlet, when Chile and Peru are able to come to an agreement about
+the province of Arica. But the explorations of Heath on the upper
+tributaries of the Madeira resulted in discoveries which may ultimately
+enable Bolivia to utilise the magnificent fertile plain lying just at
+the foot of the table-land, but so far well-nigh as inaccessible as the
+South Pole. Broad and navigable rivers meander through this vast region,
+needing only the construction of a railway around the Madeira rapids to
+communicate with the Amazon and the Atlantic.
+
+  [Illustration: LOADED LLAMAS.]
+
+Since the days of the Jesuit missionaries the Mojos Indians in the
+prairies on the Mamore north of Santa Cruz have retained a measure of
+civilisation, breeding cattle and keeping up a connection with the
+Creoles at Santa Cruz. Lately the latter have pressed on into the rubber
+regions of the lower Mamore and even crossed into the valley of the Beni
+and founded the town of Riveralta where the Orton joins the Beni. From
+La Paz daring men painfully made their way down the roadless gorges of
+the great Cordillera and reached navigable water where the Beni emerges
+from the mountains. Thence to Riveralta the way was comparatively easy
+and little steamboats now ply those waters. This region is permanently
+inhabitable by civilised man, but to the north-east the country drops
+off into swampy plains drained by the Acre, a tributary of the sluggish
+Purus. Up the latter river the Brazilian rubber hunters had come from
+Manaos and found the banks of the Acre unprecedentedly rich in the
+finest gum. Thousands poured into the territory and by the early
+nineties it was furnishing a large percentage of the world's supply.
+Though the Bolivian boundary had long been believed to cross the Acre
+near the 9th degree, the Brazilian rubber gatherers did not hesitate to
+enter an entirely unoccupied territory and even penetrated as far south
+as the 12th degree in a region undisputably Bolivian. The authorities at
+La Paz attempted to assert their political control, but since it was
+well-nigh impossible to get troops into the country except by way of the
+Atlantic, the rubber gatherers defied them. The Brazilian government
+intervened to protect the interests of its citizens; President Pando
+headed an expedition in 1902 which was met at the borders of the Acre
+valley, and after some fighting with the insurgent Brazilians, which
+seemed likely to bring on a war between the two powers, a treaty was
+agreed upon by which Brazil takes the territory, paying a money
+indemnity, agreeing to build the railroad around the Madeira Falls, and
+ceding a port on the Paraguay.
+
+Internally the condition of Bolivia has in the main been quiet since the
+Chilean war, and the contest between clericalism and radicalism has lost
+much of its bitterness. General Camacho led an unsuccessful insurrection
+in 1890 and afterwards fled to Valparaiso. Three years later he planned
+another insurrection and the government had great difficulty in
+obtaining arms and money for operations against him. Chileans finally
+furnished rifles and a loan, and shortly afterwards a treaty was
+negotiated by which Bolivia abandoned its alliance with Peru and came
+under Chilean influence. Peru resented this and the following year her
+restrictions on Bolivian commerce nearly brought the two countries to
+blows. The crisis, however, passed, and Bolivia has returned to the
+policy of avoiding entangling alliances, while pressing Brazil, Chile,
+or Peru to give her outlets to the ocean. In 1896, Alonso, leader of the
+conservatives, and that energetic general and explorer, Jose Manuel
+Pando, chief of the liberals, contested the presidential election. In
+this contest the geographical jealousies which exist between northern
+and southern Bolivia played a considerable role. Alonso was successful
+and served as president during three years, but early in 1899 Pando
+began warlike operations and in April overthrew Alonso in a decisive
+battle. Under his vigorous administration the country has been quiet.
+The plain of the Madeira has been opened up to settlement, and the
+international position of the government is now vastly improved.
+
+
+
+
+ECUADOR
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE CARAS
+
+
+The irrigated valleys of Chile lie open to the ocean or are easily
+accessible over the low coast range. The sea-board of Peru is likewise
+defenceless, and though the Andean passes are high they are dry and
+practicable and offer a way of approach to the table-land behind. The
+want of rain from Valparaiso to Paita is explained by the Antarctic
+current whose waters cool the breezes so that the warmer land condenses
+no moisture. But at the northern boundary of Peru the coast bends
+abruptly to the east; the cold current follows its original north-east
+direction and lets the warm tropical waters wash the land. From the Gulf
+of Guayaquil to Panama the coast and mountainsides are covered with
+luxuriant vegetation and the ascent of the passes becomes well-nigh
+impracticable. Therefore the Andean plateau in Ecuador is accessible
+from the Pacific only on the south and the Colombian plateaux are
+virtually cut off from communication with the western ocean.
+
+Tradition relates that about the seventh century of the Christian era a
+nation of Indians, bearing the name of Caras, invaded the sea-board of
+central Ecuador. They were warlike, aggressive, conquerors by instinct,
+and their civilisation was superior to that of the barbarous tribes upon
+whom they descended. They came by way of the sea, most probably from the
+south, bringing a complicated religion to which they were fanatically
+devoted, and a military and tribal organisation which gave them an
+overwhelming advantage. In all probability the Caras were akin to those
+highly civilised nations who lived in the valleys of the northern
+Peruvian coast. Be this as it may, there is no doubt that the Caras were
+not long content with dominance along the coast, and succeeded in
+forcing their way up the slopes of the Cordillera through a zone
+uninhabitable on account of the perpetual rain, and only penetrable
+along defiles where the soaked clay of the steep mountainsides affords
+no footing and the tangle of vegetation leaves no path.
+
+At six thousand feet above sea-level the roads became better, the
+vegetation ceased to be tropical, and when they emerged through the
+passes to the comparatively level plains about Quito, some eight
+thousand feet above the sea, they found themselves in a country where
+the cereals and fruits of the temperate zone flourish and no forests
+interrupt communication. Two lines of great mountains stretched north
+and south and between them lay a plateau less than forty miles in width,
+and though much of it was bleak and arid, at least half lay below the
+elevation where the successful cultivation of the cereals and the
+potato becomes possible. At regular intervals transverse ranges of
+mountains, called "nudos," or knots, cut the plateau into separate
+divisions, each measurably protected from attack by its neighbours.
+Andean Ecuador has been aptly compared to a great ladder four hundred
+miles long, with the "nudos" forming its gigantic rungs. Beginning at
+the northern boundary of modern Ecuador, Quito lies in the second of the
+eight sub-plateaux, which is one of the largest and most fertile. Into
+it descended the Caras and began to conquer and absorb the aborigines.
+These inter-Andean valleys were inhabited by numerous tribes speaking
+distinct languages, who had developed considerable skill in agriculture.
+The compact and efficient military organisation of the Caras gave them a
+great advantage over more loosely organised peoples, but for three
+hundred years they were occupied in extending their power over the
+valley of Quito and thence over Latacunga and Ibarra, which adjoin it
+north and south.
+
+From the year 1300 the Cara traditions gather more clearness and
+precision. By a law handed down from immemorial times each Shiri was
+succeeded by his son, or if he had no son by the son of a sister,
+daughters and other female descendants being absolutely excluded. The
+eleventh Shiri, whose reign corresponded with the last years of the
+thirteenth century, had no male heir, and he asked the general council
+of the nation for permission to name as successor the husband he might
+choose for his daughter. Each one of the different chiefs, hoping to be
+selected, voted for the proposition, but the Shiri diplomatically went
+outside of his own dominions and proposed to the monarch who ruled in
+Riobamba that his eldest son, Duchisela, marry the Princess Toa. The
+proposition was accepted and the Quito kingdom doubled its territory and
+power.
+
+Duchisela reigned seventy years, and upon his death was succeeded by his
+son Autachi, the thirteenth Shiri. This monarch raised the Cara power to
+its highest pitch, extending his dominions south over the plateaux of
+Alausi, Canar, Cuenca, Jubones, Zaruma, and Loja, and thence far beyond
+the present Ecuadorian boundary over the Peruvian provinces of
+Huanacabamba, Piura, and Paita. This vast increase of territory was due
+more to treaties of confederation and alliance than to conquest. None of
+the new provinces were ever thoroughly incorporated into the Cara
+confederacy, and their allegiance to the Shiri in far-away Quito sat
+lightly upon them. By the end of the fourteenth century the Cara
+influence was dominant along the Andean plateau from the first degree of
+north latitude to the sixth south, and extended to the arid coast plain
+of northern Peru. The humid and forested coast region north of Guayaquil
+remained in the hands of barbarous tribes, nor were the Caras ever able
+to extend their power down the wooded eastern slopes of the Andes into
+the Amazon plain.
+
+Cara expansion was suddenly checked by the Incas. In the latter part of
+the fourteenth century these fierce and indomitable Islamites of the
+western continent under the lead of Tupac Yupanqui conquered the coast
+nations from Lima to Paita, and the ruder tribes who lived in the
+mountains from Cerro de Pasco north to the Ecuadorian border. Tupac did
+not respect the southern confederates of the Caras, and the Shiri
+appears to have made little resistance when his allies were rapidly
+reduced. The Inca system was the far better adapted for conquest. The
+emperor could equip and lead to invasion armies numbering tens of
+thousands, well disciplined, blindly obeying their generals, marching
+over carefully prepared roads, and supplied by an admirable
+commissariat. The Caras had contented themselves with treaties of
+alliance; they were only the chief tribe in a confederacy, and warlike
+as were the members they could not combine to offer any effective
+resistance to the first onslaught of the great military empire.
+
+A fairly homogeneous civilisation had grown up in the Ecuadorian
+Cordillera during the four hundred years of Cara influence. Bringing
+with them from their unknown original home a capacity for military and
+political organisation far superior to that of most American aborigines,
+the Caras were like a ferment introduced into the heterogeneous and
+inert tribes of the plateau, which gradually transformed the latter into
+a vigorous people so well fitted to their surroundings that they
+survived the Inca conquest, even turning the tables and becoming the
+dominant element in the empire, and then outlived the decimating tyranny
+of the Spaniards, so that ninety-five per cent. of the present
+population is composed of their descendants. That this civilisation was
+in the main self-developed can hardly be doubted. There is no evidence
+of any intimate contact with the Incas; with the peoples of Yucatan and
+Mexico the Caras had no connection, and the conjectures as to
+communication with the peoples of eastern Asia have no historical or
+archaeological basis. Their civilising and consolidating mission was
+aided by exceptionally favourable surroundings. The climate was healthy,
+agreeable, and conducive to bodily and intellectual vigour; the soil
+reasonably fertile and well adapted to the production of eminently
+nourishing food crops, while requiring hard labour in its cultivation.
+The potato, the quinoa grain, and maize played no insignificant role in
+the history of the Caras; they might never have risen above the level of
+Caribs if they had lived in a region where savoury and poorly nourishing
+esculents grow wild. Not less important was the physical configuration
+of Ecuador. Dry and open valleys, some of them large enough to sustain
+two hundred thousand people, and easily penetrable in every part, while
+surrounded by high mountains and bleak "paramos," shut off from the
+outer world by the forest-covered declivities of the Cordilleras, were
+admirably adapted to favour the growth of compact little states, whose
+inhabitants would retain their individual initiative and local pride
+even after incorporation in a larger political system.
+
+Hualcopo, the fourteenth Shiri, ascended the throne of Quito in 1430.
+Tupac Yupanqui had completed the reduction of the coast tribes of
+northern Peru and the mountain tribes as far north as the present
+Ecuador border had ceased to resist him. From the coast valleys of Piura
+and Paita, he marched up the easy pass which leads over the Cordillera
+into the fertile plateaux of southern Ecuador, and after a few victories
+all the tribes as far north as the nudo of Azuay submitted, and
+transferred their allegiance from Quito to Cuzco. Loja, Zaruma, Jubones,
+the great valley of Cuenca, and Canar were taken away, and Hualcopo was
+deprived of all but his hereditary dominions--the old kingdoms of
+Riobamba and Quito. The Shiri possessed no army capable of undertaking
+an offensive campaign against the Incas, but, although terrified at
+Tupac's rapid advance, the ancient possessions of the Shiri remained
+faithful. Tupac spent two years in the province of Canar, erecting
+fortifications and recruiting his army by new arrivals from the south
+and enlistment among the recently conquered tribes. Meanwhile Hualcopo
+was fortifying himself in the valley of Alausi, which lies north of
+Azuay, and in the passes that lead over the Tiocajas nudo into Riobamba.
+About the year 1455 the Inca army advanced in force. Defeated in several
+minor actions, the Shiri abandoned Alausi and concentrated his forces in
+the passes of Tiocajas. After three months of skirmishes and sieges in
+which the forts fell one by one, the Caras were compelled to accept a
+pitched battle. The conflict was well sustained, but with the death of
+the principal Cara general, victory declared for the Incas and the Caras
+fled from the field leaving sixteen thousand dead.
+
+Hualcopo retired to Riobamba, but there it was impossible to maintain
+himself, and he was forced to retreat to the fortress of Mocha in the
+nudo which divides Riobamba from the valley of Latacunga. Here he made a
+determined and successful stand, and all Tupac's efforts to force his
+way over the last line of natural fortifications which kept him out of
+the northern valleys were in vain. The Inca emperor was forced to
+content himself with assuring his possession of the provinces already
+conquered. In 1460 he returned to Cuzco, leaving the territory
+garrisoned. Three years later the heroic Hualcopo died, and was
+succeeded by his son, Cacha, the fifteenth and last Shiri. The young man
+signalised his accession to the throne by an aggressive campaign for the
+recovery of the lost provinces. He passed south into the valley of
+Riobamba, surprised the Inca garrisons, and put them to the sword,
+revindicating all the country as far south as the nudo of Azuay. Beyond
+that range he was unable to go, for all his efforts failed before the
+obstinate resistance of the inhabitants of Canar. Tupac began
+preparations to lead an overwhelming army against Cacha, but his own
+death interrupted him, and it was not until 1475 that his son, Huaina
+Capac, surnamed the "great," was able to take the road for the north,
+determined to put an end to the Shiri dynasty. He first consolidated his
+power among the tribes on the coast south of Guayaquil, whom his father
+had left half independent, and then extended his conquests along the
+northern shore among the barbarians of Manabi. On the island of Puna he
+put to the sword all the male inhabitants, and one tribe in Manabi,
+notorious for its abominable and unnatural practices, he extirpated.
+Returning south, he crossed the mountains in northern Peru, and
+descending their eastern slopes, waged a bloody war against the
+Pacamores, who inhabited the forests where the Upper Amazon debouches
+into the plain. Having thus secured his line of communications he
+devoted himself to the main object of the campaign--the conquest of
+Quito.
+
+Disproportionate as appeared the resources of the contending nations,
+the war which ensued was well contested. The Caras had resumed their
+warlike habits and the imminence of the danger animated them and their
+allies to a desperate resistance. For months the Caras held the great
+Inca army at bay in the defiles of the Azuay, but finally they were
+defeated and retreated to the line of Tiocajas. The Incas followed and
+in a great battle vanquished their opponents so decisively that not only
+was Riobamba lost, as had happened after the former defeat, but likewise
+Latacunga and Quito itself. No stand could be made at Mocha, and the
+Shiri fled to Ibarra, through Quito, where the Caranquis, the most
+warlike members of the confederacy, were determined to resist to the
+last. A considerable number of Cara warriors had escaped the slaughter
+at Tiocajas, and a formidable army assembled to defend the last
+fortresses in the extreme north of the kingdom. Huaina himself laid
+siege to Otavalo, the principal stronghold of the Caranquis, but was not
+able to reduce it. Their successes encouraged them to take the
+offensive, and in a sortie the Inca emperor narrowly escaped losing his
+life. Compelled to retire to suppress a mutiny among his southern
+troops, he left the northern army under the command of his brother,
+Auqui Toma, and the latter was killed in an assault on the redoubtable
+fortress of Otavalo. This, however, was the last victory which the Shiri
+won. Huaina's reinforcements had come up and he advanced with an
+overwhelming army to avenge his brother's death. Otavalo was taken and
+its garrison put to the sword; the Shiri fled to another fortress, where
+he was defeated and slain. The victorious emperor took a fearful
+vengeance on the Caranquis, whose obstinacy had cost him so dear.
+Tradition tells that twenty-four thousand were massacred, and their
+bodies thrown into a lake which has ever since borne the name of
+Yahuarcocha--the "pool of blood."
+
+Thenceforth the provinces of the old Quito kingdom were integral parts
+of the Inca empire. The southern valleys had readily accepted the Inca
+rule, and the central ones appear to have abandoned the Shiri's cause
+promptly after the second battle of Tiocajas. Though the Caranquis had
+been exterminated and the Caras had suffered greatly, the other tribes
+remained intact. The Inca emperor saw that a policy of conciliation
+would best insure the obedience of these formidable peoples. He spent
+the remainder of his long life in Ecuador, married the daughter of the
+dead Shiri, and ruled rather as the legitimate successor of the ancient
+dynasty than as an alien conqueror. So far as possible the religious,
+political, and social customs of the Incas were introduced, but it does
+not appear that the work of amalgamation had proceeded very far in the
+fifty years which intervened until the advent of the Spaniards. The
+Quichua had not displaced the native tongues to any great extent, and
+while the Ecuadorean tribes became loyal subjects, they did not regard
+themselves as in any way inferior to the older subjects of the empire.
+Rather had the balance of power passed to them; they had acquired the
+skill in regular warfare once the exclusive property of the Incas; and
+the issue of the civil war between Huascar and Atahuallpa seems to prove
+that they would have played the principal role in the Inca system if the
+advent of the Spaniards had not altered everything.
+
+Huaina Capac died in Quito in 1525, and his body was taken to Cuzco to
+be laid with his ancestors. In order better to secure the northern
+kingdom to his descendants he named Atahuallpa, a son by his marriage
+with the Shiri princess, ruler of the old dominions of Quito. His eldest
+son, Huascar, was given the rest of the empire with the title of emperor
+and a suzerainty over Atahuallpa. But Huaina's wise provisions were
+rendered valueless by the dispute which arose between the two brothers
+about the boundaries of Atahuallpa's territories. The latter insisted
+that they included the provinces south of the Azuay, which had been
+wrested from Hualcopo by Tupac Yupanqui seventy years before, but
+Huascar would not admit that they extended beyond the hereditary
+dominions of the Shiri dynasty. The people of Canar, the most northerly
+of the disputed provinces, had always been bitter enemies of Quito, and
+their chief now refused to recognise Atahuallpa as overlord and sent a
+deputation to Huascar. Atahuallpa despatched his uncle Caluchima and his
+great general Quizquiz to occupy the province and dethrone the
+recalcitrant chief. Huascar hurried up some of his Inca regulars to aid
+the people of Canar, who won the first battles and advanced towards
+Atahuallpa's capital. The northerners rallied around the grandson of
+their old Shiri, and two great armies met on the banks of the Naxichi,
+only fifty miles south of Quito. Atahuallpa gained a complete victory,
+and followed it up by advancing over the Azuay into Canar, where he was
+again overwhelmingly victorious over a second army which Huascar had
+sent against him. The whole of southern Ecuador fell into his hands and
+he took a fearful vengeance on the Canaris. Atahuallpa himself remained
+in Ecuador while Quizquiz went on into Peru to achieve that crushing
+series of victories which resulted in the taking of Cuzco and the
+capture of Huascar himself. By the year 1532 the whole empire as far
+south as Cuzco lay prostrate, and it seemed certain that the Cuzco
+dynasty would be displaced by the illegitimate Quito branch.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE SPANISH CONQUEST
+
+
+The fratricidal war lasting seven bloody years exhausted the resources
+of the northern and central provinces of the Inca empire, and raised the
+spirit of faction to a bitter pitch. Hardly had the last battle been
+fought when Pizarro landed on the northern Peruvian coast. The moment
+could not have been more favourable. The story of Atahuallpa's capture,
+of Pizarro's intrigues with the different Inca factions, and of his
+triumphal march to Cuzco through a country distracted by civil feud,
+belongs rather to the history of Peru than of Ecuador. With Atahuallpa's
+death and the defeat of Quizquiz near Cuzco, Quito was left without a
+master. The country had been drained of able-bodied men by Atahuallpa's
+levies, and bands of troops who found their way back from Peru fought
+among themselves. The indefatigable Canaris rose again against the Quito
+authorities, and following the fatal example set by the Huascar party in
+Peru, applied to the Spaniards. From San Miguel, the colony which
+Pizarro had established at Piura, in the valley where the road from the
+Ecuador table-land debouches into the coast plain, Sebastian de
+Benalcazar led a force of two hundred Spaniards to their assistance.
+Ascending the Cordillera he was joined by great numbers of Indians in
+Loja, Cuenca, and Canar, and crossed the Azuay before he encountered the
+meagre forces of the Quito generals. Horses and firearms gave the
+Spaniards an easy victory, and their enemies retreated to the defences
+of Tiocajas. This locality was once more fated to be the scene of a
+battle decisive of Ecuadorean history. Benalcazar and his allies were
+victorious, but at such a cost that he thought seriously of giving up
+the enterprise. Tradition recites that the giant volcano Cotopaxi burst
+forth into a terrific eruption after the battle, and that the midnight
+explosions were heard scores of miles along the plateau. To the Indians
+this was an infallible signal of the displeasure of the sun god.
+Trembling with superstitious fear they retreated in disorder; Benalcazar
+crossed Tiocajas without resistance, and overran the country as far
+north as Quito, taking possession of the city in December, 1533.
+Meanwhile Almagro had been hurrying up from Peru with reinforcements and
+on his way along the plateau fell in with a third expedition under
+Alvarado, governor of Guatemala. Coming from Panama on his own account
+and landing on the coast a long distance north of Guayaquil, Alvarado
+had succeeded in forcing his way through the dense forests and
+rain-soaked defiles and debouched on the plateau near Riobamba. Almagro
+paid him one hundred thousand dollars to withdraw, and Benalcazar was
+entrusted with the completion of the conquest he had so well begun.
+
+Disappointed in the search for gold, Benalcazar divided the country into
+feudal lordships, enslaving the Indians and compelling them to pay
+tribute. His restless energy was not satisfied with the conquest of the
+old Cara kingdom, and he soon led an expedition of one hundred and fifty
+Spaniards and four thousand Indians against the coast provinces and
+founded the city of Guayaquil, whose magnificent and sheltered port, the
+best on the Pacific coast, gave independent access to the sea. Though
+the passes leading from Guayaquil to Riobamba were far more tedious than
+the southern ones from Piura to Loja, they brought Quito two hundred
+miles nearer the ocean, and their use made Ecuador independent of
+northern Peru. Hardly had Benalcazar returned to the table-land and gone
+north to conquer southern Colombia, when the tribes near Guayaquil
+attacked and destroyed the settlement. His lieutenant at Quito
+despatched another expedition; Pizarro sent reinforcements by sea; and
+the place was re-founded. Again was it destroyed, and only in 1537, when
+Pizarro sent up Orellana with an adequate force, was a permanent
+settlement made on the site where to-day is the largest and richest city
+of Ecuador.
+
+Benalcazar had conquered Quito in the name and under the authority of
+Pizarro, and the latter now named his brother Gonzalo governor.
+Confident of finding another Peru in the unknown regions to the east of
+his new domain, the young Pizarro enlisted hundreds of adventurers, and
+in the beginning of 1541 led the largest and best-equipped expedition
+yet assembled in South America down the declivities of the Andes.
+Difficulties began as soon as he reached the sweltering, steaming forest
+region. Rain fell unceasingly; the soft clay of the defiles afforded no
+footing; instead of finding stone highways like those over which they
+had marched in their conquest of the table-land, the Spaniards had to
+cut tracks along the mountainsides through the matted vegetation.
+Provisions ran short, clothes rotted, arms rusted, no villages or tribes
+possessing food were encountered. Finally Gonzalo was obliged to halt
+the main body, sending a detachment under Orellana, the second in
+command, on ahead to find provisions. Orellana followed down a stream
+which soon grew large enough to be navigable. He built boats and
+proceeded, but still found no signs of civilised inhabitants. Fearing
+that he could never ascend the river to the main body, he determined to
+keep on, confident that ultimately he must reach the ocean. The river he
+was descending is now called the Napo. After a course of nearly a
+thousand miles, it flowed into the Amazon, and down the latter's broad
+current Orellana and his little band floated to the Atlantic, there
+built a little ship, and finally made their way to Spain.
+
+Hearing nothing of Orellana, Gonzalo gave up and climbed back to Quito
+with a starving and naked remnant of his men. There he learned of the
+assassination of his great brother at Lima, and that Vaca de Castro, the
+royal commissioner appointed to settle the disputes between the
+partisans of Almagro and Pizarro, had passed through Ecuador on his way
+south to Peru, appointing another governor for Quito. Gonzalo retired to
+Charcas in southern Bolivia, whence he emerged a year later to head the
+great rebellion. The viceroy was compelled to fly from Lima, and landing
+at Tumbez made his way to Quito. The Spaniards in Ecuador and southern
+Colombia were against Pizarro, but the latter chased the viceroy out of
+Quito and north into Popayan, where Benalcazar took sides with him. Four
+hundred Spaniards accompanied the viceroy in a counter-invasion, but
+near the city he was completely defeated and decapitated as he lay
+wounded on the field. Gonzalo, now undisputed lord of the whole Inca
+empire, returned at his leisure to Lima. The tale of how Gasca, shrewd
+old priest, by intrigue and conciliation, re-established royal authority
+and brought Pizarro to the scaffold, does not especially affect the
+history of Ecuador.
+
+By 1550 the civil wars were over, the unruly original conquistadores had
+been executed, banished, or reduced to obedience. Shortly afterward the
+system of Indian tribute and slavery was modified so that although the
+proprietors got rich the aborigines were saved from rapid extermination,
+royal officials and functionaries were installed, an elaborate system of
+taxation established, and Ecuador, with the rest of Spanish America,
+entered upon a long period of exploitation under form of law, instead of
+being the haphazard prey of irresponsible private adventurers.
+
+  [Illustration: ECUADOR INDIANS.]
+
+For the next two hundred and fifty years Ecuador has no history. The
+occasional eruption of a volcano or an Indian insurrection is all one
+finds in the annals, except the interminable lists of the Spanish
+officials sent out to enrich themselves and the Crown at the expense of
+the hapless Indians. The Spanish occupation brought about no
+colonisation of Ecuador in the true sense of that word, although it
+worked a considerable revolution in the life and customs of the Indians
+who continued to constitute the bulk of the population. Indeed, the
+habitable area of the Andean plateau was so limited and the aboriginal
+population so numerous, that there was no room for immigration without a
+war of extermination. The cultivable area of Andean Ecuador barely
+exceeds eight thousand square miles, and it is probable that more than
+a million natives lived there in the time of the Caras and Incas. Even
+at the present day these eight thousand miles contain more than
+two-thirds of the total population, and not more than four hundred
+thousand people inhabit the two hundred and eighty thousand square miles
+of high, barren mountains, steep declivities of the Cordillera, and
+wooded plains on the coast and in the Amazon valley, which constitute
+the remainder of Ecuador.
+
+One of the important results of the Spanish occupation was the
+introduction of new food plants and domestic animals. Wheat and barley
+were early planted by the Castilian proprietors who had divided the
+country among themselves, and these grains quickly replaced the quinoa,
+which, with the potato, had been the chief reliance of the Caras. The
+cultivation of the potato and also of maize was, however, continued. The
+Spanish invaders introduced the plantain and banana, which immediately
+became the staples of the forested and tropical districts, making
+possible a great increase of population. The plateau was found suited to
+European fruits, and orchards were soon flourishing in its more favoured
+parts. Rice, indigo, and sugar-cane were also introduced, and an export
+trade in these articles grew up, as well as in the native cacao and
+sarsaparilla.
+
+The Spanish rulers effected radical changes in the political, social,
+and religious life of the civilised Indians. A certain apathy and
+fatalism seems characteristic of the American aborigine, and in
+Ecuador, trained through countless centuries to the patriarchal rule of
+his own chiefs, he submitted to the exactions and innovations of his new
+masters. According to Spanish constitutional law and practice, America
+was not a component part of the mother-kingdom, but the new continent
+was regarded as the personal property of the king of Castile, its lands,
+mines, and inhabitants being his to dispose of at pleasure. The viceroy
+at Lima was the monarch's lieutenant, only responsible to the king
+himself or to the advisory board known as the Council of the Indies. For
+great territorial divisions like Ecuador this power was delegated to
+governors, and the corregidors were likewise unrestrained within the
+smaller subdivisions. The Indians were regarded as mere chattels, and
+the tribute exacted from every adult was a logical consequence of their
+legal status. In theory even the Spanish residents had no rights to
+self-government, nor did any constitutional guaranties of life and
+property exist.
+
+But such a despotism largely existed only on paper. The Spaniards who
+came to South America brought with them their characteristic
+constitutional traditions and personal independence. Instinctively they
+flocked into cities and organised municipal governments after the
+time-honoured Spanish form. So a system came into existence which had
+the sanction of the people's co-operation and was therefore workable.
+The country districts were left to the Indians and as long as they paid
+their tribute to the Crown or to the Spaniard who claimed the lands
+they tilled, little heed was paid to the form of civil government among
+them. The influence of their hereditary chiefs survived for centuries,
+and their old laws and customs died out only by degrees. In the cities
+contact between Spaniards and Indians was closer. In process of time the
+increasing number of half-breeds aided in the process of amalgamation,
+and even the pure-blood Indians of the fields and villages learned much
+of what their masters had to teach them.
+
+  [Illustration: CHURCH OF SANTO DOMINGO AT GUAYAQUIL.]
+
+The Church, however, operated more powerfully than any other influence
+in making Ecuador Spanish. Within a few years after the conquest a
+regular bishopric was established in Quito, and hundreds of priests and
+friars flocked over to take part in the wholesale evangelisation of the
+heathen natives. The gospel was preached everywhere, churches and
+chapels built in even the smallest villages, the obdurate Indians were
+treated with scant ceremony, and it soon became well understood among
+the natives that a hearty acceptance of the Christian cult tended to
+keep them out of trouble. Ecuador quickly became one of the most
+devotedly Catholic countries in the world, and has ever since remained
+so. The Crown and the landed proprietors made lavish gifts to the cause
+of religion, and a great proportion of the property of the country
+ultimately fell into the hands of the religious orders. Quito has
+appropriately been called the city of convents, and if we are to believe
+the accounts of travellers in colonial times half the population must
+have been priests, monks, and nuns. The introduction of Christianity
+among the Indians aided powerfully in spreading a knowledge of the
+Spanish language, but was more effective in substituting the Quichua for
+the ancient local tongues. The evangelists found it easier to preach to
+all the tribes in one language, and Quichua was naturally chosen, since
+it was already in the most general use as the official medium of the
+Inca empire. The Spanish priests reduced it to written form and it
+became a _lingua franca_ which was understood among all the nations of
+the Andean plateau very much as Guarany was among the Indians of the
+Atlantic slope.
+
+The details of Spanish civil, military, and financial administration in
+Ecuador did not differ greatly from those in the other provinces, and
+there is no need to repeat them here. The peaceable character of the
+Ecuador Indians made the maintenance of a standing army or even of a
+militia unnecessary. A few companies of troops in each of the principal
+towns and the natural military aptitude of the Spanish residents were
+sufficient to suppress any symptoms of rebellion, and to keep the
+Indians at work for their masters. Happily for the natives no great
+finds of silver or gold were made except in the southern province of
+Loja, and forced labour in the mines did not decimate the population, as
+happened in Bolivia and parts of Peru. Spaniards did not immigrate to
+any considerable extent, and negro slavery flourished on the seacoast.
+
+The only schools were priests' seminaries in which little except
+theology was taught and the level of intellectual culture among the
+Creoles sank very low. Taxes were heavy, public employments and titles
+of nobility were openly sold by the government, commerce amounted to
+little, because little gold and silver was mined and other articles
+would not bear the heavy transportation charges and the exactions and
+restrictions of the Spanish colonial system. The magnificent stone
+highways which the Cara and Inca monarchs had built were allowed to fall
+into ruins, but their remains are to be seen even to this day on the
+table-land near Cuenca, still solid in spite of the storms and
+earthquakes of four centuries. Population on the plateau slowly
+decreased. Quito had been a great city while it was the Cara
+capital--the residence of Huaina Capac and Atahuallpa--and in 1735 Ulloa
+estimated that it contained over seventy thousand people, but at the end
+of the eighteenth century it had fallen to less than forty thousand.
+However, the introduction of the plantain undoubtedly brought about an
+increase of population in the coast provinces, and Guayaquil flourished
+with the cultivation of cacao and sugar-cane.
+
+No great figure of a soldier, reformer, or administrator stands out
+among all the hundreds of officials who were sent over from Spain to
+rule the country. Even records of the growth of jealousies between
+Spaniards and Creoles, such as we encounter in other countries of South
+America are wanting. The Creoles appear never to have been able to
+interrupt the monotonous course of Spanish administration. In 1564 the
+old kingdom of Quito, with the addition of some outlying Colombian and
+Peruvian provinces, was erected into a presidency, and a royal
+audiencia, or court of appeals, with important administrative functions,
+was established. The viceroy of Lima continued to exercise nominal
+jurisdiction over all Spanish South America until the year 1719, when
+the viceroyalty of New Granada was first created. The Quito presidency
+was attached to the new jurisdiction, and this emphasised the separation
+from Peru. Twelve hundred miles of crooked, wretched road intervened
+between Quito and Lima, while the distance to Bogota was less than half
+as great. However, the natural outlet for the plateau from Cuenca north
+to Popayan was the road to Guayaquil, and the Quito presidency was
+therefore co-extensive with a natural commercial subdivision of the
+continent.
+
+In 1736 a party of scientists commissioned by the king of France came to
+Quito for the purpose of measuring an arc of the earth's meridian at the
+equator. These savants erected two pyramids to serve as a permanent
+record of the line they had measured, and placed upon them an
+inscription stating that the work had been done under the patronage of
+the king of France. Years afterwards a Spanish official, offended in his
+national pride by the wording of the inscription, obtained an order from
+Madrid for the destruction of these monuments, so invaluable to the
+science of exact geography.
+
+The latter part of the eighteenth century was marked by a greater
+interest in education. The seminaries widened their courses of study to
+include something more than the canon law and the Fathers, and
+public-spirited Creoles endowed new and better institutions of learning.
+No press or periodical literature appeared, but poetry and
+belles-lettres were cultivated with some success by native authors.
+Though the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1765 was accomplished without
+bloodshed, it resulted in no material weakening of ecclesiastical
+influence. The revolutionary ideas which were transforming the political
+thought of the world during the eighteenth century hardly penetrated
+Ecuador at all, and whatever influence they had was confined to the
+small percentage of the population that boasted of non-Indian blood.
+The news of Lexington and Yorktown and the enfranchisement of British
+North America stimulated no similar movement among the patient Indians
+and devout Creoles of the Andean valleys, and even the tremendous
+cataclysm of the French Revolution passed almost unnoticed.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE
+
+
+The beginning of the nineteenth century saw Spain involved to her ruin
+in the tremendous struggle between Napoleon and his enemies. Her fleets
+were destroyed at St. Vincent and Trafalgar; her treasury was emptied;
+her administration demoralised. Free communication with her American
+colonies was impossible while British frigates commanded every sea, and
+both on the Peninsula and in America, Spanish subjects lost their
+traditional respect for the monarchy. Though the jealousy against their
+imported rulers which always fermented among Creoles was not so strong
+in quiet, isolated, and agricultural Ecuador as in the coast provinces
+and mining regions, the news of Spain's defeats and humiliations
+awakened ambitious lawyers and wealthy landowners to a realisation that
+the Spaniards might be ousted from the lucrative offices.
+
+The opportunity came in 1809 with the resignation of Charles IV., the
+deposition and imprisonment of Ferdinand VII., the usurpation of the
+Spanish throne by Joseph Bonaparte, and the occupation of the Peninsula
+by the French. The viceroys and governors of Spanish America refused to
+recognise Joseph. The many patriots on the Peninsula who resisted the
+French usurpation organised provisional juntas which assumed to be the
+supreme depositaries of power pending the expulsion of Joseph and the
+return of Ferdinand, while the Queen claimed a regency for herself. The
+Spanish authorities did not know who would come out on top and were
+principally anxious to maintain themselves in their places, while
+ambitious leaders among the Creoles immediately began to plot to turn
+the confusion to their own advantage and to secure autonomy and even
+independence for the colonies.
+
+In 1809 Don Ruiz de Castilla was president of Quito. His jurisdiction
+included not only all present Ecuador, but also the southern part of
+Colombia, extending north three hundred miles along the great Andean
+plateau through the populous regions of Pasto and Popayan and far down
+the high and fertile valley of the Cauca. These portions of Colombia are
+continuous with the table-land on which Quito stands and directly
+accessible therefrom, while they are separated from the parallel series
+of plateaux on which Bogota, Tunja, and Socorro lie, by the deep valley
+of the Magdalena. Castilla's dependence upon the Bogota viceroy was
+therefore largely nominal, and he could expect as little help from New
+Granada as from Peru. He had only a few troops at Quito--probably not
+more than two or three hundred,--while the governors of the subordinate
+provinces, Popayan, Guayaquil, and Cuenca, each could muster only a few
+dozen armed police. A number of wealthy Creole proprietors and restless
+lawyers determined in the early part of 1809 to overthrow the president
+and create a governing junta composed of residents of Ecuador. Castilla
+was powerless to avert the storm. The handful of troops in barracks was
+easily suborned by the conspirators, who included the persons of
+greatest wealth, intelligence, and influence in the community. The mass
+of the Indian population was inert and would naturally side with their
+landlords, while the Spanish residents and Creole Tories had formed no
+plans for common action.
+
+On the night of the 9th of August, 1809, the chiefs of the movement,
+with the officers of the troops, met in the house of Dona Manuela
+Canizaries, the Madame Roland of Ecuador, and assigned to each the role
+which he was to play in the _coup d'etat_. The officers went to the
+barracks, led out the troops, and took possession of the government
+buildings in the name of the revolutionist committee. The president and
+those Spanish officials who proved recalcitrant were imprisoned, a
+governing junta of nine with Juan Montufar as chief was appointed, and
+an open cabildo summoned which confirmed these acts. The junta notified
+the viceroys of Bogota and Lima that it had assumed the government, and
+sent messengers to the provincial capitals demanding that they expel
+their Spanish authorities, adhere to the new order of things, and
+recognise the supremacy of the Quito junta. But the movement met with no
+favourable response from the rest of the presidency. The governors of
+Popayan, Cuenca, and Guayaquil immediately began to enlist troops to
+defend themselves against an attack from Quito. The junta prepared for
+war, but though plenty of ambitious young Creoles volunteered as
+officers there were not firearms enough to go around. At last an
+expedition set off to the north against Pasto and Popayan only to be
+easily defeated by the hasty levies the Spanish authorities had made
+among the sturdy Indians of those regions. Frightened by this defeat and
+their hopeless isolation, the junta resigned under promise of amnesty
+and in October Castilla returned to Quito and resumed the reins of
+government. But his position was insecure, and rumors of a fresh
+conspiracy soon drove him to repressive measures and the imprisonment of
+leading Creoles. The feeling grew bitter and in August, 1810, a
+desperate effort was made by the Creoles to get possession of the
+barracks. Its failure was followed by a frightful massacre in which many
+of the most popular men in the place were murdered.
+
+Meanwhile, the supreme junta at Seville, anxious to pacify the
+revolutionary disorders, had commissioned Carlos Montufar, a son of the
+chief of the fallen Quito junta who then happened to be in Spain, to go
+to Ecuador and reconcile the factions. Under his advice Castilla
+resigned to a new junta the direction of affairs, taking, however, the
+position of its chief member, and sent away his troops. In reality the
+younger Montufar sympathised with his brother Creoles; the universal
+indignation at the massacre of 1810 pushed him on to vengeance;
+Spaniards travelling through the country were waylaid and assassinated;
+and by the time Molina, appointed by the Spanish government in
+Castilla's place, had reached Cuenca on his way north to Quito, the old
+governor had again been deposed and imprisoned and open war existed
+between Arredondo, the Spaniard commanding the troops who had retired
+from Quito in accordance with the compromise, and the junta in the
+latter city. The year 1811 passed without any material change in the
+situation. The Spanish generals controlled Guayaquil and Cuenca in the
+south and Pasto and Popayan in the north, practically isolating the
+revolutionary government at Quito. As the troops of both sides became
+better trained the war took on a more determined and cruel character.
+Royalists and revolutionists both raised recruits among the sturdy
+mountain Indians and half-breeds. In technical knowledge of their
+profession the Spanish officers were superior to the revolutionary
+leaders and could procure arms more readily. Their armies were usually
+better disciplined and more efficient, although more liable to depletion
+by desertion.
+
+In this state of perpetual war, government rapidly became exclusively
+military. On the surface the contest seemed only a struggle between two
+sets of independent chiefs, in whose mouths "liberty" and "loyalty" were
+mere catch-words, and who continually quarrelled among themselves even
+when they nominally belonged to the same side. Early in 1812 Montufar
+was overthrown by another Creole chief in Quito who thereupon undertook
+an expedition against the Spanish general at Cuenca. But sedition among
+the patriot troops gave an easy victory to the latter, and the Spaniards
+took the offensive. Marching toward Quito, they dispersed the patriot
+army at Mocha, and entered the capital in triumph.
+
+Montes, the Spanish general who now became ruler of the presidency, was
+a wise and moderate man, and spared no pains to conciliate. He soon
+succeeded in so completely consolidating his power that during nine
+years Quito and most of the presidency remained quietly submissive, and
+became one of the centres whence Spanish expeditions went out against
+the parts of the continent which still remained in revolution. An able
+general, Samano by name, carried the successes of the Spanish arms to
+the north, and although the patriots of Colombia obtained some temporary
+advantages in the winter of 1814-15, they never penetrated south of
+Pasto. In 1816 the tide again turned with the arrival of eleven thousand
+Spanish veterans in the north of Colombia. The patriots were soon
+everywhere defeated, Bogota itself taken, and a remnant of
+revolutionists who attempted the invasion of Popayan and Pasto were
+overwhelmed by Samano in 1816 at the battle of Tambo. The patriot cause
+was at its lowest ebb in all South America. Resistance ceased in
+Colombia; only a few scattered bands kept up a desultory warfare in
+Venezuela; Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia were quiet; Spanish authority had
+been re-established in Chile; Uruguay had fallen into the hands of the
+Portuguese king; and Spanish armies were invading the Argentine, the
+last refuge of the revolution.
+
+San Martin's thunderbolt descent upon Chile and his victory at Chacabuco
+changed the aspect of affairs. A fleet was improvised at Valparaiso
+which obtained command of the Pacific coast, cutting off the Spaniards
+in Ecuador from receiving supplies except overland from the Caribbean
+ports. Bolivar took new heart for his tedious task of arousing the north
+and driving the Spaniards from Venezuela and New Granada. In 1819 he
+climbed the east side of the Andes to the neighbourhood of Bogota and by
+defeating the Spanish army at Boyaca, freed most of present Colombia,
+and even in Quito the patriots renewed their revolutionary plotting.
+Meanwhile San Martin had completed the expulsion of the Spaniards from
+Chile, and in 1820 he transported an army by sea to the neighbourhood of
+Lima itself, opening communications with the anti-Spanish party all
+along the coast. On the 9th of October, 1820, a successful revolution
+broke out at Guayaquil, and little time was lost in sending an army to
+the plateau. The Spaniards defeated it, but with Bolivar threatening
+them from Colombia, their comrades in Peru fighting for their lives
+against San Martin, the population of Quito on the verge of a revolt,
+and the Pacific in the control of the patriots, they could not follow up
+their advantage.
+
+On June 24, 1821, Bolivar gained the crowning victory of Carabobo in
+Venezuela. The Spanish position in the Caribbean provinces became
+irretrievable, and the patriot general was thenceforth free to pursue
+his plans for the expulsion of the enemy from southern New Granada and
+Ecuador and their incorporation with Colombia. In the fall of that year
+General Sucre, who shares with San Martin the honor of being the
+greatest soldier of the patriot side, arrived at Guayaquil by sea,
+bringing with him seventeen hundred Colombian and Venezuelan veterans.
+Bolivar was to advance from Bogota, conquering Popayan and Pasto on his
+way to Quito, while Sucre came up from the south. The latter at once
+ascended the Andes to the plateau, but was badly defeated. Retreating to
+Guayaquil, he reorganised his army, incorporating with it a
+reinforcement of twelve hundred men sent by San Martin, and again
+climbed the Andes. By this time Bolivar was advancing from Popayan to
+Pasto and the Spaniards, thinking it best to concentrate their forces,
+abandoned Cuenca and the southern provinces and allowed Sucre to advance
+unopposed to the neighbourhood of Quito. There he outmanoeuvred them and
+gained a commanding position on the slopes of the great volcano,
+Pichincha, overlooking the city. His foes were forced to the alternative
+of giving battle at a disadvantage or permitting him to effect a
+junction with Bolivar, and overwhelming them by superior numbers. On the
+morning of the 24th of May, 1822, the battle decisive of Ecuador's fate
+was fought. The royal army suffered annihilation; four hundred dead lay
+on the mountainside and two hundred wounded; eleven hundred men and one
+hundred and sixty officers surrendered the following day. The only
+troops who escaped belonged to scattered detachments not present at the
+battle, who fled down the eastern slope of the Andes into the trackless
+forests and finally made their way down the Amazon to the Atlantic.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE FORMATION OF ECUADOR
+
+
+At the head of a victorious army of Colombians and Argentines, Sucre
+could naturally do as he liked with Ecuador and an assembly of the
+people of Quito accepted incorporation into the republic of Colombia.
+Bolivar, meanwhile, had had some hard fighting with the stubborn
+loyalists of Pasto, and the issue remained doubtful until news of the
+victory of Pichincha was received. The Spanish commander surrendered;
+Bolivar came on to Quito, and thence proceeded to Guayaquil. The
+inhabitants of this important city were divided. Many wanted to be
+independent; others preferred incorporation with Peru, to being tied up
+with Colombia, a country whose capital could only be reached by months
+of tedious travelling; others, however, were willing to maintain the
+ancient political connection with New Granada. As a matter of fact,
+discussion was useless, for Bolivar threw into the scale the weight of
+his military power. Guayaquil and the adjacent coast region became a
+department of Colombia, while the southern plateau provinces--Cuenca
+and Loja--were also erected into a department of Bolivar's vast
+confederation. This completed the division of the old presidency of
+Quito into four parts--Pasto and the northern provinces, Quito and the
+central, Cuenca and the southern, and Guayaquil with the coast, and in
+all of them the influence of Bolivar's satraps was predominant.
+
+Shortly after his arrival at Guayaquil Bolivar and San Martin had their
+famous interview. The latter came up from Lima hoping to arrange plan of
+joint campaign, but he quickly saw that Bolivar would never consent to
+share the glory of driving the Spaniards from their last strongholds.
+The great Argentine magnanimously determined to retire, and returning to
+Lima, resigned the presidency of Peru. San Martin once out of the way,
+Bolivar was eager to lead a Colombian army to Lima, but the Peruvians
+declined his assistance. Alone, however, they had little chance against
+the able Spanish generals, and, aghast at the progress of the enemy,
+they soon sent to Bolivar begging his assistance on his own terms. The
+selfishly ambitious liberator gladly accepted, and within a month Sucre
+was on his way south at the head of a fine army of Colombian veterans.
+Bolivar himself followed with reinforcements, and though hampered and
+delayed by the revolt of the Callao garrison, Sucre's military ability
+backed by Bolivar's tireless energy and large resources produced their
+legitimate results. Bolivar in person advanced to the plateau and August
+6, 1824, won the cavalry action of Junin which compelled the retirement
+of the Spanish army to Cuzco. Bolivar returned to Lima leaving Sucre in
+command, and on the 9th of December the latter annihilated the main body
+of the enemy in the battle of Ayacucho--the crowning victory of the war
+of South American independence.
+
+Bolivar was supreme from the Caribbean to Potosi. As president of the
+United States of Colombia he ruled Venezuela, New Granada, and Ecuador,
+he himself was dictator of Peru, and his faithful lieutenant exercised
+supreme power in Bolivia. The realisation of his cherished plan for the
+union of all South America into one great confederacy, with himself as
+life-president, seemed near at hand. But successful soldier though he
+was--heroic, resourceful, and unwavering in reverse--his statecraft was
+short-sighted and impracticable. The moment of his apogee marked the
+beginning of his decline. He failed to appreciate that the spirit of
+South America was profoundly democratic and local, and that the war of
+independence owed its beginning and successful prosecution to a deeply
+rooted impulse toward division, liberty, and anarchy among the Creoles.
+To build a tower out of sand would have been easier than to create a
+stable union between the recently liberated provinces of Spanish
+America. Viewed in the light of subsequent events the wonder is that
+territorial disintegration stopped where it did, and that South America
+did not split into twenty instead of nine separate countries.
+
+Bolivar's partisans in Colombia were unsuccessful in their intrigues to
+replace the Constitution of Cucuta with one drawn up after the plan
+their chief had imposed upon Bolivia and Peru. Neither leaders nor
+people, army nor professional classes, showed any disposition to concede
+him greater powers. His attempts to interfere in the affairs of
+Argentine and Chile were repulsed, Peru became restless under his
+dictatorship, Bolivia only waited a favourable opportunity to expel
+Sucre, the very troops he had brought from Colombia to Peru became
+mutinous, his pan-American congress at Panama turned out a fiasco. He
+remained two years in Peru, until the news of a great uprising in
+Venezuela made it necessary for him to hurry to the north. Hardly had he
+left Lima than the military chiefs in Peru virtually disavowed his
+authority. Under the leadership of their officers the Colombian troops
+in Lima revolted, and the Peruvians, delighted to be rid of these
+embarrassing guests, paid their pecuniary demands, and to the number of
+over three thousand despatched them in ships for the north. They
+disembarked in Ecuador, where one division took possession of Guayaquil
+and another of Cuenca. Bolivar was so occupied with the troubles in
+Venezuela that he could personally take no measures against this
+defection, but General Flores, a Venezuelan whom he had appointed
+commander of the military forces of the three southern provinces of the
+old Quito presidency,--Guayaquil, Cuenca, and Quito,--proved energetic
+and fortunate. His intrigues sowed discord among the officers of the
+revolting troops. A counter-revolution occurred in his favour at Cuenca,
+and after a short period of virtual independence Guayaquil also returned
+to its old connection with Quito.
+
+The movement against Bolivar from Colombia proper involved Pasto and
+Popayan--the northern division of the old Quito presidency--while Quito
+and the southern provinces were left largely to their own devices.
+General La Mar, who had succeeded in making himself president of Peru,
+conceived the idea of enlarging the limits of that country by the
+acquisition of Guayaquil and Cuenca, and he was the more enthusiastic
+because the latter was his native province. In 1828 war broke out
+between Colombia and Peru. Peruvian ships blockaded Guayaquil, and in
+January, 1829, forced the surrender of that place, while a Peruvian army
+seven thousand strong invaded the Ecuadorean plateau and penetrated
+beyond Cuenca. Flores and his rivals united in face of the common
+danger, the Colombian veterans scattered through the country rallied to
+the banner of Sucre, who came in person to take command, and the
+decisive battle was fought at Tarqui in February. The Peruvians were so
+badly defeated that they sued for peace, and agreed to surrender
+Guayaquil and the greater part of the southern provinces.
+
+  [Illustration: GUAYAQUIL, ECUADOR.]
+
+By this time, however, Bolivar's own position had become desperate.
+Venezuela had already separated from the confederation, and when on the
+12th of May, 1830, Flores proclaimed the Quito presidency independent,
+it was little more than the announcement of an existing fact. He
+attempted to disarm jealousy against Quito by christening the country by
+the fanciful name of Ecuador, and by decreeing that each province should
+have an equal vote in the legislative assembly. Flores was merely one
+of a multitude of military chiefs who had been fighting among themselves
+since the expulsion of the Spaniards. Though married to a Quito lady he
+was a Venezuelan and could rely on few local friendships or sympathies,
+and the Colombian veterans, who swarmed over the country devouring the
+substance of the people and eager for pay and plunder, regarded him as
+one of themselves and were ready to desert him for any chief who might
+offer higher wages.
+
+Now that Bolivar was overthrown and Sucre murdered on a lonely mountain
+road by hired assassins, the sentiment of loyalty to their old chiefs
+tardily revived among the fickle Colombian regulars. They received
+Flores's declaration of independence with indignation; an insurrection
+broke out among the garrison at Guayaquil; and the veterans marched to
+the plateau. Flores had no force capable of making headway against them,
+and was compelled to negotiate a treaty, agreeing to support Bolivar in
+case the latter should remain in South America. On the other hand, the
+troops consented to recognise Flores if Bolivar should go into exile.
+Hardly had the treaty been signed than word was received of the lonely
+death of the great Venezuelan at Santa Marta. Most of the veterans took
+service under Flores, and he pursued the recalcitrants with relentless
+and bloody severity. Pasto and Popayan, composing the province of Cauca,
+the northern division of the old Quito presidency, wavered as to whether
+they would cast their lot with Ecuador or New Granada. The government
+at Bogota sent an army into the disputed territory, and Flores tried to
+organise a force large enough to beat it, but he was hampered by
+mutinies, conspiracies, and poverty, and after a year of expensive
+though nearly bloodless operations withdrew and consented to a treaty by
+which Ecuador gave up all claim to Pasto and Popayan, losing a third of
+the territory and population of the old presidency of Quito.
+
+  [Illustration: COSTUMES OF NATIVES NEAR QUITO.]
+
+Flores, however, managed to hold Guayaquil and Cuenca as well as Quito
+and must therefore be regarded as the founder of Ecuador, though his
+reactionary, absolute, and violent government was hated by all that was
+young, intelligent, and liberal in the country. The Indian peasants
+groaned under the burden of taxes imposed to subsidise a horde of
+functionaries. Finances were in deplorable confusion; the public debts
+left unpaid; population decreased, especially in the Andean region;
+agriculture, industry, and commerce remained stationary, except in the
+cacao districts on the coast. The lower classes had a hard struggle for
+bare existence, and the parasitical ruling race was solely pre-occupied
+with political war and intrigue. But it cannot fairly be said that
+Flores or any other one man was responsible. The lamentable condition of
+affairs resulted inevitably from the long struggle with Spain and from
+the situation, character, and ideals of the people. But such a janizary
+system of government was too burdensome, unwieldy, and wasteful not to
+fall by its own weight sooner or later. The people were simply unable to
+pay the taxes which Flores levied vainly trying to satisfy his troops.
+Mutinies broke out among the latter, and the liberals were encouraged to
+organise.
+
+A revolutionary society was formed in Quito whose ramifications extended
+among the enthusiastic youth in every part of the republic. In
+Guayaquil, the wealthiest and most commercial city, the demand for
+better financial administration became universal. In 1833 Vicente
+Rocafuerte, the foremost of Ecuadorean liberals and the most
+accomplished public man in the country, openly assumed the leadership of
+the opposition to Flores. Elected a member of congress he bravely
+defied the dictator, who sentenced him to banishment. But when he
+reached Guayaquil the troops and citizens of that city arose to support
+him. Flores led an army down the Andes and attacked and captured
+Guayaquil, Rocafuerte and his partisans escaped and kept up the struggle
+at different points of the coast, while sympathetic insurrections broke
+out on the plateau in Flores's rear. Though the dictator finally
+succeeded in capturing Rocafuerte, the only use he was able to make of
+his victory was to secure better terms from the liberals. Rocafuerte and
+he formed an alliance and together they pacified the country, the former
+becoming president and the latter retaining command of the army. Ecuador
+enjoyed her first real respite from civil war and tumult since 1809, and
+Rocafuerte's inauguration in 1835 marks the beginning of civil and
+constitutional government.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+MODERN ECUADOR
+
+
+President Rocafuerte was not only animated by revolutionary principles,
+imbued with liberal ideas, and a student of the best political and
+economic writers, but he proved to be a good administrator--practical,
+cautious, and sure--and earned the title of the greatest of Ecuador's
+reformers. His first step was to summon a constituent assembly which
+divided the country into provinces and parishes, outlined a rational
+scheme of administration, and made a substantial beginning toward
+substituting civil for military government. Although he did not attempt
+to carry into practice the dreams of radical liberals--impracticable
+among a population nine-tenths Indians in semi-bondage, and in a country
+where the clergy were dominant--he reformed the taxing system, set in
+order the finances, so far as his means and knowledge would permit,
+earnestly encouraged industry, agriculture, and commerce, repaired and
+built roads, promulgated a new and humane criminal code, and established
+schools. He set up the pyramids of the French geographers, showing that
+tender regard for his country's repute abroad which is rarely absent in
+statesmen of high character and noble aims. Under his administration
+Ecuador assumed the payment of her proportion--twenty-one and a half per
+cent., or one million eight hundred thousand pounds--of the debt
+contracted by the defunct United States of Colombia during the war of
+independence. However, this debt proved a burden too great for her
+resources. Interest fell behind and the principal has been scaled down
+repeatedly. Only in 1900 was an arrangement satisfactory to the
+bondholders finally reached.
+
+His efforts made Ecuador the second South American republic whose
+independence was formally recognised by Spain. In religious matters he
+proved true to his liberal convictions, and while never persecuting the
+clergy always advocated religious freedom for the individual. But though
+he set his country's feet in the path of progress, the steps were slow,
+short, and uncertain. His alliance with the military element as
+represented by Flores, and the religious and social conservatism of the
+bulk of the people, hampered rapid progress. The radical liberals
+conspired against him, but their plots were sternly stamped out.
+Government remained essentially military and aristocratic, and active
+participation was confined to the educated and military classes.
+Nevertheless, a sort of equilibrium between the demands of the governing
+caste and the capacities of the producing masses was reached, and a
+certain degree of order replaced the indiscriminate exactions and
+tyranny which the proletariat had endured ever since the first Spaniard
+had landed. When Rocafuerte finished his term in 1839, Ecuador was at
+peace and had recovered much of the material prosperity lost during the
+long wars. On the plateau the Indians cultivated their wheat and
+potatoes in security, while on the low coast lands the cacao industry
+flourished, making Ecuador one of the chief sources of the world's
+supply of chocolate and multiplying Guayaquil's population and wealth.
+
+  [Illustration: ECUADOR PEON'S HOUSE.]
+
+Flores's command of the army insured him the succession to the
+presidency. Though his return to power meant political reaction, the
+beneficent effects of Rocafuerte's system had been too obvious to be
+entirely ignored and hastily abandoned. Flores's first measures were
+moderate, but his irrational ambition quickly led him into an expensive
+and fruitless intervention in the Colombian civil war of 1840. His
+financial difficulties and a return to military habits caused him to
+adopt measures continually more arbitrary, and he went stubbornly ahead
+with his schemes to make his dictatorship permanent. He forced the
+adoption of a new Constitution lengthening the presidential term to
+eight years, and caused himself to be declared elected in 1843. The
+conflict with the liberals became acute; Rocafuerte protested and was
+forced to fly for his life. The young radicals of Quito plotted the
+tyrant's assassination, while the villagers of the plateau arose in
+revolt against the gatherers of an obnoxious poll-tax. In 1845 a liberal
+revolution broke out at Guayaquil. Flores descended from the table-land,
+but the liberal army met and defeated him at the foot of the mountains,
+and he accepted the offer of twenty thousand dollars in cash and a
+pension to leave the country.
+
+The better elements of the triumphant party were not able to keep the
+upper hand. A new Constitution was hastily adopted and the mulatto Ramon
+Roca installed as president. For four years he ruled while the gulf
+between liberals and conservatives widened day by day, and factional
+jealousies and ambitions within the dominant party became menacing. The
+congress of 1849 quarrelled bitterly over the presidential succession
+and was unable to agree on any one. Ambitious chiefs got arms and men
+together, and after a year of uncertainty General Urbina, of Guayaquil,
+issued a pronunciamento declaring Diego Noboa provisional head of the
+government. A convention called for the purpose adopted a new
+Constitution and elected Urbina's nominee president for the full term.
+To the consternation of the liberals he recalled the Jesuits and gave
+asylum to the defeated conservatives from Colombia, going so far as to
+send troops to the frontier to aid in their restoration. But Urbina, to
+whose command these forces had been entrusted, proclaimed himself
+dictator and exiled Noboa. He promulgated a new Constitution--Ecuador's
+sixth in twenty-two years,--persecuted the conservatives, and ruled for
+four years as an ultra-liberal. At the expiration of his term in 1856 he
+named his friend Robles as his successor, who maintained himself against
+the conservative attacks until in 1859 his government became involved in
+a war with Peru. When Robles and Urbina went to the Peruvian frontier
+the conservatives rose behind them. As a matter of fact the country was
+tired of the misrule of the military chiefs, miscalled liberals, whose
+government was a compound of oppression for their enemies and license
+for their friends. The clericals armed their adherents in the northern
+villages and marched on Quito. The partisans of the administration at
+the capital could oppose no effective resistance, and the insurgents
+entered the city, and on May 1st installed a provisional government with
+Garcia Moreno at its head. The latter at once pushed on south with a
+small force, and, though defeated by Robles, he escaped to Peru, where
+he received help for new operations. In spite of Moreno's temporary
+reverse his friends retained possession of Quito, and the Peruvian
+blockade of Guayaquil absorbed the president's attention. The forces
+under Robles soon crumbled away, and he resigned and went into
+banishment. Urbina, the real chief of the liberal party, had a small
+body of troops in Cuenca with which he tried to maintain the unequal
+contest, but his position soon became untenable and he followed Robles
+into exile.
+
+Moreno was now master of the whole Andean region. Guayaquil, however,
+remained in the hands of a liberal chief; the Peruvian government had
+tired of its bargain to support the Ecuadorian clericals; the blockade
+was abandoned, and the Peruvian ships retired after making a treaty with
+the Guayaquil authorities. This rid Moreno of an embarrassing
+entanglement with a foreign power, although it left the Guayaquil
+insurgents free to employ all their forces against him. Descending with
+all the forces he could muster, his mountaineers defeated the coast
+troops in every encounter, and on the 2d of September, 1860, Moreno
+captured the great seaport, putting an end to open opposition in all
+Ecuador. Every successful revolutionist in those days made his own
+Constitution, so it is a waste of words to tell that Moreno summoned a
+convention which promulgated a new fundamental law for the republic.
+During the next fifteen years he remained the dominant personality in
+Ecuadorian history. His biography is typical of the careers of the
+higher class of Creole statesmen, and profoundly interesting to a
+student of South American history as illustrating the difficulties with
+which men of constructive minds and a passion for order have been
+obliged to contend. A scion of one of the oldest and proudest Spanish
+families, he had been proscribed in his youth, and spent the years of
+his exile studying in the old world. He returned with his naturally fine
+mind stored with the fruits of study and observation, but with his
+prejudices of caste and religion unshaken. The clericals set all their
+hopes on this brilliant young advocate, and his public life, his
+opinions, and his personality resume the reactionary characteristics of
+Ecuador. Nevertheless it is hard for an unprejudiced outsider to study
+the history of his country during his time without retaining a strong
+admiration for his abilities and force, even if not convinced that his
+career made for the moral uplifting of the republic.
+
+He found the finances in a wretched state. Salaries were unpaid,
+the revenue amounted to less than a million pesos, and the government
+was living from hand to mouth on twenty-per-cent. loans. He directed
+his activity principally toward effecting urgent material
+reforms--increasing the revenue by systematising taxation, suppressing
+frauds and contraband, founding a mint and hospital at Quito, building
+the great waggon-road from Quito to the southern provinces, and
+connecting that remote and mountain-locked capital by a telegraph line
+with Guayaquil. The whole of his own salary he devoted to the public
+use, the laws were better enforced, life and property became safer, and
+material prosperity increased. The government was centralised, the
+semi-independency of the departments abolished, the Jesuits recalled,
+the rights and privileges of the clergy restored and increased, and a
+Concordat signed with the Holy See which virtually freed the Ecuadorian
+Church from all secular control.
+
+The Concordat was denounced throughout the continent as treason to South
+American independence, and his relations with European diplomatic
+representatives were so cordial and frank that rumours of his
+willingness to accept a foreign protectorate or even annexation by Spain
+were rife in the other capitals. The publication of his personal
+correspondence with a French diplomatist raised such a storm against him
+that other countries plotted his overthrow, and the democrats of
+Colombia, victorious in the civil war of 1863, sent an army to the
+frontier, proclaiming that their purpose was "to liberate the brother
+democrats of Ecuador from the theocratic yoke of Professor Moreno." His
+army was defeated in the battle of Cuaspud, but he stood firm and his
+people showed no eagerness to accept Colombia's invitation and re-enter
+that confederacy. Her army was unable to follow up its advantage, and
+the danger quickly passed. When war broke out between Spain and Peru he,
+like the Emperor of Brazil, refused to follow Chile's example and take
+sides, against the mother country. In a word, his foreign policy was a
+selfish but intelligent opportunism, and he was not influenced by vague
+sentimental considerations and blind chauvinism.
+
+In 1864 Urbina, with the countenance and assistance of Peru, invaded the
+southern province, Loja, but the insurrection was promptly crushed. Next
+year Moreno's term expired, and he named a disciple and friend to be
+president in his place, but his own political preponderance was so
+unquestioned and his prestige so enormous in the barracks, convents, and
+pulperias that he continued the real ruler of the country. His
+understudy did not please him and he demanded and received a
+resignation. The incumbent next selected proved insubordinate and had to
+be displaced by force. When Moreno declared himself provisional dictator
+the Guayaquil liberals undertook an armed resistance, but by 1869 he was
+firmly in the saddle once more. He kept his hold on the government,
+apparently becoming more securely entrenched each year in the love and
+confidence of the soldiery, the priests, and the common people. From the
+safety of exile the liberals wrote crushing pamphlets against him and
+his despotism, his favouritism toward the clergy, his steady, relentless
+policy of conservatism and reaction. But their attempts at insurrection
+were feeble and in 1875 he was re-elected as a matter of course. The
+liberals, hopeless of ending his domination constitutionally or by open
+war, had recourse to assassination. On the 6th of August a party of
+young Creoles deliberately killed him at midday on the principal square
+of Quito in the presence of the populace and the soldiery.
+
+The murderers were executed and the vice-president succeeded to the
+vacancy. However, no one appeared big enough to fill Moreno's shoes, and
+his death made civil war inevitable. After a few months the
+vice-president was deposed; then one of Moreno's ministers remained at
+the head of affairs for a short time; but finally Antonio Borrero was
+selected president in constitutional form. He proved not to possess the
+resolution requisite to cope with the situation. General Veintemilla,
+commander of the troops in Guayaquil, revolted in the name of the
+liberal party, defeated Borrero, and went through the usual form of
+summoning a convention, adopting a new Constitution, and having himself
+named president. He held power insecurely and by the aid of a personal
+party from 1878 to 1883, but neither conservatives nor liberals were
+satisfied. The radicals attacked him furiously for not putting in
+practice anti-clerical principles, and the conservatives never trusted
+him. When his constitutional term expired, the army proclaimed him
+dictator, but he soon fell before the combined forces of his enemies.
+During the fighting Jose Camano came to the front, and now seized the
+presidency. Alfaro, the principal liberal leader who had co-operated
+with Camano in overthrowing Veintemilla, made war against his late ally,
+but was defeated. The new president, once securely in his seat, formed
+close relations with the clergy and the old partisans of Moreno, and
+though the liberal chiefs kept up a guerilla warfare in the forests and
+swamps, he finished out his term. In 1888 he was succeeded by Antonio
+Flores, who followed his predecessor's policy in the main, and was in
+his turn succeeded by another friend of Camano's--Luis Cordero. It was
+not until 1895 that the liberals were able to gather their forces for a
+formidable rebellion. Camano was then governor of Guayaquil, and the
+immediate occasion of the outbreak was the charge that he had taken part
+in the sale of the Chilean iron-clad, _Esmeralda_, to Japan, then at war
+with China. It was claimed that Ecuador had acted as a go-between and
+committed a wilful breach of the rules governing the conduct of neutral
+nations. President Cordero's prestige was seriously compromised by this
+incident. His forces were defeated in several actions and he resigned.
+Alfaro, who had been in exile since 1883, returned, took possession of
+Guayaquil, was proclaimed dictator, and finally completely overthrew the
+conservatives in the battle of Gatajo. His election to the presidency
+followed in 1897, and he was succeeded four years later by the present
+incumbent, General Leonidas Plaza.
+
+  [Illustration: PRINCIPAL STREET IN GUAYAQUIL.]
+
+The Ecuador coast is one of the most fertile and lovely regions on the
+earth. It already furnishes a considerable proportion of those tropical
+products of which the great nations of the temperate zone demand more
+every year. Like a Luzon which has been stranded at the foot of the
+Andes, its green shores refresh the eyes of the north-bound traveller
+tired of the dreary desert that stretches from Valparaiso to the Gulf of
+Guayaquil; it possesses the best harbour on the Pacific south of Panama
+and one of the few in all South America which is not mountain-locked.
+Between the Cordillera and the sea there is room for untold millions of
+cacao and coffee trees. In spite of civil war and political upheavals
+which have made her custom-house so often the prey of irresponsible
+bandits, masquerading under the name of dictators, Guayaquil's
+population and wealth have increased until she has outstripped the hoary
+old capital, which, enthroned on a volcano side, overlooks a narrow
+strip of cultivable land. Nevertheless the plateau is still predominant
+in the Ecuadorian state, and supports a vast majority of the
+population. Nine-tenths of the inhabitants of the Andean region are
+Indians, mostly in a condition not far removed from bondage, by
+circumstance and their own distrustful natures shut up within the narrow
+limits of an existence which has no outlook over the mountains. None the
+less, they are sturdy fellows, admirably suited to the climate of those
+high altitudes, and though their numbers have been practically
+stationary since the Spanish conquest, the failure to increase has been
+rather due to lack of room than to misgovernment, vice, or the want of
+the qualities that make for success in the struggle for existence. In
+that day, now near at hand, when a great railway shall connect the
+string of towns on the Ecuador plateau with Peru and Colombia, and when
+branches shall run to the ports and take the place of the well-nigh
+impassable trails down the tremendous, rain-soaked slopes of the Andes,
+the mountain region of Ecuador may be transformed and revivified by new
+systems of agriculture, and the artistic taste and remarkable ingenuity
+of the people may find a market and a reward. The railway from Guayaquil
+long stopped at the foot of the mountains, but within the last three
+years the almost insurmountable difficulties of the ascent have been
+overcome by American engineers, and the line is being rapidly built
+along the plateau to Quito. Ecuador already supplies the world with
+Panama hats, and other manual industries may flourish when unfavourable
+transportation conditions are removed. Not only are the common people
+patiently industrious, but they possess innate good taste and artistic
+feeling. Such a people has special aptitudes, sure to give it a place in
+that vastly complicated workshop into which the multifarious needs of
+modern civilisation are transforming the earth. The plateau of Ecuador
+does not, however, offer room for any considerable immigration, and its
+wheat, barley, and potatoes do not and will not much more than suffice
+for local consumption. Ecuador's great future lies in the beautiful and
+as yet sparsely peopled Pacific plain, and in the vast and absolutely
+unknown forests which stretch east from the Andes.
+
+
+
+
+VENEZUELA
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+CONQUEST, SETTLEMENT, AND COLONIAL DAYS
+
+
+On his third voyage in 1498 Columbus sighted the Venezuelan coast just
+south of the Windward Islands. A year later, Alonso de Ojeda saw the
+mainland at about the same place and skirted the coast for four hundred
+miles west without finding any important break in a line of mountains
+which rose almost directly from the sea to a height of three to nine
+thousand feet, covered to their very tops with luxuriant vegetation. But
+there was no such barrier as that made by the main Andes on the Pacific;
+the passes were only half a mile instead of nearly three miles high; the
+slopes were not dry and desolate as in Peru, or covered with a tangled
+mass of forest as in Pacific Columbia and Ecuador. Just beyond the
+harbour where Puerto Cabello now stands, the coast-line turned abruptly
+to the north-west, leaving the mountains farther inland, but the
+intervening plain was swampy and uninviting. Still following west, Ojeda
+rounded Cape San Roman and turned south into the great Gulf of
+Maracaibo. There he saw Indian villages of houses built on piles near
+the shallow shores, and he called the place Venezuela--"little
+Venice,"--a name shortly extended to the whole coast from the mouth of
+the Orinoco west to the forbidding and uninhabitable peninsula of
+Goajira, which forms the western promontory of the Gulf of Maracaibo.
+
+There is no record that either Columbus or Ojeda effected a permanent
+landing, and it was not until 1510 that some adventurers founded a
+settlement on the small island of Cubagua, in the channel between the
+large island of Margarita and the mainland. This was a mere nest of
+pirates who persecuted the Indians of the shore, kidnapping and selling
+them as slaves to the Spaniards on the Antilles, and it was shortly
+abandoned. In 1520, on the coast just opposite, was founded the
+settlement of Cumana, the oldest city on the South American continent,
+which, though destroyed by the natives, was rebuilt in 1525, when
+valuable pearl fisheries were discovered in the neighbouring waters of
+Margarita. However, the place remained of little importance and did not
+become a centre for the colonisation of the adjacent country, the
+Spaniards attaching little value to this region because it contained no
+gold washings.
+
+The real colonisation of Venezuela began four hundred miles farther west
+with the foundation in 1527 of the city of Coro on the narrow neck of
+land which separates the Gulf of Maracaibo from the Caribbean Sea.
+Thence there was easy access by water to the shores of the great lagoon,
+or by land over the coast plain to the north-western slopes of the
+Andean range which runs south-west to the giant plateau of Pamplona just
+over the Colombian border. The Andean valleys were filled with gold, and
+among the higher mountains lay fertile plateaux, cultivated by tribes of
+semi-civilised Indians. Altogether the region was well calculated to
+stimulate the cupidity of adventurers.
+
+Charles V. granted the Venezuela coast to the Welser family of Augsburg,
+the greatest merchants of their time and his heavy creditors. Under
+their commission the first adelantado, Alfinger, took possession of Coro
+and conducted various expeditions south-west along the Andes, perishing
+near Pamplona about 1531. His successors continued these murdering,
+kidnapping incursions into the interior, often being led to their ruin
+among remote mountain fastnesses by tales of a mythical Eldorado, where
+the rivers ran over silver sands, the palaces were of solid gold with
+doors and columns of diamonds and emeralds, and the Indian king every
+morning covered his body with gold dust and bathed in precious aromatic
+essences.
+
+Eighteen years, however, elapsed before the Spaniards established a
+permanent settlement in the interior, and only in 1545 was the city of
+Tocuyo founded in a beautiful Andean valley a hundred and fifty miles
+south of Coro. But the cruelties of the proprietors' agents scandalised
+public opinion. Charles V. declared their concession cancelled and a
+governor, responsible directly to the government, was appointed in 1547.
+Thenceforward the settlement of Venezuela proceeded more rapidly. Five
+years later the city of Barquisimeto, fifty miles north of Tocuyo and
+near the point where the Andes join the coast range, was established on
+a secure footing after hard fighting with the Indians; in 1555 the
+Spaniards penetrated east a hundred miles along the lovely plateaux of
+the coast mountains, and founded Valencia. The following year they
+settled Trujillo, fifty miles south-west of Tocuyo, and two years later
+Merida, a hundred miles farther in the same direction and not far from
+the Colombian frontier.
+
+To the east of Valencia lay valuable gold washings, and to work these
+the Spaniards fixed a camp at San Francisco in the Aragua Valley about
+1560. This is the garden spot of Venezuela, and the warlike Teques
+Indians, under their terrible chief, Guaicaipuro, massacred the miners
+and defeated several expeditions from Valencia and Barquisimeto. It was
+not until 1567 that the Spaniards succeeded in establishing their power
+in the valley of Caracas, which, a hundred miles east of Valencia, lies
+close to the shore, although three thousand feet above sea-level and
+separated from the ocean by high mountains. The defensibility of the
+site as well as the fertility of the soil pointed it out as the best
+place for the seat of government. A city was founded which ten years
+later replaced Coro as the capital of the province, and shortly
+thereafter a port was opened at La Guaira giving direct communication
+with Spain. The savage tribes fought more pertinaciously than the
+civilised natives of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and northern Chile and
+Argentina, and a greater number of Europeans and negroes replaced those
+who were slain. Finally, however, the majority submitted, and were
+incorporated as peasants into the Spanish system.
+
+By the end of the sixteenth century the Spaniards had obtained
+undisputed possession of that lovely strip of mountainous country which
+extends from Cape Codera west between two parallel coast ranges to
+Barquisimeto and thence west-south-west nearly to the head of Lake
+Maracaibo--a belt some four hundred miles long and fifty or seventy-five
+wide. They also held the great peninsula east of Maracaibo Gulf, and had
+established outlying settlements in the llanos south of the mountains,
+besides the two isolated ports--Cumana on the eastern coast and
+Maracaibo on the western. Notwithstanding the sack of Caracas in 1595 by
+the daring British buccaneer, Amyas Preston, the colony prospered.
+Unlike the Pacific coast, it had easy and direct communication with the
+Antilles and Europe; the altitude was great enough to ensure a healthful
+climate, while its fertile valleys could be reached from the sea in a
+few hours over easy passes, far different from those formidable gorges
+which are the only ways of reaching the table-lands of Colombia,
+Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. The interior, instead of being a heavily
+forested plain like that of the Amazon, practically inaccessible behind
+tremendous rain-soaked declivities, was an open prairie into which the
+mountains sank gently, and whose grassy expanses afforded pasture for
+innumerable herds. These geographical and topographical features have
+been determinative of Venezuela's development and history, political as
+well as industrial.
+
+In the early years of the seventeenth century the long-neglected Cumana
+district on the eastern coast began to be developed. The city of
+Barcelona was founded in 1617 near a magnificent body of grazing land
+and in the best tobacco country in Venezuela, where the Indians had
+grown the plant for untold generations. Barcelona soon became an
+important centre of population, and the starting-point for missionaries
+to the interior tribes. The gold placers which had attracted the first
+adventurers to the mountains west of Caracas became exhausted within a
+few decades. Nevertheless, the fertile lands, distributed among the
+Spaniards in encomiendas, continued to be cultivated by Indian and negro
+labour, but, although maize, bananas, potatoes, and in the higher
+valleys even wheat, as well as the vine and olive, with the cattle
+introduced by Europeans, furnished an abundant supply of food, to say
+nothing of tobacco and sugar, Spain's blind colonial policy virtually
+prevented export of agricultural products. The Spanish authorities
+wanted nothing from their American dominions but gold and silver, and
+when Venezuela's placers were exhausted the colony was neglected. It was
+in spite of the prohibition of the Spanish government that cacao trees
+were introduced, and the exportation which soon grew up--the first of
+any importance from Venezuela--was mostly clandestine. Practically all
+the goods legally imported had to be procured from the Cadiz monopoly,
+and were sent to the Isthmus and there transhipped into coasting
+vessels, paying enormous freight charges, profits, and duties. Tobacco
+and salt were monopolised by government concessionaires, and not a
+chicken could be sold in the markets without paying an exorbitant tax.
+
+Education was completely neglected. It was not until 1696 that a
+priests' school was established in Caracas, and when the city of Merida
+asked a similar boon, it was denied because "His Catholic Majesty did
+not deem it wise that education should become general in America." So
+the Creoles grew up nearly as ignorant as the Indians around them,
+although retaining all the fierce pride of their Spanish descent,
+acknowledging no man as superior, and retaining very dim sentiments of
+loyalty to the mother country. Nevertheless, the ancient municipal
+forms, traditional among peoples of Spanish descent, survived,
+furnishing the framework of civil government, while the priesthood
+constituted a moral and intellectual tie binding the Creoles to their
+Castilian ancestors.
+
+The repressive regulations against commerce could not be perfectly
+enforced. Although the arrival of a ship from Spain was a real event,
+British, Dutch, and French traders frequented the coast, opening markets
+with their swords, and often turning buccaneers and sacking a town when
+not satisfied with their reception. But the burning of a few coast
+hamlets was more than compensated by the advantages of practical
+free-trade, and Venezuela owed much of the prosperity she enjoyed during
+the seventeenth century to these semi-pirates. The settlements crept
+along the Andean valleys to the Colombian frontier; the Creoles ventured
+farther and farther into the wide plains of the Orinoco and their cattle
+were soon roaming half-wild in the immense and luxuriant pastures
+stretching south of the agricultural strip. From the mixture of the
+Indians of the llanos with Europeans sprang a new race of men, the
+semi-nomadic llaneros, whose hardiness, courage, horsemanship, and
+prowess as hunters of big game have given them equal celebrity with the
+gauchos of the Argentine, the cossacks of the Russian steppes, or the
+Texas cowboys. The buccaneers and smuggling traders were especially
+active in the latter part of the seventeenth century. In 1654 Frenchmen
+were repelled in an attack on Cumana, but in 1669 the Britisher, Morgan,
+sacked Maracaibo, and in 1679 the French pillaged Caracas itself. The
+paralysis suffered by Spain during the war of the Spanish Succession
+nearly destroyed Venezuelan commerce, and it did not recover with the
+peace of Utrecht. Only five ships arrived in the first thirty years of
+the eighteenth century, and from 1706 to 1721 not a single vessel sailed
+for Spain.
+
+The Spanish government determined to try if another system would not
+bring a larger revenue into the royal treasury. The Guipuzcoa Company
+was granted an exclusive franchise to buy and sell in the colony, and
+the operations of this powerful corporation galvanised commerce into a
+certain activity. In order to stimulate the receipt of hides, and
+prevent the incursions of wild plains Indians, trading posts were
+established in the llanos, and soon the prairies south of Valencia and
+Caracas rivalled the Barcelona country in cattle, and the ranches
+extended up the Apure, the great western tributary of the Orinoco, to
+the foot of the Colombian Andes. Meanwhile expeditions penetrated up the
+Orinoco from its mouth, and in 1764 the city of Angostura was
+established four hundred miles from the sea. The operations of the
+Guipuzcoa Company did not aid in establishing a more friendly
+understanding between the home government and the Venezuelan Creoles.
+The independent merchants constantly quarrelled with the company's
+agents; the low prices for which they were compelled to sell their stock
+outraged the ranch owners; the farmers resented the monopolisation of
+tobacco and the restrictions on sugar-culture; exorbitant prices were
+demanded for imported goods. Protests became so loud that special
+commissioners were sent from Spain to investigate, but they gave
+no satisfactory relief. Shortly after the foundation of the
+Guipuzcoa Company, Venezuela had been raised to the dignity of a
+captaincy-general. The increased efficiency of the administration
+assisted the monopoly in suppressing clandestine trading, and the
+feeling grew to such a height that in 1749 a Creole leader, named Leon,
+menaced Caracas itself at the head of six thousand armed men, demanding
+the suppression of the company and the expulsion of its factors. The
+captain-general was forced to yield and the revolutionists dispersed,
+but his promise was never redeemed. The active measures of the company
+effectually shut off foreign trading-ships, and the ports were so
+fortified that the British expeditions retired defeated from the
+attacks they made in 1739 and 1743 on La Guaira and Puerto Cabello,
+although in 1797 they captured the island of Trinidad and menaced the
+entrance to the Orinoco. It was not until 1778, when the Spanish
+government finally abandoned the monopolistic colonial system and opened
+all the ports of South America to free commerce with each other and with
+Spain, that the Guipuzcoa Company retired from business. Six years
+before this the provinces of Maracaibo, Cumana, and Guiana--as the lower
+Orinoco region was called,--all of which had heretofore been directly
+dependent upon the viceroy of Bogota, were placed under the jurisdiction
+of the captain-general of Caracas, fixing the modern boundaries of
+Venezuela.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE REVOLT
+
+
+Venezuela's conditions during colonial times produced a people
+possessing in the clearest and most accentuated form the characteristics
+distinctive of the Spanish Creole. Not more than one per cent. of the
+total population of over eight hundred thousand were native Spaniards;
+fifteen per cent. were Creoles of pure European descent; sixty per cent.
+were Indian, two-thirds of whom had an admixture of white blood; and
+three-fourths of the twenty-five per cent. of negroes and mulattoes were
+free. The majority did not consist of docile, inert, pure-bred natives
+as in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Paraguay, though the white element was
+not so large that the Creoles had ceased to occupy the position of a
+governing and property-owning caste who lived upon the labour of the
+half-breeds, Indians, and negroes. They regarded themselves as a
+superior class, entitled by birth to exemption from manual labour, and
+even considered commercial pursuits unworthy a gentleman.
+
+  [Illustration: ANCIENT INDIAN ROCK FOR GRINDING MAIZE.]
+
+The Spanish government had concerned itself little with this purely
+agricultural colony, and its hand was felt only in the collection of
+taxes. The officials were comparatively few, the number of resident
+Spaniards small, and neither mutual commercial interests nor a solid
+administration existed to strengthen the flimsy ties that bound
+Venezuela to the mother-country. So little had the interference of the
+Spanish government been felt since the abolishment of the Guipuzcoa
+Company that no well-defined and widespread sentiment in favour of
+separation existed. There was a vague feeling of dissatisfaction among
+the masses, but their ignorance prevented them from forming any rational
+plans for the betterment of their condition. However, the Venezuelan
+coast is so accessible that the fertilising and disturbing currents of
+trade and ideas had really profoundly modified the people, and the
+leaven of unrest was at work. The wealthier Creoles had imbibed radical
+notions and were ambitious of trying their hands at governing. By
+heredity, social custom, and environment indisposed to industry and
+commerce, their unemployed activities naturally flowed into the channel
+of politics, intrigue, and fighting.
+
+The first outbreak owed its origin to events in Spain. In 1796 a
+republican conspiracy was brought to light on the Peninsula, and several
+of its leaders were exiled to La Guaira. In their prison they were
+visited by many prominent Creoles, into whose minds they inculcated
+their republican principles, and it was not long before the existence of
+an extensive republican plot among the Creoles of La Guaira and Caracas
+was denounced to the captain-general. Many persons were arrested, and of
+the two principals, Espana expiated his treason on the scaffold, while
+the other, Gual, escaped into exile. But the seed of revolution had been
+planted, and many leading Creoles entered into correspondence with the
+British authorities on Trinidad, who promised aid in arms, munitions,
+and ships. Francisco Miranda, a native of Caracas, who had fought under
+Washington, and distinguished himself at Valmy and Jemappes as a soldier
+of the French republic, planned an invasion with the avowed purpose of
+achieving Venezuelan separation from Spain. With three ships manned by
+American filibusters he sailed from New York early in 1806, and
+attempted to land at Ocumare, near Puerto Cabello. But the Spanish
+authorities had been warned and he was beaten in a sea-fight where he
+lost sixty prisoners. Ten North Americans were condemned by
+court-martial and shot in Puerto Cabello, and their names are inscribed
+on a monument recently erected in the principal square of the town. The
+captain-general offered thirty thousand dollars for Miranda's head, but
+the latter retired to Jamaica, where, with the help of the British
+authorities, he organised a force of five hundred foreigners. Three
+months later he made a descent on Coro, effected a landing, and took the
+city. But the population remained inert, and the indifferent or hostile
+attitude of the region forced him to withdraw.
+
+Though the western provinces received Miranda so coldly, among the
+Creoles of the upper classes at Caracas aspirations for constitutional
+government, autonomy, and even for independence had made headway in the
+ten years since the suppression of the conspiracy of Gual and Espana. In
+1808 French commissioners arrived bringing the news of Ferdinand's
+expulsion. They were empowered to receive the allegiance of the colony
+for Joseph Bonaparte, but the captain-general hesitated and asked the
+advice of leading citizens, who proved unanimous against recognising the
+French regime. The captain-general's vacillation gave the Creoles of the
+cabildo a predominance in governmental councils. Although in the middle
+of the following year it was decided to recognise the Seville junta as
+supreme, pending Ferdinand's return, this decision was reached only
+after many debates, and a numerous party among the Creoles saw no
+reason why Venezuela should not establish a junta of her own. The news
+of the frightful cruelties perpetrated by Goyeneche in suppressing the
+junta at La Paz excited great indignation among Creoles; the
+anti-Spanish feeling grew rapidly; and when, on the 19th of April, 1810,
+the captain-general summoned an open cabildo to receive the news that
+the French armies had overrun nearly the whole of Spain and that only
+Cadiz remained faithful to Ferdinand, the electors had no sooner met
+than, excited by suggestions of ambitious persons, they turned into a
+mob howling for the resignation of the captain-general and the
+establishment of a Caracas junta. Accordingly a junta was named which
+exiled the Spanish functionaries and sent messages to the provincial
+capitals demanding their adhesion. The cities of the mountain strip
+extending from Cumana to the Colombian Andes responded favourably and
+sent delegates to Caracas, while Maracaibo, Coro, and Guiana refused. As
+a matter of fact the masses as yet took little interest. The Caracas
+revolution was effected by a few determined spirits, and the adhesion of
+the mountain provinces was given by Creole municipal authorities who saw
+in the change an opportunity to better their personal fortunes. Nor was
+the resistance of Coro and Maracaibo so much inspired by love of Spain
+as by the presence of the resolute, clear-headed Jose Ceballos, who
+gathered troops and sent emissaries into the revolted provinces. The
+Caracas junta responded by raising an army which marched toward Coro,
+and the civil war was on.
+
+The news of the massacre of the Ecuadorean revolutionists at Quito in
+August, 1810, warned the junta Creoles that they had engaged in no
+child's play. A commission went to London to solicit the intervention of
+the British government in reaching an accommodation with the patriot
+authorities in Spain, but the Seville junta declared the Caracas
+revolutionists traitors. The commissioners fell under Miranda's
+influence and he convinced them that an open declaration of independence
+was the only course left. Meanwhile the troops sent to conquer Coro had
+been defeated by Ceballos. Threatened by the royalist arms, unable to
+count on the support of any considerable proportion of the rural
+population of even their own provinces, the Creoles of the ruling
+coterie proceeded to extreme measures. A congress met in March and on
+the 5th of July, 1811, adopted a declaration of independence,
+proclaiming the seven provinces of Cumana, Barcelona, Caracas, Barinas,
+Trujillo, Merida, and Margarita free and sovereign states. Venezuela
+was, therefore, the first independent republic in Spanish America.
+Congress adopted a Constitution full of the most radical reforms and
+advanced ideas, and a handful of political theorists and advanced
+radicals took the direction of affairs, and imposed their crude theories
+on a bewildered and reluctant population. The ruling clique issued fiat
+money in immense quantities, and the resulting disorganisation of
+business increased discontent.
+
+Miranda, who had come from Europe to take command of military
+operations, warned them that the fabric was not strong enough to
+withstand the shock of battle, but the eager young reformers persisted.
+The clergy and the native Spaniards were the first to react. Though an
+outbreak of the Spaniards in Caracas was bloodily suppressed, the
+priests stirred up the people of Valencia, and that city--the second in
+the republic--declared against the Caracas government. Miranda succeeded
+in reducing the place only after costly fighting. The ruling clique did
+what they could to raise and equip troops to meet the approaching
+attacks from Coro and the West Indies, but their efforts were hampered
+by loyalist risings. In February, 1812, Monteverde, a Spanish leader,
+marched with a small detachment south from Coro, and northern Trujillo
+welcomed him. Defeating the patriot forces wherever he met them and
+refusing quarter to his prisoners, he prepared to advance eastward on
+the centre of the revolution. The junta was already trembling, when, on
+the 26th of March, a terrific earthquake devastated the revolted
+provinces. The solid ground rocked with such violent oscillations that
+in less than a minute the cities of Caracas, Barquisimeto, and Merida
+were mere heaps of ruins. Twelve thousand persons perished in Caracas
+alone. The loyalist provinces escaped injury, and the priests preached
+that the earthquake was a punishment sent by God upon impious rebellion.
+The people of Barquisimeto joined Monteverde, and he marched east,
+slaughtering the raw recruits with which the patriot leaders tried to
+block his way. Merida, Trujillo, and Barinas declared for the king, and
+an expedition sent from Caracas to the lower Orinoco was destroyed.
+Monteverde entered Valencia unopposed and only the coast from Caracas
+east to Cumana remained to the republic. In despair the politicians made
+Miranda dictator, but, though the army numbered five thousand, he had no
+confidence in his men. He signed a capitulation and tried to fly while
+his army dispersed or joined the loyalist forces. On the 30th of July
+Monteverde entered Caracas and the first Venezuelan revolution ceased to
+exist.
+
+Among the volunteer officers who had been entrusted with positions of
+confidence by Miranda was a young Creole, named Simon Bolivar. Heir to
+some of the largest estates in Venezuela he had been left an orphan at
+three years of age, and was educated by a tutor who filled his
+marvellously impressible mind with a crude political philosophy, and
+under whose teachings he evolved original theories of government which
+all the wars, debates, and revolutions of his stormy life failed to
+modify. Preoccupied with his own ideas, he gave no heed to the counsels
+of others, took no thought of obstacles, and, victor or vanquished,
+stubbornly followed his own way, always confident of infallibility and
+persevering in the face of difficulties that would have appalled a
+rational man. From his earliest childhood a little feudal lord, owing
+obedience to no parent, with hundreds of slaves at his orders, his
+precocious intelligence the object of that ruinous admiration with which
+thoughtless strangers and servants spoil a rich and lonely child, his
+naturally strong will uncurbed by any discipline, he grew into
+manhood--arrogant, uncompromising, solitary, suspicious, a deep thinker,
+wildly ambitious, marvellously brilliant, though lacking steady
+common-sense, blindly confident of his own moral and intellectual
+infallibility, firmly convinced that he was destined for vague great
+things, inordinately fond of honours and praise, and absolutely unable
+to distinguish his desires of gratifying selfish ambitions, and his
+yeasty notions of regenerating mankind. At sixteen he went to Spain to
+complete his education; his wealth procured him an entrance into the
+aristocratic families of Madrid; and he even penetrated the precincts of
+the ceremonious court and had the honour of playing ball with the lad
+who afterwards became Ferdinand VII. When only eighteen he married a
+beautiful girl, who died shortly after he brought her back to Caracas.
+For the rest of his life he remained without family ties. Again he went
+to Europe and wandered through England, France, and Italy, falling more
+and more under the spell of the mighty spirit of Napoleon the Great. At
+the age of twenty-three Bolivar returned to his native country and took
+up his life as a rich slave-owner. When the revolution broke out in 1810
+he took no part until the junta requested him to go to England on the
+embassy previously mentioned. There he became acquainted with Miranda,
+and, appreciating that the South American revolution must be decided by
+arms, made up his mind that only as a soldier could he put himself at
+the head of affairs in Venezuela. His first essays in the military art
+were not successful, and it was he who lost Puerto Cabello, giving the
+first revolution its _coup de grace_. But a situation in which others
+saw no hope he regarded as an opportunity, and he resolved to devote his
+life to South American independence.
+
+Bolivar went to Cartagena in Colombia and offered his sword to the
+patriot junta which ruled that city. Given a small military command on
+the Magdalena River, he embodied a few militia and surprised two posts
+which were obstructing the navigation of the river. Delighted at these
+successes, the Cartagena junta sent him reinforcements, with which he
+captured Ocana, an important city lying east of the Magdalena and not
+far from Pamplona and the Venezuelan border. The loyalists had collected
+a considerable force in the Venezuelan province of Barinas, with which
+they proposed to advance into Pamplona. The patriot chief of this
+Colombian province appealed to Bolivar and this suggested to him the
+Napoleonic plan of relieving Pamplona and reconquering Venezuela. On his
+own responsibility he dashed with only four hundred men over the Andes
+in front of Ocana, descended into the plain north of Lake Maracaibo,
+took the royalists on their march to Pamplona by surprise, and routed
+them. Joined by the patriots from Pamplona, he received formal
+authorisation to drive the Spaniards from the Venezuelan provinces of
+Merida and Trujillo. His movements among the mountain valleys were like
+lightning flashes, and though the Spanish forces were more numerous
+their commanders were demoralised by his attacks made in defiance of all
+the rules of prudent warfare. Within fifty days there was not an enemy
+left in the two provinces, and Bolivar's army had been trebled by
+enlistments. The New Granadan government ordered him to pause, but he
+paid no heed. Issuing a proclamation that no quarter would be given, he
+crossed the mountains south-west into the province of Barinas,
+annihilated the Spanish forces there, and rushing to the east caught
+another army of a thousand men near Valencia and destroyed it.
+Monteverde had no time to concentrate his scattered forces, and the news
+of this last defeat caused him to flee to the protection of the
+fortifications of Puerto Cabello. Bolivar occupied Valencia and Caracas
+without resistance. In a campaign of ninety days, with a handful of New
+Granadans and mountaineers from western Venezuela, he had defeated and
+dispersed over four thousand royalists, and conquered the country from
+the Andes to the capital.
+
+Only the lower plains of the Orinoco and the coast provinces of
+Maracaibo and Coro remained royalist, for while Bolivar had been
+overrunning the west, another young Creole, Marino, had led a small
+expedition from the island of Margarita, captured Maturin just east of
+the mouth of the Orinoco, and with the military stores found there armed
+the inhabitants of Cumana province, made ripe for revolt by the
+cruelties of Monteverde. The Spanish attempts to recover Maturin by
+assault were repulsed with great slaughter, and Marino followed up his
+success by besieging Cumana. By the time Bolivar reached Caracas the
+place was in the last extremities of starvation, and Monteverde's
+flight was a signal for its surrender. There were therefore two
+dictators in Venezuela, and Marino sent to Bolivar to treat about the
+form of government, but the latter had determined on a centralised
+administration with himself supreme. Marino refused to agree, and only
+the activity of the loyalists prevented a war between him and Bolivar.
+
+Monteverde held out in Puerto Cabello, and when reinforcements arrived
+from Spain resumed the offensive. Though Bolivar won a victory at Las
+Trincheiras, and was greeted on his return to Caracas with the title of
+"Liberator," reaction had in fact begun. Reports of loyalist movements
+came from all sides; Bolivar's power was confined to the towns; the
+terrible Boves roused the llaneros and gathered the nucleus of a
+formidable army of horsemen. Ceballos sallied out from Coro and captured
+Barquisimeto, utterly defeating Bolivar when the latter attacked him.
+Difficulties, however, only stimulated this remarkable man to fresh
+exertions. The patriot leader, Campo Elias, overthrew Boves's horsemen
+near Calabozo on the llanos south of Caracas, killing the prisoners and
+butchering every man in the town because it had helped the loyalists.
+This cruel deed decided the llaneros for the Spanish side, and though
+Bolivar, with the assistance of Campo Elias's troops, won the pitched
+battle of Araure from Ceballos, Boves had escaped to the plains there to
+recruit another army of llaneros, which was destined to expel the
+Liberator.
+
+Bolivar was soon reduced to the possession of Caracas and its
+neighbouring valleys, with a feeble reserve at Valencia. Marino had
+thirty-five hundred men, and Bolivar finally agreed to recognise him as
+dictator of the eastern provinces as the price of his help. But their
+union only put off the evil day. Boves crushed Campo Elias at La Puerta
+and advanced on Caracas. Raging like a trapped wild beast, Bolivar
+ordered the wholesale assassination of eight hundred and sixty-six
+Spaniards confined at La Guaira. His desperation inspired his followers,
+and when Boves attacked the entrenchments outside Caracas and rushed the
+patriot magazine, the young Granadan who was in command, seeing that the
+place could not be held, ordered his men to fly, but when the loyalists
+triumphantly rushed into the building they found him in the act of
+throwing a match into the powder. In the explosion eight hundred of the
+assaulting column were blown into the air and the survivors desisted.
+Marino was coming by forced marches from the east along the plains, and
+Boves retired to cut him off, while Ceballos also abandoned the siege of
+Valencia. Marino eluded Boves and beat off one attack. If the Liberator
+had concentrated his forces and united with his colleague the patriots
+would have stood a chance, but he sent most of his own troops to recover
+the west, joining Marino with only a few men. At La Puerta on the 14th
+of June, 1814, the battle decisive of the second Venezuelan revolution
+was fought. The desperate charges of Boves's llanero horsemen
+overwhelmed the patriots, and more than half their number were left dead
+on the field. Bolivar fled to Caracas, gathered all the money and
+jewels, and, encumbered by a great multitude of fugitives, retreated
+east. But at Aragua the patriots were driven out of their trenches with
+terrific slaughter. The Liberator took ship at Barcelona with the
+intention of making a last stand near the mouth of the Orinoco, but his
+comrades had had enough of him. He was declared a traitor and Rivas put
+in command. The remaining patriots managed to repulse one attack of the
+royalists, but in a second they were defeated, and in a third Boves
+slaughtered them nearly to the last man, although he himself was killed
+in the melee. Only a few scattered bands on the plateaux of Barcelona
+and the plains of the upper Orinoco kept up a resistance. The detachment
+which Bolivar had so imprudently sent west before the battle of La
+Puerta escaped into New Granada, while the Liberator went by sea to that
+country and took service under its government.
+
+The revolution headed by Bolivar and Marino had been crushed by Boves,
+Morales, and Ceballos with troops recruited in Venezuela itself.
+Monteverde's defeat and Boves's death left Morales master of Venezuela,
+and virtually independent of outside control. But by 1815 Ferdinand was
+securely on the throne of Spain, and absolutism had replaced the
+Constitution established by the popular leaders of 1812. The Spanish
+government determined to suppress the revolutionists who still
+maintained themselves in New Granada and the Argentine, and to reduce
+the semi-independent royalist chiefs to a more exact obedience. In
+April, Morillo, Spain's ablest general, arrived near Cumana at the head
+of ten thousand veteran regulars. Morales sailed out to meet the Marshal
+and place his troops at his orders, but the regular officers gazed in
+astonishment at the dark-skinned llaneros, wearing only a hat and a
+waist-cloth, who were the pillars of royal authority in Venezuela. At
+first the Spaniards accepted the aid of these half-savage allies, but
+Morillo lost no time in establishing a military despotism in which the
+llanero chiefs had no place. Even more unpopular was his leaving three
+thousand Spaniards to garrison Venezuela while he impressed an equal
+number of native troops to accompany him on his expedition against New
+Granada. Nearly a third of the latter deserted rather than embark, and
+the attitude of the Spanish officers who were left behind to rule the
+country roused the native instinct for independence.
+
+Meanwhile the scattered bands of patriot guerillas on the western
+headwaters of the Orinoco, near the Granadan border, had been uniting
+and increasing in strength. Jose Antonio Paez, a mixed-blood, only
+twenty-six years old, who could neither read nor write, but of herculean
+strength and skill in the use of lance and sword, proved the leader for
+the occasion. A small corps in which he was a simple captain was
+threatened by the Spanish governor of Barinas at the head of fourteen
+hundred men. His own commander wished to retreat, but Paez persuaded
+five hundred reckless fellows to follow him in a night assault. Leading
+his men in a furious charge he bore down the enemy with a rush, killing
+four hundred and taking many prisoners, whom he treated so well that
+they all joined him. The fame of his success spread through the llanos
+and the rough plainsmen, dissatisfied with the discipline and routine of
+the regular Spanish officers, flocked to the banner of this new
+chieftain, and he began the organisation of the army of the Apure,
+destined to be the principal instrument in the redemption of Venezuela.
+
+Meanwhile the guerilla chiefs farther down the Orinoco made headway
+against the Spaniards, and the whole plain turned to the patriot side.
+Hearing of these successes, Bolivar resolved to return to Venezuela. He
+landed near the mouth of the Orinoco, but was soon driven thence and
+took ship for Ocumare, near Puerto Cabello. From this point he sent a
+small expedition inland towards Valencia under the command of MacGregor,
+who achieved some successes against isolated bodies of loyalists, was
+joined by many llaneros, and finally made his way to the plains of
+Barcelona, while Bolivar was compelled to re-embark and flee to Hayti.
+MacGregor took the city of Barcelona, and then with the assistance of
+the negro chief, Piar, who had been besieging Cumana, repulsed Morales
+himself at the battle of Juncal. By the end of 1816 the patriots had
+gained so many advantages that Morillo thought himself obliged to return
+to Venezuela at the head of huge reinforcements. However, the patriot
+cause needed a head. The chieftains were rude and ignorant men with a
+talent for fighting and nothing more, while Bolivar was a man of wide
+and varied accomplishments. In spite of his failures he retained great
+prestige among the Creole officers. He was agreed upon as
+general-in-chief, and in December landed at Barcelona. But Piar had led
+his victorious army over to the Orinoco, and notwithstanding Bolivar's
+entreaties the llaneros persisted in their refusal to return to a
+country where cavalry could not manoeuvre to advantage. When Bolivar
+arrived at Piar's headquarters near Angostura he appreciated that the
+true theatre for a successful war had been found. In those plains the
+llanero cavalry, which formed the bulk of the patriot force, was
+invincible. Morillo also realised that the coast would not long remain
+tenable if the line of the Orinoco were in the hands of the patriots,
+and he sent a regular force of three thousand men under La Torre down
+the Apure and Orinoco to Angostura, while he himself quickly made an end
+of the few insurrectionists who stubbornly refused to retire from the
+coast to the llanos. During one of Bolivar's absences, La Torre offered
+Piar battle, and at San Felix, in April, 1817, the plainsmen annihilated
+the Spanish infantry.
+
+  [Illustration: THE PASS OF ANGOSTURA, BOLIVAR CITY.]
+
+Bolivar now went vigorously to work to secure complete command of the
+river and soon had quite a fleet. His ascendancy over his officers
+increased daily, and when Piar conspired against him he was strong
+enough to have the negro hero arrested and shot as a traitor. Before the
+end of 1817 the patriots were in command of the whole line of the rivers
+except the fortress of San Fernando, near the junction of the Apure and
+Orinoco, and Morillo could do nothing against them because the plains
+were flooded. When the waters fell in early spring the royalists
+achieved some successes, but Bolivar joined Paez, established a blockade
+of San Fernando, and surprised Morillo himself near Calabozo. Against
+Paez's advice he now insisted on making a campaign for the recovery of
+Caracas, but was badly defeated by the marshal at La Puerta--a spot for
+the third time the scene of a patriot downfall. Though Paez had captured
+San Fernando his expedition into the mountain country was no more
+successful than Bolivar's, and the two retreated to the river to raise
+fresh troops. Morales followed the patriots to the Apure, but was in his
+turn repulsed by Paez, giving Bolivar a breathing spell.
+
+The Liberator's position was desperate; his infantry had been destroyed;
+his cavalry reduced in numbers; his men were nearly without arms; his
+ammunition exhausted. Ill-considered movements had turned the brilliant
+situation in which he had found patriot affairs a year before into the
+gloomiest sort of an outlook. On the other hand, a defensive campaign in
+the llanos could be kept up indefinitely, and though Morillo had twelve
+thousand men in the populous mountain provinces north of the plains, he
+also was without money, arms, and supplies. As he reported to the
+Peruvian viceroy: "Twelve pitched battles in which the best officers and
+troops of the enemy have fallen, have not lowered their pride or
+lessened the vigour of their attacks." With that indomitable energy
+which more than compensated for his inferiority as a strategist, Bolivar
+set to work to create a new army. Cavalry of the most admirable sort
+could be recruited in sufficient numbers among the llaneros, but bitter
+experience had convinced him that against Spanish regulars the native
+infantry stood little chance. The cessation of the Napoleonic wars had
+left thousands of European veterans without employment, and Bolivar
+contracted for a few thousand Britishers and Irishmen, paying a bounty
+of eighty dollars per man on enlistment and promising five hundred
+dollars at the conclusion of the war. Some of these troops arrived
+opportunely late in 1818, and, few as their numbers were, no soldiers in
+South America could stand against them.
+
+In October Bolivar issued a proclamation foreshadowing the union of
+Venezuela and New Granada. In the midst of defeat, with all of both
+countries except the thinly populated Orinoco plains in possession of
+the Spaniards, he was confidently planning the creation of a great
+empire. Morillo opened the campaign of 1819 by advancing with over six
+thousand men against Paez on the upper Orinoco. The Creole's four
+thousand were mostly cavalry, and he had learned better than to risk a
+pitched battle. The Spanish columns were harassed beyond endurance by
+his light horsemen, and after weeks of heartbreaking marches Morillo had
+to retire, having accomplished nothing.
+
+From Bolivar's erratic genius now emanated a great stroke of strategy.
+West of the plains of the Apure and Casanare, tributaries of the upper
+Orinoco, rises the giant range of the Cordillera and on its top lay the
+fertile plateaux of Socorro, Tunja, and Bogota, the populous heart of
+New Granada. For three years the Spaniards had been in secure possession
+and all except three thousand troops had been drafted for service in
+Venezuela and Peru. A small Spanish force came down from Tunja to attack
+the patriot guerillas in Casanare, and was repulsed. Where the enemy
+could go he could follow, reasoned Bolivar. Paez's cavalry had proved
+itself amply able to hold the llanos, so no risk to Venezuela would be
+incurred by temporarily withdrawing part of the infantry. With two
+thousand natives and five hundred British the Liberator followed up the
+Orinoco, Meta, and Casanare to the latter's sources at the foot of the
+Paya pass, which leads directly into the fertile valley of Sagamoso, the
+heart of Tunja province. This pass is high and very difficult, although
+the distance to be traversed was only eighty miles. The road was a mere
+track leading along precipices, crossing and recrossing mountain
+torrents, and the rain fell incessantly as the patriots struggled up the
+slippery path. When they reached the higher regions a hundred men
+perished with the cold, and not a horse survived. The army arrived at
+Sagamoso in a pitiable condition, but without seeing an enemy except an
+outpost, which was easily dislodged.
+
+Not knowing Bolivar's numbers, Barreiro, the Spanish commander, dared
+not attack, and the Liberator thus obtained a much-needed opportunity to
+rest his men and gather horses for his dismounted cavalry. As soon as he
+got his army in hand he outmanoeuvred Barreiro and by a rapid march
+captured the city of Tunja, where he found a good store of arms and
+material. This movement also placed the patriot army between the
+Spaniards and Bogota. Barreiro, seeing himself cut off from his base,
+made a desperate dash for the capital, but Bolivar knew the enemy's
+route and took up a position directly across his path on the right bank
+of the small river Boyaca. Though the patriots were only slightly
+superior in numbers, the Spaniards had to attack at a disadvantage, and
+fled completely defeated after losing a hundred men. Practically their
+whole force was dispersed or made prisoners. Small as were the numbers
+engaged and easily as it was won, Boyaca was the most important battle
+fought in northern Spanish America. Central New Granada, the wealthiest
+and most populous part of the country, fell into Bolivar's hands without
+a further blow. Its revenues relieved his financial difficulties and
+among its sturdy inhabitants he recruited a new army. Morillo, now
+isolated in Venezuela, must expect an attack from the llaneros,
+reinforced by the Granadan mountaineers.
+
+  [Illustration: ROAD NEAR MACUTO.]
+
+During the Liberator's absence from Venezuela he had been branded as a
+traitor for abandoning his country without the authorisation of
+congress, and Marino made commander-in-chief. But the news of Boyaca
+fell like a thunderbolt among the disaffected, and his return in
+December quelled them utterly. No opposition was made when he announced
+that Venezuela and New Granada were united into a single republic, the
+United States of Colombia, with himself as president and military
+dictator. The year 1820 passed without any decisive campaign. Bolivar
+occupied himself principally in recruiting and refitting his armies.
+Twelve hundred Irish mercenaries arrived and were incorporated with an
+army which was sent by sea to threaten the Spaniards in Cartagena, and
+co-operate with the New Granadans on the lower Magdalena. A strong
+division of Venezuelans was sent against Quito. Paez with the main army
+of the Apure was, however, repulsed in an advance into Barinas. In spite
+of this success Morillo could only lie inactive south of Caracas. His
+forces were not numerous enough both to retake New Granada and to hold
+northern Venezuela. But word came that Ferdinand was preparing an army
+of twenty thousand men which would shortly sail from Cadiz for America,
+and with this reinforcement the marshal believed he could destroy all
+the patriot armies. The revolution which broke out in Spain in 1820
+against Ferdinand's absolute government overturned his hopes. The
+expedition never sailed, and the new liberal government showed itself
+disposed to make terms with the revolted colonies. In November a six
+months' armistice was arranged pending the despatch of peace
+commissioners to the mother-country, and Morillo resigned in favour of
+La Torre.
+
+Bolivar's lieutenants respected the armistice only where convenient, and
+shamelessly continued warlike operations, wresting the New Granadan
+coast from the Spaniards, beginning the siege of Cartagena, and
+encouraging a revolt in the province of Maracaibo. When La Torre
+declared the armistice at an end late in April, 1821, Bolivar had
+twenty thousand men in the field disposed in five armies. Montilla was
+besieging Cartagena with three thousand; one Granadan army held the
+valley of the Magdalena; another was operating against Ecuador; Bermudez
+with two thousand men threatened Caracas from the east; and Bolivar and
+Paez at the head of nine thousand men were ready to advance directly
+from the Orinoco on Valencia and Caracas. To these forces La Torre could
+only oppose nine thousand troops besides his garrisons. The moment the
+armistice was formally terminated Bolivar started straight for La Torre.
+The latter had made the fatal mistake of dividing his forces, and had
+only about three thousand men drawn up on the wide plain of Carabobo, at
+the northern foot of the passes which lead through the mountains from
+the llanos to the Valencia plateau. Bolivar's six thousand captured the
+passes, but he could not deploy his infantry on the flat ground in front
+except at the risk of having them cut to pieces. On June 23, 1821, he
+detached the British legion of one thousand men and fifteen hundred
+cavalry under Paez around to the left to take the Spaniards in flank.
+The charge of the llanero horse was driven back by the musket fire, but
+the pursuing Spaniards were checked by the steady Englishmen, who stood
+in their tracks and withstood the fire of the whole Spanish army. Their
+ammunition was soon exhausted; no help came from Bolivar; all seemed to
+be over with them; a second cavalry charge was as unsuccessful as the
+first; and the surviving Britishers made up their minds to carry the
+enemy's position or perish. Their commander had fallen; the colours
+changed bearers seven times; still they kept their formation as steadily
+as if on parade, and bayonet in hand rushed on the Spaniards, who
+outnumbered them four to one. For a brief time the struggle was fierce
+and the result doubtful, but cold steel in the hands of such a
+desperate, forlorn hope was too much for the Spaniards. They began to
+give ground and at last broke and fled. The llanero horse rode them
+down, and only a remnant escaped to the shelter of Puerto Cabello.
+Bolivar entered Caracas acclaimed--and this time justly--as the
+liberator of his country.
+
+Meanwhile the constituent congress of the new republic of Colombia had
+met at Cucuta, a town near the limits of Venezuela and New Granada. It
+was composed entirely of civilians and lawyers and proved to be
+radically republican and opposed to Bolivar's anti-democratic theories.
+Though a centralised government was adopted, congress rejected the life
+presidency and hereditary senate, and abolished the military
+dictatorship by providing that the commander-in-chief, when on active
+service, should leave his political functions in the hands of the
+vice-president. Bolivar made a pretence of declining the presidency, but
+yielded to the importunities of congress and continued in command of the
+army on the terms proposed, stipulating, however, that he be allowed to
+organise as he saw fit the provinces he might conquer in the rest of
+South America.
+
+The Spaniards now held only Puerto Cabello and Cumana, but no progress
+was made toward driving them out of these positions during the remainder
+of 1821, nor until after Bolivar had, early in 1822, left for the south
+to co-operate with Sucre in the conquest of Quito. In October Cumana
+surrendered to Bermudez, but from Puerto Cabello Morales led an
+expedition which reconquered Maracaibo and Coro. He was unable to hold
+them and the defeat of his squadron on Lake Maracaibo in July, 1823,
+forced him to surrender. On the 8th of November Puerto Cabello was taken
+by assault and the long war for Venezuela's independence was over.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+MODERN VENEZUELA
+
+
+In 1822 Bolivar departed bent on the conquest of Ecuador, Peru, and
+Bolivia, leaving a New Granadan vice-president as ruler of the great
+Colombian republic, of which Venezuela was merely one division. The
+massacres and sackings of ten bloody years had depopulated and
+impoverished Venezuela, and the cost of maintaining the army and aiding
+Bolivar in his foreign contests drained its exhausted resources. The
+educated Creoles, especially powerful in the agricultural regions near
+the coast, saw no place for themselves in Bolivar's centralising system.
+They wanted to control the offices in their own localities, and did not
+relish the establishment of a bureaucracy in which appointments and
+promotions would be settled at Bogota. The predominant radical French
+ideas added force to the sentiment of local independence. The theorists
+were offended by Bolivar's manifest predilection toward aristocratic
+forms and the favours which he granted the clergy. Most dangerous of
+all, jealousy of the Liberator was rife among the generals.
+
+Paez had been left at the head of military affairs in Venezuela and soon
+after the capture of Puerto Cabello he became involved in quarrels with
+the municipal authorities. The llanero general recked little of the
+arguments of the lawyers, and carried things with a high hand. In 1826,
+when the Bogota government sent an order for the organisation of
+militia, he filled the measure to overflowing, and the municipality of
+Caracas made a formal complaint to the central government. A decree for
+his suspension was issued, but a riot in the streets terrorised the
+cabildo and he was replaced in power as a sort of dictator. This
+amounted to a destruction of the influence of the central Colombian
+government in Venezuelan affairs. Many cities raised the standard of
+rebellion and made themselves virtually independent. Bolivar hastened
+back from Peru to reduce his old companion in arms to obedience. He
+cajoled Paez into temporary co-operation, subdued most of the revolted
+cities, and, seeing that his system could not be sustained without
+coercion, assumed a dictatorship. But the news that Peru had revolted
+destroyed his dream of a continent-wide dominion, and the demand for
+local autonomy continued so strong throughout Venezuela and New Granada
+that he was forced to call a national assembly to amend the Constitution
+on the basis of a compromise. In spite of Bolivar's intrigues nearly
+half the elected delegates staid away, and a majority of those who
+presented themselves at Ocana, in March, 1828, though chosen under the
+pressure of his influence, opposed his measures.
+
+  [Illustration: ENTRANCE OF PUERTO CABELLO IN 1870.]
+
+The minority who favoured him withdrew at his suggestion, leaving the
+congress without a quorum. It dissolved and the Liberator visited
+Caracas, Cartagena, and Bogota, calling popular assemblies whose
+deliberations were directed by bayonets and which obediently besought
+him to save the country from anarchy in his own way. He issued a decree
+virtually abolishing the Cucuta Constitution, but a conspiracy to
+assassinate him was formed at Bogota in the fall of 1828, and he was
+saved only by the devotion of his mistress, who stood in the way of the
+midnight assassins, giving him time to jump from a window and escape. He
+took a fearful vengeance on the conspirators and banished his worst
+political enemies, but the incident failed to turn public sentiment in
+his favour, and it was in vain that he exhibited himself as a martyr.
+His old friend, General Cordoba, headed an unsuccessful insurrection in
+the province of Antioquia; insurgents rose in Popayan and Rio Negro, and
+towards the end of 1829, in Bolivar's native city, Caracas, an assembly
+of one thousand generals, public functionaries, and prominent citizens
+announced that Venezuela would shortly separate from Colombia and called
+upon Paez to assume a dictatorship. The Liberator struggled vainly
+against the rising tide of federalism; the country was at heart opposed
+to Caesarism and union; he had been unable to convince the Creoles of the
+advisability of providing a strong centralised government; and his only
+supporters were personal ones. Bitterly protesting that he was falsely
+charged with aspiring to mount a throne, and insisting that his real
+ambition had been only to secure the perpetuity of the Colombian union
+and establish an ordered government, he offered his resignation.
+Congress, however, contained many of his friends and hesitated at coming
+to an open breach. He was re-elected and made one last effort to enforce
+the obedience of Venezuela. But the troops he raised in New Granada did
+not dare to attack Paez, who with superior forces was waiting in an
+impregnable position near the frontier. Sick and discouraged, the
+Liberator renewed his resignation--this time in earnest--and retired to
+the seacoast, where a few months later he died of a wasting sickness at
+the early age of forty-seven. Though his courage, energy, and sublime
+persistence and self-confidence had been the chief factors in securing
+South American independence, those qualities proved utterly inadequate
+to hold in check the unruly ambitions of the Creoles. He died clearly
+foreseeing the decades of anarchy which lay before the northern
+countries of the continent. "I blush to admit it," he said to congress
+on the eve of his fall, "but independence is the only benefit we have
+achieved, and that has been at the cost of all others." On his death-bed
+he wrote: "Our Constitutions are books, our laws papers, our elections
+combats, and life itself a torment. We shall arrive at such a state that
+no foreign nation will condescend to conquer us, and we shall be
+governed by petty tyrants."
+
+The Venezuelan federalists had not waited for Bolivar's death to
+complete the formal separation from Colombia. In May, 1830, a
+constituent congress assembled which named Paez dictator and notified
+Bogota that the country regarded itself as absolutely independent. But
+Bolivar had partisans and the ruling clique enemies. The eastern
+provinces refused to recognise Paez's authority and the whole country
+was soon under arms. But Bolivar's death and the virtual recognition of
+Venezuela's independence by New Granada brought about a treaty between
+Paez and Monagas, the chief of the insurrection. The Creole aristocracy
+came to a working understanding with the generals, and little cliques in
+each city supported the central government as long as they were
+recognised as dominant in their own localities. Naturally the ignored
+outsiders were dissatisfied and plotted to overthrow these oligarchies.
+In May, 1831, a revolution broke out in Caracas which menaced nothing
+less than the extermination of the property-holding classes, but it was
+suppressed and its leaders executed. On paper the form of government was
+most liberal, congress abolishing the tobacco monopoly and many odious
+taxes inherited from Spanish times, proclaiming religious freedom, and
+adopting a Constitution very similar to that of the United States. But
+in practice the conservative cliques had things their own way. Though
+ambitious chiefs headed insurrections from time to time, they were all
+bought off or defeated, and Paez continued president until 1835, leaving
+the country in a condition of comparative order and prosperity.
+
+Doctor Vargas, a civilian, succeeded him, but against him the generals
+revolted, declaring Marino dictator. Carujo, the soul of the
+insurrection, said, in the act of making the president and his ministers
+prisoners, "Doctor Vargas, the world belongs to the strongest," and the
+latter nobly replied, "No, the world belongs to the just," resumeing in
+a word the conflict between force and law, between unbridled ambition
+and the necessity for order, which has desolated Venezuela to this day
+and which will last until the selfish elements learn that their own true
+interests would best be served by promoting the prosperity of the whole
+people--by relying upon their own industry rather than on chances to
+despoil the producing classes. The government party appealed to Paez,
+and the llanero general accepted the command. His prestige with the
+common people and the army enabled him to gather forces with which he
+overcame the revolted generals after eight months of bloody civil war.
+Vargas was recalled from exile, but after a short time refused to
+continue in the presidency, and his place was taken by the
+vice-president, Doctor Narvarte. In 1839 Paez was again made president,
+and was succeeded in 1842 by General Soublette, another of the heroes of
+the war of independence. Until 1846 there was comparative tranquillity
+in Venezuela. The population had decreased by a fifth during the Spanish
+wars, being estimated at six hundred and fifty thousand in 1825, but
+within the succeeding twenty years it grew to a million and a quarter.
+Cacao, coffee, and sugar became important articles of export and made
+the landed proprietors rich. With the cessation of warlike operations on
+the plains, cattle rapidly multiplied, the first waggon roads were
+built, and a bank was established.
+
+In 1846 an anti-Creole insurrection broke out among the men of colour,
+and Paez was again invested with dictatorial powers. When he had
+completed his work he installed Monagas as president. Popular irritation
+against the ruling conservative coterie was, however, profound and
+Monagas quarrelled with congress, and sent his soldiers to break up its
+meetings. Paez took up arms again and tried to expel his nominee, but
+was defeated, and for the next nine years Monagas and his brother
+alternated in the presidency. Though raised to power by the conservative
+party they abandoned it and before 1850 had thrown themselves into the
+arms of the liberals, or federalists. Extravagant powers were granted
+to the states; the provincial coteries ran their localities to suit
+themselves; the ties binding the different parts of the country together
+were weakened; an elaborate and confused set of taxes, national,
+provincial, and municipal, well-nigh choked commerce out of existence.
+More and more liberty was conceded to the states and municipalities,
+and, on paper, to the individual also. Slavery was abolished in 1854.
+
+Revolutions broke out from time to time, and finally, in 1858, the
+so-called conservatives overthrew the Monagas regime. But they
+immediately divided into warring groups, and their new Constitution
+proved too centralising to suit the Creole politicians. The liberals
+hoisted the banner of federalism and several provinces rose in revolt.
+Under the leadership of Pedro Gual the conservatives were, however,
+victorious, but they again split to pieces, and Gual himself went over
+to the liberals. A revolution in Caracas brought back old General Paez,
+who assumed a dictatorship and tried to re-establish the power of the
+central government. But it was impossible. Many disappointed
+conservatives had turned federalist. No politician seemed willing to
+submit to any administration unless he was a member of it. The struggle
+had degenerated into a mere selfish contest for power, and the terms
+liberal and conservative, federalist and unitarian, had ceased to have
+any real relation to the opinions of the persons who bore these
+appellations. General Falcon, with Guzman Blanco as lieutenant, led a
+successful insurrection in Coro and made himself undisputed master of a
+considerable portion of the country. The province of Maracaibo formally
+declared itself separated from all connection with Caracas. For three
+years civil war raged, when finally Paez gave up and Falcon assumed
+direction of the exhausted country. On only one thing had the rapid
+succession of dictators, provincial and national, been agreed,--the
+increase of taxes. Import duties had been raised to such a point that
+commerce could stand no more. But in spite of the enormous sums wrung
+from merchant, producer, and consumer, the treasury was empty, for the
+local chiefs openly took possession of the receipts of the custom-houses
+in their respective districts, and diversions of public funds to private
+use were the rule among all ranks of officials.
+
+  [Illustration: VENEZUELAN SOLDIER OF 1870.]
+
+Falcon's success meant the definite triumph of unrestrained federalism.
+The twenty states into which the seven old provinces had been divided in
+the effort to provide enough offices to go around, became in law
+sovereign; the presidential term was reduced to two years; absolute
+liberty of the press was permitted, and the right of meeting for any
+purpose guaranteed. Imprisonment for debt, the death penalty, and
+religious instruction in the schools were all abolished. During the five
+years that Falcon was the chief political figure affairs in Venezuela
+grew worse and worse. State after state burst into revolution. Falcon
+sometimes whipped the insurrectionists and sometimes bought them off,
+but more often was unable to secure even a semblance of obedience
+except by conceding everything. National penury reached the limit, the
+states collected and pocketed the dues in most of the custom-houses,
+officials were in regular partnership with smugglers, and finally the
+feeble ghost of a federal administration simply flickered out of
+existence because it could pay nobody.
+
+A chief of the so-called unitarian party was declared president in 1868,
+but Guzman Blanco, now the undisputed head of the federalists, retook
+Caracas in 1870 and installed himself as dictator. He proved the
+strongest and most tenacious man who had yet come to the front. With a
+terrific insurrection raging against him, he concentrated all powers in
+his own hands, suppressed the peculations of his agents, and
+relentlessly dragged the half-breeds and negroes into his armies. He
+finally put down all his enemies and in 1873 was installed as
+constitutional president. Until 1889 he virtually reigned over
+Venezuela. Though occasionally he might allow some one else to be
+elected president, after a short interval he would find a pretext for
+intervention and oust his nominee. Though the Constitution was left
+substantially unamended, he interpreted it as he pleased. He organised a
+regular machine through which he governed the "sovereign" states, taking
+care that none but his creatures should become governors and that the
+members returned to congress should be docile. To all intents and
+purposes his will was the law of the land, for the legislative and
+judicial departments were his instruments, and his executive decrees
+covered nearly every imaginable subject. The minutest details of
+commercial and social life were regulated, the clergy owed their
+positions to the dictator, and even private property was not safe if
+Blanco took a fancy to it. But in the main his tyranny was intelligent.
+The country escaped the desolating outbreaks of local chiefs, with
+forced loans wrung from property owners and merchants, the seizure of
+cattle and coffee for "war purposes," and the lassoing of peons to serve
+in the armed bands. Though the taxes imposed by Blanco were enormously
+heavy, the marvellous productive forces of the soil could stand almost
+any burden provided its amount were certain and its collection regular.
+Though the dictator withdrew millions for his private use, depositing
+them in Paris against the evil day of his expulsion, indiscriminate
+exactions by subordinates were suppressed. Large sums were spent on
+public works and buildings, and the beautification of the city of
+Caracas, one of the handsomest and best-built cities in America, dates
+from Guzman Blanco's time. Nearly five hundred miles of railroad were
+constructed. The country was given and has retained the inestimable
+blessing of a stable currency, and the coffee and cacao businesses
+increased enormously. The number of cattle, which the civil wars prior
+to 1870 had reduced to one million four hundred thousand, increased
+sevenfold in fifteen years.
+
+But Blanco's system was anomalous and rested on no secure foundation.
+The commercial and property-holding classes abstained from politics, the
+people became tired of his busybody tyranny, the peons were still an
+inert and ignorant mass, harmless by themselves, but furnishing a
+tempting recruiting ground for ambitious revolutionists. Nor had the
+Creole politicians changed their nature. There were plenty of talented
+adventurers whose mouths fairly watered seeing the immense fortune
+Blanco was accumulating, and who only waited a favourable opportunity to
+conquer a share in the spoils. The successful outbreak came in 1889,
+headed by Rojas Paul. His success was a signal for other chiefs to
+imitate his example. Resolute leaders hastily organised bands of peons,
+and the old story of pronunciamentos, kidnappings of peaceful peasants,
+attacks, surprises, forced loans, and all the demoralising and
+disintegrating horrors of civil war were repeated. Paul was overthrown
+by Andueza, and in 1892 Crespo got to the head of affairs and held power
+long enough to accumulate a respectable fortune. Andrade succeeded
+Crespo, but had to divide the spoils with his predecessor. The
+disturbances did not become of a character to injure seriously
+Venezuela's commerce and production until 1896, but there then began a
+rapid decline in the value of her exports. The government's revenues
+diminished a third and amounted to less than half the expenditures. The
+debt grew to alarming figures and the guaranteed interest on foreign
+capital employed in building railroads was allowed to fall into arrear.
+In 1899, Castro, a man hitherto unknown in politics, started an
+insurrection against Andrade in the western state of Los Andes. Marching
+from one town to another his army grew like a rolling snowball by
+forced enlistments, and though the sturdy hillmen did not know what they
+were fighting for and would gladly have been at home, they showed all
+the stolid bravery that seems inborn in their race. The government
+troops could not stand against them, and Castro finally entered Caracas
+in triumph. Though insurrection after insurrection has broken out
+against him, the dauntless courage with which he leads his men has
+enabled him to maintain himself. The successful South American
+revolutionist must be willing to risk losing his own life, for so long
+as he leads he will be followed, but his cowardice or death means a
+rapid dissolution of his forces.
+
+  [Illustration: VENEZUELAN GUERILLAS.]
+
+Though the solidity acquired by the Venezuelan commercial and financial
+structure during the long years of Blanco's reign has prevented the
+country from reverting into the anarchy which prevailed before 1873, and
+though the spirit of federalism is not so rampant and the chieftains
+aspire rather to a control of the whole country than to power confined
+to their own localities, the recent civil wars have disorganised the
+finances. Internal production has been hampered and external obligations
+have been deferred--the latter with serious consequences. Anti-foreign
+sentiment, already raised to a threatening height by the boundary
+dispute with British Guiana--a long-standing matter which was happily
+settled by arbitration after menacing a serious rupture between the
+United States and Great Britain,--was further exacerbated by the
+blockade of Venezuelan ports and the destruction of the Venezuelan navy
+by the joint fleets of Germany, England, and Italy in 1902--measures to
+which the European governments had been incited by the failure of
+Venezuela to settle claims of their citizens. In the face of this
+foreign war the civil conflicts were interrupted, and President Castro
+empowered the American minister to negotiate for the submission of the
+claims to arbitration. To the weight of the sentiment that international
+money claims should not be enforced by warlike measures was added the
+existence of a current of opinion in the United States which favoured
+arbitration as in this instance certainly the best method of adjustment.
+The temporary occupation of ports on American soil by European powers
+might give the latter a military hold in the western continent which
+would embarrass and complicate more important relations. The submission
+was quickly and amicably arranged, the claims of the citizens of other
+countries are to be ascertained at the same time, and the matter is now
+before The Hague international tribunal.
+
+  [Illustration: ECUADOR COLOMBIA AND VENEZUELA]
+
+By a resolution of congress General Castro is empowered to hold the
+office of president for six years from 1902. Bitter and costly as have
+been the experiences through which Venezuela has passed during the last
+twelve years, the vast majority of the intelligent and property-holding
+classes realise more clearly than outsiders possibly can that internal
+stability will alone ensure the commercial development of the country;
+that Venezuela united is far more likely to prosper than if separated
+into always jealous and often warring provinces. The mass of the people
+are industrious and peaceable. Real progress has been made since the
+time of Bolivar in the almost impossible task of adjusting republican
+forms and procedure to a people who by inheritance and tradition knew
+nothing of the difficult art of self-government. It cannot fairly be
+said that Venezuela as yet sees her way clear to a solution of the
+problem, but her commercial statistics for the last thirty years prove
+that her people have acquired industrial capacity, and the history of
+other Spanish-American countries shows that the power for evil of the
+turbulent military class may perish once for all with startling
+suddenness when the right stage in national development is reached.
+
+
+
+
+COLOMBIA
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT
+
+
+When Alonso de Ojeda coasted along the Venezuelan shore in the spring of
+1499 he stopped short just west of the Gulf of Maracaibo, near the
+present boundary between Venezuela and Colombia. The following year
+Rodrigo Bastida doubled the Goajira peninsula and pursued his voyage to
+the west, catching sight of the giant snowclad mountains of Santa Marta
+and of the low land which lies between them and the sea. Coming to the
+mouth of a great river on the day sacred to Saint Magdalene, he named it
+the Magdalena, and farther to the south-west found the fine harbour
+where the city of Cartagena now stands. At the head of the Gulf of
+Darien he came to another great river, the Atrato, and here his
+explorations stopped.
+
+More than a year later the great Columbus himself, on his fourth and
+last voyage, sighted the Central American coast at Cape Gracias a Dios,
+near the present boundary between Nicaragua and Honduras. Thence he
+sailed south-east along a pestilential shore for eight hundred miles,
+finally arriving near the point where Bastida had left off his
+explorations. It is said that Bartholomew Columbus founded a settlement
+on the Atlantic shore of the Isthmus, but it was soon destroyed by the
+neighbouring Indians. The long stretch of coast was unfit for the abode
+of Europeans, but the Indians had gold in abundance, and the Spaniards
+were satisfied that the interior was full of mines. Hundreds of
+fortunate adventurers had accumulated fortunes in the placers of Hayti,
+and with a view of repeating their successes on the mainland, Alonso de
+Ojeda solicited and obtained from the Spanish Crown the grant of the
+territory from Goajira to the Atrato, while Diego de Nicuesa was given
+the coast from the Atrato to Cape Gracias a Dios. In 1510 one of Ojeda's
+lieutenants founded a town called Sebastian on the eastern shore of the
+Gulf of Darien. The Indians soon destroyed it, but Antigua was
+established across the gulf. This place was in fact on the Isthmus of
+Panama, and not much more than one hundred miles from the Pacific Ocean,
+of which the Spaniards then knew nothing. Among the military adventurers
+who had followed Ojeda to Darien were Nunez de Balboa and Francisco
+Pizarro. In 1511 the former went a short distance into the interior
+looking for gold, and fell in with an Indian chief who told him that
+only a few leagues south lay a great sea whose shores were inhabited by
+numerous rich and civilised nations. Two years later he headed an
+expedition from Antigua which resulted in the epoch-making discovery
+which has immortalised his name. As the band of Spaniards approached
+the line of hills from which the natives told them they could see the
+mysterious ocean, Balboa hastened ahead of his men and was the first to
+catch a glimpse, but in the headlong rush for the honour of first
+touching its waters he was beaten by Alonso Martin and that lean and
+tireless soldier who was afterwards to conquer Peru--Francisco Pizarro.
+
+The Pacific side of the Isthmus proved to be more healthful and
+habitable than the marshy shores of the Atlantic, and the settlers at
+Antigua were soon driven by fevers and dysenteries, torrential rains and
+sweltering heat, to the more healthful region of Panama. Nicuesa
+likewise had been able to do nothing with his long stretch of Isthmian
+and Central American coast. Nombre de Dios, not far from the present
+site of Colon, was the only town which he succeeded in establishing, and
+that maintained itself only as landing-place on the way to Panama. To
+this day the Caribbean coast from the Atrato delta as far as Gracias a
+Dios is practically uninhabited by white men; on the site of Antigua
+there is left not a trace; the Indians in its neighbourhood are still
+independent savages; and the north shore of the Isthmus has been a
+hospital and a grave for successive generations of white men during four
+hundred years. Only its position at the strategical gate to the great
+South Sea has induced men to go to its noisome shores.
+
+The Isthmian settlements were, as they remain, separated from the
+continent of South America by the deep and broad valley of the Atrato,
+where the rainfall is the greatest known, and whose dense tropical
+forests are uninhabitable and practically impassable. No land
+communication exists between Panama and Colombia proper. However, the
+coast east of the Atrato delta is dryer, and at Santa Marta, beyond the
+mouth of the Magdalena and at the foot of the great outlying mountain
+mass of Colombia's north-eastern peninsula, was founded in 1525 the
+first permanent settlement in Colombia proper. It was nothing more than
+a kidnapping station, whence expeditions scoured the interior for slaves
+to be sold to the Haytian gold mines. Meanwhile from Coro, established
+two years later, on the eastern side of Maracaibo Gulf, murdering and
+slaughtering expeditions were sent across the gulf, returning to
+Venezuela after making a circuit among the mountains lying south of
+Maracaibo Bay. Later these expeditions from Coro penetrated over these
+mountains, reaching the llanos of the Apure and finally the plains of
+Casanare lying east of Bogota, which now belong to Colombia.
+
+  [Illustration: OLDEST FORTRESS IN AMERICA, AT CARTAGENA.]
+
+The exploring parties from Santa Marta and Coro, and information picked
+up along the coast, gave the Spaniards a pretty fair idea of the
+geography of the interior, and the existence of immense quantities of
+gold and of civilised nations living on the high plateaux was verified
+from many sources. The conquest of the fertile and salubrious interior
+of Colombia was effected from three distinct centres,--Cartagena and
+Santa Marta on the Caribbean coast, and Quito on the Ecuador table-land.
+Serious colonisation began with Heredia's foundation of Cartagena in
+1533. The new leader set vigorously to work to establish himself firmly
+on the magnificent harbour and seek for gold. Cortes' and Pizarro's
+marvellous successes had brought a multitude of adventurers to the new
+world, all of whom were eager for a share in the spoils of the yet
+independent Indian kingdoms. Heredia found the rocky hills which rise
+not far south of Cartagena full of profitable gold washings, and the
+Indians reported that only a short distance in the interior, where the
+mountains rose higher, there was a region called Zenufana which produced
+the precious metal far more abundantly. Their story was true, and
+Zenufana was none other than the present state of Antioquia, which has
+produced hundreds of millions of dollars of gold. No time was lost in
+starting on the search. Heredia's first expedition penetrated to the
+headwaters of the river Sinu, which flows into the Caribbean not far
+south-west of Cartagena, and though successful in finding gold he was
+unable to force his way over the high sierra of Abibe, the most northern
+bulwark of the great Maritime Cordillera, which barred his way into
+Antioquia and the valley of the Cauca. In 1535 the town of Tolu was
+founded between the mouth of the Sinu and Cartagena, and the expeditions
+skirted the northern end of the Andes until they reached the river Cauca
+where it debouches into the Magdalena. In 1537 Spanish expeditions
+succeeded in crossing the formidable Abibe Mountains, and penetrated
+east into the coveted mining country. Up the Cauca they followed for two
+hundred miles, passing the rapids which place an almost inexpugnable
+barrier between the upper and lower river. Not far from the present city
+of Cartago they found traces of white men, and learned that while they
+themselves had been pushing south the indomitable companions of Pizarro
+had extended their explorations and conquests more than a thousand miles
+north from their landing-place on the Peruvian coast. The men from
+Cartagena went on to Cali, where the conquerors of Popayan had their
+headquarters, and there an expedition was fitted out which, under the
+leadership of Jorge Robledo, returned down the Cauca and conquered
+Antioquia after much bloody fighting with the Indians. It is said that
+each of Heredia's men received a larger amount than the conquerors of
+Mexico and Peru. Certain it is that the founding of Cartagena resulted
+in putting the Spaniards in possession of the valley of the Cauca and
+the wonderful gold mines of Antioquia as far south as the 5th degree.
+
+Benalcazar, one of Pizarro's lieutenants, after conquering Quito in
+1533, had proceeded north along the Andean plateau between the two
+Cordilleras. A hundred miles from Quito he entered the high region of
+Pasto, inhabited by vigorous, semi-civilised Indians much resembling
+those of Ecuador. Near this point the Andes, heretofore massed in one
+great chain, split into three parallel ranges. The western and central
+chains are separated from each other by the valley of the Cauca and near
+the Caribbean dip down to sea-level. The eastern range bears off a
+little to the right, with the Magdalena valley between it and the
+central mountains, and six hundred miles north turns north-east and
+enters Venezuela just south of Maracaibo Bay. Benalcazar went straight
+north from Pasto and entered the region where the Cauca gathers its
+headwaters. This was Popayan, a lower country than Pasto, but still high
+enough to be healthful, pleasant, and densely populated. In rapid
+succession the tribes inhabiting the whole upper Cauca valley were
+conquered, and Benalcazar's officers only stopped when they met their
+countrymen coming up from Cartagena. The city of Cali was founded in
+1536, Popayan in 1538, Pasto and Anserma in 1539, and Cartago in 1540.
+This beautiful valley is one of the most isolated regions on the globe.
+To the east and west the high walls of the Quindio, or central, and of
+the western Cordillera shut it off from the Magdalena valley and from
+the Pacific, and the rapids near Cartago make communication with the
+Caribbean almost impossible.
+
+Benalcazar himself had returned to Quito and it was not until 1538 that
+he was able to undertake the conquest of the upper Magdalena and those
+lovely plateaux and rich kingdoms which nestled on the broad top of the
+eastern Cordillera. In the meantime he had been forestalled by an
+expedition coming from the Caribbean. In 1536 Jimenez de Quesada sallied
+forth from Santa Marta with eight hundred men and one hundred horses.
+Avoiding the swampy delta of the Magdalena, he passed through the
+Chimilas mountains which lie east of it, and reached the solid ground of
+the foothills that approach the river banks some three hundred miles
+above its mouth. Along these he made his way through incredible
+difficulties and hardships, months being consumed in the journey, and
+his men perishing by scores from fatigue, starvation, and continual
+fights with the savage natives. When he reached the river Opon, he
+determined to climb to the plateau, near the site of Velez, where he was
+told that the mountain top was inhabited by a civilised race. After
+fighting his way through the unconquerable savages of the Opon valley he
+found himself in the centre of a series of lovely table-lands, many of
+them the beds of ancient mountain lakes whose alluvial bottoms were
+inexhaustibly fertile, where the climate was perfect and all the
+products of the temperate zone grew luxuriantly. The plateaux,
+interrupted by valleys and ridges, stretched from Pamplona to beyond
+Bogota--a distance of more than two hundred miles. This region was then
+and remains to this day the populous heart of Colombia, the principal
+seat of power, wealth, and national civilisation. However, it is so
+isolated that it has never constituted a nucleus around which the widely
+separated provinces of Colombia could unite into a well organised
+nation. To reach Tolima, Bogota's nearest neighbour in the upper
+Magdalena valley, it is necessary to descend thousands of feet of steep
+mountainside, along which the sure-footed mule can hardly climb. To
+reach Cauca, not only must the Magdalena valley be crossed but the
+enormously high Quindio range must be climbed, and before getting to
+the Pacific, still another mountain chain intervenes, while the populous
+gold regions of Antioquia can only be reached by following down the
+Magdalena and up the Cauca. Weeks of the most difficult journeying are
+required to get to the seacoast or any of the other states, and Panama
+might as well be on the other side of the globe so far as practical
+communication goes.
+
+  [Illustration: TRAVELLERS DESCENDING A MOUNTAIN ROAD]
+
+Quesada had lost three-fourths of his men in reaching the promised land,
+but once there he encountered fewer difficulties than any of the other
+great Spanish conquerors. The numerous nation of the Chibchas inhabited
+the southern plateaux, who acknowledged allegiance to the zipa of
+Meuqueta. But their so-called empire possessed no military force or
+cohesion, although they had carried agriculture to a high degree of
+perfection. They manufactured cotton cloths, mined gold and emeralds,
+worked artistic ornaments, had a circulating medium and a calendar,
+lived in houses, built splendid temples, and had tools hard enough to
+carve stones into elaborate sculptures. Their government was absolute;
+crimes were severely and relentlessly punished; the caste of priests
+wielded great power. Altogether they appear to have reached a stage of
+material civilisation not much inferior to the aztecs of Mexico, the
+caras of Ecuador, or the incas of Peru, but in efficiency of
+governmental and military organisation they fell far below those great
+peoples. Spanish chroniclers have amused themselves with recording
+traditions of great wars in which the Chibchas had assembled armies of
+hundreds of thousands not long before the conquest, but the fact
+remains that less than two hundred Spaniards overcame them and reduced
+them to unquestioning obedience within a few months and without serious
+loss. Indeed, Quesada's successors had more difficulty with the smaller
+nations who inhabited the northern plateaux of Tunja, Socorro, and
+Tundama, and the most serious resistance was made by the semi-savage
+tribes of the upper Magdalena, who fought nearly as desperately as the
+Indians of Antioquia and the Caribbean coast.
+
+Quesada chose the site of the ancient Chibcha capital for his city and
+there Bogota was founded on the 7th of August, 1538. It lies on the
+eastern border of a magnificent level plain, the bed of the largest of
+the prehistoric lakes, thirty miles broad and sixty long, and nearly
+nine thousand feet above sea-level. One hundred and fifty thousand
+people live on that plain to-day, and the population in Chibcha times
+was probably even larger. The same year Benalcazar reached the
+neighbourhood of Bogota, having come down the valley of the Magdalena
+from Quito and Pasto, and at the very same moment arrived an expedition
+from Coro in Venezuela, which had crossed the mountains south of
+Maracaibo and followed south along the llanos lying at the eastern base
+of the Colombian Andes, thence climbing the sierra to Bogota. Remarkable
+as it may seem, these three bands of indomitable Spaniards, starting
+from widely separated points on the coast, met each other in the remote
+interior of the continent, brought to the same place by the fame of the
+fertility and riches of the Chibcha kingdom. The Venezuelans under
+Federmann, and the Ecuadoreans under Benalcazar, accepted the bribe
+which Quesada offered them not to interfere with his conquest, and the
+three chiefs, laden with gold, returned to Spain in the same ship.
+
+Quesada left his brother in nominal command of the colony, but each of
+the conquerors was a law unto himself. When the governor of Santa Marta
+came up to Bogota they refused to recognise his authority. Tunja and
+Velez were founded in 1539 on the plateaux north of the capital, and a
+year or two later Quesada's brother wasted a great part of his forces in
+a fruitless expedition to the mountains of Pasto in search of the
+Eldorado. Meanwhile, in 1539, the Portuguese Geronimo Mello had
+succeeded in entering the mouth of the Magdalena, making his way for a
+considerable distance upstream. The great river proved to be perfectly
+navigable from the sea to a point nearly as far south as Bogota, and the
+Spaniards immediately utilised it as a route to Santa Marta and
+Cartagena far preferable to the track through swamps and foothills which
+Quesada had followed. Each of the plateau provinces lying on the
+mountains which follow its eastern bank had its own paths down the
+slopes to the river, and a practicable though tedious and expensive
+communication with the Caribbean was developed.
+
+  [Illustration: NATIVE BOATS, MAGDALENA RIVER.]
+
+In 1542 Lugo, an adventurer who had successfully intrigued against
+Quesada, arrived with a commission as adelantado and considerable
+reinforcements. New cities were founded among the gold mines of the
+upper Magdalena at Tocaima, Ibague, and Neiva, as well as at Pamplona at
+the northern end of the plateaux. The tribes of Bogota, Tunja, Velez,
+Socorro, and Pamplona submitted without appreciable resistance, and
+their fertile fields were divided into great estates among the
+Spaniards. But the more savage tribes in the gold-bearing valleys of the
+Upper Magdalena and Cauca and in Antioquia struggled hard to escape
+impressment into the mines, and war almost exterminated them. The same
+thing happened on the plains of the Caribbean coast, although in that
+region some tribes maintained their independence. To work the mines and
+plantations negro slaves had to be imported, with the result that black
+blood predominates in the lower regions of Colombia, while the
+descendants of the aborigines are in a majority on the eastern plateaux.
+
+Within twenty-five years after the establishment of the first permanent
+Spanish post at Santa Marta, the whites were in undisputed control of
+practically all Colombia which is now inhabited by civilised people.
+Three great territorial divisions corresponded to the three directions
+in which the conquest had been effected. From Cartagena, Antioquia and
+the lower Cauca had been settled; from Quito, Popayan, Pasto, and the
+upper Cauca; and Bogota was the centre of the region extending from
+Pamplona south along the plateaux and into the valley of the upper
+Magdalena. This division of the country soon brought on disputes as to
+pre-eminence and jurisdiction between the authorities, foreshadowing
+the demand for local independence which desolated Colombia with civil
+war during so many years of the last century. Lugo, the new adelantado,
+who had displaced Quesada, deprived many of the original conquerors of
+their grants of lands and Indians, and the old and new comers fell to
+fighting among themselves. But their numbers were too small to make
+their disagreements really threatening to the interests of the Spanish
+Crown. In 1545 the Spanish government sent out a commissioner to reduce
+the country to order. The first royal commissioner was replaced by a
+second in 1553, who carried things with a high hand, depriving
+proprietors of their grants, nominating members of his own family to the
+lucrative posts, and finally even exiling Quesada himself and executing
+some of the most famous of the original conquerors. Under instructions
+from Madrid he promulgated many laws for the protection of the Indians
+from the exactions and tyrannies of the encomenderos--regulations which,
+as in Peru, excited great dissatisfaction among the colonists and were
+constantly evaded. It was forbidden for any encomendero to be military
+governor of his district, and the original conquerors were replaced in
+all positions of authority by officials newly brought out from Spain.
+However, the office of commissioner was an irregular and extraordinary
+one and his powers ill-defined. Even at Bogota his authority was defied
+by the audiencia and the municipal councils, and over the remote
+provinces of Antioquia and Popayan, Cartagena and Panama, his power was
+a mere shadow. The Spanish government resolved to erect Quito and Bogota
+into presidencies, whose governors would be responsible directly to
+Madrid and have greater authority over subordinate officials.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+COLONIAL TIMES
+
+
+In 1564 the president arrived in state with all the trappings
+appropriate to his high rank. His powers were most ample; he was
+practically vicegerent of the Castilian king; his jurisdiction extended
+not only over the Bogota-Pamplona plateaux and Tolima on the upper
+Magdalena, but also over Santa Marta, Cartagena, Antioquia, and even to
+Panama and the Mosquito coast. The name of New Granada, which Quesada
+had given to his conquests in honor of his native province in Spain, was
+extended to the whole presidency. To it were also attached, though
+loosely, the provinces that now make up the republic of Venezuela. But
+access to the Venezuelan coast from Bogota was so difficult as to
+prevent that region from ever being really a part of the New Granada
+presidency, and it became an independent captaincy-general in 1731. The
+eastern boundary of the president's immediate jurisdiction included the
+provinces which naturally communicated with the Colombian plateaux, but
+the extension of the Andes north-east from Pamplona along the
+Venezuelan coast was left to be settled from Coro. For similar reasons
+the valley of the upper Cauca--Cali and Popayan, as well as Pasto--was
+attached to the presidency of Quito, and the subordination of its
+governor to Bogota was only incidental and gave rise to many disputes
+and conflicts. The administrative entity of New Granada may be said to
+have included the territory which the Spaniards had reached by the line
+of the Magdalena, and in addition the Cartagena region and the Isthmus.
+The last named province was a source of constant trouble, because the
+difficulties of communication and the diversities of interests really
+made it separate from the rest of New Granada. Panama's governor and
+independent audiencia frequently defied the commands received from
+Bogota.
+
+  [Illustration: THE NATURAL BRIDGE AT GUARANDA.]
+
+The disorders near Bogota ceased after the arrival of the first
+president, Neiva. He actively engaged in promoting new colonisation,
+founding the city of Ocana in the Maracaibo watershed north-west of
+Pamplona, as well as Leiva and several other towns. He opened a road
+down from Bogota to Honda at the head of navigation on the Magdalena,
+and in his time great flatboats were introduced. These were poled
+against the river's rapid current, and they continued the sole means of
+river freight transportation for nearly three centuries. The cornerstone
+of the Bogota cathedral was laid, and schools established which soon
+counted among the most successful and famous in Spanish America. The
+country prospered after a fashion. The fertile plateaux from Bogota to
+the north were admirably adapted to the residence of Europeans, and the
+rich soil soon produced large crops of wheat and fed great herds of
+cattle. This region was so attractive that the Spaniards became attached
+to the country and contentedly established themselves as semi-feudal
+proprietors of estates cultivated by the docile and industrious Indians.
+A considerable proportion of the successive generations of
+office-holders sent out from Spain, applied for land-grants and remained
+in the country, founding new Creole families. Mixture with the
+aborigines occurred on a large scale and the process of Caucasianising
+the population made greater progress than in many other parts of Spanish
+America. The region was too far from the sea-coast to attract haphazard
+adventurers or to serve as a Botany Bay for convicts; the Spanish
+settlers belonged as a rule to good families; and the standard of
+living, education, and manners was exceptionally high. Bogota became one
+of the principal centres of Spanish American culture, and Colombian
+authors are celebrated for their excellence throughout the
+Spanish-speaking world. In the invigorating climate the Creoles retained
+their physical vigour and the concentration of population on these
+densely inhabited plateaux increased their mental alertness. Living,
+however, as a superior class in the midst of a subject population, they
+acquired no taste or capacity for commerce or industry. A Creole was by
+birth a gentleman and exempt from manual labour. The Colombian plateaux
+made little material progress, and settled down into an eventless,
+patriarchal existence.
+
+  [Illustration: FALLS OF TEQUENDAMA.]
+
+Conditions were entirely different in the deep, hot valleys of the
+Magdalena and Cauca and on the sweltering sea-coast plain. The
+semi-savage Indians did not make good labourers, and were massacred or
+driven into the fastnesses on the mountain sides, while their places
+were taken by negro slaves. The white population fell into much the same
+position as it occupies in the West Indian Islands. In the mining
+regions the Indians were pretty nearly exterminated. Antioquia, the
+great mineral province, has always contained a larger proportion of
+white blood than any other part of Colombia, and with the decline of its
+mines it became a centre whence white emigration poured into the other
+departments. Still different conditions prevailed in the extreme
+south, where the highlands of Popayan and the dry, cold tablelands of
+Pasto offered the same aspect as adjoining Ecuador. In those utterly
+isolated and comparatively unattractive regions the Indian population
+remained predominant.
+
+In Colombia, as in all the other Andean countries, the impulse toward
+conquest, expansion, and colonisation seems to have died out completely
+with the disappearance of the first generation of conquistadores. We
+read of the foundation of new cities from time to time, but it usually
+means that previously existing villages were given municipal charters.
+After one brief spurt the Spaniards settled down to enjoy the fruits of
+their ancestors' heroic marches and battles. Except near Panama the
+rainy Pacific coast was left untouched, and the forests of the Amazon in
+the south-east could not be penetrated. The open prairies of the Orinoco
+north-east of Bogota could be occupied and the province of Casanare at
+the foot of the eastern Andean range became a stock region, inhabited by
+the same hard-riding, semi-civilised llaneros as the adjoining
+Venezuelan plains.
+
+The Spanish government applied its restrictive colonial system with the
+utmost rigour. The obnoxious market tax was imposed as early as 1690;
+tobacco and salt were made monopolies; the exportation of agricultural
+products was discouraged; and the production of gold, emeralds,
+platinum, and silver, was jealously watched and heavily taxed. In the
+early history of the colony the profits of mining were prodigious, but
+during the seventeenth century, after the cream of the surface placers
+had been skimmed, progress was slow. The unhealthful climate of the
+mining regions almost exterminated the settlers; the native population
+diminished so rapidly that soon the mines were short-handed; and the
+importation of negro slaves was so costly that the smaller proprietors
+could not operate on their own account, and even the great mine owners
+had to be content with moderate profits. One-fifth of the gross product
+was required to be paid to the government, and there were other fiscal
+exactions. The efforts of the authorities to prevent the smuggling of
+gold introduced a swarm of soldiers, collectors, and guards with whom
+the miners were in a constant turmoil.
+
+The influence of the Church was very powerful, and the population became
+devotedly Catholic. Great tracts of the best lands were given to the
+bishoprics and the religious orders. Piously disposed persons left
+property in trust charged with the payment of so many dollars a year for
+the saying of so many masses, and the stewardships, or rights to
+administer these estates, were the subject of sale or descended from
+father to son. In 1630, a daring president, Jiron, presumed to arrest
+and banish the archbishop of Bogota, but fifty years later one of his
+successors wrote back to Spain that "in New Granada there is much Church
+and little king." The poor Indians were decimated not only by war,
+massacre, and forced labour in the mines, but the white man's diseases
+played havoc with them. The small-pox was introduced on the plateaux
+within a few years after the conquest, and continued to ravage the
+country throughout the early part of the seventeenth century. The third
+president died of the leprosy within a few months after his arrival in
+1579, and the first case of elephantiasis, which has proved a curse to
+Colombia, occurred in 1646.
+
+The quarrels and disagreements between the president and the governors
+and audiencias of the associated provinces, especially Panama, to say
+nothing of the disputes with the president of Quito and the governor of
+Venezuela on account of conflicting jurisdiction, became so acute early
+in the seventeenth century that the Spanish government determined to
+erect New Granada into a viceroyalty, extending the power of the Bogota
+central authorities over Ecuador and Venezuela. The first viceroy was
+inaugurated in 1719, but he recommended a return to the old system. In
+the year 1740 the viceroyalty was re-established and all connection with
+Peru ceased. Although in the meantime Caracas had been made a
+captaincy-general, it was placed nominally under the viceroy's
+jurisdiction, and Ecuador was again detached from Lima. Within a few
+years the attempt to govern Maracaibo, Cumana, Margarita Island, and
+Guiana from Bogota was abandoned, and these provinces transferred to the
+Venezuelan captaincy-general. But the high rank and royal powers of the
+viceroys did not save them from troubles. They were engaged in an almost
+continual struggle against the encroachments of the clergy, while the
+laity protested vigorously at the constantly increasing taxation. A
+special royal commissioner came out in 1774 to perfect the tobacco
+monopoly, and five years later another agent arrived with instructions
+still more irritating. The Creoles of Santander arose in the "Rebellion
+of the Communes" and so formidable was the insurrection that the
+authorities were compelled to make a feint of yielding to the people's
+demands. They promised to expel the obnoxious commissioner; to abolish
+not only the tobacco monopoly, but the market-tax on the sale of
+domestic products, the requirement that every shipment be accompanied by
+a high-priced official invoice, and the poll-tax; to lower the stamp
+duties, the curates' tithes, and the Indian tribute; to cease burdening
+commerce with unreasonable highway, bridge, and ferry dues; and to
+require the priests to give up the practice of forcing the Indians to
+pay for masses. The viceroy also promised to open public employments to
+Creoles, to permit the establishment of a militia, and to concede to the
+people the right to confirm the governors nominated by the Crown or
+viceroy. But no sooner had the insurgents dispersed, than the government
+repudiated all these pledges and dragged the popular leaders to the
+scaffold.
+
+  [Illustration: NATIVE HOUSES IN COLOMBIA.]
+
+The foreign commerce of the viceroyalty had diminished until only one
+small fleet came each year to Cartagena and Porto Bello, and though,
+during the latter part of the colonial period, certain viceroys did
+something to open up roads by which wheat, sugar, cacao, and hides could
+be exported at a profit, no measures could prove effective while the
+enormous fiscal exactions of the Spanish government continued. During
+the last few years of the eighteenth century, commerce was made
+nominally free, but this meant simply that the old prohibitions on
+private shipments by sea were abolished, and the ports opened for trade
+with Spain and the other colonies. These wise measures were, however,
+accompanied by such an increase in taxes that their effect was nugatory.
+
+Meanwhile New Granada had also had her external troubles. In 1586 Sir
+Francis Drake reached Cartagena and forty years after the Spanish
+government fortified the place at great expense. Nevertheless Ducasse
+took it in 1695 though Admiral Vernon, with a great fleet and army,
+unsuccessfully besieged the place in 1741, after having captured Porto
+Bello. The unsettled Central American coast north from the Isthmus was
+nominally a part of the vice-royalty, but had been completely neglected
+by the Bogota authorities, and in 1698 a colony of twelve thousand
+Scotchmen, with authority from Parliament and backed by a vast popular
+subscription, landed on the north shore of the Isthmus. They purposed
+the establishment of a general emporium for all nations on the spot
+which the great financier, William Paterson, who originated the scheme,
+regarded as "the key of the commerce of the world." There was to be
+free-trade; the Indians were to be protected; religious liberty was to
+be established; and the Spanish monopoly of South and Central America
+destroyed. The far-sighted Paterson hoped to found a colonial empire and
+to enrich his own country by the resulting trade. But the enterprise was
+wrecked by the fatal climate and the supineness of the British
+Government. Provisions fell short, and within a year the survivors
+re-embarked in a miserable plight. Two small supplementary expeditions
+arrived in 1699 to find assembled a Spanish fleet and army against which
+no serious resistance could be made. After a little half-hearted
+fighting the Scotchmen capitulated and the colony was definitely
+abandoned. The Bogota government continued to neglect that coast. It was
+placed under the jurisdiction of the captain-general of Cuba, and the
+claim that Colombia set up after she became an independent nation has
+never held good against the Central American republics.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE WAR AGAINST SPAIN
+
+
+The stirring events of the year 1808 in Spain and the disorganisation of
+the monarchy produced great excitement in the New Granadan cities. When
+the news of the establishment of a junta at Quito came in September of
+the following year, Amar, the Bogota viceroy, summoned an assembly of
+the authorities and leading citizens for consultation. The Creoles
+favoured an independent junta, but the prestige of the Spaniards and
+Amar's popularity prevailed, and it was resolved to recognise the home
+revolutionary government, and to send an expedition to crush the Quito
+junta. Meanwhile the Ecuador patriots had despatched troops to Pasto,
+but the sturdy conservative mountaineers resented the invasion and
+repulsed the Quitenos. Thenceforth to the end of the war Pasto remained
+a loyalist stronghold. Though Quito soon laid down its arms under
+promise of amnesty, the re-established Spanish government massacred the
+insurgent leaders, and reports of these cruelties threw the Creoles of
+the cities into effervescence, though the Indian and negro population
+of the rural districts remained indifferent. On May 22, 1810, the
+citizens of Cartagena demanded and obtained an independent revolutionary
+junta; shortly after an insurrection broke out among the llaneros on the
+Orinoco plains north-east of Bogota; on the 4th of July Pamplona
+followed Cartagena's example and set up its own junta; and a little
+later Socorro did likewise. By this time things were ripe in Bogota for
+an anti-Spanish revolution. Ambitious Creoles intrigued among the
+people; the natural feeling of jealousy and hatred between Spaniards and
+Americans became inflamed; a contemptuous remark about Creoles made by a
+Spaniard in the streets was the signal for the gathering of a great mob
+which rushed tumultuously to the public square and howled for an open
+cabildo and the immediate appointment of a junta. With six thousand
+armed men in front of his palace the viceroy had no choice. The junta
+was named and a circular sent to the other cities inviting them to name
+deputies for a congress to arrange a federal union. But local
+jealousies, hardly held in check by the rigid colonial system, now
+flamed forth; the people instinctively grouped along geographical lines;
+and divergencies of opinion and ambition among leaders increased the
+confusion. Cartagena and other provinces declined to send delegates to
+Bogota, preferring to act independently until the re-establishment of
+regular government in Spain.
+
+When the congress met it represented only a part of the territory, and
+but a small percentage of the population. Narino and other popular young
+leaders in Bogota intrigued for a centralised system in which Bogota
+was to be master province. An insurrection against the junta installed
+him as dictator, and congress fled from the capital. The royalists had
+made no effort to oppose the revolution in the centres of population,
+contenting themselves with sending expeditions from Quito to occupy
+Pasto and Popayan, with keeping possession of the Isthmus, and
+establishing themselves on the lower Magdalena. Cartagena was thereby
+isolated from the rest of the revolted provinces, and Bogota cut off
+from communication with the sea. In March, 1811, the patriots marched up
+the Cauca from Cali and defeated the Spaniards in Popayan. Quito rose in
+rebellion a second time, and the Ecuadoreans advanced north into Pasto,
+only to be beaten once more by the loyalist peasantry. The Granadans,
+who invaded by way of Popayan, met with no better success, and their
+forces under the command of a North American adventurer, Macaulay, were
+annihilated. The re-establishment of the royal authority at Quito
+followed, and Bogota again lay open to attack from the south.
+
+While the royalist reaction was thus closing in around the revolution in
+central New Granada, the mass of the people cooled, the patriot leaders
+fought among themselves, and the interior was a prey to anarchy.
+Dictator Narino had broken completely with the ambulatory congress, and
+was sending his troops into the adjacent provinces. Congress protested
+and a civil war broke out in central Granada. Narino was defeated in an
+attack on Socorro, but the federalists were in their turn repulsed when
+they lay siege to the capital, and Bogota declared itself an independent
+state. In the midst of these disorders, the alarming news was received
+that General Samano, advancing from Quito and Pasto, at the head of two
+thousand well-equipped men, had retaken Popayan, and was already
+menacing Antioquia and the lower Cauca. In the face of this common
+danger Narino and congress came to terms. The latter advanced to meet
+Samano and badly defeated him at the battle of Calivio, January 15,
+1814. The re-occupation of Popayan was the only result of this victory.
+Pasto remained faithfully loyalist--a Vendee into which many republican
+armies were destined to dash in vain. The Spaniards brought up
+reinforcements, and when Narino again advanced his army was overwhelmed
+and himself captured. However, the loyalists were not able to equip an
+army large enough to justify undertaking the conquest of central
+Granada, so the jarring factions and provinces were left alone for the
+present to waste their energies in internecine conflicts.
+
+  [Illustration: ROPE BRIDGE OVER THE MAGDALENA RIVER.]
+
+Cartagena had all the while remained independent, and in 1813 Bolivar,
+flying from his native Venezuela after the suppression of its first
+insurrection, took service with the Granadan city. With a handful of
+militia he drove the Spaniards from the lower Magdalena, and retook the
+important city of Ocana near the Venezuelan border. His unexpected
+success created such enthusiasm that the Cartagena dictator gave him a
+small body of regulars, and with them the daring Venezuelan began that
+marvellous campaign which for the second time expelled the Spaniards
+from Venezuela. His triumph was shortlived, and by September, 1814, his
+forces had been dispersed by the loyalist llaneros and he was back in
+New Granada. He now offered his services to the federated provinces, and
+in spite of his recent defeats, the prestige of the 1813 campaign
+secured him the command of the army which was about to march on Bogota
+to force that recalcitrant province into the union. At the head of
+eighteen hundred men Bolivar prosecuted the campaign with all his usual
+activity. The outlying towns of the province surrendered at his
+approach, and the capital itself, which had been denuded of troops by
+Narino for his ill-fated expedition against Pasto, and which in fact
+was tired of the dictatorship, could not make much resistance. The seat
+of the federal government was transferred to Bogota, and the victorious
+general, though a Venezuelan, became captain-general of its forces, and
+to his title of "Liberator" was added that of "Illustrious Pacificator."
+If the adhesion of Cartagena could be secured, the union of New Granada
+would be well-nigh complete; so with two thousand men he proceeded to
+the lower Magdalena and established his headquarters just above the
+delta and within striking distance of the sea-port. However, his
+intrigues with its government led to nothing. Cartagena refused to
+co-operate with the confederation on any terms, and finally Bolivar made
+a foolish attempt to besiege the strongest fortress in America without
+artillery. He soon came to his senses, raised the siege, gave up his
+command of the Granadan army, and withdrew to Jamaica to wait a new
+opportunity to make war on Spaniards.
+
+The revolutionary cause was in a bad way. The loyalists of Venezuela,
+Ecuador, and southern New Granada had put down the insurgents in their
+own provinces. Bogota was only held back by the military pressure of a
+few resolute republicans from declaring for the king, and the other
+provinces were disgusted with civil disorder and wavered in their
+allegiance. However, they were destined not to be given the opportunity
+to return peaceably to obedience on reasonable terms. Wellington's
+peninsular campaigns and Napoleon's fall changed the face of affairs in
+Spain. Ferdinand once more on the throne of his fathers, and absolute
+government re-established, all thought of compromising with the
+American rebels on the basis of autonomy or representation in the Cortes
+was abandoned. In April, 1815, Marshal Morillo, Spain's ablest general,
+arrived on the Venezuelan coast with more than ten thousand veteran
+regulars. Having reinforced himself among the Venezuelan loyalists, and
+leaving a large garrison of Spaniards in Venezuela, he proceeded to
+Cartagena at the head of over eight thousand troops. The defenders
+numbered less than four thousand, but behind the strongest
+fortifications in America they prepared to make a desperate resistance.
+So formidable were the walls that Morillo did not try to take the place
+by assault. His main body landed at Santa Marta and crossed the
+Magdalena to blockade the city from the rear, while his fleet cut off
+communication by sea. The besiegers suffered terribly in the
+pestilential swamps, but the defenders were reduced to the most horrible
+extremities during four months and a half. The provisions ran out;
+fevers decimated the people; the starving garrison ate rats and hides,
+sentinels fell dead at their posts; the commander drove out of the city
+two thousand old men, women, and children, and of this procession of
+spectres only a few reached the Spanish lines. Finally, the surviving
+soldiers escaped by boats in the midst of a storm which dispersed the
+Spanish squadron, and Morillo entered a deserted city where the very air
+was poisoned by the rotting bodies of famished people. It is calculated
+that six thousand persons died of hunger and disease. The Spaniards
+hunted down and shot the revolutionary leaders; the absolute powers of
+the governor were revived; and even the inquisition re-established.
+
+While Cartagena was being besieged, a Spanish army advanced along the
+Venezuelan Andes to the Granadan border and climbed to the Pamplona
+plateau. There they defeated the local patriots, and the latter fled
+from the province after killing all the Spanish non-combatants on whom
+they could lay hands. Desperately alarmed, the congress at Bogota made
+Camilo Torres dictator, and he resolutely advanced with twenty-five
+hundred recruits against Pamplona. The Spanish general retreated to
+Ocana, with the patriots following, but receiving reinforcements, turned
+upon Torres, and on the 22nd of February, 1816, utterly defeated him.
+The revolution lay helpless at Morillo's feet. The royalist forces
+promptly occupied the great plateau provinces of Pamplona and Socorro,
+as well as Antioquia. Bogota had in fact long been disaffected to the
+insurgent cause and now became openly royalist. Torres resigned, and
+when Madrid, whom the revolutionary chiefs appointed in his place,
+called for volunteers only six men presented themselves. Congress
+dissolved, and the dictator and a few determined leaders, with a remnant
+of the army, fled north to Popayan. There they joined a band of local
+patriots under Mejia, and gave unsuccessful battle to General Samano,
+who had advanced from Quito. This fight of Tambo seemed the revolution's
+_coup de grace_ in New Granada, Ecuador, and Venezuela. Only on the
+plains of eastern Venezuela, and in the llanos on the Apure and Casanare
+headwaters, did a few guerrilla bands maintain themselves. In far away
+Argentina, the town of Buenos Aires and the gauchos were still defiant,
+but elsewhere in all Spanish South America resistance to the King's
+generals had ceased.
+
+Marshal Morillo fully appreciated how dangerous to Spanish domination in
+New Granada and Venezuela were the fierce, hard-riding, llaneros,
+uncatchable and unconquerable in the vast Orinoco plains. Fighting on
+the royal side under guerrilla chiefs they had beaten the republicans
+and Bolivar, but they turned insurrectionist the moment Spanish regular
+officers assumed command. Morillo resolved to crush the towns
+completely, and hoped gradually to wear out or exterminate the llaneros.
+In pursuance of this policy all officers above the rank of captain were
+denied amnesty, and shot wherever found. The same fate was reserved for
+those who had held high civil office during the insurrection. The
+Marshal came to Bogota in person to see that his bloody orders were
+carried out. The city's prisons were filled with unfortunates whose
+wives and daughters pleaded in vain for mercy. The most prominent
+patriots were shot in the back as traitors and their bodies hung on
+gibbets. The great scholar, Caldas, the pride of Bogota for his
+world-wide reputation as a scientist, suffered a not much better fate.
+In the capital alone one hundred and twenty-five of New Granada's
+brightest and best perished on the scaffold, their property was
+confiscated, and their families reduced to abject poverty. Because they
+had not actively resisted the rebellion, the entire male population were
+adjudged to have forfeited all civil rights, and gangs of Granadan
+youth were impressed into the army, or, worse still, forced to work on
+the public roads. Even the ladies of Bogota were sent to country towns
+to remain under police surveillance with women of doubtful character.
+
+While thus engaged in stamping out the revolutionary embers in New
+Granada word came to Morillo that the Venezuelan llaneros had risen
+against his lieutenants, and that Bolivar had landed near Valencia.
+Leaving a garrison of Venezuelan and Pasto royalists at Bogota under the
+command of Samano, the Marshal, with four thousand Spanish troops, took
+the plateau road to the frontier, carrying with him some prisoners to
+shoot on the line. Samano's first act on assuming the government of
+Bogota was to erect a gallows in the great square facing the windows of
+his palace, and to set up four execution benches on the public
+promenade. Of the victims who sat thereon with their backs to the firing
+squad, one of the first was the beautiful Policarpa Salabarrieta, with
+seven men also implicated in sending information to the llanero
+insurgents. She died exhorting her companions to meet their fate like
+men, and under the name of La Pola her memory is preserved in the songs
+of the Colombian people. Sixty years after her death the Colombian
+congress voted a pension to her surviving relatives.
+
+  [Illustration: THE HOME OF BOLIVAR.]
+
+Morillo never returned to New Granada. Before he arrived in Venezuela,
+Bolivar had temporarily retired, and the llaneros retreated to the vast
+solitudes in which they were unconquerable. Though the Spanish regulars
+won battle after battle their victories were fruitless, and Bolivar
+soon returned to Venezuela to be again placed at the head of the
+patriots and to wage unremitting warfare with cavalry from a secure base
+in the llanos, while he imported British mercenary infantry capable of
+making headway against the Spanish regulars. From 1816 to 1819 New
+Granada suffered hopelessly and silently the bloody despotism of the
+Spanish generals, while the tide of war rolled to and fro in Venezuela.
+In the early part of the latter year Samano sent a small expedition down
+the steep Cordillera slope against the guerrillas in the Casanare plains
+north-east of Bogota. This gave Bolivar a great strategical idea. He
+knew that the tableland of New Granada had been denuded of troops; but
+it was useless to try an attack from the direction of the provinces
+south of Maracaibo Bay because this well-travelled route and its
+populous towns were in secure possession of the enemy. Where Spaniards
+could go he could follow--so he reasoned--and determined to assault
+Bogota directly from the Orinoco plains, thus striking the centre of the
+Spanish line.
+
+With a mixed army of British mercenaries and hardy Venezuelans the
+Liberator mounted the difficult pass which leads from Casanare up to
+Tunja. Samano had only three thousand troops and these he sent under the
+command of General Barreiro to meet Bolivar. Though the patriots were
+somewhat inferior in numbers and arrived on the plateau fatigued,
+starving, and without horses, Barreiro, not knowing their real numbers,
+hesitated about attacking. Bolivar was given time to rest and remount
+his men, and then took a vigorous offensive. His rapid movements
+confused the Spanish commander, and the latter allowed the patriot army
+to get between him and Bogota. Thus cut off from his base, Barreiro made
+a desperate dash to reach the capital, but ran against the patriots
+posted directly across his path at Boyaca, on the 7th of August, 1819.
+The loyalists attacked at a disadvantage and without hope. After losing
+a hundred men they fled in disorder and the whole army dispersed or was
+captured. The way to Bogota lay open, and Samano had no forces to defend
+the city. Within three days Bolivar had traversed the hundred miles from
+the battlefield, and Samano fled in such precipitous haste that he left
+behind the government archives and even the money in the treasury. A
+month later the whole of New Granada, except the stubbornly loyalist
+Pasto and the fortress of Cartagena, was free. Bolivar had himself made
+president and military dictator, naming Santander vice-president, and
+giving each province two governors, one military and the other civil,
+responsible directly to Bogota. The municipal governments were
+preserved, and the Spanish system of taxation continued, but patriot
+republicans displaced loyalists in all the offices.
+
+Bolivar soon returned to his Venezuelan headquarters on the Orinoco to
+fight Morillo and organise the grand republic he had dreamed of so many
+years. Though all of Venezuela except the Orinoco valley, all of
+Ecuador, and the sea-ports and southern provinces of New Granada still
+remained in the hands of superior Spanish armies, and although the
+Creole ruling class had already proved strongly prejudiced in favour of
+local autonomy and the tearing down of aristocratic forms, his
+imagination vaulted all obstacles and he planned the new state down to
+its minutest details. His idea was a centralised system with himself at
+its head as life president, backed by a hereditary senate, and ruling
+the three grand divisions of his empire through docile vice-presidents.
+But his military power and prestige were insufficient to overcome the
+opposition of jealous generals and ambitious lawyers. He spent the year
+of 1820 in futile intrigues among the politicians, and in unsuccessful
+campaigns against the Spaniards in Venezuela, while the patriots
+trembled at the news that a great army was assembling at Cadiz which
+would surely sweep them out of existence. A liberal revolution in Spain
+came opportunely to interrupt military operations.
+
+Bolivar was obliged to compromise with the advocates of federalism and
+democracy. A congress representing the Granadan and Venezuelan provinces
+then in the hands of the patriots assembled at Cucuta early in 1821.
+Composed of ambitious civilians it was opposed to centralisation or
+military rule, and in spite of the Liberator's protests adopted a
+compromise Constitution. Though Bolivar was conceded the title of
+president, he was required to give up his civil authority whenever he
+took command of the army, and this meant an abolishment of the
+dictatorship. The idea of a life presidency or a hereditary senate was
+abandoned, and the only part of his system which Bolivar managed to
+retain was the subordination of the provinces to the central government.
+The Liberator now devoted himself to the direction of the war, leaving
+that long-headed schemer, Santander, in power at Bogota as
+vice-president. The winning of the battle of Carabobo in Venezuela in
+June, 1821, and the surrender of Cartagena in September, made necessary
+the withdrawal of the Spanish troops from the Isthmus. Panama
+immediately declared itself independent, in November, 1821, and
+announced its intention of joining the great confederation of Colombia,
+then composed of the provinces of Venezuela, and New Granada, and later
+of those of Ecuador.
+
+Pasto alone remained in the hands of the Spaniards. Bolivar determined
+to expel them from this province, and also from Quito and Guayaquil,
+while visions of conquests in Peru and Bolivia, and of returning to his
+dazzled countrymen in Colombia crowned with laurels gathered on southern
+battle-fields, floated through his mind. Congress gladly gave him leave
+of absence and Santander promised supplies of money and soldiers. In
+1822 he advanced against Pasto, sending his able lieutenant, Sucre,
+around by sea to Guayaquil to take Quito from the south. Gathering three
+thousand men at Popayan he marched into Pasto and on the 7th of April
+came upon the royal army at Bambona. A bloody battle followed and
+Bolivar by inciting his men to reckless charges remained master of the
+field. However, he lost three times as many men as the royalists; the
+latter retired in good order, and the Liberator, after encamping eight
+days on the plateau, surrounded by a hostile population, hampered by the
+difficulties of the mountain paths, with a strong enemy in front, was
+compelled to retreat on Popayan, leaving his sick and wounded. He
+remained inactive until the glorious news of Sucre's overwhelming
+victory at Pichincha arrived. The loyalists in Pasto were now completely
+isolated. The Spanish commander made terms with Bolivar and the
+indomitable mountaineers were induced to submit on the promise that they
+should be allowed to retain their local laws and customs.
+
+  [Illustration: PANAMA FROM THE BAY.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+MODERN COLOMBIA
+
+
+After Bolivar's departure for Peru, a period of relative quiet ensued.
+Nevertheless, ambitious local politicians constantly intrigued against
+Santander, who in his turn was suspected of encouraging federalist
+agitation in the hope of overthrowing Bolivar. The United States and
+England recognised the independence of Colombia shortly after the
+expulsion of the Spaniards, but foreign troubles arose when the new
+republic faced the question of paying the immense debt contracted by
+Bolivar's agents in recruiting and equipping the mercenary troops and
+buying ships, artillery, and ammunition. This debt had been enormously
+swollen by the dishonesty of some Colombian commissioners and by the
+greed of money lenders who insisted on receiving bonds for double the
+amount they had really advanced. The temptation to borrow more when it
+was refunded was too great to be resisted, and Colombia soon saw herself
+burdened with foreign obligations amounting to nearly seven millions
+sterling. All the revenues were insufficient to pay interest on this
+sum--a truly stupendous one for so poor a country. The payments fell
+into arrears, and though the debt has been scaled down repeatedly,
+interest has rarely been paid. At the very beginning of her independent
+existence Colombia's credit was ruined, and the three countries into
+which she was shortly divided have remained burdened to this day with
+the debts then contracted, their finances disorganised, their attempted
+operations blighted by the reputation of bankruptcy, and their
+diplomatic relations hampered by the clamours of bondholders.
+
+Santander's administration was further embarrassed by Bolivar's demands
+for money and troops with which to pursue his conquests in Peru and
+Bolivia, and still graver difficulties soon arose. Paez, left in command
+of the army in Venezuela, became involved in disputes with the
+authorities of the Venezuelan cities and with the ministers at Bogota,
+all of whom he despised as mere civilians or as foreigners who had no
+right to interfere.
+
+Finally, in 1826 the central government formally deprived him of his
+position and summoned him to Bogota, but a revolution which promptly
+broke out in Caracas made him dictator. The news brought Bolivar back
+from Lima, where for two years he had reigned an absolute monarch,
+leading the life of a voluptuous eastern prince. For the next four years
+the Liberator struggled in vain to repress the rising tide of federalism
+and radicalism in Venezuela and New Granada. The republican theorists
+could not forget that he had re-established the convents, placed the
+schools under priestly control, abrogated government contracts for
+personal reasons, introduced aristocratic decorations, and schemed for a
+hereditary senate and a life tenure of the executive; nor that his
+influence had stopped the Cucuta convention in the path of political
+reform, prevented the abolition of slavery and capital punishment, and
+retained the connection of Church and State, and the exemption of the
+army and clergy from civil jurisdiction. Santander was more liberal and
+a better practical politician. He had shown much ability during the
+Liberator's absence, and risen to be the head of a considerable party.
+
+Bolivar succeeded in temporarily crushing some of the opposition in
+Venezuela and in cajoling Paez, and on his return to Bogota he made a
+feint of resigning the presidency. Congress, however, was still under
+his spell and re-elected him. He then made an attempt to secure legal
+sanction for his system by summoning another constitutent convention.
+But news had come of Peru's and Bolivia's defection, and the agitation
+of the transcendental liberals, the universal desire for local
+self-government, and the ambitions of a hundred intriguers for high
+office, proved too much for him. A majority of the convention which met
+at Ocana in 1828 were partisans of Santander and opposed Bolivar's
+proposals although the Liberator at the head of three thousand soldiers
+watched the proceedings. Though he did his best to intimidate the
+majority, he shrank from frankly playing the role of a Cromwell, and
+contented himself with ordering his supporters to withdraw, leaving the
+convention without a quorum. It dissolved and the country trembled on
+the verge of disintegration. His friends called an assembly which
+obediently proclaimed him dictator. The Liberator accepted, and deprived
+Santander of the vice-presidency. The press was muzzled, protesters
+banished, and military rule established. Some fiery young republicans,
+determined to emulate the example of Brutus, struck down the palace
+guards at midnight and rushed into the house to kill the dictator. But
+his mistress, Manoela Saenz, awakened by the noise, directed him to a
+window. He dropped a few feet to the pavement and ran and hid himself
+under a bridge, while the woman, in her night clothes, met the assassins
+on the stairs and told them they could enter only over her dead body.
+They pushed her aside with their bloody hands only to find the quarry
+escaped. The next day Bolivar returned to the palace and his spies soon
+hunted down the criminals. Santander, suspected of knowledge of the
+plot, went into banishment, and for the moment civil war was averted.
+
+  [Illustration: SCENE IN THE ANDES, EN ROUTE TO BOGOTA.]
+
+But the incident did not revive Bolivar's waning popularity. News came
+in 1829 that Paez had again assumed the dictatorship of Venezuela. This
+was fatal to Bolivar's hopes. With New Granada in a ferment behind him
+he could not expect to conquer Paez and the formidable llaneros. He made
+a half-hearted attempt to raise an army, but recoiled before the
+insuperable difficulties. Again he resigned the presidency, protesting
+that he was ready to sacrifice all personal ambition to secure the
+integrity of the Colombian union and the establishment of a strong and
+ordered government. Again he was re-elected, but meanwhile civil war was
+raging in Ecuador, where his own troops disavowed his authority.
+Rebellion also broke out in Pasto, and Peru intervened in Ecuador and
+sent a fleet to capture Guayaquil and an army to invade Cuenca. Bolivar
+exhausted his last resources in despatching troops to meet the Peruvian
+onslaught, but the principal result of the war was to put General Flores
+in a position to make himself independent dictator of Ecuador.
+Despairing of longer maintaining himself, but loath to give up his
+ever-cherished idea of union, the Liberator entered into negotiations
+with European diplomats to appoint a prince of a reigning family as king
+of Colombia. But the idea was impracticable. There was no place for a
+monarch, either native born or foreign, on the Granadan highlands, and
+Venezuela had already virtually separated. Although a rebellion in
+Antioquia headed by his old companion in arms, General Cordoba, failed
+in the fall of 1829, at the end of the year word came that Venezuela had
+formally declared her independence and had pronounced a sentence of
+perpetual banishment against the Liberator. This was the last straw, and
+Bolivar made no further resistance to his fate, but summoned a congress
+and retired to his country house penniless, sick, and heartbroken. All
+his vast estates had been sacrificed to the cause of independence; the
+hardships of his innumerable marches over the cold mountain roads had
+broken his health; and his mode of life during the intervals of peace
+had not tended to restore it. Although only forty-seven he was a dying
+man. Still he clung to his hopes of vindication and re-election, but
+seeing that even the bulk of his own friends opposed, he at last sent in
+a formal resignation. He lived only a few months after congress had
+elected Mosquera president.
+
+Though Bolivar's overthrow was a triumph for the federalists and red
+republicans, congress shrank from going too far and installed a wealthy
+aristocrat as president. However, his feeble administration was soon
+driven from power by the revolt of General Urdaneta, who made use of
+Bolivar's name as a rallying cry, but who in fact was actuated alone by
+personal ambition. The federalists and anti-Bolivarists did not leave
+him long in possession, and in May, 1831, he was expelled in his turn.
+Obando and Lopez, both bitter enemies of the Liberator during his
+lifetime, and the latter suspected of complicity in the cowardly murder
+of the great Marshal Sucre, came to the head of affairs. New Granada's
+intestine troubles made her too weak to attempt the coercion of
+Venezuela and Ecuador, so their independence was recognised and the
+Colombian republic ceased to exist.
+
+  [Illustration: CATHEDRAL--PANAMA.]
+
+A federalist Constitution for New Granada was framed in 1832, and
+shortly afterwards Santander became the first legal president.
+Unquestionably the strongest man in the nation, a good administrator and
+a shrewd politician, he was helpless to check the tendency toward
+disintegration, though he reduced Bolivar's army of twenty thousand to
+less than one half, and did much to establish civil administration.
+His energy in enforcing order earned him the title of the "Man of Laws,"
+and many Granadans regard him as the real founder of their nationality.
+Marquez, who succeeded to the presidency in 1837, was not radical enough
+to suit the advanced federalists and republicans, although the first
+serious rebellion which broke out against him was caused by his
+suppression of convents in reactionary and Catholic Pasto. At the same
+time Obando was intriguing against the government, and many of the
+provincial governors aided the plots. When summoned to trial, Obando
+fled to the wilds of Popayan and Pasto, and civil war raged through 1839
+and 1840. In this latter year Panama successfully revolted, maintaining
+its independence until 1842. Tomas Mosquera, the minister of war, with
+the help of his son-in-law, General Herran, eventually triumphed over
+the rebels. In 1841 the latter became president, and set vigorously to
+work to strengthen the power of the central government.
+
+By this time, all the people who took any interest in politics had
+divided into two parties. The liberals insisted on universal suffrage,
+the separation of Church and State, the granting the provinces the
+fullest autonomy, the division of the greater portion of the national
+revenue among the provincial governments, and even opposed the
+theoretical right of any government to impose its will on the individual
+citizen. The conservatives believed in respecting the clergy, in
+continuing the old system of education under priestly control, and
+resisted any further emasculation of the national government. Herran
+recalled the Jesuits, and under his direction a conservative convention
+framed a more centralising Constitution than that of 1832. Bolivar's
+ashes were delivered to the Venezuelan government with impressive
+solemnities, and his memory apotheosised as the father of the nation and
+the apostle of centralisation. Herran was succeeded by his
+father-in-law, Tomas Mosquera. During his administration, which lasted
+until 1849, steam navigation was introduced on the Magdalena, the Panama
+railway was begun, the finances were brought into some sort of order,
+the army was further reduced, and the post-office system was improved.
+
+  [Illustration: CROSSING THE MOUNTAINS IN 1850.]
+
+The liberals and federalists were constantly becoming more powerful and
+more discontented. Disturbances broke out from time to time and when
+Mosquera's term expired, the attempt to elect a successor in an orderly
+and constitutional manner utterly failed. Riots and bloodshed followed,
+and it was officially announced that no candidate had received a
+majority of the popular vote. The duty of making a choice fell upon
+congress, and Lopez, a general of the war of independence who had taken
+part in the overthrow of Bolivar, was installed. This meant a resumption
+of the march toward complete decentralisation, temporarily checked
+during Herran's and Mosquera's administrations. The Constitution was
+reformed so as to reduce the power of the national executive and
+guarantee greater privileges to the provinces. The latter were divided
+and subdivided to suit the exigencies of local politicians until their
+number reached thirty-five. Lopez had been a revolutionist himself and
+did not know when he might be one again, and his abolishment of the
+death penalty for political crimes met with the hearty approval of the
+large number of Granadan politicians who were in the same case. The
+central government transferred a large part of its revenues to the
+provinces, and gave up to them the control of judicial administration,
+of education, and of transportation. The tide of liberal legislation
+also swept over the privileges of the clergy. Laws were voted
+suppressing of tithes, giving the nomination of parish priests to the
+civil authorities, taking control of education out of their hands,
+separating Church and State, and establishing civil marriage. But it was
+easier to pass such laws than to enforce their observance by the
+Granadans. The clergy were enormously powerful among the common people
+and the conservative aristocrats. The banishment of the archbishop and
+several suffragans roused the conservatives. Politics became the
+principal preoccupation of the educated classes. Hardly a village in the
+country but had its political club, and more than a hundred party
+newspapers, besides innumerable pamphlets, thundered against their
+opponents. The conservative revolution broke out in 1851, beginning in
+Pasto and immediately spreading over the whole western half of the
+republic and even to the eastern plateau. Antioquia was the stronghold
+of the clericals, and there they gathered a force of a thousand men
+which was beaten at Rio Negro on the 10th of September, 1851, while the
+insurgent bands in a dozen other provinces were reduced in detail.
+Although the liberal government was thus triumphant in the field, the
+danger had been too great and was still too menacing to make it safe to
+maintain an uncompromising attitude on the religious question.
+
+Lopez procured the election of Obando, another political general of the
+same type and opinions as himself, as his successor in the presidency.
+The new president's first act was to summon a convention which abolished
+the last traces of Herran's moderately centralising Constitution, and
+depriving the executive of the power of naming provincial governors.
+Obando gave satisfaction to no one, and in 1854 General Melo, commander
+of the cavalry in Bogota, incited the garrison and workingmen of that
+city to join him in an insurrection. However, the chiefs of the
+conservative party would have none of him; the recent concessions to the
+clergy had removed the strongest motives for rousing fanaticism to arms;
+and the clericals declared in his favour in only a few provinces. The
+property-holding and educated classes were practically unanimous against
+him. Mosquera and Herran, the most powerful men in New Granada and the
+historical chiefs of the moderate conservatives, had modified their
+views to suit the exigencies of the situation and become in effect
+moderate liberals. It was Mosquera himself who led the provincial
+militia against Bogota and overcome the dictator after much bloody
+street fighting.
+
+  [Illustration: TYPES OF COLOMBIAN NATIVES.]
+
+The unhappy country, tired of continual internecine disorder and
+exhausted by the harrying civil wars, rested willingly for two years
+under the compromise administration of Mallarino in which
+representatives of both parties and most of the principal factions had a
+voice. As a matter of fact the federal government had almost ceased to
+exercise the greatly reduced functions which nominally remained to it.
+The executive had only the shadow of a control over the provinces, its
+revenues sank to well-nigh nothing, its army was reduced to eight
+hundred men. The very name of the country was changed from the "Republic
+of New Granada" to the "Granadine Confederation," and the organisation
+of powerful and independent federal departments was begun, foreshadowing
+the abolition of the old provincial system. In 1857 three candidates had
+presented themselves--Ospina, representing the clerical conservatives;
+Murillo, the advanced liberals; and Mosquera, the moderates. Suffrage
+had been made universal, and under the conditions necessarily
+prevailing among a population almost entirely illiterate and used for
+centuries to monarchical and military government, a satisfactory
+election was impossible. On the face of the returns Ospina received a
+plurality, but the radicals were able to force the adoption of a new
+federal Constitution in 1859 which abolished the old provinces. However,
+the new system had not the sympathy of the conservative and clerical
+president. He tried to usurp control of the elections, the liberals
+accused him of acting unconstitutionally, insurrections broke out in
+various parts of the country, and the confusion became worse confounded.
+
+In the state of Bolivar, the liberal insurrectionists triumphed, while
+in Santander the conservatives themselves started a revolution which
+Ospina only succeeded in suppressing by the bloody battle of Oratorio.
+Meanwhile Mosquera had become governor of Cauca, and when the
+conservatives of that state tried to expel him, he beat them and took
+advantage of his victory to declare himself independent of Ospina. The
+latter advanced, but Mosquera defeated him, and invaded the upper
+Magdalena, gaining the battle of Segovia. In every state there was an
+insurrection against Ospina, and three ex-presidents accompanied the
+insurgent armies. On the surface the civil war appeared to be a mere
+contest for personal power between Mosquera and Ospina, but the former
+had ensured a large support by raising the banner of federalism, and the
+latter's triumph would probably have meant a strengthening of the
+national government and certainly a reaction from the radicalism which
+had gained ground year by year since the fall of Bolivar. Supported by
+the clericals, conservatives, and reactionists, Ospina fought
+tenaciously and with a fair prospect of success. But the federalist
+armies advanced relentlessly from both north and south, and one after
+another the provinces of the eastern plateaux were wrested from him by
+bloody and well-contested battles. Bogota was finally taken and the
+president imprisoned, but Mosquera's opponents kept up the conflict for
+some time in the states of Panama, Santander, and Antioquia, and it was
+near the end of 1861 before the federalists were everywhere triumphant.
+
+With Mosquera at the head of affairs, under the title of "Supreme
+Director," a congress was summoned whose members were called, not
+deputies, representatives, or delegates, but "plenipotentiaries" of the
+sovereign states. This congress adopted a new constitution, New
+Granada's sixth since 1830. The triumphant liberals expelled the
+Jesuits, abolished ecclesiastical entails, extinguished the monastic
+orders, confiscated Church property, decreed the absolute separation of
+Church and State, imprisoned the archbishop, and secularised the
+schools. Suffrage was made nominally universal, and the death penalty
+abolished. The name of the country was changed to the "United States of
+Colombia," and it became little more than a league of nine federal
+states for the purpose of defence against foreign attack. The national
+government was expressly prohibited from interfering in the affairs of
+the states, even for the preservation of order, and a clause of the
+Constitution provided that "when one sovereign state of the union shall
+be at war with another, or the citizens of any state shall be at war
+among themselves, the national government is obligated to preserve the
+strictest neutrality." The federal judiciary had no power to decide any
+constitutional questions nor could its decisions bind the state
+authorities. The national government was deprived of half its revenue
+for the benefit of the states, and the receipts of the latter equalled
+the federal income. This Constitution remained in force for twenty-two
+years, during which civil wars and factional disputes continually racked
+Colombia.
+
+  [Illustration: POST-OFFICE AT BOGOTA.]
+
+Moreno, the clerical dictator of Ecuador, had aided Ospina during the
+civil war, and to punish him Mosquera undertook a campaign which
+resulted in a Colombian victory at Cuaspud on the 30th of December,
+1863. However, he desisted from his announced intention of deposing
+Moreno and installing an anti-clerical government in Ecuador, and
+granted peace without the imposition of any onerous terms. Murillo was
+elected president in 1864 for the ensuing two years, to which short
+period the term had been reduced. The religious question would not down,
+and he found a conservative revolution going on in the state of
+Antioquia. It triumphed, and Murillo prudently recognised the successful
+insurgents as the legal government. He followed this same policy in
+regard to other revolutions in the states of Bolivar, Magdalena, and
+Panama, and cautiously refrained from all intervention, even when
+conservative insurrections occurred in the neighbourhood of Bogota
+itself, or when the clericals of Antioquia invaded Cauca, and defeated
+the liberals. One of the last acts of his administration was to impose
+on the impoverished federal treasury the settlement of all the forced
+loans and confiscations made during the three years of terrible civil
+war. Mosquera, who succeeded Murillo in 1866, was not content to remain
+a mere figurehead, although it was under his leadership that the federal
+system had been definitely established. He bought ships and artillery
+without authorisation from congress, and claimed the power of
+intervening by force whenever the legal government of a state was unable
+to maintain order. This attack on the right of revolution outraged the
+radical republicans. According to their theory and practice the federal
+government was merely an alliance between the peoples of the states, but
+Mosquera's doctrine would tend to make it an alliance between the state
+governments, creating a ruling oligarchy whose power might be continued
+indefinitely. Denounced as the assassin of Colombian liberty, he broke
+off relations with the liberal majority in congress, and in 1867 assumed
+dictatorial powers. But the Bogota garrison was suborned by his enemies,
+and its revolt was followed by his deposition and the substitution of
+Acosta.
+
+The new president renewed Murillo's policy of non-intervention. Colombia
+had begun to reap a benefit from the increasing foreign demand for
+tropical products. Exports grew in value, and with them, imports and
+revenue. But expenditures grew faster; the poorer states demanded and
+received subsidies from the federal treasury; public buildings and local
+improvements were planned beyond the nation's ability to pay; and a
+swarm of employees and pensioners battened on the public revenues. Under
+the concession of 1850 the Panama railway had agreed to pay three per
+cent. of its net revenue to the government, and the receipts from this
+source amounted to fourteen thousand dollars a year. Colombia had
+stipulated for the right to purchase the road in 1870 for the
+ridiculously low price of five million dollars, but Acosta's
+administration had no money to invest and was greedy for ready cash. So
+the franchise was extended until 1966 for one million dollars down and
+an annual subsidy of a quarter of a million. In 1880, under the pressure
+of poverty, the installments until 1908 were alienated.
+
+Under Gutierrez's administration (1868-69), when the governor of
+Cundinamarca gathered troops and assumed a dictatorship, the president
+deposed him. Even a liberal administration found it impracticable to
+carry out the theory of non-intervention. An attempt was now made to
+secure the nation's creditors by authorising the hypothecation of
+specific revenue--a measure which left the administration insufficient
+means to meet ordinary running expenses. Under Salgar (1870-72), the
+acknowledged deficits amounted to fifty per cent. of the total revenue.
+The increasing revenues had proved a curse instead of a blessing, for
+the demands of the states and officials were insatiable, and the sums
+spent in subsidies and internal improvements grew beyond all reason.
+Meantime the most extreme and unrestrained liberalism dominated the
+politics of the country. Congress passed a formal vote of condolence for
+the death of Lopez, Paraguay's unspeakable tyrant, who had just
+succumbed to Brazil and Argentina, after having devoted to destruction
+nine-tenths of his people. All honorary and useless military titles and
+employments were abolished, and the law on that subject contains the
+following curious provision: "In naming the eight generals spoken of by
+the Constitution, from whom must be chosen the commander-in-chief of
+the army, all Colombians over twenty-one shall be considered as generals
+of the republic."
+
+Murillo was elected for a second term in 1872, and at once devoted
+himself, and with considerable success, to the re-organisation and
+regulation of the finances. The law of 1868, which had hypothecated the
+revenues to meet the charges of the public debt, was repealed and the
+foreign bonds were scaled down to less than one-third their face. By
+such measures the president succeeded in paying the government employees
+and taking care of pressing home necessities, and even showed a nominal
+surplus at the end of his term.
+
+During the administration of Santiago Perez (1874-76) the first
+mutterings of the terrible storm of civil war soon to burst over the
+country were heard. The state of Panama defied his authority and
+imprisoned his officers, but he applied conscientiously the
+constitutional doctrine of non-intervention, and disavowed a general who
+on his own responsibility had deposed the governor. The governor of the
+state of Magdalena took possession of the custom houses at the mouth of
+the river, and the troops of the state of Bolivar attacked federal
+detachments passing along the Magdalena--a river which is inter-state,
+and whose navigation was free by the terms of the Constitution. The
+popular election of 1875 was so disturbed that congress assumed the
+power of selecting a president, and Parra was installed the following
+spring. An internecine conflict broke out in Cauca; the president
+started to intervene, and the states of Antioquia and Tolima declared
+war against him. Although guerilla bands in Cundinamarca, Boyaca, and
+Santander menaced the government's rear, twenty-five thousand recruits
+were raised and sent against the rebelling states. Antioquia was beaten
+at Chancos and Garrapata, and the rebels of central Colombia at La
+Donjuana, in battles where the largest numbers of soldiers ever gathered
+on Colombian soil were engaged.
+
+  [Illustration: RAFAEL NUNEZ, PRESIDENT OF COLOMBIA IN 1879-1883,
+  1885-1891.]
+
+Peace was followed by a general amnesty, because the victorious
+liberals dared not proceed to extremities against their adversaries.
+Trujillo was installed as president without opposition, and the harried
+country recovered somewhat from the exertions and disasters of the
+terrible year of 1876. The finances were, however, in horrible disorder;
+expenses amounted to enormous figures; the deficits became greater than
+the total revenues; interest on the public debt, which had been
+regularly kept up since 1873, was indefinitely suspended. Disturbances
+soon began to break out again, and the national guard deposed the
+governors of Cauca and Magdalena. The president showed an inclination
+toward centralisation; he formed alliances with state governors,
+encouraged them to prolong their terms, and systematically fostered
+divisions in the liberal party. Trujillo was succeeded by Nunez,
+nominally a liberal, but who at heart had also sickened of the
+federalistic system and was looking for an opportunity to strengthen
+presidential prerogatives. The Constitution stood during his first term
+and those of his two successors, but when he was re-elected in 1884 the
+policy which he followed soon caused him to be denounced by the liberals
+as a traitor to the Constitution.
+
+The failure of a liberal insurrection in 1885 was followed by a complete
+unitarian and clerical reaction. In 1886 a new Constitution was adopted
+which substituted a consolidated republic for the loose confederation.
+The country's name was changed from the "United States of Colombia" to
+"Republic of Colombia" in order to express the dominating principle of
+the new regime. The sovereignty of the individual states was expressly
+denied in the document, and the two most refractory ones--Panama and
+Cundinamarca--temporarily reduced to territorial dependencies. The
+governors were named from Bogota instead of being elected and the right
+of federal intervention re-affirmed. Suffrage was limited by an
+educational and property qualification; the clergy were admitted to
+participation in politics; the Roman Catholic was declared to be the
+national religion, although individual freedom of worship was permitted;
+the presidential term was extended to six years; and an attempt was made
+to insure judicial independence by a life tenure.
+
+Under this Constitution there was for a long time less disorder. In
+Colombia political hatreds are, however, incredibly virulent and
+persistent because party differences are fundamental and irreconcilable.
+The clericals regard their opponents as pestilent enemies of religion
+and order, and the liberals anathematise the ruling party as a
+reactionary, corrupt, and benighted oligarchy. The exiled liberals have
+made repeated efforts to regain power, and the administrations have not
+been able to avoid a constantly mounting national expenditure and the
+continuation of deficits and repudiation. In 1899, a formidable
+insurrection, aided from Venezuela, broke out, President Sanclemente was
+imprisoned, and in 1900 Vice-President Marroquin assumed the executive
+functions. This terrible civil war ended only in November, 1902, when
+the insurgents surrendered their fleet and stores. President Marroquin
+and the conservative government seem now firmly established, backed as
+they are by the tremendous influence of the Church among the masses. The
+people are returning to their usual avocations, though business has been
+demoralised by the stupendous depreciation of the paper currency.
+
+The vast expenditures of the French canal company boomed Panama, but the
+resulting prosperity was confined to the Isthmus. The Bogota government
+hoped for a great increase of income when the canal should be completed,
+and the abandonment of the enterprise was a disappointment. The
+principal subject of public preoccupation during 1903 was the
+negotiation with the United States concerning the permission desired by
+the latter to continue the work. Colombia proper has its outlet down the
+Magdalena to the Caribbean, and therefore has no greater special
+commercial interest in the building of a canal than Venezuela, Guiana,
+or Cuba, but the Colombians of the continent regarded the possession of
+the isolated Isthmian region as their most valuable national birthright,
+and believed that this invaluable strategic position should be used so
+as to obtain the utmost possible advantages for the Bogota government as
+well as for the people of Panama. The revenue from the Panama railway
+had been one of the important sources of government income and the
+ruling political classes considered that they were entitled to have this
+income largely increased if a canal was built.
+
+The special congress summoned to consider the treaty already signed by
+the executive failed to ratify the agreement and adjourned, after
+empowering the president to try and negotiate a new one which would give
+Colombia a larger bonus and revenue. But the rejection of the treaty was
+followed by a declaration of independence on the part of the people of
+Panama, who believed that the United States would pay no larger sum than
+that already agreed upon and who saw their own interests being
+sacrificed for the sake of a far-distant interior region with which they
+had few commercial ties and whence invasion and coercion need not be
+feared because of the lack of practicable routes of communication. The
+United States and other powers promptly recognised the new nation, which
+at once made a canal treaty similar to that rejected by the Bogota
+congress.
+
+At Bogota the first impression was one of profound dismay. The executive
+offered to declare martial law, suspend the Constitution, and ratify the
+rejected treaty in spite of the Senate. General Reyes, the foremost
+living Colombian, immediately departed for Panama as a special envoy to
+endeavour to persuade the people there to return to their allegiance,
+but his overtures were rejected, and he went to Washington on the
+hopeless errand of inducing the United States Government temporarily to
+abandon its policy of forbidding fighting on the Isthmus, so that
+Colombia might reduce the people of Panama to obedience. Meanwhile many
+Colombians blamed the Marroquin administration for the irreparable loss
+of Panama and ten million badly needed dollars. Some popular
+demonstrations occurred, and the hot-headed demanded that war be
+declared against the United States and an army marched across the Atrato
+swamps to attack Panama from the land. But the financial and
+topographical difficulties were so evidently insurmountable that the war
+talk soon died down, the demonstrations against the Government ceased,
+and most elements seem to have acquiesced in the election of General
+Reyes to the presidential term which begins in 1904. It will be under
+his able guidance that Colombia will start on the tedious road leading
+to internal peace and regeneration, to financial rehabilitation, and to
+the reconcilement of those fierce factions whose wars have drenched
+their country's soil with blood for so many decades.
+
+
+
+
+PANAMA
+
+
+
+
+PANAMA
+
+THE EVENTS LEADING TO INDEPENDENCE
+
+
+The history of Panama is for the most part identified with that of
+Colombia, which is narrated elsewhere in the present volume. It will,
+however, be convenient to review certain movements and tendencies of the
+last half-century in order to obtain a just understanding of the
+position and prospects of the new republic.
+
+All the principles of advanced democratic government were included in
+the programme of the party which ruled Columbia from 1863 to 1883, and
+the statute books of the time afford ample proof that the leaders
+earnestly tried to put those principles into practical effect. They
+dreamed a Utopia, but practically their efforts only aggravated the
+anarchical tendencies bequeathed by the Spaniards and Bolivar. Colombian
+liberals still insist that a persistent enforcement of the Constitution
+and principles of 1863 would ultimately transform the character of the
+people--that religious bigotry and priestly influence would gradually
+disappear; that the progressive enlightenment of the masses would make
+military despotism and revolutions impossible; and that in process of
+time the relations of the states to the federal government would reach a
+satisfactory and workable basis. But so far as the experiment went no
+progress was made toward unifying the nation and pacifying the adverse
+elements. Discontent, disorders, civil wars increased in violence as the
+years went by. Though one-fifth of the federal revenues were spent on
+the public school system, and one-tenth of the children were nominal
+attendants, the clergy were permitted to have no share in their control,
+and retaliated by excommunicating the parents. The devotedly pious
+Creole mothers and wives, threatened with the closing of the
+confessionals and the denial of absolution, threw their incalculable
+influence against the atheistic government. The destruction of the
+convents and the confiscation of the vast ecclesiastical estates
+violently changed the ownership of two-thirds of the land in the
+confederation, but this imposition of new landlords on the industrious,
+oppressed, half-enslaved tenantry did not much modify real agricultural
+conditions. No extensive subdivision of estates resulted, and the Creole
+aristocracy continued to pay more attention to political intrigue than
+to improving their property.
+
+  [Illustration: VIEW OF PANAMA.]
+
+Not less disappointing in its practical working was the independence of
+the states. Not only did the local bosses constantly abuse autonomy for
+their own selfish purposes, but the presidents at Bogota often ignored
+the constitutional rights of the states, and selected for coercion
+precisely those states which were farthest from the capital and most
+needed wide autonomous powers. Though Panama's position was isolated,
+its population cosmopolitan, its commercial interests and social
+structure peculiar, and though in colonial times its dependence on
+Bogota had been only nominal, the liberal presidents usually ruled it
+like a conquered province. Members of the Andean oligarchy poured in to
+batten on its revenues; the autonomy guaranteed by the Constitution
+proved illusory, and discontent led to repeated efforts to achieve
+absolute independence.
+
+Rival ambitions among its own leaders furnished, however, the immediate
+cause of the downfall of the liberal party. A close oligarchy grew up
+and that inevitable corollary, a powerful faction of dissident liberals,
+while the clericals remained formidable and irreconcilable even after
+their bloody overthrow in 1876. Rafael Nunez, a brilliant writer, a
+resolute and ambitious party chief, and a leader in the confiscation of
+church property, had been defeated in his candidacy for the presidency
+in 1875. The younger and dissatisfied liberals rallied behind him in his
+war against the oligarchy, and in 1880 the old-fashioned liberals could
+not prevent his election to the presidency. He vigorously strengthened
+the prerogatives of the federal executive and built up his personal
+following, but although the issue of paper money and the discontinuance
+of interest on the foreign debt--a debt which only ten years before had
+been scaled down to $10,000,000, one-sixth its original amount, on a
+solemn promise that at least this much would be faithfully paid--placed
+large funds at his disposal, the old-line liberals were strong enough to
+prevent his re-election in 1882. Their victory was illusory and
+temporary. Nunez controlled both houses of congress and was able to
+block President Zaldua at every turn. Eighty years old and in feeble
+health, the latter died after a year of fruitless struggle.
+
+  [Illustration: STEAMERS ON THE MAGDALENA RIVER.]
+
+After a short _ad interim_ administration in which Nunez's influence
+predominated, he was re-elected to the presidency and installed in 1884.
+By this time his centralising tendencies were manifest, and the measures
+he adopted unmistakably pointed to the substitution of a unified
+republic for the old loose confederation. Many of his liberal
+supporters fell away and he was driven into an alliance with
+the conservatives. Appointments of members of that party to
+important positions were followed by the great revolt of 1885. The
+insurrectionists delivered their main attack on the Caribbean coast,
+whither the importation of arms was easy. Much of the department of
+Magdalena fell into their hands, and they besieged Cartagena in force.
+But when one of their expeditions invaded the Isthmus, burning Colon,
+and interrupting traffic on the Panama Railway, the president appealed
+to the United States, as previous presidents had done in similar cases,
+to carry out the guaranty of free transit contained in the treaty of
+1846. At the same time the government troops attacked and defeated the
+isolated insurrectionists at Colon, and shortly afterwards the latter's
+main army suffered a bloody repulse in an assault on Cartagena. This
+broke the back of the movement against Nunez, and the liberals abandoned
+the hopeless struggle.
+
+The insurrection had been undertaken for the purpose of defending the
+1863 Constitution, and its defeat meant the destruction of departmental
+independence. As the logical and natural result of his victory, the
+president proclaimed the abolishment of the Constitution and summoned a
+convention to adopt a new one. Thenceforward until his death ten years
+later Rafael Nunez and his political ideas were supreme in Colombia, and
+Panama was held in the most rigid subjection. The old "United States of
+Colombia" was replaced by the "Republic of Columbia," one and
+indivisible; the departments became mere administrative divisions whose
+governors were appointed from Bogota; the presidential term was
+increased to six years; the radical liberal projects were abandoned; the
+clergy regained many of their privileges; and the historical
+conservatives continued the dominant party.
+
+As long as Nunez lived there were few outbreaks and no serious civil
+war, though the ousted liberals never ceased to plot the government's
+overthrow. The centralising system held the departments in a rigid
+control from whose inconveniences Panama suffered far more than the
+mountain districts. Practically she was allowed no voice in either her
+own or general affairs; the very delegates who nominally represented her
+in the constitutional convention of 1885 were residents of Bogota
+appointed by Nunez; military rule became a permanent thing on the
+Isthmus; all officials were strangers sent from the Andean plateau; and
+the million dollars of taxes wrung each year from the people of Panama
+were spent on maintaining the soldiers who kept them in subjection. In
+January, 1895, the harassed province broke out in a rebellion which was
+suppressed by an overwhelming force of Colombian troops in April.
+
+Meanwhile in Colombia proper the opposition to the ruling clique grew
+stronger and stronger. Persecution united the liberals, and they began
+organising for revolt all over the republic. The conservatives
+themselves divided into two parties, one of which opposed the
+administration. Nunez did not live to finish the second term to which
+he had been elected in 1892, but his successor managed to suppress the
+premature revolt of 1895, and in 1898 Sanclemente was elected, the
+opposition refraining from going to the polls. The new president soon
+found his position very difficult, and, unlike Nunez, was unable to
+dominate his own party and hold the opposition in check. The French
+Canal Company, whose concession, granted in 1878, would expire in 1904,
+offered a million dollars for a renewal, desiring to recoup, by a sale
+to the United States, a part of the two hundred millions sunk by De
+Lesseps. Sanclemente's government wished to accept, but the opposition
+and even the conservative congress insisted on the forfeiture of the
+French rights. The administration rapidly lost prestige, the
+discontented elements saw their opportunity, and the long-brewing storm
+now broke on the hapless country. The liberals hurriedly completed their
+preparations, and in the fall of 1899 a civil war began--the most
+terrible and destructive that has ever devastated the republic. Before
+it ended in 1902, more than two hundred battles and armed encounters had
+been fought, and thirty thousand Colombians slain. The detailed history
+of the campaigns has not yet been written, but it is apparent that the
+insurrectionists at first gained many successes. The president declared
+martial law, suspending the functions of congress, and the extension
+desired by the French Canal Company was granted by executive decree. But
+the pecuniary relief thus obtained did not materially help the
+floundering administration. Sanclemente became a mere figurehead for his
+more resolute ministers, and in July, 1900, the vigorous
+vice-president, Marroquin, seized power by a _coup d'etat_, throwing
+Sanclemente into a prison, where he remained until his death. Thereafter
+the war against the rebels was prosecuted with more energy, and the tide
+turned with the defeat of an army of Venezuelans, eight thousand strong,
+which had invaded the eastern provinces, to co-operate with the
+insurrectionists.
+
+  [Illustration: NATIVE VILLAGE ON THE PANAMA R. R.]
+
+However, the liberals were still strong in the west and north. On the
+Isthmus four insurrections had broken out from October, 1899, to
+September, 1901, and though each had been promptly suppressed, in 1902
+the liberals were able to make a last great effort to establish
+themselves at Panama. They had considerable forces near the mouth of the
+Magdalena, and gunboats on the Pacific. The secure possession of the
+Isthmus would have enabled them to reinforce this Magdalena army, cut
+off Marroquin from the sea, and undertake a campaign against the
+interior. At first all went well for them; their gunboats captured the
+government's vessels on the Pacific side; they concentrated a
+respectable army there and finally defeated and captured two thousand of
+Marroquin's troops at Agua Dulce, near Panama. But this was their last
+success. Marroquin poured reinforcements into Colon, and though the
+American admiral at first refused to allow them to be transported over
+the railroad to Panama, permission was granted when it became evident
+that there would be no fighting near the line. News came of the defeat
+of the liberal army near the Magdalena, and General Herrera, the victor
+at Agua Dulce, found himself isolated. In desperation he sent an
+expedition in October which surprised and captured Colon, but French and
+American marines were promptly landed to prevent fighting in that city.
+The expedition had no alternative but to surrender, and a few days later
+General Herrera with the main body capitulated on the Pacific side.
+
+The three years of war left Colombia in frightful demoralisation. The
+victorious government was little better off than the defeated liberals.
+Commerce and industry had been prostrated; revenues had dwindled to
+nothing; the paper currency was worth less than one per cent. The
+exhaustion of its adversaries, not its own strength, enabled Marroquin's
+government to continue in power. In such a situation the administration
+welcomed the opportunity which now offered of renewing the building of
+the Isthmian canal. The United States government determined to undertake
+this great work itself, and finally decided in favour of Panama as
+against the Nicaragua route. Forty million dollars was agreed upon as a
+just price for the work already done by the French Company, and nothing
+remained but to obtain Colombia's consent to the transfer. The civil war
+helped to delay the negotiation of a satisfactory treaty, but as soon as
+it was over the Marroquin administration lost little time in coming to
+an agreement with the United States. Colombia was to receive a bonus of
+ten million dollars for consenting to the transfer and enlarging the
+terms of the original concession; her sovereign rights were reserved
+and guaranteed, although she agreed to police and sanitary control of
+the canal strip by the United States.
+
+When this treaty was submitted to the Colombian Senate for ratification,
+opposition developed which the administration was not strong or resolute
+enough to overcome. Among the politicians at Bogota, the opinion was
+almost universal that the executive should have demanded more. The
+Colombian people have ever regarded the political control of the Isthmus
+as their most valuable national heritage, and cherished extravagant
+hopes that some day they would be vastly enriched by the sale or rental
+of this strategic bit of ground for its natural use as the greatest
+artery of the world's commerce. Many now insisted, as they had done in
+1898, on enforcing a forfeiture of the French rights, or at least on
+receiving a proportion of the $40,000,000 to be paid for them. It was
+also said that the Americans could well afford a larger bonus, and the
+opponents of the treaty made the further point that the agreement was
+unconstitutional and contained insufficient guaranties of Colombian
+sovereignty. Against this storm the feeble administration probably could
+do little and certainly did nothing. The Senate was allowed to adjourn
+without ratifying the treaty, and an attempt was made to negotiate a new
+one providing for a larger bonus and more stringent guarantees of
+Colombian sovereignty.
+
+The United States, however, absolutely refused to consider any other
+terms than those already agreed upon, and the civilised world saw the
+completion of an enterprise promising incalculable benefits to mankind
+indefinitely postponed by the opposition of Andean provinces whom the
+accidents of war and international politics had given an arbitrary
+control over a region with which they had no natural connection. The
+situation was particularly hard for the people of the Isthmus, whose
+confident hopes were now disappointed of at last receiving, by the
+prosperity which would follow the building of the canal, some
+compensation for the oppression and losses they had suffered during
+eighty years of misrule by the Bogota oligarchies. Hardly had the treaty
+been rejected when plotting for a declaration of independence began. The
+resident population was unanimous, and good grounds existed for
+believing that even the Colombian garrison would offer no resistance
+unless reinforcements should come from Bogota. In case of an armed
+conflict with Colombia the people of Panama could count on the sympathy
+of all America and Europe. The stockholders of the French Company had a
+direct pecuniary interest in their success. If once they could establish
+independence and a _de facto_ government, Colombia could not deliver an
+effective attack without violating the neutrality and security of
+transit guaranteed to the Isthmus by the United States. Everything
+pointed to the success of a well-conducted movement.
+
+Though the preparations for the revolt could not be concealed, the
+Bogota government took no effective measures to forestall it. Warned
+that trouble was impending, the United States sent ships to prevent
+fighting that might interfere with transit. The new republic was
+proclaimed at Panama on the 3rd of November, 1903. The Colombian
+authorities made no resistance; the garrison surrendered without firing
+a shot; and the entire population acquiesced in the appointment of a
+provisional government, pending the calling of a convention and the
+adoption of a Constitution. A small force of Colombians had been landed
+at Colon, but the revolution at Panama found it still on the Atlantic
+side. On November 4th the American naval commander refused to give these
+troops permission to use the railroad for warlike purposes. Because the
+vital portion of the new republic is virtually neutral under the treaty
+of 1846, the provisional government having established itself in
+peaceable possession was safe from external attack. The useless
+Colombian troops at Colon either joined the people of Panama or retired.
+The inhabitants of Colon and the outlying districts immediately sent in
+their adherence, and the peace of the whole Isthmian region remained
+unbroken. On the 13th of November the United States recognised the new
+republic, being followed by France on the 18th, and then by all other
+nations as soon as diplomatic formalities could be complied with. Dr.
+Manuel Amador Guerrero was elected first president of the Republic of
+Panama, being inaugurated on February 19, 1904. A treaty with the United
+States for the building of the canal was framed on substantially the
+same lines as the one which had been negotiated with Colombia. By the
+end of February it had been ratified and proclaimed, and the United
+States at once made preparations for the beginning of the work.
+
+  [Illustration: MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  A
+
+  Abascal, General, Viceroy of Peru, 73-78, 163, 168, 260
+
+  Abibe Mountains, 408
+
+  Acha, General, 276
+
+  Aconcagua River, the, 223;
+    plain of, 168
+
+  Acosta, Juan, 56
+
+  Acosta, President of Colombia, 464, 465
+
+  Acre River, the, 280
+
+  "Adelantados," 26, 349, 414, 417
+
+  Agua Dulce, battle of, 484, 485
+
+  Alansi, valley of, 291
+
+  Alacantra, Francisco, 26, 46
+
+  Alfaro, President of Ecuador, 339, 341
+
+  Alfinger, Adelantado of Venezuela, 349
+
+  Almagro, partner of Pizarro, 23, 24, 27, 32, 36, 136, 239, 298;
+    at war with Pizarro, 41-43, 239, 301;
+    execution of, 43, 44, 136, 239
+
+  Almagro the younger, 49, 50
+
+  Alonso, President of Bolivia, 281
+
+  Alpaca, the, 3, 4
+
+  Alvarado, Spanish adventurer, 44, 88;
+    Governor of Guatemala, 298
+
+  Amar, Viceroy of Bogota, 430
+
+  Amat, Don Manuel, 154, 155
+
+  Amazon River, the, discovery of, 44, 114, 279, 293
+
+  Amazon, forested plains of, 4, 5, 40, 67, 303, 351, 424
+
+  Andagoya, Pascual de, 22
+
+  Andean plateau, the, 3, 235, 285, 288, 302, 312, 335, 342
+
+  Andean valleys, 10;
+    gold in, 349, 354
+
+  Andes, the, 4, 135, 245, 317, 342, 347, 409 et passim
+
+  Andes, army of the, 168, 173, 174, 185, 186
+
+  Andrade, Creole revolutionist, 396
+
+  Andueza, Creole revolutionist, 396
+
+  Angol, besieged, 145
+
+  Angostura (city), 374
+
+  Anserma, founded, 409
+
+  Antigua, founded, 404, 405
+
+  Antioquia, great mineral province of Colombia, 387, 407-409, 412, 416,
+  417, 419, 422, 433, 437, 451
+
+  Antioquia, state of, 407, 457, 461, 462, 467
+
+  Antofogasta, 119, 120, 122, 277
+
+  Apples, 66
+
+  Apure River, the, 355, 374-376, 406, 437;
+    army of, 372, 380
+
+  Aragua Valley, the, 350
+
+  Araucania, colonised, 216
+
+  Araucanians, the, independent spirit of, 138-147, 150, 151, 155;
+    treaty of, with Spanish, 150, 151;
+    missions established among, 201;
+    at war with Chile, 206, 216
+
+  Arauco, besieged, 145
+
+  Araure, battle of, 368
+
+  Arce, President of Bolivia, 278
+
+  Arenales, General, 81, 89, 258
+
+  Arequipa (city), founded, 44, 80, 99, 103, 108, 110, 112
+
+  Arequipa (province), 39, 41, 77, 104, 259
+
+  Argentina, 11, 13, 18, 71, 142, 245;
+    civilised tribes of, 58, 350;
+    revolution in, 76, 160, 161, 317;
+    civil wars in, 78, 186, 261, 267, 271, 323
+
+  Argentine, army, the, 80, 81, 98, 185, 186, 257, 258;
+    navy, the, 78, 79, 173, 183, 184;
+    pampas, 99
+
+  Argentine Republic, the, 140;
+    expansion of, 155, 230, 231;
+    boundary treaty of, with Chile, 209, 210
+
+  Arica (city), 108, 123, 125
+
+  Arica (province),
+    arrangement between Peru and Chile concerning, 127, 278
+
+  Asses, 66
+
+  Atacama desert, the, 239
+
+  Atahuallpa, Inca empire divided between Huascar and, 14, 308;
+    fratricidal war between Huascar and, 16-19, 238, 295, 296;
+    sends ambassador to Spaniards, 21;
+    treacherously captured by Pizarro, 30, 31, 48;
+    offers ransom, 31, 246;
+    murder of, 32, 238, 297
+
+  Atrato, River, the, 403-406;
+    Valley, 405, 472
+
+  Audiencias, royal, established, 67, 71, 250, 251, 254, 267, 308, 417,
+  420, 426
+
+  Auqui Toma, 294
+
+  Ayachucho, plain of, 95;
+    battle of, 96, 97, 256, 264, 266, 322
+
+  Ayohuma, battle of, 256, 258
+
+  Azuay, nudo of, 17, 291-293, 295, 298
+
+  Aztecs, the, 412
+
+
+  B
+
+  Balboa, Nunez de, discoverer of the Pacific, 22, 23, 404
+
+  Balcarce, General, 185
+
+  Ballivian, General, 273, 274
+
+  Balmaceda, Chilean Liberal leader, 214-216, 218-220, 222-225;
+    death of, 226
+
+  Balta, Colonel, President of Peru, 113, 114, 116
+
+  Bambona, battle of, 444
+
+  Bananas, 66, 303, 352
+
+  Baquedano, General, 213, 219, 225
+
+  Barcelona (city), founded, 352;
+    captured, 372
+
+  Barcelona (province), 362
+
+  Barinos (province), 362, 363, 366
+
+  Barley, 66, 303, 343
+
+  Barquisimeto, founded, 350, 351;
+    destroyed by earthquake, 363;
+    captured, 368
+
+  Barreiro, General, 377, 378, 441
+
+  Bastida, Rodrigo, 403, 404
+
+  Belgrano, General, 258
+
+  Bello, civil code prepared by, 200
+
+  Belzu, General, 274, 275
+
+  Benalcazar, Sebastian de, conquers Quito, 298, 299, 409, 410, 413, 414
+
+  Beni River, the, 246, 279, 280
+
+  Bermudez, Colonel, 130, 381
+
+  Biobio River, the, 138, 139, 141, 145-147, 150
+
+  Blanco, Guzman, Dictator of Venezuela, 391, 394-396, 398
+
+  _Blanco_, the, 119-121
+
+  Bogota, (city) 308, 312, 316, 317, 378, 384, 420, 448;
+    founded, 413;
+    one of the centres of Spanish-American culture, 422;
+    Archbishop of, banished, 425, 457, 461;
+    revolutionary junta in, 431;
+    seat of federal government, 435, 442, 470, 471;
+    punishment of, 438, 439
+
+  Bogota (province), 376, 416, 419, 434, 437;
+    vice-royalty of, 71, 250, 313, 327, 356, 385, 416, 420, 426;
+    jurisdiction of, 356, 420, 426, 429;
+    audiencia of, 417;
+    presidency of, 418;
+    named New Granada, 419;
+    declares itself an independent state, 433
+
+  Bolivar, Simon,
+    the "Liberator" of South America, 79, 86, 368, 382, 384, 435;
+    Dictator of Peru, 90, 98, 447;
+    military exploits of, 92, 264, 317, 321, 366, 367;
+    President of United States of Colombia, 99, 322, 378, 442, 443, 448,
+          450, 451;
+    plan of, for South American Confederation, 99, 267, 320-322, 384,
+          442, 443, 450, 451;
+    constitutions, 99, 101, 268, 270, 385, 386;
+    undertakes conquest of Quito, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, 101, 318,
+          383, 384, 447;
+    wins battle of Ayachucho, 264;
+    welcomed in Bolivia, 267;
+    political theories of, 268, 322, 448, 451;
+    forced to retire from Peru, 270;
+    drives Spanish from Venezuela and New Granada, 317, 370, 372, 374,
+          375, 378, 433-435, 439, 440, 444;
+    interview of, with San Martin, 321;
+    life of, devoted to South American independence, 366, 388, 451;
+    army of, 376, 380, 381, 440, 441, 452;
+    proclamation of, 376;
+    overthrow of, 323, 326, 448, 450, 451;
+    death of, 326, 387, 388, 452;
+    character and education of, 364-366;
+    native city of, 387;
+    apotheosis of, 455
+
+  Bolivar, State of, 460, 463, 466
+
+  Bolivia (Upper Peru), 235-281;
+    description of 235, 236;
+    Inca conquest of, 13, 18, 236, 238;
+    military roads in, 36, 239, 244, 251;
+    Spanish conquest of, 36, 239, 248, 250;
+    Inca cities in, 44, 59;
+    capital of, 44;
+    precious metals found in, 44, 238-242, 245-247;
+    railroads in, 54, 277, 279, 280;
+    audiencia established in, 67, 250 (_see also_ Charcas);
+    the battleground of war of independence, 76, 77, 86, 97,
+          255 _et seq._, 268;
+    republic of, created, 99, 267, 268;
+    Bolivar the Father of, 99, 266, 267;
+    named, 99, 268;
+    first president of, 99, 268-270;
+    constitutions of, 99, 268, 270, 273, 278, 322;
+    the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, 101-103, 105, 197, 270-273, 281;
+    boundary treaty of, with Chile, 117, 281;
+    at war with Chile, 118, 271, 272, 281;
+    secret treaty of, with Peru, 118;
+    nitrate territory of, 211, 278;
+    early civilisation of, 236, 239, 249;
+    rainfall in, 236;
+    fertility of, 238;
+    population of, 239, 244, 269;
+    character of population of, 239, 260, 269, 272, 273, 357;
+    Spanish cities in, 241, 242, 249;
+    cattle-raising in, 242, 243, 248;
+    Spanish colonial system in, 243, 245, 249;
+    taxation in, 243, 269, 270, 276;
+    missions established in, 245, 279;
+    printing-press, in, 245;
+    battles in, 257-260, 264-266, 272, 273, 281;
+    sturdy spirit of patriots in, 258-262, etc.;
+    commerce of, 267, 272, 281;
+    period of civil war and anarchy in, 272 _et seq._;
+    slavery abolished in, 273;
+    greatest silver producing country of the world, 277, 278;
+    rubber production of, 278-280;
+    without seaports, 278, 280, 281;
+    treaty of, with Brazil, 280;
+    international position of, 281
+
+  Bonaparte, Joseph, 311, 312, 360
+
+  Bonaparte, Napoleon, 77, 159, 311, 365, 435
+
+  Borrero, Antonio, President of Ecuador, 339
+
+  Bourbon dynasty, the, 70, 154, 250
+
+  Boves, organises troop of llaneros, 368, 369;
+    death of, 370
+
+  Boyaca River, the, 378;
+    battle of, 86, 256, 317, 378, 441
+
+  Boyaca, state of, 467
+
+  Brazil, treaty of, with Bolivia, 280;
+    loyalty of, 337
+
+  Brown, Admiral William, 78
+
+  Buccaneers, 69, 70, 150
+
+  Buenaventura, 49
+
+  Buenos Aires, viceroyalty of, 67, 71, 155, 251, 257;
+    smuggling in, 71, 152, 251;
+    revolutionary junta in, 76, 160, 161, 438;
+    pampas of, 78, 149;
+    importance of, 156, 158
+
+  Bunes, General, 198, 199
+
+
+  C
+
+  Cabildos, in Bogota, 431;
+    in Bolivia, 249;
+    in Chile, 160, 161;
+    in Ecuador, 313;
+    in Venezuela, 360, 361, 385
+
+  Cacao, native to South America, 66, 238, 303
+
+  Cacao industry in Colombia, 428;
+    in Ecuador, 303, 328, 332, 341;
+    in Venezuela, 352, 390, 395
+
+  Caceres, President of Peru, 126-131
+
+  Cacha, the last Cara shiri, 292, 294
+
+  Caciques, 64, 243, 244, 248
+
+  Cadiz, 70, 361, 380, 443;
+    monopoly, the, 152, 352
+
+  Cajamarca, 17, 20, 21, 29, 31
+
+  Calabozo, 368, 375
+
+  Caldas, Colombian scientist, 438
+
+  Calderon, Garcia, 126
+
+  Cali (city), 408, 409, 432
+
+  Cali (province), part of presidency of Quito, 420
+
+  Calivio, battle of, 433
+
+  Callao, engulfed by tidal wave, 71;
+    Peruvian fleet at, 104;
+    Spanish fleet at, 112, 184, 186
+
+  Callao Castle, 80, 84, 97, 321
+
+  Caluchima, 296
+
+  Camano, Jose, President of Ecuador, 339
+
+  Camargo, patriot leader, 258, 260
+
+  Campero, Narcisco, President of Bolivia, 278
+
+  Canan (province), 288, 291, 296, 298
+
+  Canaris, the, Indian tribe, 14, 16, 17, 296, 297
+
+  Candamo, Senor, President of Peru, 131
+
+  Cancha-Rayada, battle at, 176-178
+
+  Canete (city), founded, 143, 144;
+    besieged, 145, 146
+
+  Canete, Marquis of, the "good viceroy," 57, 58. _See_ Mendoza
+
+  Canizaries, Dona Manuela, 313
+
+  Canseco, General, President of Peru, 113
+
+  Canterac, Spanish commander, 85, 89, 93, 96, 97
+
+  Canto, Colonel, 223, 224
+
+  Cape Codera, 351
+
+  Cape Gracias a Dios, 403, 404, 405
+
+  Cape Horn, 69, 152, 209, 235
+
+  Cape San Roman, 347
+
+  Captaincies-General, 67, 71, 148, 355, 356, 419, 426
+
+  Carabobo, battle of, 86, 317, 381, 443
+
+  Caracas (city), revolutionary junta in, 76, 361;
+    founded, 350;
+    sacked, 351, 354;
+    made a captaincy-general, 356, 392, 426;
+    destroyed by earthquake, 363;
+    Bolivar's birthplace, 382, 386, 387;
+    under jurisdiction of Bogota, 426;
+    revolution in, 447
+
+  Caracoles, silver mines of, 208
+
+  Cara Indians, the, confederacy of, 11, 12, 16, 288, 289;
+    invade Ecuador, 11, 286, 287;
+    conquered by Incas, 11-14, 288-296
+
+  Caranquis, the Indian tribe, 13, 293, 294
+
+  Caras, description of, 286-290, 293, 412;
+    staple articles of food of, 290, 303;
+    conquered by Spanish, 299
+
+  Carbojal, Spanish commander, 53, 56
+
+  Caribbean Sea, 70, 71, 348, 405, 406, 414, 470
+
+  Carib Indians, the, 268, 290, 413
+
+  Carrasco, Captain-General of Chile, 159-161
+
+  Carrera, Jose, creole leader, 162, 164, 166, 167, 173, 182
+
+  Carrera, Juan, 162, 173, 181, 182
+
+  Carrera, Luiz, 162, 173, 181, 182
+
+  Carrillo, 126
+
+  Cartagena (city), revolutionary junta in, 366, 431;
+    Bolivar takes service with, 366, 433;
+    besieged, 380, 381, 429, 435-437, 480;
+    oldest fortress in America, 406-409, 428, 436, 442;
+    surrender of, 443
+
+  Cartagena (province), 417, 419, 420, 431, 432
+
+  Cartago (city), 408, 409;
+
+  Carujo, Venezuelan revolutionist, 389
+
+  Casanare (province), 424
+
+  Casanare River, the, 376, 377, 437;
+    plains of, 406, 440
+
+  Cassava, 66
+
+  Castilla, Don Ramon, President of Peru, 106-110, 112, 274;
+    character and ability of, 108;
+    death of, 113
+
+  Castilla, Don Ruiz de, President of Quito, 312, 314
+
+  Castilla, Marshal, 118;
+
+  Castro (city), 151
+
+  Castro, President of Venezuela, 396, 398, 399
+
+  Castro, Vala de, Governor of Peru, 46, 49, 50, 52, 300
+
+  Cattle, introduced into South America, 66, 151, 352
+
+  Cattle-raising in Bolivia, 243, 261;
+    in Colombia, 421;
+    in Venezuela, 354, 355, 390, 395
+
+  Cauca (province), northern division of Quito presidency, 324, 326;
+    State of, 460, 466, 468
+
+  Cauca River, the, 49, 312, 408, 409, 411, 412, 422, 432, 433
+
+  Caudillos, the, Bolivian, 256, 269, 270
+
+  Caupolican, Arauncanian chief, 144
+
+  Ceballos, Jose, 361, 368, 369
+
+  Central America, Colombia's claim to, 429
+
+  Cerro de Pasco Mountains, 4, 9, 11, 17, 18, 32, 36, 81, 262, 264, 289
+
+  Chacabuco, battle of, 78, 168, 170, 172, 256, 261, 317
+
+  Chanca Indians, the, 9
+
+  Chancos, battle of, 467
+
+  Charcas (Suere), Indian capital of Bolivia, 44, 59, 240;
+    audiencia of, 71, 250, 251, 267;
+    revolutionary junta in, 76;
+    Spanish capital of Upper Peru, 242, 249, 301;
+    jurisdiction of, 250, 251
+
+  Charles IV. of Spain, 311
+
+  Charles V., Emperor, authorises conquest of Peru, 25, 26, 41, 60;
+    appoints governor for Venezuela, 349
+
+  Chaves, Francisco, 47
+
+  Chibcho Indians, the, 412-414;
+    civilisation of, 412
+
+  Chile, Inca conquest of, 11, 12, 18, 135;
+    Spanish conquest of, 36, 43, 44, 60, 136, 139-149;
+    captain-general of, 67, 148, 154, 155, 158, 160, 161;
+    war of independence in, 76, 78, 112, 156 _et seq._, 190, 261, 317;
+    junta established in, 161;
+    at war with Peru and Bolivia, 104, 105, 118, 119, 208, 211, 281;
+    boundary treaty of, with Bolivia, 117, 118, 206;
+    boundaries of, 117, 147, 150, 155;
+    defeats allies, 121-125;
+    captures Lima, 125, 126, 213;
+    mineral products of, 117, 136, 138, 144, 148, 199, 208;
+    nitrate industry of, 117, 118, 126, 206, 211;
+    gains control of nitrate region, 212, 220-222;
+    navy of, 118-121, 183-185, 204;
+    characteristics of inhabitants of, 135, 136, 149, 150, 190;
+    area of, 135;
+    rainfall in, 135;
+    population of, 135, 136, 152, 230;
+    agricultural conditions in, 136, 148, 199;
+    battles in, 141, 143-145, 164, 167, 176-178, 180-182, 187, 223-225,
+          272;
+    Spanish cities of, 145, 151, 154, 155;
+    at war with Araucanians, 147, 206;
+    the colonial period in, 148-155;
+    immigration into, 149, 156, 199, 203;
+    growth of commerce in, 148, 152, 154, 158, 162, 199, 200, 203, 230;
+    smuggling in, 152;
+    taxation in, 152, 158;
+    prosperity of, 154-156, 158, 203, 208, 216;
+    universities in, 154, 198;
+    the capital of, 154, 158;
+    seismic disturbances in, 154;
+    Cuyo separates from, 155;
+    landed aristocracy of, 158, 159, 162, 189, 201;
+    liberal reforms in, 162, 168, 200, 206-208, 214-217;
+    slavery abolished in, 162;
+    Spanish authority re-established in, 163, 166, 168, 316;
+    independence of, proclaimed, 176;
+    civil wars in, 189 _et seq._, 200-203, 215-226;
+    constitutions of, 193, 196, 206;
+    strong government established in, 196, 197, 271, 272;
+    qualifications for suffrage in, 196, 206;
+    becomes dominant power on Pacific coast, 198;
+    political conditions in, 198-203, 207, 214, 215, 227-229;
+    financial conditions of, 98, 200, 211-213;
+    religious conditions in, 199, 201;
+    adopts civil and criminal codes, 200, 207;
+    at war with Spain, 203, 204, 337;
+    debt of, 208;
+    boundary treaty of, with Argentina, 209, 210;
+    boundary disputes with Argentina, 209, 210, 230, 231;
+    chief exports of, 211;
+    paper money issued in, 212;
+    under jurisdiction of Buenos Aires, 251
+
+  Chilean (city), 145, 151, 164
+
+  Chiloe Islands, the, explored, 143, 149, 188, 192, 197
+
+  Chimilas Mountains, 410
+
+  Chincha Islands, the, seized by Spain, 112, 203
+
+  Chinchon, Countess of, cure of, 70
+
+  Chinese coolies in Peru, 111
+
+  Chiquitos  Indians, the, 245, 250
+
+  Chocolate, Europe indebted to Peru for, 66;
+    Ecuador supplies large amount of, 332
+
+  Chorrillos (city), 125
+
+  Coal mines, 208
+
+  Cochabamba (city), 243, 249, 258
+
+  Cochrane, Lord Thomas, Admiral, 79-83, 186-188, 190
+
+  _Cochrane_, the, 119-121
+
+  Cocoa palm introduced into South America, 66
+
+  Coffee-raising, 341, 390, 395
+
+  Colombia (New Granada), plateau of, 13, 312, 406, 410, 414, 419;
+    Spanish exploration of, 22, 347, 348, 403-406, 410-414;
+    native tribes of, 23, 406, 409, 410, 412-414, 416;
+    first permanent settlement in, 406, 416;
+    Spanish conquest of, 407-418;
+    revolutionary spirit in, 366, 430 _et seq._;
+    war of independence in, 86, 316, 317, 430-444;
+    formation of United States of, 98, 99, 318, 322, 378, 382, 461;
+    provinces in confederation of, 98, 99, 267, 318, 320-322, 337, 378,
+          443;
+    Bolivar, President of confederation of, 99, 322, 378, 442, 443, 448,
+          450, 451;
+    southern part under jurisdiction of Quito, 312;
+    Constitution of Cucuta, 322, 386;
+    confederation of, breaks up, 324, 388, 451, 452;
+    at war with Peru, 324;
+    civil wars in, 333, 337, 417, 450-458, 460, 470, 476, 481-485;
+    boundaries of, 403;
+    gold in, 404, 406-409, 412, 414, 416, 424;
+    cities founded in, 404-406, 408, 409, 413-416, 424;
+    climate of, 405, 406, 410, 422, 424, 425;
+    rainfall in, 405;
+    tropical forests of, 406;
+    fertility of, 406, 410, 412, 414, 420, 421;
+    Indian slavery in, 406, 416;
+    negro slaves in, 422, 425;
+    early civilisation of, 404, 409-412;
+    population of, 409, 410, 413, 422, 424;
+    territorial divisions of, 416;
+    royal commissioners sent to, 417, 427;
+    erected into a presidency, 418, 419;
+    jurisdiction of presidency, 419, 420;
+    colonial period of, 419-429;
+    names of, 419, 458, 459, 461;
+    education in, 420, 422, 454, 456, 461;
+    roads built in, 420, 428;
+    river transportation in, 420;
+    creoles of, 421, 422, 427, 428, 430, 431, 476;
+    agricultural products of, 421, 424, 428;
+    Antioquia, great mineral province of, 422;
+    commercial conditions in, 422, 425, 427, 428, 485;
+    taxation in, 422, 424, 427, 428, 481;
+    authors of, celebrated, 422;
+    mineral products of, 424;
+    Spanish colonial system in, 424, 427, 428, 431;
+    decrease in population of, 425;
+    smuggling in, 425;
+    religious conditions in, 425, 437, 455-458, 461, 462, 469, 470;
+    governors of, 425, 428, 437;
+    diseases rife in, 426;
+    "Rebellion of the Communes" in, 427;
+    viceroys of, 428, 430, 431;
+    exports of, 428, 464;
+    claim of, to Central America, 429;
+    Congress of, 432, 433, 437, 439;
+    battles in, 433, 437, 439, 441, 443, 461, 462, 467, 482;
+    independence of, recognised, 442, 446;
+    financial conditions in, 446, 447, 455, 463-466, 468, 472, 485;
+    public debt of, 446, 447, 468, 469, 478, 479;
+    credit of, 447;
+    liberty of the Press in, 450, 457;
+    numerous constitutions of, 452, 455, 457, 460-462, 468, 469, 475,
+          478, 480;
+    political conditions in, 454-462, 465, 469, 476, 480, 481;
+    right of suffrage in, 454, 459-461, 469;
+    steam navigation introduced into, 455;
+    death penalty abolished, 456, 461;
+    campaign of, against Ecuador, 462;
+    power of judiciary in, 462, 469;
+    receipts from Panama railway, 464;
+    franchise of railway extended, 465;
+    becomes a consolidated republic, 468, 469, 479;
+    name changed to Republic of, 468, 480;
+    length of presidential term in, 469, 481;
+    paper currency in, 470, 478, 485;
+    negotiates treaties with United States, 470;
+    rejects treaties, 471, 485, 486;
+    Panama declares her independence of, 471;
+    threatens war against United States, 472;
+    future of, 472;
+    appeals to United States, 480;
+    demands of, in regard to Panama Canal, 485, 486
+
+  Colombian army, the, 98, 267, 323, 326, 337
+
+  Colon (city), 405;
+    burned, 480;
+    captured, 485;
+     adheres  to Panama, 488
+
+  Colonia (city), 152
+
+  Columbus, Bartholomew, 404
+
+  Columbus, Christopher, 347, 348
+
+  Concepcion, founded, 139, 140, 142, 151;
+    burned, 145;
+    destroyed by tidal wave, 154;
+    patriots capture, 164;
+    southern capital of Chile, 191
+
+  Concordat signed by Ecuador, 337
+
+  "Conquistadores," the, 50, 56, 424
+
+  Copiapo, valley of, 137;
+    mines of, 199
+
+  Copper, 8, 117, 211, 238, 239
+
+  Copper-pan amalgamation process, 241
+
+  Coquimbo, founded, 138;
+    northern capital of Chile, 151, 190
+
+  Cordero, Luis, President of Ecuador, 340, 341
+
+  Cordilleras, the, 4, 11, 33, 259, 286, 290, 376, 408
+
+  Cordoba, General, 387, 451
+
+  Cordoba, Gonzalo de, 21
+
+  Coro (city), 348-350, 360, 361, 406, 413, 420
+
+  Corregidors, 60, 64, 69, 243, 248, 249;
+    abolished, 72, 254
+
+  "Corregimentos," 64
+
+  Cortes, Hernando, conqueror of Mexico, 22, 26, 44, 407
+
+  Cortes, the Spanish, 166,436
+
+  Cotopaxi, eruption of, 298
+
+  Cotton, 3, 8, 111, 113, 238, 412
+
+  Council of the Indies, 304
+
+  _Covadonga_, the, 119
+
+  Coya (city), 145
+
+  Creoles, 65, 66, 243, 279, 308, 310, 421;
+    growth of revolutionary ideas among, 72, 74, 77, 84, 159, 160, 257,
+          311, 312, 338, 359-362, 388, 430;
+    characteristics of, 272, 273, 357, 396, 422;
+    education among, 307, 309, 310, 336, 353, 384;
+    new race of, 354
+
+  Crespo, President of Venezuela, 396
+
+  Croix, General Theodore de, 72
+
+  Cuaspud, battle of, 337, 462
+
+  Cuba, captain-general of, 429
+
+  Cubagua, island of, 348
+
+  Cucuta (city), 382;
+    Colombian Congress meets at, 443, 448
+
+  Cucuta, constitution of, 322, 443
+
+  Cuenca (city), 100
+
+  Cuenca (province), 291, 298, 312, 314, 323, 324, 327;
+    plateau of, 288, 307, 308
+
+  Cumana, oldest city in South America, 348, 351, 383
+
+  Cumana (province), 356, 362;
+    transferred to jurisdiction of Venezuela, 426
+
+  Cundinamarca, State of, 465 467, 469
+
+  Cuyo (province), 78, 149;
+    separation of, from Chile, 155
+
+  Cuzco, plateau of, 3, 4, 9
+
+  Cuzco (city), Inca capital, 5, 12, 18, 19, 32, 33, 59, 63, 103, 108,
+          291, 295;
+    military road from, 9, 18, 28;
+    possessed by Spanish, 32-36, 39, 238, 258
+
+
+  D
+
+  Darien, gold-mines of, 22;
+    Gulf of, 403, 404
+
+  Daza, General, 278
+
+  De Lesseps, Ferdinand, 482
+
+  Drake, Sir Francis, 428
+
+  Ducasse captures Cartagena, 428
+
+  Duchisela, long reign of, 288
+
+
+  E
+
+  Earthquake, of 1751, 154;
+    of 1812, 363
+
+  Echenique, General, President of Peru, 109, 110
+
+  Ecuador, Cara conquest of, 11-13, 286-288;
+    Inca conquest of, 12, 13, 17, 24, 288, 291-296;
+    character of inhabitants of, 24, 27, 286, 287, 289, 307, 342, 343,
+          357, 409;
+    gold and silver in, 27, 53, 307;
+    military roads in, 12, 28, 307, 336;
+    Spanish conquest of, 58, 67, 297 _et seq._;
+    Inca cities in, 59;
+    war of independence in, 76, 86, 309 _et seq._, 437;
+    incorporation of, with Colombia, 98, 267, 318, 320-322, 443;
+    the founder of, 101, 327;
+    description of, 285-287, 290, 291;
+    climate of, 285, 290;
+    fertility of, 286, 290, 341-343;
+    taxation in, 301, 307, 328, 336;
+    area of, 302, 303;
+    population of, 302, 303, 342, 343;
+    European grains and fruits introduced into, 303, 308;
+    cacao industry of, 303, 328, 332, 341;
+    Catholic Church in, 305, 306, 309, 337;
+    education in, 307, 309;
+    the capital of, 307;
+    decrease in population of, 307, 308, 328;
+    negro slavery in, 307;
+    presidency of Quito erected, 308, 321, 323, 324, 326, 327;
+    under jurisdiction of New Granada, 308;
+    audiencia established in, 308;
+    junta appointed in, 313, 314;
+    open cabildo summoned, 313;
+    battles in, 293, 298, 316, 318, 324;
+    independence of, declared, 324, 452;
+    named, 324;
+    treaty of, with Colombia, 327;
+    civil war in, 328, 329, 337-341, 451;
+    civil and constitutional government in, 329;
+    reforms in government of, 330, 331, 336;
+    financial conditions of, 31, 336;
+    second South American republic recognised by Spain, 331;
+    prosperity of, 332;
+    numerous constitutions of, 333-335, 339;
+    railways of, 342;
+    manual industries of, 342;
+    future of, 342, 343;
+    under jurisdiction of Bogota, 426;
+    Colombian campaign against, 462
+
+  Eldorado, 241, 349
+
+  Elephantiasis, 426
+
+  Elias, Campo, patriot leader, 368, 369
+
+  Emeralds, 27, 412, 417, 424
+
+  Encalada, Blanco, 80
+
+  Encomiendas, system of agricultural, 38, 46, 53, 65, 240, 242;
+    abolished, 50, 51, 243, 417
+
+  England, granted privilege of exporting negroes to South America, 70;
+    war between Spain and, 158;
+    fleet of, destroys Venezuelan navy, 398;
+    recognises independence of Colombia, 446
+
+  Errazuriz, President of Chile, 207, 228
+
+  _Esmeralda_, the, capture of, 82, 119;
+    sale of, to Japan, 340
+
+  Espana, creole leader, 359, 360
+
+  Estremadura (province), 21, 26
+
+
+  F
+
+  Falcon, General, 391-394
+
+  Federmann, explorer, 414
+
+  Ferdinand VII. of Spain,
+    deposition and imprisonment of, 159, 311, 312, 360, 365, 370, 380;
+    restoration of, 435
+
+  Fernandez, conspiracy of, 276
+
+  Flores, Antonio, President of Ecuador, 340
+
+  Flores, General, the founder of Ecuador, 101, 323, 324, 326-329, 333,
+  451
+
+  France, war between Spain and, 152, 256, 311, 312;
+   recognises republic of Panama, 488
+
+  Franciscans, the, 68
+
+  Freire, General, 104, 191-194, 197
+
+  French scientists in Quito, 309
+
+  Fruits introduced into  South America, 66, 151, 303, 308
+
+
+  G
+
+  Gallo heads insurrection, 202
+
+  Gamarra, General, Dictator of Peru, 101-105, 270
+
+  Garrapata, battle of, 467
+
+  Gasca, Pedro de la, 54, 56, 57, 301
+
+  Gatajo, battle of, 341
+
+  Gauchos, 171, 261, 438
+
+  Gavilan, battle of, 172
+
+  Goajira, peninsula of, 348, 403, 404
+
+  Goats, 66
+
+  Gold, Spain's desire for, 26, 35, 53, 65, 66, 69, 241, 352;
+    in Bolivia, 240, 246, 247;
+    in Chile, 136, 138, 144;
+    in Colombia, 404, 406-409, 412, 414, 416, 424;
+    in Ecuador, 27, 53, 299, 307;
+    in Peru, 25, 27, 32, 36;
+    in Venezuela, 352
+
+  Goyeneche, General, 257, 361
+
+  Grains introduced into South America, 66, 151
+
+  Grapes, 66;
+    cultivation of, forbidden, 159
+
+  Grau, Miguel, Admiral, 119-121
+
+  Great Britain, action of foreign office in regard to Bolivia, 275;
+    threatened rupture between United States and, 398;
+    abandons Isthmian colony, 429.
+    _See also_ England.
+
+  Groeningen, victory of, 62
+
+  Guaicaipuro, Indian chief, 350
+
+  Gual, creole leader, 359, 360
+
+  Gual, Pedro, 391
+
+  Guamanga, founded, 44, 49, 50, 60, 106, 126;
+    battle at, 49, 50
+
+  Guano deposits, 109, 113, 114, 116, 127, 128, 206, 210
+
+  Guarany, Indians, the, 249;
+    language, 306
+
+  Guatamala, 39, 298
+
+  Guayaquil (city), founded, 299;
+    best port on Pacific coast of South America, 86, 101, 105, 299, 323,
+          324, 326, 335;
+    population and wealth of, 328, 332, 341
+
+  Guayaquil (province), 312, 314, 317, 327, 444;
+    cultivation of cacao and sugar-cane in, 308
+
+  Guayaquil, Gulf of, 12, 20, 25, 27, 285, 341
+
+  Guiana (province), under jurisdiction of Bogota, 356;
+    transferred to jurisdiction of Venezuela, 361, 426
+
+  Guiana, British, 398
+
+  Guipuzcoa Company, the, 354-356, 358
+
+  Gutierrez brothers, the, 114, 116
+
+  Gutierrez, President of Colombia, 465
+
+
+  H
+
+  Hague  international  tribunal, the, 399
+
+  Hayti, Bolivar flees to, 372;
+    gold placers of, 404, 406
+
+  Heath, explorer, 278
+
+  Heredia founds Cartagena, 406, 408
+
+  Herran, General, President of New Granada, 454, 455, 458
+
+  Herrera, General, 103, 485
+
+  Hides, exportation of, 354, 428
+
+  Honda (city), 420
+
+  Honduras, 403
+
+  Horses, 20, 27, 39, 66, 243, 261
+
+  Huacho, San Martin lands at, 81
+
+  Huaina Capac, Inca emperor, campaign of, 12;
+    conquest of Quito by, 12-14, 18, 292-294, 308;
+    death of, 14, 295
+
+  Hualcopo, Cara shiri, 290-292, 295
+
+  Huanacabamba (province), 288
+
+  Huanca, Auqui, 17
+
+  Huanchaca, mines of, 278
+
+  Huaqui, battle of, 170, 256, 257
+
+  Huascar, Inca empire divided between Atahuallpa and, 14;
+    fratricidal war between Atahuallpa and, 16-19, 238, 295, 296;
+    execution of, 31
+
+  _Huascar_, the, 119-121, 212
+
+  Humachiri, battle of, 259
+
+  "Husares de la Muerte," cavalry corps, 182
+
+
+  I
+
+  Ibague (city), 416
+
+  Ibarra, 287, 293
+
+  Iglesias, President of Chile, 126, 127
+
+  Immigrants, into Peru, 111, 149;
+    into Chile, 156, 203;
+    into Ecuador, 307
+
+  Imperial (city), founded, 140;
+    besieged, 142, 145, 146
+
+  Inca Indians, the, home of, 3, 4;
+    civilisation of, 3, 24, 25, 236, 290, 412;
+    migration of, 4
+
+  Incas, language of, 4, 10, 13;
+    religion of, 5, 13;
+    social and industrial organisation of, 5, 6, 10, 59, 249, 289, 295;
+    capital of, 5, 12, 18, 19, 32-35, etc.;
+    emperors of, 5, 6, 8-10, 12, 14, 16, 28-32, 34-38, 40, 61, 62;
+    death of last emperor of, 63;
+    conquests of, 6, 8-19, 236, 288 _et seq._;
+    irrigation system of, 6, 10, 25, 59;
+    empire of, 8, 9, 11, 13, 22, 292-294;
+    military roads built by, 9, 10, 12, 28, 29, 38, 59, 239, 244, 251,
+          307;
+    armies of, 11, 18, 19, etc., 237;
+    Spanish conquest of, 20-40, 297;
+    population of, 25, 65, 244, 303;
+    reduced to slavery, 38, etc., 242-244, 348;
+    cities built by, 20, 38, 44, 59, 60, 240
+
+  _Independencia_, the, 119, 212
+
+  Indians of South America,
+    the, early civilisation of, 3, 4, 236, 286, 289, 410, 412;
+    various tribes of, 3, 5, 8-14, 23, 59, 135, 238, 245, 286-289, 292,
+          293, 350, 405, 410, 413;
+    language of, 4, 9, 10, 11, 136, 238, 306;
+    characteristics of, 24, 25, 77, 136, 249, 252, 253, 289, 303, 307,
+          421, 422;
+    conquered by Spanish, 24, 25, 27-40;
+    oppression and slavery of, 38, 58, 59, 63-65, 68, 69, 242-244, 253,
+          254, 348, 406, 416, 422, 425-428;
+    rebellions of, 38-40, 72, 77, 251, 253, 254, 258, 259;
+    Spanish legislation in behalf of, 57, 243, 254, 417;
+    impressment of, 64, 69, 242, 253, 416, 425;
+    missions established among, 151, 244, 250, 306, 352
+
+  Indigo, 303
+
+  Inquisition established, in Peru, 69;
+    in Colombia, 437
+
+  Ipecacuanha, Europe indebted to Peru for, 66
+
+  Iquique, Peruvian port, 119, 122
+
+  Iquitos (city), 114
+
+  Irish mercenaries in Bolivar's army, 376, 380
+
+  Irrigation in South America, 6, 10, 25, 59, 135
+
+
+  J
+
+  Jauja (city), 54, 60, 84, 89, 92-94
+
+  Jauja, valley of the, 9, 18, 33, 35, 36, 39, 44, 49
+
+  Jemappes, battle of, 359
+
+  Jesuits, in Bolivia, 245, 279;
+    in Colombia, 455, 461;
+    in Ecuador, 309, 334, 337;
+    in Peru, 68, 71, 309
+
+  Jiron, Governor of New Granada, 425
+
+  Jubones, plateau of, 288, 291
+
+  Juncal, battle of, 372
+
+  Junin, battle of, 93, 321
+
+  Jurisprudence, Spanish system of, in South America, 66, 200, 304
+
+
+  K
+
+  Koerner, Colonel, 223, 225
+
+
+  L
+
+  La Donjuana, battle of, 467
+
+  La Fuente, Dictator of Peru, 102, 106
+
+  La Guaira, 350, 356, 359, 369
+
+  La Mar, General, President of Peru, 100, 101, 324
+
+  La Palma, battle of, 110
+
+  La Paz, founded, 60, 241, 249;
+    spirit of independence in, 76, 77, 257, 260, 361
+
+  La Puerta, decisive battles of, 369, 375
+
+  Lara, General, deported, 99
+
+  Las Casas, famous book of, 50, 59
+
+  La Serna, General, Viceroy of Peru, 84, 91;
+    army of, 93-95, 261, 264
+
+  Las Heras, patriot commander, 171, 172, 177, 181
+
+  Lastra, General, 194
+
+  Las Trincheiras, 368
+
+  Latacunga, valley of, 287, 292, 293
+
+  La Torre, General, 374, 380, 381
+
+  Lautaro, Araucanian chief, 141, 142
+
+  Leiva founded, 420
+
+  Leon, creole leader, 355
+
+  Leprosy, 426
+
+  Lima (city), founded by Pizarro, 36, 46, 60;
+    Incas attempt to take, 39, 42;
+    Pizarro in, 46, 52;
+    political, social, and commercial centre of South America, 67, 71;
+    viceroyalty of Peru established at, 50, 60, 67, 70, 71, 142, 148,
+          304, 426;
+    jurisdiction of, 67, 250, 251, 304, 308;
+    earthquakes in, 71;
+    revolutionary spirit in, 73, 75, 76, 81-84, 317;
+    evacuated by the Spaniards, 84, 89;
+    Bolivar at, 99, 321, 323;
+    insurrections in, 114, 116, 131;
+    Chilian army captures, 125, 126, 213;
+    public library of, destroyed, 126
+
+  Linares, Doctor, 275, 276
+
+  Linnaeus names chinchona, 70
+
+  Lircay, victory at, 194
+
+  Llamas, 3, 4, 150, 238
+
+  Llaneros, the, origin of, 354, 424;
+    cavalry troops of, organised, 368;
+    valour of, 369, 371-374, 376-378, 381, 382, 385, 389, 431, 434, 438,
+          439, 450
+
+  Llanos, 354, 368, 372, 375, 377, 406, 413, 437, 440
+
+  Loja (city), built by Spaniards, 60
+
+  Loja (province), 101, 288, 291, 298, 307, 338
+
+  Loncomilla, battle of, 200
+
+  Lopez, General, President of Colombia, 452, 455, 457
+
+  Lopez, tyrant of Paraguay, 248, 465
+
+  Los Andes, 396
+
+  Louis XIV. and war of Spanish Succession, 152
+
+  Loyola, founder of Jesuit order, 245
+
+  Lugo, adelantado, 414, 417
+
+  Luque, partner of Pizarro, 23
+
+
+  M
+
+  MacGregor captures Barcelona, 372
+
+  Madeira Falls, the, 280
+
+  Madeira River, the, 244, 246, 278-281
+
+  Madrid, Pizarro goes to, 25;
+    legislation at, in behalf of Indians, 50, 417;
+    commissions from, 58;
+    revenue sent to, 69;
+    government, 70, 147, 309, 418;
+    French king on throne of, 152
+
+  Madrid, Dictator of Colombia, 437
+
+  Magdalena River, the, 366, 380, 406, 408-410, 412-414 _et passim_;
+    named, 403;
+    Valley, 312, 381
+
+  Magdalena, State of, 463, 466, 468, 480
+
+  Magellan, Straits of, 69, 140, 209
+
+  Maipo, battle of, 79, 179-182
+
+  Maize, 3, 4, 8, 39, 238, 248, 290, 303, 352;
+    Europe indebted to Peru for, 66
+
+  Mallarino, President of New Granada, 458
+
+  Manabi, 292, 293
+
+  Manaos, 280
+
+  Manco Capac, first Inca sovereign, 5, 6
+
+  Manco Capac, brother of Huascar, 34, 38-41
+
+  Manso, Governor, 154
+
+  Maracaibo Bay, 406, 409, 441
+
+  Maracaibo (city), sack of, 354;
+    refused to bend delegates to Caracas, 361
+
+  Maracaibo, Gulf of, 347, 348, 351, 403, 406
+
+  Maracaibo, Lake, 351, 383
+
+  Maracaibo (province), under jurisdiction of Bogota, 356, 426;
+    transferred to jurisdiction of Venezuela, 356, 426;
+    revolt in, 380;
+    separated from Caracas, 392
+
+  Marco, General, 170
+
+  Margarita, Island of, 348, 367, 426
+
+  Margarita (province), 362
+
+  Marino, Dictator of Venezuela, 367, 369, 370, 378, 389
+
+  Marquez, President  of  New Granada, 454
+
+  Marroquin, President  of Colombia, 469, 470, 484
+
+  Martin, Alonso, 405
+
+  Maturin captured, 367
+
+  Maule River, the, 11, 135, 136, 138, 142, 145, 164, 166
+
+  Medina Celi joins patriots, 264, 265
+
+  Melgarejo, Dictator of Bolivia, 276, 277
+
+  Mello, Geronimo, explores Magdalena River, 414
+
+  Melo, General, 458
+
+  Mendoza, Andre Hurtado de,
+    Marquis of Canete, "the good viceroy," 57, 58, 60, 142;
+    death of, 61
+
+  Mendoza, Garcia de, campaign of, 142, 143;
+    founds Canete, 143
+
+  Mendoza (province), 140, 149
+
+  Menendez, President of Peru, 107
+
+  Mercury, 69
+
+  Merida (city), founded, 350;
+    destroyed by earthquake, 363
+
+  Merida (province), 362, 363, 366
+
+  Meta River, the, 377
+
+  Meuqueta, zipa of, 412
+
+  Mexico, 22, 39, 290
+
+  Miranda, Francisco, patriot leader, 359, 360, 362, 363
+
+  Mississippi River, the, 27
+
+  "Mitta," 64, 65
+
+  Mocha, 293, 316
+
+  Mochica language, the, 11
+
+  Mojos Indians, the, 245, 250, 279
+
+  Molina, Governor of Ecuador, 315
+
+  Mollendo railroad, the, 54, 277
+
+  Monagas, President of Venezuela, 388, 390
+
+  Monteagudo, Dr., 182
+
+  Montes, General, 316
+
+  Monteverde, General, 363, 364, 367, 368, 370
+
+  Montilla, General, 381
+
+  Montt, Jorge, President of Chile, 220, 227
+
+  Montt, Manuel,  President of Chile,  199-201;
+    proclaims martial law, 201
+
+  Montt, Pedro, 228
+
+  Montufar, Carlos, 314
+
+  Montufar, Juan, 313
+
+  Moquegua, 124
+
+  Morales, General, 277, 370, 372, 383
+
+  Moreno, Garcia, President of Ecuador,
+    long administration of, 335-339, 462;
+    character of, 336
+
+  Morgan, sacked Maracaibo, 354
+
+  Morillo, Marshal, in Venezuela, 370-372, 436-439;
+    report of, 375;
+    resigns, 380
+
+  Mosquera, Tomas, President of Columbia, 452, 454, 455, 458, 460-464
+
+  Mosquito Coast, the, 419
+
+  Munecas, priest, 259
+
+  Murillo, President of Colombia, 459, 462, 466
+
+
+  N
+
+  Napo River, the, 300
+
+  Napoleon. _See_ Bonaparte
+
+  Narino, Dictator of Colombia, 431, 432, 434
+
+  Narvarte, Doctor, 390
+
+  Naxichi, battle at, 16
+
+  Negroes, 70, 273, 351, 352, 357, 394, 416, 422, 425
+
+  Neiva (city), 416
+
+  Neiva, President of New Granada, 420
+
+  New Granada, captain-general of, subject to viceroy of Peru, 67;
+    viceroyalty of, created, 71, 308, 312, 426;
+    jurisdiction of, 420;
+    revolutionary junta installed in, 76;
+    war of independence in, 86, 98, 101, 261, 312, 317, 318, 320, 322,
+          326, 370, 435, 442;
+    provinces in Colombian confederation, 376, 443;
+    opposition to Bolivar's government in, 385, 387;
+    recognises independence of Venezuela and Ecuador, 388, 452;
+    name of, extended to presidency of Bogota, 419;
+    influence of first president of, 452, 454;
+    army of, 452, 458;
+    constitution of 1832, 452, 455, 457;
+    name of, changed, 458, 459, 461.
+    _See also_ Colombia.
+
+  "New Laws," the, 51, 54, 57, 59
+
+  Nicaragua, 27, 403;
+    Canal, 485
+
+  Nicuesa, Diego de, 404, 405
+
+  Nieto, Dictator of Peru, 102
+
+  Nitrates, 113, 114, 117, 277;
+    extent of region, 117, 206;
+    taxed, 118, 211
+
+  Noboa, Diego, 334
+
+  Nombre de Dios founded, 405
+
+  "Nudos," 4, 8, 287, 291, 292
+
+  Nunez, Rafael, President of Colombia, 468;
+    political ideas of, 478-480;
+    death of, 481
+
+
+  O
+
+  Oats, 66
+
+  Obando, General, President of New Granada, 452, 454, 457, 458
+
+  Ocana (city), captured, 366, 433;
+    national assembly held at, 385, 448;
+    founded, 420;
+    battle near, 437
+
+  Ocumare, 359, 372
+
+  O'Higgins, Ambrose, career of, 156, 158
+
+  O'Higgins, Bernardo, gallantry of, 164;
+    saves Santiago, 166;
+    defeated, 167;
+    dictator, 171, 173, 181, 182, 190;
+    resignation of, 191
+
+  Ojeda, Alonso de, explorations of, 22, 403;
+    names Venezuela, 347, 348
+
+  Olaneta, renegade Argentine, 91;
+    death of, 97, 263-265
+
+  Olives, 66, 159, 352
+
+  Opon River, the, 410
+
+  Oranges, 66
+
+  Oratorio, battle of, 460
+
+  Orbegoso, Dictator of Peru, 102-105
+
+  Ordonez, General, 171
+
+  O'Reilly, General, 81
+
+  Orellana, discoverer of the Amazon, 44, 300;
+    refounds Guayaquil, 299
+
+  Orinoco, River, the, 78, 348, 355, 356, 374, 377, 442;
+    plains, 354, 367, 424, 441;
+    valley, 442
+
+  Orton River, the, 279
+
+  Oruro, silver mines of, 242, 249, 266, 277
+
+  Osorio, General, re-establishes Spanish authority in Chile, 167, 168;
+    defeated by San Martin, 174, 176-181
+
+  Osorno, founded, 143; besieged, 145, 146
+
+  Ospina, President of New Granada, 459-461
+
+  Otavalo, capture of, 293, 294
+
+
+  P
+
+  Pacamdre Indians, the, 293
+
+  Pachacutec, _See_ Yupanqui.
+
+  Pacheco, President of Bolivia, 278
+
+  Pacific Ocean, the, discovery of, 22, 404, 405
+
+  Padilla, patriot leader, 258, 260
+
+  Paez, Jose Antonio,
+    patriot leader, 79, 371, 372, 375, 377, 380, 381, 385, 387;
+    Dictator and President of Venezuela, 389-391, 447, 450
+
+  Paillamachu, Araucanian chief, 144-146
+
+  Paita (city), 28
+
+  Paita (province), 285, 288, 289
+
+  Pampas, 78, 99, 149
+
+  Pampas River, the, 94
+
+  Pamplona, revolutionary junta in, 431
+
+  Pamplona (province), 349, 366, 411, 416, 419, 437
+
+  Panama (city), founded, 22, 23-25, 298, 341, 412;
+    Pizarro sends to, for aid, 39;
+    pan-American Congress at, 323
+
+  Panama Canal, the, 470-472, 482, 485-489
+
+  Panama, Gulf of, 27
+
+  Panama hats, manufacture of, 342
+
+  Panama, Isthmus of (province), 22, 23, 27, 69, 352, 404, 405, 417,
+  419, 420, 429, 432, 470
+
+  Panama (province), audiencia of, 420, 426;
+    joins Colombian confederation, 443;
+    rebels against Colombia, 454
+
+  Panama railway, the, 455, 480, 484, 488;
+    receipts from, 464, 470
+
+  Panama, State of, 461, 463,466, 469, 470;
+    Colombian misrule in, 471, 478, 480, 481, 487;
+    declares independence, 471, 488;
+    republic of, recognised, 471, 488;
+    neutrality and free transit guaranteed to, by treaty of 1846, 480,
+          487, 488;
+    insurrections in, 484;
+    provisional government in, 488;
+    canal treaty with United States, 488, 489
+
+  Pando, Jose Manuel, President of Bolivia, 280
+
+  Paraguay, 67, 71, 248, 357
+
+  Paraguay River, the, 280
+
+  Parana River, the, 249
+
+  Pardo, Don Manuel, first civilian President of Peru, 114, 116;
+    aristocratic party founded by, 131
+
+  Parra, President of Colombia, 466
+
+  Pasco, 92
+
+  Pasto (city) founded, 409, 413
+
+  Pasto (province), 49, 312, 314, 316, 324;
+    part of presidency of Quito, 326, 327, 420;
+    high tableland of, 409, 414, 424, 454;
+    loyal to Spain, 432-434, 442, 444;
+    rebellion in, 451
+
+  Paul, Rojas, 396
+
+  Paya Pass, the, 377
+
+  Peaches, 66
+
+  Pearl fisheries, 348
+
+  "Pelucones," 192
+
+  Peons, impressment of, 394-396
+
+  Perez, President of Chile, 202, 206
+
+  Perez, Santiago, President of Colombia, 466
+
+  Peru, early inhabitants of, 3, 4, 357;
+    antiquity of civilisation in, 3;
+    fertility of, 4, 8, 41, 44, 80;
+    climate of, 4, 285;
+    Inca empire established in, 5-20, 296;
+    system of irrigation in, 5, 6, 10;
+    copper mines of, 8, 117;
+    military roads in, 9, 10, 12, 28, 33, 36, 38, 59;
+    battles in, 11, 13, 16, 17, 19, 39, 43, 50, 56, 78, 88, 92, 93, 96,
+          97, 101, 105, 107, 110, 124, 125, 213, 272, 324;
+    Inca cities of, 20, 59, 60;
+    Spanish conquest of, 20-40, 58, 67, 297;
+    mineral wealth of, 24, 25, 27, 32, 36, 53, 65, 66, 69, 109, 113,
+          114, 116, 127, 128;
+    extent of, 28, 41, 44, 58, 67, 71;
+    Spanish cities in, 36, 44, 59, 60;
+    Indian rebellions in, 38, 72, 77;
+    governors of, 44, 49, 50, 52;
+    viceroyalty of, _see_ Lima;
+    viceroys of, 50-52, 58, 60-63, 70, 72, 74, 78-80, 82, 84, 261, 301,
+          304, 308;
+    slavery prohibited in, 50, 57, 111;
+    industrial development of, 53, 108, 111, 113, 114, 127-129, 132;
+    revenue to Spain from, 53, 60, 64-66, 69, 77;
+    civil wars in, 57, 99-103, 106-108, 110, 113, 127;
+    Spanish colonial system established in, 61-66;
+    taxation in, 64, 66, 69, 109;
+    population of, 65;
+    university in, 67;
+    Spanish language in, 68;
+    religious conditions in, 68, 69, 132;
+    discovery of virtues of quinine, 70;
+    earthquakes in, 71;
+    Jesuits expelled from, 71;
+    creoles of, 72, 74, 76, 77, 84, 110, 123, 130;
+    revolutionary spirit in, 72-76, 81, 82;
+    navy of, 78, 101, 104, 109, 118, 197, 325;
+    war of independence in, 80-97, 185, 186, 261, 316;
+    Spaniards evacuate capital of, 84;
+    proclaimed a republic, 85;
+    financial conditions in, 89, 110, 114, 115, 130, 132;
+    congress of, 98, 99;
+    Bolivar, Dictator of, 98, 322, 447;
+    Bolivarian constitution imposed on, 99, 322;
+    revolts from Bolivar's government, 99-101, 270, 323, 324, 448;
+    state of anarchy in, 101-103;
+    further constitutions of, 102, 111;
+    at war with Chile, 104, 119-125, 190, 197, 198;
+    capital of, captured by Chileans, 125, 126, 212, 213;
+    at war with Bolivia, 104, 273;
+    treaty of peace with Bolivia, 105;
+    commerce in, 108;
+    railways in, 109, 113, 122, 128;
+    debt of, 109, 114, 128;
+    insurrections in, 110, 113, 114, 116, 123, 130-132;
+    immigration into, encouraged, 111;
+    treaty of alliance with Chile, against Spain, 112;
+    naval battles of, 112, 119-121, 212;
+    at war with Spain, 112, 203, 204, 337;
+    revenue from nitrates, 113, 114;
+    first civilian president of, 114;
+    guano deposits of, 116, 127, 128;
+    currency of, 116;
+    treaty of alliance with Bolivia, 118, 119;
+    nitrate region owned by, 117, 119, 121, 122, 212;
+    loses nitrate province, 123, 125;
+    losses of, in Chilean war, 125, 127;
+    mediation of United States between Chile and, 125;
+    treaty of peace with Chile, 127;
+    reorganisation of, 128;
+    British creditors of, 128;
+    rubber industry in, 129;
+    political conditions in, 130-132;
+    hopeful signs of the times for, 131;
+    cause of revolutions in, 132;
+    Upper, formed into republic of Bolivia, 240, 266-268;
+    re-establishes independent existence, 272;
+    at war with Colombia, 324, 451;
+    surrenders southern provinces, 324
+
+  Peru-Bolivian Confederation, the, 101-103, 105, 197, 197, 270-273, 281
+
+  Peruvian bonds, 114, 116
+
+  Peruvian Corporation, the, 128, 129
+
+  Pezet, President of Peru, 111, 112
+
+  Pezuela, General, 82, 260
+
+  Philip II. of Spain, 53, 54, 61
+
+  Piar, negro chief, 372, 374
+
+  Pichincha, battle of, 86, 444
+
+  Pierola, General, 116, 123, 126, 130;
+    President of Peru, 131
+
+  Pigeons, 66
+
+  Pigs, 66
+
+  Pinto, Anibal, President of Chile, 209, 213
+
+  Pinto, General, President of Chile, 193
+
+  "Pipiolas," 192
+
+  Pisagua captured, 122
+
+  Pisco, 80, 81
+
+  Piura (city) founded, 60, 297
+
+  Piura (province), 288
+
+  Piura, valley of, 291
+
+  Pizarro, Francisco, the conqueror of Peru, early life of, 21, 22;
+    with Ojeda and Balboa, 22, 404, 405;
+    partners of, 23;
+    failure of first exploring expedition, 23;
+    second expedition of, 23-25;
+    authorised by Charles V. to conquer Peru, 25, 26;
+    third expedition of, 26, 27;
+    reinforced by de Soto, 27;
+    lands in northern Peru, 27, 28, 297;
+    meets Inca emperor, 29;
+    treachery of, 28-34, 238;
+    establishes Spanish government, 35, 44;
+    founds cities, 36, 44;
+    territory awarded to, 36, 41;
+    crushes Indian rebellion, 38-40;
+    Almagro quarrels with, 41-43;
+    treachery of, towards Almagro, 42, 43, 48, 136, 239;
+    extends Spanish conquest throughout Inca empire, 44, 136, 240, 407,
+          408;
+    conspiracy against, 46;
+    murder of, 47-50, 300;
+    character of, 48
+
+  Pizarro, Gonzalo, valour of, 26, 56;
+    at siege of Cuzco, 38;
+    capture of, 42;
+    Governor of Quito, 44, 299-301;
+    Governor of Peru, 50-53, 240, 301;
+    defeat and death of, 56, 240, 301
+
+  Pizarro, Hernando, joins expedition to conquer Peru, 26, 38;
+    capture and release of, 42, 43;
+    capture and death of Almagro by, 43, 136;
+    develops mining industry of Bolivia, 44;
+    establishes feudal lordships, 239, 240
+
+  Pizarro, Juan, 26, 38
+
+  Plantain introduced into Ecuador, 303, 308
+
+  Plate provinces, the, 71
+
+  Plate River, the, 67, 245, 251;
+    Valley, 155, 236
+
+  Platinum, 424
+
+  Plaza, Leonidas, President of Ecuador, 341
+
+  Poll-taxes, 64, 243, 427
+
+  Popayan (city) founded, 409
+
+  Popayan (province), 49, 53, 301, 312, 314, 408, 409, 417, 424, 432,
+          433, 444, 454;
+    part of presidency of Quito, 324-327, 420;
+    lost to Ecuador, 327
+
+  Portales, Chilean statesman, 194, 196, 197;
+    death of, 197, 198
+
+  Porto Bello captured, 429
+
+  Portuguese, the, 67, 261, 316
+
+  Potatoes, native to South America, 3, 4, 8, 238, 248, 287, 290, 303,
+          332, 343, 352;
+    introduced into Europe, 66
+
+  Potosi, silver mines of, 44, 53, 65, 99, 240, 241, 258;
+    yield of silver from, 278
+
+  Poultry introduced into South America, 66, 151
+
+  Prado, General, President of Peru, 112, 116, 123
+
+  Presidencies, 71, 418, 420, 426
+
+  Preston, Amyas, 351
+
+  Prieto, General, President of Chile, 194, 196-198
+
+  Printing-press, the, 245
+
+  Promancians, the, 138
+
+  Puerreyedon, Argentine dictator, 183
+
+  Puerto Cabello, 347, 359, 360, 366, 372;
+    British attacks on, 356;
+    captured by patriots, 382, 383, 385
+
+  Pumacagua, Indian leader, 77
+
+  Puna, bleak plateau of, 36, 236, 239, 268
+
+  Puna, island of, 27, 292
+
+  Puno, 97
+
+  Purus River, the, 280
+
+  Puzuela, General, Viceroy of Peru, 78
+
+
+  Q
+
+  Quartz mining in Bolivia, 246
+
+  Quesada, Jimenez de, conquest of, 410, 412-414;
+    founds Bogota, 413;
+    exiled, 417;
+    names New Granada, 419
+
+  Quiapo, Spanish victory at, 144
+
+  Quichua language,
+    official medium of Inca empire, 9, 10, 238, 295, 306;
+    reduced to a written language, 306
+
+  Quicksilver, discovery of, in Peru, 241
+
+  Quillin, treaty of, 150
+
+  Quillota, 224
+
+  Quindio mountain range, 409, 411
+
+  Quinine, Europe indebted to Peru for, 66;
+    discovery of virtue of, 70;
+    origin of name, 70
+
+  Quinoa grain, the, native to South America, 3, 4, 238, 290, 303
+
+  Quintana, Dictator of Chile, 173, 174
+
+  Quinua, village of, 95
+
+  Quito (city), the Cara capital, 12, 307, 341;
+    Incas possess, 13, 14, 59, 238;
+    Spanish occupation of, 44, 49, 53, 406, 413, 416;
+    revolutionary spirit in, 76, 313, 314, 334, 335, 339, 383, 430, 432;
+    city of convents, 306;
+    population of, 307, 308;
+    French scientific monuments in, 309
+
+  Quito (province), Cara kingdom of, 11, 286-288;
+    the shiri of, 12, 14, 290;
+    Inca conquest of, 12, 18, 293, 294;
+    Spanish conquest of, 28, 36, 38, 299;
+    erected into a presidency, 71, 308, 309, 323, 324, 326, 327, 418,
+          426;
+    under jurisdiction of New Granada (Bogota), 308, 420;
+    audiencia of, 308;
+    declared independent, 324;
+    provinces attached to presidency of, 420
+
+  Quizquiz, Indian general, 17;
+    defeats Huascar, 19, 20, 35, 238, 296;
+    defeated by Pizarro, 33, 34, 297
+
+
+  R
+
+  Rada, Juan de la, 46, 49
+
+  Railroads in Bolivia, 279, 280;
+    in Chile, 203;
+    in Peru, 54, 113, 277
+
+  Ramirez, Spanish general, 77, 78
+
+  Rancagua, battle of, 167-170
+
+  Reyes, General, President of Colombia, 471, 472
+
+  Reyes, Lake of, 92
+
+  Rice, 66, 303
+
+  Riesco, German,  President of Chile, 228
+
+  Rimac, valley of the, 36
+
+  Riobamba, 12, 288, 292, 293, 298
+
+  Rio Negro, battle at, 457
+
+  Riva Aguero, President of Peru, 76, 88, 89
+
+  Rivas, patriot commander, 370
+
+  Riveralta, 279, 280
+
+  Robledo, Jorge, 408
+
+  Robles, Colonel, 221
+
+  Robles, President of Ecuador, 334, 335
+
+  Roca, Ramon, President of Ecuador, 333
+
+  Rocafuerte, Vicente, President of Ecuador, 328-330;
+    wise administration of, 330-332
+
+  Romana, President of Peru, 131
+
+  Rosas, Doctor, Governor of Chile, 154;
+    title of, 154;
+    founds university, 154;
+    establishes radical junta, 162, 163
+
+  Rubber, forests, exploitation of, 129;
+    Bolivia furnishes large per cent. of, 280
+
+
+  S
+
+  Saenz, Manoela, 450
+
+  Sagamoso, valley of, 377
+
+  St. Vincent, battle of, 311
+
+  Salabarrieta, Policarpo ("La Pola"), fate of, 439
+
+  Salaverry, Dictator of Peru, 102, 103
+
+  Salgar, President of Colombia, 465
+
+  Salt, 353, 424
+
+  Salta, gauchos of, 259
+
+  Samano, General, 316, 433, 437, 439-441
+
+  Sanclemente, President of Colombia, 469, 482
+
+  San  Felipe,  university  of, founded, 154
+
+  San Felix, battle of, 374
+
+  San Fernando, fortress of, 374, 375
+
+  San Francisco hill, battle at, 122
+
+  San Francisco, mining camp at, 350
+
+  San Juan, valley of, 149
+
+  San Luiz, valley of, 149
+
+  San Martin, General, equips "Army of the Andes," wins battle of
+          Chacabuco, and liberates Chile, 78, 168-171, 184, 261, 317;
+    creates a fleet, 79, 172-174, 183, 184;
+    raises armies for conquest of Peru, 80-82, 84, 171-174, 176, 178,
+          185, 186, 262;
+    proclaims independence of Peru, 85;
+    President of Peru, 85;
+    resigns presidency, 88, 263, 321;
+    famous interview of, with Bolivar, 86, 321;
+    declines governorship of Chile, 171;
+    defeat of, 176-173;
+    wins battle of Maipo, 179-181;
+    one of the greatest of South American patriots, 318
+
+  San Miguel founded by Spanish, 36, 297
+
+  San Roman, General, President of, Peru, 111
+
+  Santa Cruz (city), 249, 258, 279
+
+  Santa Cruz, General, commands Peruvian army, 88;
+    defeat of, 89, 90, 262, 263;
+    Dictator of Bolivia, 101, 102;
+    President of Peru-Bolivian Confederation, 103, 104, 197, 270, 271;
+    overthrow of, 105, 198, 272
+
+  Santa Maria, President of Chile, 213
+
+  Santa Marta (city), 326, 406, 414, 436
+
+  Santa Marta Mountains, 403
+
+  Santander, 442-444, 446-448;
+    first legal President of Colombia (New Granada), 450, 452;
+    title of, 454
+
+  Santander (city), "Rebellion of the Communes" in, 427
+
+  Santander, State of, 460, 461, 467
+
+  Santiago (city), 11, 126, 135, 142, 145, 186, 223-225;
+    revolutionary junta installed in, 76, 160, 161;
+    founded, 137;
+    discovery of gold near, 138;
+    population of, 151;
+    universities established in, 154, 198;
+    social centre of Chile, 158
+
+  Sarsaparilla, 303
+
+  Sayri Tupac, Inca emperor, 61, 62
+
+  Sebastian founded, 404
+
+  Segoria, battle of, 460
+
+  Seville junta, the, 314, 360, 362
+
+  Sheep introduced into South America, 66, 242, 243, 248
+
+  Shiris, the, of Quito, 12, 14, 16, 287-296
+
+  Silver, in Bolivia, 44, 239-242, 245, 246;
+    in Chile, 199, 208;
+    in Colombia, 424;
+    in Ecuador, 307;
+    in Peru, 24, 25, 53, 65, 66, 69, 117
+
+  Sinu River, the, 408
+
+  Slavery, Indian, 38, 69, 71, 242-244, 348, 406;
+    negro, 273, 394, 416, 422, 425
+
+  Smallpox, ravages of, 142, 426
+
+  Smuggling, 70, 71, 152, 251, 353, 354, 394, 425
+
+  Socorro (city), revolutionary junta in, 431, 432
+
+  Socorro, plateau province of, 312, 376, 413, 416, 437
+
+  Solar, Vice-President of Peru, 130
+
+  Sorata (city), the rival of Potosi, 246;
+    destroyed, 247
+
+  de Soto, Hernando, 27
+
+  Soublette, General, 390
+
+  South America, animals native to, 3, 4, 238;
+    tribes of, 4, 5, 9, 13, 66, 238, 248, etc.;
+    productions of, 3, 5, 8, 66, 70, 238, 303;
+    Spanish law in, 61, 66, 200, 253, 304;
+    animals introduced into, 66, 242, 243;
+    benefits to, from Spanish occupation, 66, 151, 303;
+    commerce except with Spain forbidden to, 66, 69-71, 152, 251, 355,
+          356;
+    Lima the political, commercial, and social centre of, 67;
+    negroes imported into, 70, 416;
+    spread of revolutionary ideas in, 73, 74, etc.;
+    character of revolution in, 84;
+    plan for constitutional monarchy in, 84;
+    success of wars of independence in, 97, 188, 265, 318, 322, 383;
+    Argentine preponderance among republics of, 155;
+    description of Andean plateau of, 235, 285;
+    theatre of the war of independence in, 255;
+    revolution in, saved from extinction, 258;
+    plan for one great confederacy in, 269, 322;
+    countries of, 322;
+    harbours of, 341;
+    oldest city of, 348;
+    first independent republic in, 362;
+    oldest fortress in, 407, 428, 436;
+    manner of founding Spanish cities in, 424
+
+  South Sea, the, 405
+
+  Spain, conquest of South America by, _see_ Peru, Chile, etc.;
+    royal commissioners sent from, 46, 49, 54, 417, 427;
+    colonial system of, 62 _et seq._, 70, 243, 307, 351-356, 424, 427,
+          428;
+    colonial government of, 57, 59, 249, 301, 303, 353;
+    commercial monopoly of, 66, 69-71, 152, 250, 251, 352-356, 424;
+    war of succession in, 70, 152, 159, 250, 256, 311, 312, 354, 360,
+          370;
+    at war with France, 77, 159, 256, 311, 312;
+    revolution in, 82, 359, 370, 430, 443;
+    at war with Peru and Chile, 111, 112, 203, 204, 337;
+    reforms in system of colonial government of, 154, 253, 254, 301,
+          349, 417;
+    at war with England, 158
+
+  Spanish, adventurers 21, 22, 26, 27, 53, 58, 67, 242, 300, 301, 348,
+          404, 407, 413, 414;
+    armies in South America, 29, 39, 50, 52, 80, 81, 141, 142, 144, 146,
+          147, 150, 155, 168, 170, 174, 181, 239, 253, 258-261, 263,
+          264, 298, 301, 315-318, 350, 366, 367, 371, 375, 376, 380,
+          413, 436, 437, 440, 443;
+    constitution, the, 370;
+    constitutional law, 304
+
+  Spanish crown, revenue of, from Peru, 32, 53, 60, 64-66, 69, 77;
+    from South America, 417, 425
+
+  Spanish fleet, 79, 80, 142, 174;
+    seizes Chincha Islands, 112, 203;
+    at Callao, 112, 186;
+    at Valparaiso, 204;
+    defeated, 360, 383;
+    at Cartagena, 436
+
+  Sucre (Charcas), 44
+
+  Sucre, General, Bolivar's great lieutenant, destroys Spanish army, 86;
+    takes Colombian army to Peru, 89, 264, 321;
+    wins battle of Ayachucho, 93-97, 266, 321, 322;
+    numbers and quality of army of, 95, 318;
+    first President of Bolivia, 99, 268, 322;
+    administration of, 269;
+    overthrow of, 270, 323;
+    wins battle of Pichincho, 318, 444;
+    murder of, 326, 452
+
+  Sugar-cane, introduced into South America, 66, 303;
+    cultivation of, 111, 113, 308, 352, 355, 390, 428
+
+  Sugar Loaf, the battle of, 105
+
+  Suipacha, battle of, 256, 257
+
+  Sun-god, worship of the, 5, 13, 298
+
+
+  T
+
+  Tacna (city), revolutionary expedition to, 82;
+    result of campaign, 123, 213
+
+  Tacna (province), 122, 123;
+    yielded to Chile, 127
+
+  Talca (city), captured, 166;
+    independence of Chile proclaimed at, 176
+
+  Talcahuano (city), 163, 164, 171, 174
+
+  Tambo, battle of, 316, 437
+
+  Tarapaca, province of Peru, 106;
+    nitrate deposits of, 212
+
+  Tarija (city), 249
+
+  Tarqui, decisive battle of, 324, 325
+
+  Taxation, 64, 66, 69, 118, 152, 158, 211, 243, 269, 270, 276, 301,
+  307, 328, 336, 353, 424
+
+  Teques Indians, the, 350
+
+  Tiocajas nudo, 291;
+    battles of, 291, 293, 294, 298
+
+  Titicaca, Lake, 8, 39, 54, 71, 78, 256, 258;
+    placer gold around, 240, 246;
+    Jesuit mission at, 245;
+    basin, 4, 11, 236, 239;
+    plateau, 8, 41, 99, 240;
+    copper and silver mines of, 8, 240
+
+  Titu Yupanqui, 62, 63
+
+  Toa, Cara Princess, 288
+
+  Tobacco, Europe indebted to Peru for, 66;
+    in Chile, 159;
+    in Colombia, 424, 427;
+    in Venezuela, 352, 353, 355
+
+  Tocaima (city), 416
+
+  Tocuyo founded, 349, 350
+
+  Toledo, Don Francisco de, founder of Spanish colonial system, 62-67;
+    arrives at Lima, 62;
+    puts to death last Inca emperor, 63;
+    _Libro de Tasas_ of, 63
+
+  Tolima, plateau of, 411, 419
+
+  Tolima, State of, 467
+
+  Tolu founded, 408
+
+  "Toquis," 139, 144, 150
+
+  Torata (city), 124
+
+  Torico, General, 106
+
+  Toro, Captain-General, 160, 161
+
+  Torres, Camilo, Dictator, 437
+
+  Trafalgar, battle of, 311
+
+  Treaties, 117, 118, 150, 151, 206, 209, 210, 280, 281, 327, 470, 471,
+  480, 485-489
+
+  Trinidad, Island of, captured by British, 356, 359
+
+  Trujillo, birthplace of Pizarro, 21
+
+  Trujillo (city) founded by Pizarro, 36, 60, 350
+
+  Trujillo, province of Venezuela, 362, 363, 366
+
+  Trujillo, President of Colombia, 468
+
+  Tucuman (province), subject to viceroyalty of Lima, 67;
+    attached to viceroyalty of Buenos Aires, 78;
+    thinly populated, 78;
+    cattle-raising in, 243;
+    subject to audiencia of Charcas, 250;
+    battle of, 258
+
+  Tumbez (city), 25, 53, 301;
+    Spaniards land at, 20, 28
+
+  Tumibamba, Huascar captured at, 20
+
+  Tumusla, 265
+
+  Tundama, plateau of, 413
+
+  Tunja (city), founded, 414;
+    captured by Bolivar, 378
+
+  Tunja (province), 312, 376, 377, 413, 416
+
+  Tupac Amaru, last Inca emperor, 62;
+    death of, 63
+
+  Tupac Amaru, lineal descendant of Inca emperors, 72, 251;
+    heads Indian rebellion, 72, 251, 252;
+    cruel death of, 72, 253
+
+  Tupac Yupanqui, Inca emperor,
+    conquests of, 10, 11, 14, 18, 135, 289-292, 295;
+    death of, 12, 292
+
+
+  U
+
+  Uira Cocha, Inca emperor, 8, 9
+
+  Ulloa, ----, 308
+
+  "Ulmens," 139, 150
+
+  Umachiri, battle of, 78
+
+  _Union_, the, 120, 123
+
+  United States, the, threatened rupture between Great Britain and, 398;
+    recognises independence of Colombia, 446;
+    undertakes Panama Canal, 470, 471, 482, 485;
+    negotiations of, with Colombia, 470, 471, 488;
+    appealed to by Colombia, 471, 480;
+    neutrality and free transit guaranteed to Panama by, 480, 487, 488;
+    Colombia rejects treaty with, 486, 487;
+    recognises republic of Panama, 488;
+    treaty of, with Panama ratified, 488, 489
+
+  United States of Colombia, the, 98, 99, 322, 378.
+    _See_ Colombia.
+
+  Universities, 67, 154, 198
+
+  Urbina, General, 334, 338
+
+  Urco, Inca emperor, 9
+
+  Urdaneta, General, 452
+
+  Uruguay in possession of Portuguese, 261, 316
+
+
+  V
+
+  Valdez, General, 88, 96, 262
+
+  Valdivia (city), besieged, 141, 142, 145;
+    taken by Dutch, 150;
+    size of, 151;
+    strength of, 171, 187;
+    possessed by Spanish, 171, 185;
+    captured by patriots, 187
+
+  Valdivia, Pedro de, conqueror of Chile, 43, 44, 137-139, 240;
+    cities founded by, 137, 139;
+    capture and death of, 141
+
+  Valencia, founded, 350;
+    loyal to Spain, 363, 364, 439;
+    patriots in, 367, 369, 372
+
+  Valmy, battle of, 359
+
+  Valparaiso (city), 104, 119, 120, 262, 285, 317, 341;
+    size of, 151;
+    bombarded, 204;
+    battle at, 223-225
+
+  Valparaiso Bay, 220
+
+  Valverde, Friar, 30
+
+  Varas, Chilean Minister, 200, 201
+
+  Vargas, Doctor, President of Venezuela, 389
+
+  Veintemilla, General, President of Ecuador, 339
+
+  Vela, Blasco Nunez de, Viceroy of Peru, 50-53
+
+  Velez (city) founded, 410, 414
+
+  Venezuela, sighted by Columbus 347;
+    named, 348;
+    cities founded in, 348-350, 352;
+    colonisation of, 348;
+    governors of, 349, 426;
+    fertility of, 349, 350, 352, 395;
+    granted to Welser family, 349;
+    settlement of, 349-351;
+    savage tribes of, 350;
+    subject to viceroyalty of Lima, 67;
+    under jurisdiction of Bogota and Caracas, 71, 356, 419, 426;
+    revolutionary spirit in, 76, 358-361, etc.;
+    revolts against Bolivar, 79, 101, 323, 378;
+    war of independence in, 86, 261, 316, 317, 362, 364, 366-370,
+          378-383, 388, 434, 437, 451, 452;
+    in Colombian confederation, 98, 322, 376, 378, 384, 443;
+    Bolivarian constitution of, 99, 385;
+    separates from confederation, 99, 324, 385, 387, 388, 451;
+    cattle-raising in, 345, 355, 395;
+    topography of, 351, 352;
+    negro labour in, 351, 352, 357;
+    agricultural products of, 352, 358, 390, 395;
+    exports from, 352, 390;
+    commercial conditions of, 352-358, 390-392, 395, 396, 398, 399;
+    gold placers of, 352;
+    taxation in, 353, 389, 391, 392, 395;
+    education in, 353;
+    trading posts in, 354;
+    made a captaincy-general, 355, 419;
+    captains-general of, 356, 360, 361;
+    boundaries of, fixed, 356;
+    population of, 357, 390;
+    characteristics of population of, 357, 358;
+    Bonaparte claims allegiance of, 360;
+    first independent republic of South America, 362;
+    constitution of 1811, 362;
+    financial conditions in, 362, 394-396, 398;
+    earthquake in, 363;
+    important battles of war of independence in, 369, 374, 375, 378,
+          381-383;
+    impoverished by wars, 384, 394;
+    constitution of 1831, 389, 391, 394;
+    civil wars in, 387-392, 396-398;
+    political conditions in, 389-392;
+    roads built in, 390;
+    bank established in, 390;
+    slavery abolished, 391;
+    liberty of the press permitted, 392;
+    religious conditions in, 392, 395;
+    smuggling in, 394;
+    stable currency of, 395;
+    railroads built in, 395, 396;
+    debt of, 396;
+    boundary dispute with British Guiana, 398;
+    foreign relations of, 398;
+    navy of, destroyed, 398;
+    progress of, 399;
+    provinces under jurisdiction of, 426
+
+  Vernon, Admiral, 428
+
+  Viceroyalties, of Bogota, 71, 250, 356, 420, 426;
+    of Buenos Aires, 71, 251;
+    of Lima, 50, 67, 250, 375;
+    of Quito, 86, 418, 420
+
+  Vicuna, Claudio, President of Chile, 193, 194, 219, 226
+
+  Vicunas, 238
+
+  Vidal, Dictator of Peru, 102, 106
+
+  Vilcabamba, 40, 61, 63
+
+  Vilcanota nudo, the, 4, 8
+
+  Villapugio, battle of, 170, 258
+
+  Villarica, gold-mines of, 144-146
+
+  Viluma, battle of, 256, 260
+
+  Vista Florida, Dictator of Peru, 102
+
+  Vivanco, Peruvian general, 106
+
+
+  W
+
+  Welser family, the, Venezuela granted to, 349
+
+  Wheat introduced into South America, 66, 151, 211, 303, 332, 343, 352,
+  421, 428
+
+  Wheelwright, William, establishes first Pacific steamship line, 198
+
+  Windward Islands, the, 347
+
+  Wool, 8
+
+
+  Y
+
+  Yahuarcocha Lake, 294
+
+  Yahuar Huaccac, Inca emperor, 8
+
+  Yngavi, decisive battle of, 105, 107, 273
+
+  Yucay, valley of, 61
+
+  Yungay, battle of, 105, 198, 272
+
+  Yupanqui, Inca emperor, 9
+
+
+  Z
+
+  Zaldua, President of Colombia, 479
+
+  Zaruma, plateau of, 288, 291
+
+  Zenufana (Antioquia), 407
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+The Story of the Nations.
+
+
+  In the story form the current of each National life is distinctly
+  indicated, and its picturesque and noteworthy periods and episodes are
+  presented for the reader in their philosophical relation to each other
+  as well as to universal history.
+
+  It is the plan of the writers of the different volumes to enter into
+  the real life of the peoples, and to bring them before the reader as
+  they actually lived, labored, and struggled--as they studied and
+  wrote, and as they amused themselves. In carrying out this plan, the
+  myths, with which the history of all lands begins, will not be
+  overlooked, though these will be carefully distinguished from the
+  actual history, so far as the labors of the accepted historical
+  authorities have resulted in definite conclusions.
+
+  The subjects of the different volumes have been planned to cover
+  connecting and, as far as possible, consecutive epochs or periods, so
+  that the set when completed will present in a comprehensive narrative
+  the chief events in the great STORY OF THE NATIONS; but it is, of
+  course, not always practicable to issue the several volumes in their
+  chronological order.
+
+    Nos. 1-61, each                                  $1.50
+    Half leather                                      1.75
+    Nos. 62 and following Nos., each (by mail,        1.50)
+                                                  net 1.35
+    Half leather (by mail, $1.75)                 net 1.60
+
+  _For list of volumes see next page._
+
+
+  THE STORY OF THE NATIONS.
+
+    GREECE. Prof. Jas. A. Harrison.
+    ROME.  Arthur Gilman.
+    THE JEWS. Prof. James K. Hosmer.
+    CHALDEA. Z. A. Ragozin.
+    GERMANY. S. Baring-Gould.
+    NORWAY. Hjalmar H. Boyesen.
+    SPAIN. Rev. E. E. and Susan Hale.
+    HUNGARY. Prof. A. Vambery.
+    CARTHAGE. Prof. Alfred J. Church.
+    THE SARACENS. Arthur Gilman.
+    THE MOORS IN SPAIN. Stanley Lane-Poole.
+    THE NORMANS. Sarah Orne Jewett.
+    PERSIA. S. G. W. Benjamin.
+    ANCIENT EGYPT. Prof. Geo. Rawlinson.
+    ALEXANDER'S EMPIRE. Prof. J. P. Mahaffy.
+    ASSYRIA. Z. A. Ragozin.
+    THE GOTHS. Henry Bradley.
+    IRELAND. Hon. Emily Lawless.
+    TURKEY. Stanley Lane-Poole.
+    MEDIA, BABYLON, AND PERSIA. Z. A. Ragozin.
+    MEDIAEVAL FRANCE. Prof. Gustave Masson.
+    HOLLAND. Prof. J. Thorold Rogers.
+    MEXICO. Susan Hale.
+    PHOENICIA. George Rawlinson.
+    THE HANSA TOWNS. Helen Zimmern.
+    EARLY BRITAIN. Prof. Alfred J. Church.
+    THE BARBARY CORSAIRS. Stanley Lane-Poole.
+    RUSSIA. W. R. Morfill.
+    THE JEWS UNDER ROME. W. D. Morrison.
+    SCOTLAND. John Mackintosh.
+    SWITZERLAND. R. Stead and Mrs. A. Hug.
+    PORTUGAL. H. Morse-Stephens.
+    THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE. C. W. C. Oman.
+    SICILY. E. A. Freeman.
+    THE TUSCAN REPUBLICS. Bella Duffy.
+    POLAND. W. R. Morfill.
+    PARTHIA. Geo. Rawlinson.
+    JAPAN. David Murray.
+    THE CHRISTIAN RECOVERY OF SPAIN. H. E. Watts.
+    AUSTRALASIA. Greville Tregarthen.
+    SOUTHERN AFRICA. Geo. M. Theal.
+    VENICE. Alethea Wiel.
+    THE CRUSADES. T. S. Archer and C. L. Kingsford.
+    VEDIC INDIA. Z. A. Ragozin.
+    BOHEMIA. C. E. Maurice.
+    CANADA. J. G. Bourinot.
+    THE BALKAN STATES. William Miller.
+    BRITISH RULE IN INDIA. R. W. Frazer.
+    MODERN FRANCE. Andre Le Bon.
+    THE BRITISH EMPIRE. Alfred T. Story. Two vols.
+    THE FRANKS. Lewis Sergeant.
+    THE WEST INDIES. Amos K. Fiske.
+    THE PEOPLE OF ENGLAND. Justin McCarthy, M.P. Two vols.
+    AUSTRIA. Sidney Whitman.
+    CHINA. Robt. K. Douglass.
+    MODERN SPAIN. Major Martin A. S. Hume.
+    MODERN ITALY. Pietro Orsi.
+    THE THIRTEEN COLONIES. Helen A. Smith. Two vols.
+    WALES AND CORNWALL. Owen M. Edwards. Net $1.35.
+    MEDIAEVAL ROME. Wm. Miller.
+    THE PAPAL MONARCHY. Wm. Barry.
+    MEDIAEVAL INDIA. Stanley Lane-Poole.
+    BUDDHIST INDIA. T. W. Rhys-Davids.
+    THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Thomas C. Dawson. Two vols.
+    PARLIAMENTARY ENGLAND. Edward Jenks.
+
+
+
+Heroes of the Nations.
+
+
+  A series of biographical studies of the lives and work of a number of
+  representative historical characters about whom have gathered the
+  great traditions of the Nations to which they belonged, and who have
+  been accepted, in many instances, as types of the several National
+  ideals. With the life of each typical character will be presented a
+  picture of the National conditions surrounding him during his career.
+
+  The narratives are the work of writers who are recognized authorities
+  on their several subjects, and, while thoroughly trustworthy as
+  history, will present picturesque and dramatic "stories" of the Men
+  and of the events connected with them.
+
+  To the Life of each "Hero" will be given one duodecimo volume,
+  handsomely printed in large type, provided with maps and adequately
+  illustrated according to the special requirements of the several
+  subjects.
+
+    Nos. 1-32, each                                  $1.50
+    Half leather                                      1.75
+    No. 33 and following Nos., each
+                                  (by mail $1.50, net 1.35)
+    Half leather (by mail, $1.75)                 net 1.60
+
+  _For full list of volumes see next page._
+
+
+  HEROES OF THE NATIONS.
+
+    NELSON. By W. Clark Russell.
+    GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. By C. R. L. Fletcher.
+    PERICLES. By Evelyn Abbott.
+    THEODORIC THE GOTH. By Thomas Hodgkin.
+    SIR PHILIP SIDNEY. By H. R. Fox-Bourne.
+    JULIUS CAESAR. By W. Warde Fowler.
+    WYCLIF. By Lewis Sergeant.
+    NAPOLEON. By W. O'Connor Morris.
+    HENRY OF NAVARRE. By P. F. Willert.
+    CICERO. By J. L. Strachan-Davidson.
+    ABRAHAM LINCOLN. By Noah Brooks.
+    PRINCE HENRY (OF PORTUGAL) THE NAVIGATOR. By C. R. Beazley.
+    JULIAN THE PHILOSOPHER. By Alice Gardner.
+    LOUIS XIV. By Arthur Hassall.
+    CHARLES XII. By R. Nisbet Bain.
+    LORENZO DE' MEDICI. By Edward Armstrong.
+    JEANNE D'ARC. By Mrs. Oliphant.
+    CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. By Washington Irving.
+    ROBERT THE BRUCE. By Sir Herbert Maxwell.
+    HANNIBAL. By W. O'Connor Morris.
+    ULYSSES S. GRANT. By William Conant Church.
+    ROBERT E. LEE. By Henry Alexander White.
+    THE CID CAMPEADOR. By H. Butler Clarke.
+    SALADIN. By Stanley Lane-Poole.
+    BISMARCK. By J. W. Headlam.
+    ALEXANDER THE GREAT. By Benjamin I. Wheeler.
+    CHARLEMAGNE. By H. W. C. Davis.
+    OLIVER CROMWELL. By Charles Firth.
+    RICHELIEU. By James B. Perkins.
+    DANIEL O'CONNELL. By Robert Dunlop.
+    SAINT LOUIS (Louis IX. of France). By Frederick Perry.
+    LORD CHATHAM. By Walford Davis Green.
+    OWEN GLYNDWR. By Arthur G. Bradley. $1.35 net.
+    HENRY V. By Charles L. Kingsford. $1.35 net.
+    EDWARD I. By Edward Jenks. $1.35 net.
+    AUGUSTUS CAESAR. By J. B. Firth. $1.35 net.
+    FREDERICK THE GREAT. By W. F. Reddaway.
+    WELLINGTON. By W. O'Connor Morris
+
+  Other volumes in preparation are:
+
+    CONSTANTINE. By J. B. Firth.
+    MOLTKE. By Spencer Wilkinson.
+    JUDAS MACCABAEUS. By Israel Abrahams.
+    SOBIESKI. By F. A. Pollard.
+    ALFRED THE TRUTHTELLER. By Frederick Perry.
+    FREDERICK II. By A. L. Smith.
+    MARLBOROUGH. By C. W. C. Oman.
+    RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED By T. A. Archer.
+    WILLIAM THE SILENT. By Ruth Putnam.
+    CHARLES THE BOLD. By Ruth Putnam.
+    GREGORY VII. By F. Urquhart.
+    MAHOMET. By D. S. Margoliouth.
+
+
+  G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS, PUBLISHERS,
+  NEW YORK, LONDON.
+
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+1. Passages in italics are surrounded by _underscores_.
+
+2. Images have been moved from the middle of a paragraph to the closest
+paragraph break.
+
+3. Certain words use the oe-ligature in the original.
+
+4. The punctuation in the idex was made consistent.
+
+5. The following misprints have been corrected:
+    "COLUMBIA" corrected to "COLOMBIA" (page x)
+    "slaughterd" corrected to "slaughtered" (page 43)
+    "agressive" corrected to "aggressive" (page 286)
+    "recalcitant" corrected to "recalcitrant" (page 296)
+    "stategist" corrected to "strategist" (page 375)
+    "familes" corrected to "families" (page 422)
+    "succeded" corrected to "succeeded" (page 460)
+    "surborned" corrected to "suborned" (page 464)
+    "Gautemala" corrected to "Guatemala" (page 491)
+    "Bogata" corrected to "Bogota" (page 508)
+
+6. Other than the corrections listed above, printer's inconsistencies
+in spelling, punctuation, hyphenation, and ligature usage have been
+retained.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS, PART
+II (OF 2)***
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+
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