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diff --git a/37420.txt b/37420.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6e39f68 --- /dev/null +++ b/37420.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9664 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Paint Technology and Tests, by Henry A. Gardner + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Paint Technology and Tests + +Author: Henry A. Gardner + +Release Date: September 13, 2011 [EBook #37420] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PAINT TECHNOLOGY AND TESTS *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Harry Lame and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive) + + + + + + + + + + +------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES | + | | + | * Where the original work uses text in italics or bold face, this| + | e-text uses _text_ and =text=, respectively. Small caps in the | + | original work are represented here in all capitals. Subscripts | + | are represented as _{subscript}. | + | * Footnotes have been moved to directly below the paragraph or | + | table to which they belong. | + | * Several tables have been split, transposed or otherwise re- | + | arranged to make them fit within the available width. | + | | + | More Transcriber's Notes will be found at the end of this text. | + +------------------------------------------------------------------+ + + + + + PAINT TECHNOLOGY AND TESTS + + + Published by the + McGraw-Hill Book Company + New York + + + Successors to the Book Departments of the + + McGraw Publishing Company Hill Publishing Company + + + Publishers of Books for + + Electrical World The Engineering and Mining Journal + Engineering Record American Machinist + Electric Railway Journal Coal Age + Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering Power + + + + + PAINT TECHNOLOGY + AND TESTS. + + BY + + HENRY A. GARDNER + + _Assistant Director, The Institute of Industrial Research, + Washington, D. C._ + + _Director, Scientific Section, Paint Manufacturers' Association + of the United States, etc._ + + McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY + 239 WEST 39TH STREET, NEW YORK + 6 BOUVERIE STREET, LONDON, E.C. + 1911 + + + + + _Copyright, 1911, by the_ MCGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY + + THE.PLIMPTON.PRESS.NORWOOD.MASS.U.S.A + + + + + TO + MY MOTHER + + + + +PREFACE + + +A few years ago the producer and consumer of paints possessed +comparatively little knowledge of the relative durability of various +pigments and oils. There existed in some cases a prejudice for a few +standard products, that often held the user in bondage, discouraging +investigation and exciting suspicion whenever discoveries were made, +that brought forth new materials. Such conditions indicated to the more +progressive, the need of positive information regarding the value of +various painting materials, and the advisability of having the questions +at issue determined in a practical manner. + +The desire that such work should be instituted, resulted in the creation +of a Scientific Section, the scope of which was to make investigations +to determine the relative merits of different types of paint, and to +enlighten the industry on various technical problems. Paint exposure +tests of an extensive nature were started in various sections of the +country where climatic conditions vary. This field work was supplemented +in the laboratory by a series of important researches into the +properties of pigments, oils, and other raw products entering into the +manufacture of protective coatings. The results of the work were +published in bulletin form and given wide distribution. The demand for +these bulletins early exhausted the original impress, and a general +summary therefore forms a part of this volume. + +The purpose of the book is primarily to serve as a reference work for +grinders, painters, engineers, and students; matter of an important +nature to each being presented. Without repetition of the matter found +in other books, two chapters on raw products have been included, and +they present in condensed form a summary of information that will prove +of aid to one who desires to become conversant with painting materials +with a view to continuing tests such as are outlined herein. In other +chapters there has been compiled considerable matter from lectures and +technical articles presented by the writer before various colleges, +engineering societies, and painters' associations. + +The writer wishes to gratefully acknowledge the untiring efforts of the +members of the Educational Bureau of the Paint Manufacturers' +Association, whose early endeavors made possible many of the tests +described in this volume. Kind acknowledgment is also made to members of +the International Association of Master House Painters and Decorators of +the United States and Canada, who stood always ready to aid in +investigations which promised to bring new light into their art and +craft. + +HENRY A. GARDNER. + +WASHINGTON, October, 1911. + + + + +CONTENTS + + + CHAPTER PAGE + + I PAINT OILS AND THINNERS 1 + + II A STUDY OF DRIERS AND THEIR EFFECT 21 + + III PAINT PIGMENTS AND THEIR PROPERTIES 42 + + IV PHYSICAL LABORATORY PAINT TESTS 70 + + V THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF SCIENTIFIC PAINT MAKING 93 + + VI THE SCOPE OF PRACTICAL PAINT TESTS 105 + + VII CONDITIONS NOTED AT INSPECTION OF TESTS 114 + + VIII RESULTS OF ATLANTIC CITY TESTS 124 + + IX RESULTS OF PITTSBURG TESTS 135 + + X A LABORATORY STUDY OF TEST PANELS 149 + + XI ADDITIONAL TESTS AT ATLANTIC CITY AND PITTSBURG 174 + + XII NORTH DAKOTA PAINT TESTS 182 + + XIII TENNESSEE PAINT TESTS 201 + + XIV WASHINGTON PAINT TESTS 207 + + XV CEMENT AND CONCRETE PAINT TESTS 214 + + XVI STRUCTURAL STEEL PAINT TESTS 220 + + XVII THE SANITARY VALUE OF WALL PAINTS 252 + + + + +PAINT TECHNOLOGY + + + + +CHAPTER I + +PAINT OILS AND THINNERS + + +=Constants and Characteristics of Oils and Their Effect upon Drying.= An +attempt has been made to give in this chapter a brief summary of the +most important characteristics of those oils finding application in the +paint and varnish industry. For methods of oil analysis, the reader is +referred to standard works on this subject; the analytical constants +herein being given only for comparative purposes. + +It is well known that one of the most desirable features of a paint oil +is the ability to set up in a short period to a hard surface that will +not take dust. This drying property is dependent upon the chemical +nature of the oil. If it is an unsaturated compound, like linseed oil, +rapid absorption of oxygen will cause the film to dry rapidly and become +hard. If the oil be of a fully satisfied nature, like mineral oil, +oxygen cannot be taken up to any great extent and drying will not take +place. The various animal and vegetable oils differ in their power of +oxygen absorption to a lesser or greater extent. This difference is +referred to by the chemist in terms of the iodine value. The iodine +value of linseed oil is approximately 190, meaning that one gram of the +oil will take up 190 centigrams of iodine. Oils with high iodine values +have good drying powers, while those with low iodine values are, as a +rule, very slow drying in nature. + +For a description of the working and drying properties of various oils +used in paints, see Chapter XIV. The oxygen absorption of various oils +and mixtures is shown in Chapter II. + +=Linseed Oil.= The seed of the flax plant which is extensively grown in +North Dakota, Argentine Republic and Russia, contains approximately 36% +of oil which may be obtained by grinding, heating, and expression. Ripe +native seed generally produces a pale oil of little odor; the oil from +Argentine seed often having a greenish tint and an odor resembling +sorghum. While filtering, pressing and ageing will remove considerable +of the ("foots") mucilaginous matter, phosphates, silica, etc., from the +oil, the better grades which are intended for varnish making are often +refined with sulphuric acid. A light colored oil which may be heated +without "breaking" results from this treatment, but such oils are apt to +contain considerable free fatty acid, unless they are washed with alkali +subsequent to the sulphuric acid treatment. On account of its rapid +drying properties and general adaptability for all classes of paints and +varnishes, linseed oil has never been supplanted by any other oil. +Chemically it consists of the glycerides of linoleic, oleic, and +isolinoleic acid, its constitution being responsible for its very high +iodine value. + +[Illustration: Field of Flax in bloom in North Dakota] + +Boiled linseed oil, a heavier and darker product, is made by heating the +raw oil in open kettles to high temperatures, generally with the +addition of metallic driers such as litharge, and black manganese. The +resinates of lead and manganese are often added to oil heated at a lower +temperature, to obtain a boiled oil of lighter color. + +[Illustration: New type of Flax Harvester which pulls plant up by the +roots, thus preventing infection of soil] + +[Illustration: Modern Concrete Elevators for storing Flaxseed] + +[Illustration: View of Linseed Oil Factory showing hydraulic press, +tanks, etc.] + +[Illustration: _Photographs courtesy of Spencer Kellogg Sons_ + +Flaxseed Crushers] + +[Illustration: Filter Presses for removing extraneous matter from +linseed oil] + +[Illustration: Linseed Cake from Oil Press] + +[Illustration: Glycine Hispida + +Mammoth soya bean plants] + +[Illustration: _Photographs courtesy of David Fairchild, Plant Explorer, +U. S. Dept. of Agriculture_ + +Glycine Hispida + +Soya bean plants under cultivation at Arlington, Va.] + +By blowing air through linseed oil that has been heated to approximately +200 degrees Fahrenheit, either with or without drier, heavy bodied oils +are obtained, which find special application in varnishes and technical +paints. As the viscosity of these oils increase, the iodine values +decrease, and a slight rise in saponification value and specific gravity +is observed. The following analyses of various types of linseed oil were +recently made by the writer: + + ===========+========+========+=========+========+=========+========= + |Pure Raw| Boiled | Boiled | Blown | Litho. | Old + |Linseed | L. O. | L. O. | L. O. | L. O. |Treated + | Oil | (Lino- | (Resin- | | | Oil + | | leate) | ate) | | | + -----------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+--------- + Color | Amber | Dark | Reddish | Pale | Dark | Amber + | Clear | Brown | Brown | | Brown | Clear + | | | | | | + Sp. Gr. at | .933 | .941 | .930 | .968 | .970 | .943 + 15 deg. C. | | | | | | + |Average | | | | | + Iodine No. | 180 | 172 | 176 | 133 | 102 | 172 + | | | | | | + Saponifi- | 191 | 187 | 186 | 189 | 199 | 197 + cation No. | | | | | | + | | | | | | + Free Fatty | 3.2 | 2.7 | 2.2 | 2.8 | 2.7 | 6.9 + Acid | | | | | | + | | | | | | + Unsaponi- | 1.4 | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1.8 + fiable | | | | | | + | | | | | | + Maumene | 111 | -- | -- | -- | -- | 96 + | | | | | | + Moisture | .2% | -- | -- | -- | -- | none + ===========+========+========+=========+========+=========+========= + +[Illustration: Glycine Hispida + +Mammoth soya bean plant] + +[Illustration: Glycine Hispida + +Soya bean plant, showing nitrogen gathering tubercles on roots] + +=Soya Bean Oil.= The soya plant which is extensively cultivated in Asia +produces a seed bearing up to 22% and over of a golden colored oil +having a peculiar leguminous odor. The oil, which probably consists of +the glycerides of oleic, linoleic, and palmitic acids, is secured by +crushing, steaming and pressing the seed. There are several varieties of +the plant, and they are said to be the best annual legume for forage, +the straw and fruit being rich in nitrogen and very fattening as a +cattle food. Soya may be grown in nearly any country and is a great +carrier of nitrogen to land deficient in this element. Although the oil +has been used abroad for many years for soap-making purposes, its use as +a drying oil is comparatively recent; being introduced into the paint +industry of the United States during the year 1909, when linseed oil +started on its phenomenal rise in price. + +The oil has given fair service in some paints when mixed with upwards of +75% of pure linseed oil. It is of a semi-drying nature, but may be made +to dry rapidly when mixed with manganese and lead linoleate driers. By +compounding it under heat with tung oil and rosin, a substitute for +linseed oil is produced, which some claim to be quite valuable. + + Table I gives the constants of several samples of soya oil + examined by the writer. Table II shows the iodine value of + mixtures of soya and linseed oils. Table III shows the results of + drying experiments on soya oils containing different percentages + of lead and manganese driers. + +TABLE I + +CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOYA BEAN OIL + + =======+==========+===========+============+==========+=========== + Sample | Specific | Acid No. | Saponifi- | Iodine |Per cent. + No. | gravity | | cation | No. | of foots + | | | No. | | + -------+----------+-----------+------------+----------+----------- + 1 | 0.9233 | 1.87 | 188.4 | 127.8 | 3.81 + 2 | 0.9240 | 1.92 | 188.3 | 127.2 | -- + 3 | 0.9231 | 1.90 | 187.8 | 131.7 | -- + 4 | 0.9233 | 1.91 | 188.4 | 129.8 | -- + 5 | -- | -- | -- | 130.0 | -- + 6 | -- | -- | -- | 132.6 | -- + 7 | -- | -- | -- | 136.0 | -- + Average| 0.9234 | 1.90 | 188.2 | 130.7 | -- + =======+==========+===========+============+==========+=========== + +TABLE II + +IODINE VALUES OF LINSEED OIL AND MIXED OILS + + ==============+============+============+============+============ + | | Soya | Soya | Soya + Sample No. | Straight |25 per cent.|50 per cent.|75 per cent. + | linseed | Linseed | Linseed | Linseed + | |75 per cent.|50 per cent.|25 per cent. + --------------+------------+------------+------------+------------ + 1 | 190.3 | 175.2 | 160.7 | 140.4 + 2 | 189.5 | 175.9 | 161.7 | 140.8 + 3 | 188.0 | 175.4 | 160.3 | 139.0 + --------------+------------+------------+------------+------------ + Average | 189.3 | 175.5 | 160.9 | 140.4 + ==============+============+============+============+============ + +TABLE III + +SOYA BEAN OIL AND LEAD DRIER + + =========+==========+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+==== + Per cent.| | | | | | | | | + PbO | |0.05|0.10|0.30|0.50|0.70|1.00|1.30|1.60 + ---------+----------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---- + | { 1 day | -- |0.07|0.63|1.34|1.05|1.53|0.93|1.35 + | { 3 days| -- |0.07|3.52|4.31|2.75|4.86|4.82|4.12 + Per ct. | { 5 days| -- |0.09|5.04|6.06|6.09|6.75|6.66|5.52 + gain | { 12 days| -- | -- |6.88|7.54|7.43|7.76|7.32|6.47 + | { 15 days| -- | -- |8.84|8.93|8.59|8.81|8.44|7.46 + | { 20 days|0.05|0.20|9.02|9.08|8.90|9.03|8.65|7.83 + ---------+----------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---- + +SOYA BEAN OIL AND MANGANESE DRIER + + -----------------+----------+----+----+----+----+---- + Per cent. MnO_{2}| |0.01|0.05|0.15|0.26|0.30 + -----------------+----------+----+----+----+----+---- + | { 1 day | -- | -- |0.02|0.02|0.01 + Per ct. gain | { 10 days| -- |5.06|6.48|6.10|5.97 + | { 20 days|0.05|9.07|8.80|6.78|6.51 + -----------------+----------+----+----+----+----+---- + +SOYA BEAN OIL, MANGANESE AND LEAD DRIER + + -------------+----------+----+----+---- + Per cent. PbO| |0.20|0.30|0.50 + -------------+----------+----+----+---- + MnO_{2} | |0.05|0.15|0.25 + -------------+----------+----+----+---- + | { 1 day |3.04|3.77|3.74 + Per ct. gain | { 8 days|5.96|6.43|6.47 + | { 12 days|6.33|6.78|6.67 + =============+==========+====+====+==== + +=Tung Oil.= There are grown in China and Japan many varieties of the +"aleurites cordata," popularly known as the tung tree. This tree bears +great quantities of large sized nuts containing as high as 40% of an oil +which yields itself in a viscous yellow form upon heating and crushing +of the fruit. The raw oil, which chemically consists of the glycerides +of oleic, oleo-margaric, and probably isomeric acids, is distinguished +by its rapid drying properties. When spread in a thin layer it produces +a hard film with an opaque frosted surface, often showing a tendency to +wrinkle. Treated tung oil will dry to a clear, water-shedding, elastic +film. This oil is made by heating the raw tung oil at a comparatively +low temperature with other oils and a metallic drier such as litharge. + +[Illustration: _Photographs courtesy of David Fairchild_ + +Aleurites Cordata (Chinese Wood Oil) + +Barrel Factory at Cooperage Shop] + +[Illustration: _Photographs courtesy of David Fairchild_ + +Aleurites Fordii (Chinese Wood Oil) + +Fruit from trees at the end of fourth year] + +The affinity of tung oil for rosin has resulted in the production of a +series of moderate-priced varnishes most suitable for use in floor and +deck paints or wherever great hardness is required. These varnishes are +also finding application in the manufacture of concrete, steel, and flat +wall paints; being especially suitable for the above purposes when +compounded with kauri gum japan. + +[Illustration: Aleurites Fordii + +Flowering specimen of the Chinese Wood Oil tree, thirty feet high and +three feet in diameter, on banks of Yangtse River, Western Szechuan, +China. Opium Poppy in the foreground] + +[Illustration: Aleurites Cordata + +Wood Oil tree at Riverside, California, planted in 1907. Photograph +taken in 1910, when tree had borne fifty fruits] + +During the boiling of raw tung oil the temperature must not exceed much +over 400 degrees Fahrenheit. Otherwise a peculiar "hamming" will take +place, the whole mass becoming solid and of no further value as a +varnish or paint vehicle. Some peculiar internal disturbance or +rearrangement of the molecules is evidently effected by heat, and +although the reaction is not clearly understood, it has been ascribed to +auto-polymerization. Scott has stated that the phenomenon of +gelatinization is due to the exposure of the surface of the oil to the +air, and that boiling in vacuo obviates such results. The lusterless +surface produced when tung oil varnishes are dried in vitiated air would +tend to confirm the conclusion that the oil is very subject to +atmospheric influences. + +Lumbang Oil, which is obtained from a tropical species of Tung, is very +similar in appearance and properties to Linseed Oil. + +CONSTANTS OF TUNG OILS + + =====+=========+============+==============+========== + | Sp. Gr. | Iodine No. |Saponification| Acid No. + | | | No. | + -----+---------+------------+--------------+---------- + No. 1| .944 | 166 | 188 | 3.6 + No. 2| .940 | 164 | 184 | 1.8 + =====+=========+============+==============+========== + +[Illustration: _Photographs courtesy Alpin I. Dunn_ + +Menhaden Net drying in the Sun] + +[Illustration: Transporting Menhaden from net to deck of boat, in +swinging basket] + +[Illustration: A big catch of Menhaden made off Narragansett Bay] + +=Menhaden Oil.= Of all the marine-animal oils, such as seal, herring, +sardine, whale, and menhaden, the latter is the most valuable. It is +produced by steam digestion and pressure of the menhaden or "piogey" +fish, which are caught in great quantities off the Atlantic Coast. +Prompt cooking and treatment of the fish results in a light-colored oil +having very little odor, the residue left in the presses being of great +value as a fertilizer. Although several grades of oil termed crude, +brown, light, etc., are produced, the most satisfactory for use in paint +is that grade termed "light winter pressed." This oil is of a pale straw +color and has a high iodine number which is responsible for its rapid +drying value. It contains less of the stearates that precipitate from +crude oil, but sufficient to render its film water-shedding and elastic. +The presence of too great a quantity of stearates is apt to result in a +very soft film, and the use of hard driers, such as the metallic +tungates, is therefore advisable with menhaden oil. When mixed with +linseed oil paints the odor of menhaden oil is sometimes noticeable, but +it disappears entirely after such paints are applied. Its use with +linseed oil in technical paints exposed to the salty air of the Coast +has given good results, often preventing "checking" and "chalking." + +The following constants were determined on samples of menhaden oil +received in the writer's laboratory: + + ========+==========+==========+==============+========== + | Sp. Gr. | Iodine |Saponification| Acid + | | Value | Number | Number + --------+----------+----------+--------------+---------- + Light | .927 | 175.8 | 187.9 | 7.55 + Medium | .925 | 178.7 | 187.6 | 6.19 + Dark | .927 | 178.0 | 187.3 | 7.19 + ========+==========+==========+==============+========== + +=Whale Oil.= While ordinary whale oil is too dark and odorous to ever +come into extensive use as a paint oil, it is probable that the refined +oil will be utilized in the manufacture of certain technical paints. +Whale oil is boiled from chopped whale blubber, the first trying being +the lightest in color, while the later tryings, as well as the product +made from bones, are of darker color and of very bad odor. Oil of +mirbane is often used to mask this odor. The oil contains large +quantities of stearin and palmitin, as well as wax-like constituents +which are apt to be thrown out of solution in very cold weather, or when +the oil is mixed with other oils. The refined oil, when ground with lead +and zinc pigments and mixed with equal parts of linseed oil and treated +tung oil, dries to an elastic and soft film. Experiments are being made +to utilize whale oil in the linoleum industry. + +The analyses of samples of whale oil tested by the writer are as +follows: + + =============+=========+========+==============+============ + | Sp. Gr. | Iodine |Saponification| Free Fatty + | | Value | Number | Acid + -------------+---------+--------+--------------+------------ + Light Refined| .924 | 148 | 190.2 | 1.2 + Dark Yellow | .920 | 142 | 187 | 7.0 + Dark Brown | .910 | 140 | 184 | 18.0 + =============+=========+========+==============+============ + +=Sunflower Oil.= Sunflower oil is produced largely in Russia and +Hungary, finding favor in those countries as an edible oil. The ripe +seeds of the sunflower plant contain over 30% of oil which is very pale +in color and of a pleasant smell. It has been found that sunflowers may +be grown to advantage in dry parts of the United States, and if suitable +yields are obtained from a few experimental acres now being cultivated, +the industry may receive encouragement in this country. The oil should +be well suited for varnish making, and although the iodine number is not +very high, it dries quite rapidly. + +[Illustration: Russian Sunflower Seeds] + +CONSTANTS OF SUNFLOWER OIL + + ========+============+================+====== + Sp. Gr. | Iodine No. | Saponification | Acid + | | No. | No. + --------+------------+----------------+------ + .929 | 128 | 188 | 4 + ========+============+================+====== + +=Cottonseed Oil.= This oil is expressed from the seed of the cotton +plant, varying in color according to the time of its pressing and degree +of refinement. Being edible as well as highly suited for soap making, +very little of it comes into the market as a paint oil. It contains +large quantities of stearin and has a low iodine value, making it a slow +drying oil. Some samples are extremely light in color and contain less +mucilaginous matter and foots than is present in ordinary varieties. + +CONSTANTS OF COTTONSEED OIL + + ========+============+================+====== + Sp. Gr. | Iodine No. | Saponification | Acid + | | No. | No. + --------+------------+----------------+------ + .922 | 106 | 190 | 2.4 + ========+============+================+====== + +=Corn Oil.= As a by-product in the manufacture of starch and alcoholic +liquids, this material comes into the market having a golden yellow +color, and an odor resembling fermented grain. It has a lower drying +value than cottonseed oil, and its use in the paint industry will +probably be limited to color grinding, where an oil with a semi-drying +value is often desired. Like cottonseed oil, it belongs more properly to +the soap oil class. It contains glycerides of linoleic and especially +palmitic acid. + +ANALYSIS OF CORN OIL + + ========+============+================+===== + Sp. Gr. | Iodine No. | Saponification | Acid + | | No. | No. + --------+------------+----------------+----- + .925 | 118 | 191 | 9.5 + ========+============+================+===== + +=Rosin Oil.= By the dry distillation of rosin, there is yielded a series +of heavy dark oils consisting principally of hydrocarbons, resinous +bodies, and free acid. These oils vary in their saponification number +from 10 to 60, while their unsaponifiable value averages about 80. Of +the grades termed first, second, third, and fourth run, the latter two +are superior for use in paints, as a rule containing less free acid than +the preliminary runs. Treatment with steam and alkali serve to +neutralize the acid nature of the oils and to remove impurities. Refined +oils are lighter in color and are often blown and bodied to fairly rapid +drying products, especially when treated with manganese driers. Rosin +oils are seldom used with lead pigments, on account of the presence of +sulphur in the oils, which would result in darkening. Rosin oil paints +work very smoothly, even when they are curdled, producing glossy +surfaces. The rapid checking of rosin oil paints on wooden surfaces bars +the use of this oil for such purposes. + +ANALYSES OF ROSIN OILS + + ==+=========+============+================+====== + | Sp. Gr. | Iodine | Saponification | Acid + | | Value | No. | No. + --+---------+------------+----------------+------ + A | .966 | 41 | 27 | 16.7 + B | .99 | 48 | 38 | 10.0 + ==+=========+============+================+====== + +=Hydrocarbon Oils.= Several grades of neutral or mineral oils, varying +somewhat in gravity, color, and quality, are produced as the last +distillate in the refining of petroleum. These oils when mixed with +drying oils and strong driers find application in the manufacture of +some freight-car, barn, and other paints which sell at a low price. A +small percentage of mineral oil is said to be valuable in structural +steel paints, acting as a preventative of hard drying and thus keeping +the film soft and elastic. Streaking and sweating is apt to ensue if any +great quantity is used. Mineral oils have a characteristic bloom, +showing a greenish fluorescence when examined by transmitted light. This +bloom is due to the presence of some strongly fluorescent material which +is shown up with intensity when mineral oils are exposed to ultraviolet +rays such as emanate from an enclosed arc light. Outerbridge[1] first +proposed this test for mineral oils, and he has worked out a +"fluorescent scale," by which very small percentages of hydrocarbon oils +may be detected in other oils. Several types of so-called debloomed oil +have been placed upon the market, and although such oils appear under +ordinary light conditions to be free from bloom, they fluoresce quite +strongly when given the Outerbridge test. + + [1] Alexander E. Outerbridge, Jr.: "A Novel Method of Detecting + Mineral Oil and Resin Oil in Other Oils." Proc. 14th Annual Meet., + Amer. Soc. for Testing Mater., Atlantic City, N.J., June 28, 1911. + +[Illustration: View of Stills Where Petroleum Paint Thinners are +Manufactured (Waverly)] + +ANALYSIS OF DEBLOOMED MINERAL PAINT OIL[2] + + ========+============+================+===== + Sp. Gr. | Iodine No. | Saponification | Acid + | | No. | No. + --------+------------+----------------+----- + .92 | 12 | 4 | 0 + ========+============+================+===== + + [2] Oil of mirbane present, probably as a deblooming agent, or to mask + the odor. + +=Pine Oil.= This oil is produced by the redistillation of the heavy, +high boiling point fractions resulting from the steam distillation of +wood turpentine. It is a heavy straw-colored oil, and should be of some +use in the paint and varnish industry, where a high boiling point +solvent with an oxidizing principle is desired. It will probably find +application in the manufacture of Baking Japans, Asphalt Paints and +Enamels. Its oxidizing and solvent values are very high. It has a +distinctive sweet pine smell, which makes it popular in the manufacture +of turpentine substitutes from petroleum spirits. + +The writer has examined samples of this material, and the following +appear to be of the best grade: + +CONSTANTS OF PINE OILS + + ==========================+======================+==================== + | No. 1 | No. 2 + --------------------------+----------------------+-------------------- + Color |Straw Color |Light Yellow + Specific Gravity at 15 deg. C.|.934 |.936 + Boiling Point |192 deg. C. |202 deg. C. + Distillation |95% distils between |95% distils between + | 192-270 deg. C. | 202-280 deg. C. + Residue on Evaporation |14.34% |14.60% + Polymerization Test |3-2/3% unpolymerized |2-1/2% unpolymerized + | at end of 1/2 hour | at end of 1/2 hour + Flash-Point |72 deg. C. |76 deg. C. + Spot Test |Leaves no grease spot |Same as Pine Oil No. + |but only evaporates |1. + |completely in 24 hours| + ==========================+======================+==================== + +=Turpentine.= By direct fire or steam distillation of the sap drippings +collected in pockets cut into pine trees, there is obtained the +turpentine of commerce. It consists largely of pinene and isomeric +terpenes, and has the property of attracting oxygen, with the formation +of peroxides which stimulate the drying of oils. It is a high-grade +solvent for various gums, and is therefore used in the manufacture of +many lacquers as well as for thinning down oil-gum varnishes. + +REQUISITE CONSTANTS OF PURE GUM TURPENTINE + + Color Water White + Specific Gravity at 15 deg. C. .862-.875 + Boiling Point About 156 deg. C. + Distillation 95% should distil between 153 and 165 deg. C. + Residue on Evaporation Not over 2% + Polymerization Not over 5% should remain unpolymerized + at end of half hour + Flash-Point Over 40.5 deg. C. + Spot Test No grease spot should remain when dropped + on paper and allowed to evaporate + Water None + +=Wood Turpentine.= High-grade wood turpentine is now produced by the +steam distillation of finely cut fat pine wood. The lower-grade +qualities are often produced from the destructive distillation of +sawdust, stumpage, etc., and these products, on account of their content +of formaldehyde, are objectionable in odor. In the steam distillation +process, however, a high quality product is obtained by cutting out the +heavy fractions and redistilling the lower and purer fractions. It has a +high oxidizing value, causing the rapid drying of paints and varnishes +to which it has been added. Its solvent value is often greater than that +of gum turpentine. When properly refined it has a sweet smell and is to +be highly recommended. + +Analyses of samples of pure wood turpentine which have come to the +writer for examination follow: + + ======================+==========================+==================== + | No. 1 | No. 2 + ----------------------+--------------------------+-------------------- + Sp. Gr. at 15 deg. C. |.862 |.862 + Boiling Point |158 deg. C. |162 deg. C. + Distillation: 95% | | + distils between |158 and 185 deg. C. |162 and 177 deg. C. + Residue on Evaporation|1.03% |3.06% + Polymerization Test |4.1% remains unpolymerized|0.1 cc. out of 6 cc. + |at end of 1/2 | unpolymerized = + |hour | 1.66% + Spot Test |No grease spot on |No grease spot on + | evaporation | evaporation + Odor |Excellent |Not objectionable + Color |Water White |Water White + Flash Point | |47.6 deg. C. + ======================+==========================+==================== + +=Petroleum Spirits.= There are produced from Texas crude oil which has +an asphaltum base, and Pennsylvania crude oil which has a paraffin base, +high boiling-point petroleum spirits which have come into wide use as +paint and varnish thinners. When such materials have the proper +evaporating value, high flash-point and freedom from sulphur, they are +to be highly recommended as paint thinners. The following shows the +analyses of a few of these materials examined in the writer's +laboratory: + +PETROLEUM SPIRITS + + =======================+=============+============+============== + | Texas Base | California | Penna. Base + | | Base | + -----------------------+-------------+------------+-------------- + Color | Water White | White | Water White + Specific Gravity | .811 | .79 | .81 + Boiling Point | 156 deg. C. | 138 deg. C.| 146 deg. C. + Flash-Point | 44 deg. C. | 40.5 deg. C.| 43 deg. C. + Residue on Evaporation | .2 | .15 | .12 + =======================+=============+============+============== + +=Benzol.= "Solvent naphtha" or 160-degree benzol is a product obtained +from the distillation of coal tar, differing from benzine, a product +obtained from the distillation of petroleum. It is a valuable thinner to +use in the reduction of paints for the priming of resinous lumber and +refractory woods such as cypress and yellow pitch pine. The penetrating +and solvent values of benzol are high, and it often furnishes a unison +between paint and wood, that is a prime foundation to subsequent +coatings, preventing the usual scaling and sap exudations which often +appear on a painted surface. Because of the great solvent action of +benzol, it should never be used in second and third coatings. The writer +has successfully painted inferior grades of cypress with a paint +containing benzol in the priming coat. + +=Benzine.= Benzine is seldom used in paints on account of its rapid +evaporation, which is apt to cause pinholing of films and other surface +defects. In paints of the dipping type where rapid evaporation is +essential, benzine finds its widest application. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +A STUDY OF DRIERS AND THEIR EFFECT + + +The proper drying of oils and their behavior with various siccatives in +varying quantity is an interesting problem, and obviously of +considerable importance from a practical standpoint. Unfortunately there +is a decided scarcity of reliable literature dealing with the subject +for the guidance of those concerned in the manufacture or application of +siccative products. Furthermore, when the problem is investigated, it is +not difficult to see why this is so. + +=Uniform Conditions.= At a glance it is evident that a decided obstacle +in experimentation on the drying properties of oils is the difficulty in +obtaining identical conditions for comparative purposes. Inasmuch as a +multitude of factors, such as uniformity and homogeneity of the driers +and the oils themselves, intensity and source of light, temperature, +uniformity of application, and many others, play a decisive part in the +siccative tendencies of oils, the resources and ingenuity of the chemist +engaged in the research are severely taxed. + +=Oxygen Absorption.= It is a well-known fact that linseed oil, when +applied to a clean surface, such as a glass plate, will undergo +oxidation and take up oxygen to the extent of about 16%, forming a hard, +elastic, non-sticky product which has been called linoxyn. This +material, unlike the oil from which it has been formed, is insoluble in +most solvents. Other oils, such as cottonseed, hemp, rape, olive, etc., +are more fully satisfied in nature and have not the power to absorb the +amount of oxygen taken up by linseed oil. + +In carrying out the following tests, on the drying of oils, a quantity +of pure linseed oil of the following analysis was secured: + + Specific gravity at 15 deg. C. 0.934 + Acid number 5 + Saponification number 191-1/2 + Iodine number 188 + +This oil was distributed into a number of 8-oz. oil sample bottles, and +to a series of these bottles was added varying quantities of a very +concentrated drier made by boiling oil to 400 degrees Fahrenheit in an +open kettle, with the subsequent addition of lead oxide. The amount of +drier added to each bottle varied according to the percentage desired; +being calculated on the lead content of the drier, which was very +accurately determined by analysis. + +There was secured in this manner a series of oils containing varying +amounts of lead oxide, and from this lot was selected a certain number +of samples which would be representative and typical of paint vehicles +now found in the market. + +Another series of tests were made by combining with a large number of +samples of pure linseed oil as used above, various percentages of a +manganese drier made by boiling oil at 400 deg. F. and incorporating +therewith manganese dioxide. + +Still another series of tests were made upon a number of oils into which +were incorporated various small quantities of lead oxide and manganese +oxide together, using the standard driers made in the above manner, all +of which were carefully analyzed to determine their contents. + +In view of the errors in manipulation that could occur where so many +tests were made, it was not deemed advisable, in carrying out the tests, +to use glass plates on which only a minute quantity of oil could be +maintained. A much better solution of the difficulty presented itself in +using a series of small, round, crimped-edge tin plates, about three +inches in diameter, such as are used for lids of friction-top cans. + +With paints it is impossible to secure films as thin as those presented +by layers of oil on glass, nor would it be desirable to secure films of +this same relative thickness. For this reason an endeavor was made to +conduct the following tests with films of the same relative thickness as +that possessed by the average coating of paint. The drying of the films +did not take place in the same short period, nor in the same ratio, as +with the thin layer that is secured by flowing oil upon glass. The +results, however, are more practical, and of greater value to the +manufacturer. + +The cans were carefully numbered in consecutive order, corresponding to +the numbers on the various samples of oil. A very small quantity of oil +was placed in each of the can covers, which were previously weighed, and +allowed to distribute itself over the bottom surface thereof. Reweighing +of the covers gave the amount of oil which was taken for each test. The +test samples in the covers were all placed in a large box with glass +sides, having a series of perforated shelves. In the side of this box is +an opening through which a tube was passed, carrying a continual current +of air washed and dried in sulphuric acid. Oxidation of the oil films +commenced at once, and the amount of oxygen absorbed was determined at +suitable periods by weighing, the increase in weight giving this factor. +This test was kept up for a period of twenty days. + +A test was also made in the same manner with a current of damp air +passing into the box, to observe the relative oxidation under such +conditions. A chart of the results obtained has been made (Table VI), to +show the effect of the various driers. + +=Results of Tests.= The following outline will present to the mind of +the reader the most salient points which have been gleaned from these +experiments, and which should give the manufacturer definite knowledge +as to the best percentage of oxides to use either in boiled oil, paints +or varnishes. + +In the case of lead oxide, an increase in the percentage of lead oxide +in the oil causes a relative increase in the oxygen absorption, but when +a very large percentage of lead has been added, the film of oil dries to +a leathery skin. + +In the case of manganese oxide, the increase in oxygen absorption on the +first day is much more pronounced than is the case with lead oxides. +Furthermore, the oxidation of manganese oils seems to be relative to the +increase in manganese up to a certain period, when the reverse of this +law seems to take place, and beyond a certain definite percentage of +manganese, added percentages seem to be of no value. It was furthermore +observed that the films dry to a more brittle and harder skin than is +the case when lead oxide is used. The oxygen absorption with oils high +in manganese has been noticed to be excessive, and the film of oil +becomes surface-coated, drying beneath in a very slow manner; a +condition that often leads to checking. The critical percentage where +the amount of manganese appears to give the greatest efficiency seems to +be 0.02%. This critical percentage, as it may be termed, should not be +exceeded, and any added amount of manganese has the effect of making the +film much more brittle and causes the so-called "burning up" of the +paint. The loading of paint with drier and the bad result therefrom may +be explained to some extent from the above results. + +TABLE VI--LINSEED OIL AND MnO_{2} (MANGANESE) DRIER--TEST NO. 1 + + =========+=========+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+==== + Per cent.| |0.02|0.05|0.15|0.25|0.35|0.45|0.55|0.70|1.00 + MnO_{2} | | | | | | | | | | + ---------+---------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---- + |{ 1 day |0.08|0.11|0.16| -- |3.21|3.46|3.27|3.01|2.76 + |{ 2 days|0.16|5.88|4.48| -- |3.63|4.01|3.70|3.51|3.18 + |{ 3 days|0.21|6.79|4.61| -- |3.83|4.31| -- |3.91| -- + |{ 4 days| -- | -- |4.64| -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- + |{ 5 days|3.01|6.84| -- | -- |4.13|4.68|4.19|3.91|3.99 + |{ 6 days|8.00| -- |4.88| -- |4.37| -- |4.51|4.32|4.13 + Per |{ 7 days|8.58|6.92|4.90| -- |4.48| -- |4.61|4.52|4.23 + cent. |{ 8 days|9.06| -- |5.03| -- |4.55|5.23|4.77|4.62|4.44 + gain |{ 9 days| -- | -- |5.12| -- |4.63|5.40|4.94|4.79|4.51 + |{ 10 days|9.07|6.89|5.18| -- |4.81|5.47| -- |4.98|4.73 + |{ 11 days|9.15|7.03| -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- + |{ 12 days| -- | -- | -- | -- |4.98| -- |5.45|5.33|5.22 + |{ 13 days|9.22|7.17| -- | -- |5.25|6.00|5.60|5.42|5.33 + |{ 14 days|9.25|7.18|5.55| -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- + |{ 20 days| -- |7.21|5.81| -- |5.84|6.70|5.94|5.84|5.77 + =========+=========+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+==== + +TABLE VII--LINSEED OIL AND MnO_{2} (MANGANESE) DRIER--TEST NO. 2 (CHECK) + + =========+=========+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+==== + Per cent.| |0.02|0.05|0.15|0.25|0.35|0.45|0.55|0.70|1.00 + MnO_{2} | | | | | | | | | | + ---------+---------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---- + |{ 1 day | -- |3.12|4.42|3.86| -- |3.19|2.98|3.27|2.56 + |{ 2 days| -- |6.15|4.73| -- | -- |3.51|3.28|3.70|2.96 + |{ 3 days|0.28|6.29| -- |4.12|3.72| -- |3.39|3.71|3.15 + |{ 4 days|3.83|6.32|4.75|4.21|3.87|3.61|3.58|4.05|3.43 + Per |{ 5 days|6.64| -- |4.84|4.23|3.94|3.73|3.65|4.21|3.56 + cent. |{ 6 days|8.61| -- |4.87| -- |4.08|3.81|3.78|4.35|3.73 + gain |{ 7 days|9.07|6.35|5.00|4.41|4.18|3.91|3.85|4.54|3.87 + |{ 9 days|9.25|6.39|5.16| -- |4.44|4.11|4.21|4.63|4.26 + |{ 11 days| -- | -- | -- |4.63|4.59|4.36|4.31|5.07|4.46 + |{ 16 days| -- |6.43|5.30|4.91|4.83|4.72|4.71|5.40|4.87 + =========+=========+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+==== + +TABLE VIII--LINSEED OIL AND PbO (LEAD) DRIER + + =====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+======+======+=====+======+=====+====+==== + Per | | | | | | | | | | | | + cent.| | 0.00| 0.05| 0.10| 0.30| 0.50 | 0.70 | 1.00| 1.30 | 1.60|1.30|1.60 + PbO | | | | | | | | | | | | + -----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+------+-----+------+-----+----+---- + |{ 1 |0.042|0.049|0.092|0.058| 0.066| 0.062|0.062| 0.079|0.039|0.14|0.72 + |{day | | | | | | | | | | | + |{ 2 |0.098|0.104|0.153|0.116| 0.158| -- |0.194| 4.83 |4.79 |5.27|6.11 + |{days| | | | | | | | | | | + |{ 3 |0.128|0.159|0.170|0.137| 0.279| 0.185|7.11 | 8.60 |5.35 |7.89|8.28 + |{days| | | | | | | | | | | + |{ 4 |0.164|0.214|0.206|0.178| -- | 4.07 |7.39 | 9.55 |8.53 |7.93|8.68 + |{days| | | | | | | | | | | + |{ 5 |0.176| -- |0.306| -- | 0.340| 7.60 |7.47 | 9.87 |8.78 |8.18| -- + |{days| | | | | | | | | | | + Per |{ 6 |0.188|0.231| -- |0.243| 0.472| 9.36 |7.64 |10.01 |9.00 |8.24|9.09 + cent.|{days| | | | | | | | | | | + gain |{ 7 |0.206|0.251| -- |0.253| 1.080|10.06 | -- |10.14 | -- | -- | -- + |{days| | | | | | | | | | | + |{ 8 |0.212|0.253| -- |0.280| 4.80 |10.38 |7.70 |10.22 |9.05 | -- | -- + |{days| | | | | | | | | | | + |{ 9 |0.226|0.291|0.306|0.331| 7.36 |10.41 |7.73 |10.23 |9.07 | -- | -- + |{days| | | | | | | | | | | + |{13 |0.327|0.428|0.510|0.674|11.01 |10.67 |7.91 |10.48 |9.29 |8.62| -- + |{days| | | | | | | | | | | + |{15 |0.466|0.455|0.650|2.41 |11.05 | -- |7.92 |10.50 |9.30 | -- | -- + |{days| | | | | | | | | | | + |{20 |0.521|1.08 |1.78 |8.76 |11.25 |10.67 |7.98 |10.52 |9.36 | -- | -- + |{days| | | | | | | | | | | + =====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+======+======+=====+======+=====+====+==== + +TABLE IX--LINSEED OIL AND PbO (LEAD) AND MnO_{2} (MANGANESE)--COMBINATION +DRIER + + =================+========+=====+=====+======+======+====+=====+==== + Per cent. PbO | | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.7 |0.9 | 1.1 |1.4 + -----------------+--------+-----+-----+------+------+----+-----+---- + Per cent. MnO_{2}| |.005 |.015 | 0.025| 0.35 |0.45| 0.55|0.7 + -----------------+--------+-----+-----+------+------+----+-----+---- + |{ 1 day |0.026|0.061| 0.055| 0.022|0.16| 0.11|3.06 + |{ 2 days|0.094|0.087| 0.143| 0.16 |5.21| 6.28|3.37 + |{ 3 days|0.118| -- | 0.17 | 4.23 |7.63| 8.31|3.74 + |{ 4 days| -- |0.11 | 0.23 | 7.36 |8.87| 9.20|4.02 + |{ 5 days|0.120|0.12 | 0.29 | 9.04 |9.13| 9.37|4.17 + Per cent. gain |{ 6 days|0.17 |0.13 | 1.44 | 9.88 |9.26| 9.51|4.34 + |{ 7 days|0.21 |0.18 | 4.65 |10.11 |9.28| -- |4.45 + |{11 days|0.30 |0.26 |10.03 |10.35 |9.61| 9.85|5.11 + |{12 days| -- | -- | -- |10.45 |9.66| -- | -- + |{13 days|0.35 |0.54 |10.37 |10.51 |9.67|10.03|5.33 + |{18 days|0.49 |3.43 |10.38 |10.62 |9.68| -- |5.73 + =================+========+=====+=====+======+======+====+=====+==== + +In the same way with lead driers, excessive amounts of lead oxide seem +to have no beneficial effects on the drying of an oil, and when the +percentage which seems to be the most beneficial, namely 0.5% lead +oxide, is exceeded, the film is apt to become brittle. + +Oils containing lead oxide driers are less influenced in their drying +tendencies by conditions of moisture in the atmosphere than oils +containing manganese, but frequently, however, the former dry much +better in a dry atmosphere. As a general rule, varnishes rich in +manganese dry more quickly in a dry atmosphere, while those containing +small quantities dry more quickly in a damp atmosphere. + +=Volatile Products Formed.= It was furthermore noticed in these tests +that sulphuric acid, placed in dishes on the bottom of the large box in +which the samples of oil were drying, was discolored and turned brown +after several days, showing that the acid had taken up some material of +a volatile nature that was a product of the oxidation. + +Another curious feature of these tests was the development of a peculiar +aromatic odor which was given off by the oils upon drying in dry air. +When the oils were dried in moist air, a rank odor resembling propionic +acid was observed, and this led the observer to believe that a reaction +was effected by the absorbed oxygen, that caused the glycerin combined +with the linoleic acid as linolein to split up into evil-smelling +compounds. It has been suggested that the oxygen first attacks the +glycerin, transforming it into carbonic acid, water, and other volatile +compounds, which are eliminated before the oil is dried to linoxyn. +Toch,[3] however, has shown that the drying of linseed oil gives off +only very small percentages of carbon dioxide. Mulder has observed that +in the process of linseed oil being oxidized, glycerin is set free, +which becomes oxidized to formic, acetic, and other acids, while the +acid radicals are converted by oxygen into the anhydrides, from which +they pass by further oxidation into linoxyn. + + [3] Toch: The Chem. and Tech. of Mixed Paints, p. 89. D. Van Vostand + Co., N. Y. + +=Auto-Oxidation of Oil.= The theory of auto-oxidation of linseed oil has +been very ably treated by Blackler, whose experiments indicated that +during the drying process the slow absorption of oxygen was, at a +critical period, followed by a rapid absorption, which he attributes to +the presence of peroxides. The materials produced by this peroxide +formation may act as catalyzers and accelerate the formation of more +peroxide. Lead and manganese oxides may also be oxidized to peroxides by +the action of oxygen, and in this event might act as very active +catalyzing agents or carriers of oxygen. Blackler's statement, that the +presence of driers do not increase, but have a tendency to decrease the +initial velocity of oxygen absorption, has been confirmed by these +experiments, but it has been noticed throughout the tests that the +driers have an accelerative action at a later period. + +=Effect of Metals on Drying of Oils.= Some most interesting results were +secured by dipping extremely fine copper gauze into linseed oil, and +then suspending the gauze in the air. The adhesion of the oil to the +copper caused the formation of films between the network, and remarkable +drying action was observed. The copper or any superficial coating of +copper oxide which may have been present on the metal, undoubtedly +affected the result to some extent. It has been found that metallic lead +is even more efficient than copper in this respect, but this may be due +to the action of free acid in the linseed oil, forming lead linoleates, +products that greatly accelerate drying. Another interesting experiment +was made by immersing pieces of gauze cloth in linseed oil. After the +excess oil had been removed, by pressing, the cloth was again weighed to +determine the amount of oil used for the experiment. The increase in +oxygen absorption in this case was very rapid, and the result obtained +confirmed the results in the other experiments. + +In order to secure a more evenly distributed state of the oil, tests +were conducted by saturating pieces of stiff blotting papers, and, after +exposure, weighing as usual. + +=Influence of Light.= The influence of light on the drying of oils is +unquestionably a potent one. The practical painter knows that a certain +varnish will dry quicker when exposed to the light than when in the +dark. + +Chevreul was one of the first pioneers in this field of research to +observe the effects of colored lights on drying, and he claimed that oil +exposed under white glass dried more rapidly than when exposed under red +glass, which eliminates all light of short wave lengths. + +Genthe obtained interesting results in the drying of oil submitted to +the effect of the mercury lamp. Oxidation without driers was effected +probably through the formation of peroxides. In commenting on this +subject, Blackler[4] gives a description of the use of the Uveol Lamp, +which is similar to the mercury lamp, but has, instead of a glass casing +which cuts off the valuable rays, a fused-quartz casing which allows +their passage. + + [4] M. B. Blackler: "The Use and Abuse of Driers," P. and V. Society, + London, Sept. 9, 1909. + +=Driers in Boiled Oil.= In the boiling of linseed oil, by certain +processes the oil is heated to 250 deg. F. and manganese resinate is +incorporated therein. It goes into solution quite rapidly. In other +processes the oil is heated to 400 deg. F. or over, and manganese as an +oxide is boiled into the oil. Although it is unsafe to say that a small +percentage of rosin, such as would be introduced by the use of resinate +driers, is not harmful, yet it appears that this process should give a +good oil, inasmuch as it has been found that no matter whether the +manganese is added to the oil, as a resinate, borate or oxide, +practically the same drying effect is noticed in every case where the +percentage of manganese is the same. It is the opinion of some, however, +that the resinate driers are not as well suited for durability as oxide +driers. However, if a boiled oil is found to contain on analysis a small +percentage of rosin less than 0.5% or a percentage only sufficient to +combine with the metal present, it should not be suspected of +adulteration. Practical tests should be made with such oil along with an +oil made with an oxide drier, before pronouncing on their relative +values. Inasmuch as the addition of certain driers to linseed oil +lessens the durability of the film, it is more practical to use the +smallest amount of drier that will serve the purpose desired, that is, +set the oil up to a hard condition which will not take dust and which +will stand abrasion. + +The results of this investigation would indicate that when lead or +manganese linoleates are used, the most efficient drying is shown with +0.5% lead or with 0.02% manganese, or with a combination of 0.5% lead +and 0.02% manganese. + +Until more definite results have been obtained with the _tungates_, +which will probably prove of exceptional interest as driers, the above +driers will probably be used to the greatest extent. + +=Co-operative Drying Tests.= A series of important drying tests made by +members of a special committee[5] appointed by the American Society for +Testing Materials, of which the writer was chairman, is herewith shown: + + [5] Sub-Committee C of Committee D-1, on Testing Paint Vehicles. Proc. + Amer. Soc. for Test. Mater., 1911. + +"At the January meeting of Committee D-1, a sub-committee consisting of +the following members was appointed to investigate paint vehicles: + + G. B. Heckel, + Glenn H. Pickard, + Allen Rogers, + A. H. Sabin, + H. A. Gardner, _Chairman_. + +"At a subsequent meeting of the sub-committee it was determined to start +the investigations with a series of tests on certain drying, +semi-drying, and non-drying oils, determining their drying values, rate +of oxygen absorption, etc., when spread out in thin films. A quantity of +the following oils was selected for the tests and subsequently secured +from sources known to be reliable: + + Lead and manganese linoleate drier.[6] + Lithographic linseed oil. + Boiled linseed oil (resinate type). + Boiled linseed oil (linoleate type). + Blown linseed oil (containing drier while being blown). + Heavy mineral oil. + Rosin oil. + Soya bean oil. + Corn oil. + Cottonseed oil. + Sunflower oil. + Menhaden oil. + Chinese wood oil, raw. + Chinese wood oil, treated. + Perilla oil.[7] + Lumbang oil.[7] + Dry rosin 20%, boiled in 80% linseed oil. + + [6] The drier used, upon analysis, showed the presence of 4.36% PbO + and 2.51% MnO_{2}. + + [7] The lumbang and perilla oils were imported and arrived subsequent + to the starting of the tests. They were therefore not included in + the tests. + +"Four-ounce sample bottles of each oil were sent to the Committee +members, with the request to proceed with the tests along the lines +agreed upon at the Committee meeting. The instructions for making these +tests are outlined as follows: + +(_a_) A series of small glass plates, approximately 5 by 7 ins., are to +be prepared by each member of the Committee. These plates are to be +thoroughly cleaned and carefully numbered and weighed upon a chemical +balance. The oils to be used for the tests are to be numbered +corresponding to the plates. A test of each oil is to be made by +painting it upon the surface of a glass plate with a camel's-hair brush, +subsequently weighing the plate and the oil. These tests are to be +exposed under constant conditions of temperature, if possible, for three +weeks' time, making weighings of each plate every day for six days and +then every other day for twelve days. + +(_b_) Another series of tests shall be made, in which 80% of raw linseed +oil is to be combined with each of the above oils named. Previous to +making any of the tests, _there should be added to each oil, or to each +combination, 5% of a drier containing lead and manganese_. The drier to +be used is of the standard grade submitted, together with the oil +samples. The results of the tests are to be charted and submitted at the +end of the tests, so that they may be compared with the results obtained +by each member of the Committee. + +(_c_) If possible, the oils and mixture of oils used in the above tests +are to be ground with pure silica and painted out upon sized paper, +three-coat work, the films to be stripped and tested for strength upon a +paint filmometer, at two periods two months apart." + +The drying of oils to a firm surface when spread in a thin layer is +accompanied by an increase in weight, due to the absorption of oxygen. +The percentage of oxygen absorbed often affords a criterion of the +drying of the oil under examination, and this factor, together with data +regarding the appearance of the oil film, should be taken into +consideration when judging the value of an oil or oil mixture. +Conditions of light, air, temperature, etc., often cause great +variations in the drying of oils and the percentage of oxygen absorbed, +as shown by the results obtained in the following tests. Although it was +impossible in these tests to have the conditions under which each +experimenter worked parallel in nature, the tests afford nevertheless +considerable information for guiding future work of a similar nature. + +An examination of the results obtained showed generally that the +greatest increase in weight occurred during the period in which the oil +dried up to a firm film. This occurred in most cases within 48 hours. +After this period a slight increase in weight was often noticed, and +then a more or less steady decline, varying with the oil examined. Had +the oil tests been continued for a greater length of time, a much +greater loss might have been observed. + +It was impossible to include in the tests the oil-silica film work, on +account of lack of time. It is believed, however, that these tests +should be conducted, as they would throw much light on the elasticity +and strength given to paint films by various oils. + + TABLE I.--(_a_) BOILED LINSEED OIL (RESINATE TYPE) 100 PER CENT. + + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Observer. | Gardner | Sabin | Pickard | { Rogers } + | | | | { North } + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Wt. of Oil for | 0.1997 | 0.6242 | 0.5027 | 0.6024 + Test, grams | | | | + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + | 1 | 11.9 | 14.42 | 10.21 | 13.69 + | 2 | 12.5 | 13.37 | 10.00 | 13.01 + | 3 | 12.7 | 12.53 | 9.57 | 12.50 + | 4 | 13.1 | 11.7 | 9.65 | 12.29 + | 5 | 12.8 | 11.03 | 8.99 | 12.00 + | 6 | 12.7 | -- | -- | 12.25 + | 7 | -- | 10.17 | 8.57 | -- + | 8 | 12.7 | 10.34 | -- | 11.64 + | 9 | -- | 10.12 | 8.93 | -- + Percentage | 10 | 12.6 | 10.00 | -- | 10.73 + Increase | 11 | -- | -- | 8.81 | -- + in Weight, | 12 | 12.8 | 9.69 | -- | 10.68 + in Days. | 13 | -- | -- | 9.31 | -- + | 14 | 12.8 | -- | -- | 11.18 + | 15 | -- | 9.04 | 9.43 | -- + | 16 | 12.7 | -- | -- | 10.68 + | 17 | -- | 8.68 | -- | -- + | 18 | 12.9 | -- | 9.11 | -- + | 19 | -- | 8.13 | -- | -- + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Remarks. |Dried to | | |Tacky at end + |firm, smooth| | |of 1st day. + |film in 2 | | |Nearly dry, + |days | | |end of 2d day. + | | | |Perfectly dry, + | | | |end of 10th + | | | |day. + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + + (_b_) BOILED LINSEED OIL (RESINATE TYPE) 20 PER CENT. + RAW LINSEED OIL 80 PER CENT. + + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Observer. | Gardner | Sabin | Pickard | { Rogers } + | | | | { North } + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Wt. of Oil for | 0.1933 | 0.3660 | 0.4640 | -- + Test, grams | | | | + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + | 1 | 13.6 | 0.57 | 12.48 | -- + | 2 | 14.7 | 1.66 | 11.92 | -- + | 3 | 14.9 | 10.50 | 11.49 | -- + | 4 | 14.9 | 13.30 | 11.10 | -- + | 5 | 14.8 | -- | 10.84 | -- + | 6 | 14.8 | -- | -- | -- + | 7 | -- | 12.51 | 9.48 | -- + | 8 | 14.8 | -- | -- | -- + | 9 | -- | 11.40 | 7.41 | -- + Percentage | 10 | 14.8 | -- | -- | -- + Increase | 11 | -- | -- | 7.56 | -- + in Weight, | 12 | 14.7 | 10.20 | -- | -- + in Days. | 13 | -- | -- | 8.36 | -- + | 14 | 14.5 | -- | -- | -- + | 15 | -- | 9.84 | 8.54 | -- + | 16 | 14.7 | -- | -- | -- + | 17 | -- | -- | -- | -- + | 18 | 14.7 | -- | 8.51 | -- + | 19 | -- | -- | -- | -- + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Remarks. |Dried to | | | + |firm, smooth| | | + |film in 2 | | | + |days. | | | + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + + TABLE II.--(_a_) BOILED LINSEED OIL (LINOLEATE TYPE) 100 PER CENT. + + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------- + Observer. | Gardner | Sabin | Pickard | { Rogers } + | | | | { North } + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------- + Wt. of Oil for | 0.1226 | 0.5384 | 0.5696 | 0.3306 + Test, grams | | | | + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + | 1 | 10.9 | 14.34 | 10.25 | 12.09 + | 2 | 12.2 | 13.26 | 10.41 | 11.33 + | 3 | 12.7 | 12.18 | 10.22 | 10.94 + | 4 | 12.5 | 11.29 | 10.16 | 11.10 + | 5 | 12.8 | 10.75 | 9.90 | 10.86 + | 6 | 12.2 | -- | -- | 11.25 + | 7 | -- | 9.88 | 9.60 | -- + | 8 | 12.2 | 10.25 | -- | 10.87 + | 9 | -- | 10.01 | 9.72 | -- + Percentage | 10 | 12.4 | 9.91 | -- | 9.72 + Increase | 11 | -- | -- | 9.48 | -- + in Weight, | 12 | 12.1 | 9.60 | -- | 10.02 + in Days. | 13 | -- | -- | 9.97 | -- + | 14 | 12. | -- | -- | 10.62 + | 15 | -- | 9.12 | 10.36 | -- + | 16 | 12.1 | -- | -- | 10.46 + | 17 | -- | 8.37 | -- | -- + | 18 | 12.1 | -- | 9.59 | -- + | 19 | -- | 8.30 | -- | -- + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Remarks. |Dried firmly| | |Tacky at end + |with smooth,| | |of 1st day. + |even film in| | |Slightly + |2 days. | | |tacky, end 2d + | | | |day. Dry, but + | | | |curled, end of + | | | |10th day. + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + + (_b_) BOILED LINSEED OIL (LINOLEATE TYPE) 20 PER CENT. + RAW LINSEED OIL 80 PER CENT. + + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Observer. | Gardner | Sabin | Pickard | { Rogers } + | | | | { North } + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Wt. of Oil for | 0.1843 | 0.5790 | 0.4653 | -- + Test, grams | | | | + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + | 1 | 11.8 | 10.14 | 12.40 | -- + | 2 | 13.9 | 15.71 | 11.90 | -- + | 3 | 15.1 | 13.29 | 11.50 | -- + | 4 | 15.2 | 12.12 | 11.11 | -- + | 5 | 15.0 | 11.43 | 10.90 | -- + | 6 | 14.6 | -- | -- | -- + | 7 | -- | 10.05 | 9.37 | -- + | 8 | 14.6 | 10.26 | -- | -- + | 9 | -- | 9.55 | 8.53 | -- + Percentage | 10 | 14.5 | 9.32 | -- | -- + Increase | 11 | -- | -- | 7.48 | -- + in Weight, | 12 | 14.4 | 8.84 | -- | -- + in Days. | 13 | -- | -- | 8.43 | -- + | 14 | 14.4 | -- | -- | -- + | 15 | -- | 8.46 | 8.02 | -- + | 16 | 14.6 | -- | -- | -- + | 17 | -- | 7.68 | -- | -- + | 18 | 14.7 | -- | 7.27 | -- + | 19 | -- | 7.55 | -- | -- + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Remarks. |Dried with | | | + |smooth film | | | + |in 2 days. | | | + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + + TABLE III.--(_a_) LITHOGRAPHIC LINSEED OIL 100 PER CENT. + + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------- + Observer. | Gardner | Sabin | Pickard | { Rogers } + | | | | { North } + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Wt. of Oil for | 0.4011 | 0.8733 | 0.8812 | 2.7318 + Test, grams | | | | + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+------------- + | 1 | 6.9 | 0.87 | 3.60 | .051 + | 2 | 8.5 | 3.85 | 5.10 | .051 + | 3 | 8.9 | 5.14 | 5.00 | .051 + | 4 | 8.9 | 6.07 | 6.78 | .041 + | 5 | 8.7 | 6.40 | 6.97 | .081 + | 6 | 8.0 | -- | -- | .169 + | 7 | -- | 6.84 | 7.38 | -- + | 8 | 8.0 | 7.22 | -- | .19 + | 9 | -- | 7.36 | 7.42 | -- + Percentage | 10 | 8.0 | 7.57 | -- | .752 + Increase | 11 | -- | -- | 7.44 | -- + in Weight, | 12 | 8.0 | 7.75 | -- | 1.184 + in Days. | 13 | -- | -- | 8.01 | -- + | 14 | 8.4 | -- | -- | 1.641 + | 15 | -- | 7.98 | 8.03 | -- + | 16 | 8.4 | -- | -- | 2.00 + | 17 | -- | 7.83 | -- | -- + | 18 | 8.3 | -- | 7.99 | -- + | 19 | -- | 7.80 | -- | -- + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Remarks. |Dried to | | |Remained + |glossy, firm| | |sticky to 10 + |film, | | |days, and even + |slightly | | |at end of 38 + |crinkled in | | |days was + |2 days. Oil | | |slightly + |made very | | |tacky. + |thick film | | | + |on account | | | + |of heavy | | | + |body. | | | + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + + (_b_) LITHOGRAPHIC LINSEED OIL 20 PER CENT. + RAW LINSEED OIL 80 PER CENT. + + ----------------+------------+-----------+----------- + Observer. | Gardner | Sabin | Pickard + | | | + ----------------+------------+-----------+----------- + Wt. of Oil for | 0.1300 | 0.7750 | 0.6538 + Test, grams | | | + -----------+----+------------+-----------+----------- + | 1 | 10.2 | 11.35 | 9.94 + | 2 | 11.3 | 11.48 | 10.41 + | 3 | 11.9 | 10.93 | 10.39 + | 4 | 12.0 | 10.77 | 10.35 + | 5 | 11.8 | 10.25 | 9.93 + | 6 | 11.8 | -- | -- + | 7 | -- | 9.51 | 9.54 + | 8 | 11.8 | 9.93 | -- + | 9 | -- | 9.80 | 9.36 + Percentage | 10 | 11.8 | 9.68 | -- + Increase | 11 | -- | -- | 8.99 + in Weight, | 12 | 11.8 | 9.65 | -- + in Days. | 13 | -- | -- | 9.61 + | 14 | 11.8 | -- | -- + | 15 | -- | 9.51 | 9.70 + | 16 | 11.9 | -- | -- + | 17 | -- | 9.07 | -- + | 18 | 11.9 | -- | 9.13 + | 19 | -- | 8.67 | -- + -----------+----+------------+-----------+----------- + Remarks. |Dried to | | + |firm, glossy| | + |film in 2 | | + |days. | | + ----------------+------------+-----------+----------- + + TABLE IV.--(_A_) BLOWN LINSEED OIL 100 PER CENT. + + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Observer. | Gardner | Sabin | Pickard | { Rogers } + | | | | { North } + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Wt. of Oil for | 0.2105 | 0.8394 | 0.8457 | 1.0398 + Test, grams | | | | + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + | 1 | 8.5 | 9.30 | 5.07 | 4.41 + | 2 | 10.2 | 8.97 | 6.16 | 4.91 + | 3 | 10.2 | 5.30 | 6.48 | 5.22 + | 4 | 10.2 | 9.30 | 6.94 | 5.62 + | 5 | 10.0 | 8.99 | 6.73 | 5.73 + | 6 | 9.9 | -- | -- | 6.06 + | 7 | -- | 8.49 | 6.99 | -- + | 8 | 9.8 | 8.89 | -- | 6.43 + | 9 | -- | 8.73 | 6.89 | -- + Percentage | 10 | 9.8 | 8.89 | -- | 6.18 + Increase | 11 | -- | -- | 7.11 | -- + in Weight, | 12 | 9.7 | 8.73 | -- | 6.51 + in Days. | 13 | -- | -- | 7.60 | -- + | 14 | 9.8 | -- | -- | 6.95 + | 15 | -- | 8.52 | 7.95 | -- + | 16 | 9.8 | -- | -- | 7.00 + | 17 | -- | 8.07 | -- | -- + | 18 | 9.9 | -- | 7.86 | -- + | 19 | -- | 7.74 | -- | -- + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Remarks. |Ropiness of | | |Formed skin, + |oil made | | |end 1st day. + |very thick | | |Slightly + |film, but | | |tacky end 2nd; + |dried in | | |dry, but + |less than 2 | | |curled, end of + |days to | | |10th day. + |smooth film.| | | + |Films | | | + |exhibited | | | + |ridges. | | | + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + + (_b_)BLOWN LINSEED OIL 20 PER CENT. + RAW LINSEED OIL 80 PER CENT. + + ----------------+------------+-----------+----------- + Observer. | Gardner | Sabin | Pickard + | | | + ----------------+------------+-----------+----------- + Wt. of Oil for | 0.0774 | 0.5329 | 0.6218 + Test, grams | | | + -----------+----+------------+-----------+----------- + | 1 | 10.4 | 11.82 | 10.71 + | 2 | 12.8 | 12.76 | -- + | 3 | 13.1 | 10.98 | -- + | 4 | 12.9 | 10.39 | -- + | 5 | 12.1 | 9.81 | -- + | 6 | 11.9 | -- | -- + | 7 | -- | 8.69 | -- + | 8 | 12.0 | 9.15 | -- + | 9 | -- | 8.91 | -- + Percentage | 10 | 11.8 | 8.97 | -- + Increase | 11 | -- | -- | -- + in Weight, | 12 | 11.8 | 8.67 | -- + in Days. | 13 | -- | -- | -- + | 14 | 11.7 | -- | -- + | 15 | -- | 8.22 | -- + | 16 | 11.6 | -- | -- + | 17 | -- | 7.63 | -- + | 18 | 11.8 | -- | -- + | 19 | -- | 7.32 | -- + -----------+----+------------+-----------+----------- + Remarks. |Dried to | |Glass broke. + |very glossy | | + |film in 2 | | + |days. | | + ----------------+------------+-----------+----------- + + TABLE V.--(_a_) MINERAL OIL 100 PER CENT. + + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Observer. | Gardner | Sabin | Pickard | { Rogers } + | | | | { North } + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Wt. of Oil for | 0.1632 | -- | -- | 0.1975 + Test, grams | | | | + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + | 1 | [8]12.5 | -- | -- | [8] 8.12 + | 2 | [8]14.2 | -- | -- | [8]16.22 + | 3 | [8]16.7 | -- | -- | [8]21.23 + | 4 | [8]19.4 | -- | -- | [8]25.58 + | 5 | [8]19.4 | -- | -- | [8]28.41 + | 6 | [8]19.5 | -- | -- | [8]28.92 + | 7 | -- | -- | -- | -- + | 8 | [8]19.5 | -- | -- | [8]35.25 + | 9 | -- | -- | -- | -- + Percentage | 10 | [8]19.5 | -- | -- | [8]35.76 + Increase | 11 | -- | -- | -- | -- + in Weight, | 12 | [8]19.3 | -- | -- | [8]43.86 + in Days. | 13 | -- | -- | -- | -- + | 14 | [8]19.4 | -- | -- | [8]45.28 + | 15 | -- | -- | -- | -- + | 16 | [8]19.5 | -- | -- | [8]48.08 + | 17 | -- | -- | -- | -- + | 18 | [8]19.5 | -- | -- | -- + | 19 | -- | -- | -- | -- + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Remarks. |Oil lost in |Broken be- |Broken be- |Remained oily + |weight |fore weigh-|fore weigh-|during entire + |throughout |ings were |ings were |test. + |test on ac- |made. |made. | + |count of | | | + |presence of | | | + |volatiles. | | | + |No drying | | | + |action ob- | | | + |served. Film| | | + |wet at end | | | + |of test. | | | + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + + [8] Lost in weight throughout test. + + (_b_) MINERAL OIL 20 PER CENT. + RAW LINSEED OIL 80 PER CENT. + + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Observer. | Gardner | Sabin | Pickard | { Rogers } + | | | | { North } + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Wt. of Oil for | 0.1884 | 0.5663 | 0.405 | 0.2598 + Test, grams | | | | + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + | 1 | 6.4 | 11.51 | [9]9.66 | [9]6.69 + | 2 | 6.8 | 8.21 | [9]8.92 | [9]5.06 + | 3 | 7.2 | 6.51 | [9]6.82 | [9]2.88 + | 4 | 7.8 | 5.19 | [9]6.03 | [9]1.52 + | 5 | 8.1 | 4.36 | [9]4.68 | [9]1.29 + | 6 | 7.9 | -- | -- | [9]1.68 + | 7 | -- | 2.72 | [9]2.64 | -- + | 8 | 7.9 | 3.12 | -- |[10]2.07 + | 9 | -- | 2.82 |[10]0.30 | -- + Percentage | 10 | 8.1 | 2.59 | -- |[10]0.08 + Increase | 11 | -- | -- |[10]0.56 | -- + in Weight, | 12 | 7.8 | 2.35 | -- |[10]0.93 + in Days. | 13 | -- | -- |[10]0.04 | -- + | 14 | 7.8 | -- | -- |[10]0.54 + | 15 | -- | 1.36 |[10]0.14 | -- + | 16 | 7.8 | -- | -- | -- + | 17 | -- | 0.53 | -- | -- + | 18 | 7.8 | -- |[10]0.86 | -- + | 19 | -- |[10]0.14 | -- | -- + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Remarks. |Fair drying | | |Sticky, end of + |observed end| | |1st day; + |of 2d day. | | |tacky, end of + |Film tacky | | |2d day and end + |until end | | |of 38 days. + |8th day; | | | + |after that, | | | + |fairly firm | | | + |film shown. | | | + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + + [9] Gained in weight throughout test. + + [10] Lost in weight throughout test. + + TABLE VI.--(_a_) SOYA BEAN OIL 100 PER CENT. + + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Observer. | Gardner | Sabin | Pickard | { Rogers } + | | | | { North } + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Wt. of Oil for | 0.1377 | 0.3972 | 0.4366 | 0.3564 + Test, grams | | | | + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + | 1 | 7.5 | 9.79 | 9.87 | 8.25 + | 2 | 8.4 | 9.69 | 9.87 | 7.58 + | 3 | 9.5 | 8.56 | 9.35 | 7.02 + | 4 | 12.8 | 7.60 | 8.66 | 6.74 + | 5 | 12.9 | 7.09 | 8.13 | 6.46 + | 6 | 12.7 | -- | -- | 6.74 + | 7 | -- | 6.00 | 6.44 | -- + | 8 | 12.6 | 6.22 | -- | 6.46 + | 9 | -- | 6.00 | 4.88 | -- + Percentage | 10 | 12.5 | 5.54 | -- | 5.40 + Increase | 11 | -- | -- | 4.26 | -- + in Weight, | 12 | 12.4 | 5.36 | -- | 5.59 + in Days. | 13 | -- | -- | 4.99 | -- + | 14 | 12.3 | -- | -- | 5.80 + | 15 | -- | 4.73 | 4.94 | -- + | 16 | 12.3 | -- | -- | 5.67 + | 17 | -- | 4.23 | -- | -- + | 18 | 12.3 | -- | 4.94 | -- + | 19 | -- | 3.70 | -- | -- + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Remarks. |Film tacky | | |Sticky, end of + |until 3d | | |1st day; + |day. Clear | | |tacky, end of + |and fairly | | |2d day; + |firm after | | |slightly + |4th day. | | |tacky, end of + | | | |10th and 38th + | | | |days. + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + + (_b_) SOYA BEAN OIL 20 PER CENT. + RAW LINSEED OIL 80 PER CENT. + + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Observer. | Gardner | Sabin | Pickard | { Rogers } + | | | | { North } + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Wt. of Oil for | 0.2218 | 0.2877 | 0.4581 | 0.2249 + Test, grams | | | | + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + | 1 | 11.5 | 12.78 | 13.16 | 11.74 + | 2 | 11.8 | 12.78 | 12.64 | 12.27 + | 3 | 12.5 | 11.74 | 11.84 | 10.38 + | 4 | 13.9 | 12.23 | 11.50 | 9.43 + | 5 | 14.0 | 10.60 | 11.01 | 9.66 + | 6 | 14.0 | -- | -- | 9.75 + | 7 | -- | 9.35 | 9.15 | -- + | 8 | 14.1 | 10.08 | -- | 10.29 + | 9 | -- | 9.76 | 7.29 | -- + Percentage | 10 | 14.1 | 9.59 | -- | 9.08 + Increase | 11 | -- | -- | 6.61 | -- + in Weight, | 12 | 13.8 | 9.59 | -- | 8.18 + in Days. | 13 | -- | -- | 7.43 | -- + | 14 | 13.6 | -- | -- | 8.95 + | 15 | -- | 9.00 | 6.96 | -- + | 16 | 13.6 | -- | -- | -- + | 17 | -- | 8.09 | -- | -- + | 18 | 13.6 | -- | 6.66 | -- + | 19 | -- | 8.00 | -- | -- + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Remarks. |Clear, firm | | |Tacky at end + |film ob- | | |of 1st and 2d + |served at | | |days. Dry, end + |end of 2d | | |10th day. + |day. | | | + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + + TABLE VII.--(_a_) ROSIN OIL 100 PER CENT. + + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Observer. | Gardner | Sabin | Pickard | { Rogers } + | | | | { North } + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Wt. of Oil for | 0.2590 | -- | -- | 0.4822 + Test, grams | | | | + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + | 1 | 1.5 | -- | -- | 2.24 + | 2 | 1.5 | -- | -- | 2.53 + | 3 | 1.8 | -- | -- | 2.32 + | 4 | 3.0 | -- | -- | 1.27 + | 5 | 5.2 | -- | -- | 1.06 + | 6 | 4.9 | -- | -- | 0.66 + | 7 | -- | -- | -- | -- + | 8 | 4.8 | -- | -- | 0.24 + | 9 | -- | -- | -- | -- + Percentage | 10 | 4.8 | -- | -- | 0.78 + Increase | 11 | -- | -- | -- | -- + in Weight, | 12 | 4.8 | -- | -- | 0.68 + in Days. | 13 | -- | -- | -- | -- + | 14 | 4.8 | -- | -- | 0.41 + | 15 | -- | -- | -- | -- + | 16 | 4.8 | -- | -- | 0.39 + | 17 | -- | -- | -- | -- + | 18 | 4.8 | -- | -- | -- + | 19 | -- | -- | -- | -- + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Remarks. |Tacky | |Too much |Oily on 1st + |throughout | |on. Showed |and 2d days. + |test. | |constantly |Tacky, end of + | | |increasing |10 and 38 + | | |loss owing |days. + | | |to the fact| + | | | that it | + | | |did not dry| + | | |and ran off| + | | |glass. | + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + + TABLE VII.--(_b_) ROSIN OIL 20 PER CENT. + RAW LINSEED OIL 80 PER CENT. + + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Observer. | Gardner | Sabin | Pickard | { Rogers } + | | | | { North } + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Wt. of Oil for | 0.1636 | 0.7105 | 0.4016 | 0.3263 + Test, grams | | | | + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + | 1 | 7.4 | 6.64 | 12.21 | 11.48 + | 2 | 7.8 | 6.40 | 11.45 | 12.02 + | 3 | 8.5 | 6.05 | 11.13 | 10.60 + | 4 | 8.5 | 5.63 | 10.53 | 10.26 + | 5 | 8.4 | 5.23 | 10.13 | 10.42 + | 6 | 8.1 | -- | -- | 10.42 + | 7 | -- | 4.42 | 8.8 | -- + | 8 | 8.0 | 4.92 | -- | 10.95 + | 9 | -- | 4.83 | 8.12 | -- + Percentage | 10 | 8.0 | 4.57 | -- | 9.96 + Increase | 11 | -- | -- | 7.45 | -- + in Weight, | 12 | 8.0 | 4.68 | -- | 9.53 + in Days. | 13 | -- | -- | 8.27 | -- + | 14 | 7.9 | -- | -- | 9.96 + | 15 | -- | 4.13 | 8.52 | -- + | 16 | 7.9 | -- | -- | -- + | 17 | -- | 3.81 | -- | -- + | 18 | 8.2 | -- | 8.62 | -- + | 19 | -- | 3.43 | -- | -- + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Remarks. |Film dried | | |Oily at end of + |up nicely | | |1st and 2d + |during 3d | | |days. Slightly + |day, but re-| | |tacky, end of + |mained | | |10th day. + |slightly | | | + |soft. | | | + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + + TABLE VIII.--(_a_) CORN OIL 100 PER CENT. + + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Observer. | Gardner | Sabin | Pickard | { Rogers } + | | | | { North } + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Wt. of Oil for | 0.0574 | 0.5858 | 0.4981 | 0.3300 + Test, grams | | | | + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + | 1 | 1.9 |[11]0.22 | 1.22 | 4.63 + | 2 | 4.2 | 7.03 | 5.86 | 7.27 + | 3 | 4.6 | 8.79 | 7.27 | 7.14 + | 4 | 4.8 | 7.43 |[12]11.35 | 6.99 + | 5 | 7.5 | 7.17 | 11.35 | 6.69 + | 6 | 7.1 | -- | -- | 6.93 + | 7 | -- | 5.85 | 11.37 | -- + | 8 | 7.1 | 6.02 | -- | 6.84 + | 9 | -- | 5.84 | 6.26 | -- + Percentage | 10 | 7.1 | 5.58 | -- | 5.11 + Increase | 11 | -- | -- | 4.97 | -- + in Weight, | 12 | 7.2 | 5.38 | -- | 5.17 + in Days. | 13 | -- | -- | 5.62 | -- + | 14 | 7.1 | -- | -- | 5.38 + | 15 | -- | 4.78 | 5.34 | -- + | 16 | 7.0 | -- | -- | 5.17 + | 17 | -- | 4.15 | -- | -- + | 18 | 6.9 | -- | 5.34 | -- + | 19 | -- | 3.63 | -- | -- + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Remarks. |Film soft | | | + |and sticky | | | + |throughout | | | + |test. Very | | | + |soapy in | | | + |appearance. | | | + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + + [11] Lost in weight throughout test. + + [12] Moth got in. + + (_b_) CORN OIL 20 PER CENT. + RAW LINSEED OIL 80 PER CENT. + + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Observer. | Gardner | Sabin | Pickard | { Rogers } + | | | | { North } + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Wt. of Oil for | 0.1664 | 0.5469 | 0.3716 | 0.1711 + Test, grams | | | | + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + | 1 | 7.5 | 13.01 | 13.81 | 11.87 + | 2 | 8.4 | 12.41 | 12.92 | 11.69 + | 3 | 8.6 | -- | 12.16 | 9.78 + | 4 | 10.2 | 11.13 | 11.71 | 8.33 + | 5 | 10.4 | 11.52 | 11.11 | 8.50 + | 6 | 10.6 | -- | -- | 8.62 + | 7 | -- | 11.22 | 9.23 | -- + | 8 | 10.5 | 10.98 | -- | 9.61 + | 9 | -- | 10.38 | 8.29 | -- + Percentage | 10 | 10.3 | 9.64 | -- | 8.16 + Increase | 11 | -- | -- | 7.24 | -- + in Weight, | 12 | 10.3 | 9.07 | -- | 7.00 + in Days. | 13 | -- | -- | 8.42 | -- + | 14 | 10.3 | -- | -- | 8.28 + | 15 | -- | 8.38 | 8.26 | -- + | 16 | 10.2 | -- | -- | -- + | 17 | -- | 8.77 | -- | -- + | 18 | 10.0 | -- | 7.94 | -- + | 19 | -- | -- | -- | -- + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Remarks. |Film tacky | | |Tacky, end of + |at end of | | |1st and 2d + |test. | | |days. Dry, end + | | | |10th day. + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + + TABLE IX.--(_a_) COTTON SEED OIL 100 PER CENT. + + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Observer. | Gardner | Sabin | Pickard | { Rogers } + | | | | { North } + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Wt. of Oil for | 0.2026 | 0.7247 | 0.4135 | 0.3583 + Test, grams | | | | + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + | 1 | 4.5 | 8.03 | 7.04 | 6.67 + | 2 | 4.8 | 7.48 | 7.16 | 5.61 + | 3 | 4.8 | 6.68 | 6.62 | 4.85 + | 4 | 5.1 | 6.00 | 6.24 | 4.65 + | 5 | 8.6 | 5.65 | 5.78 | 4.37 + | 6 | 8.7 | -- | -- | 4.71 + | 7 | -- | 4.85 | 3.72 | -- + | 8 | 8.1 | 5.09 | -- | 4.57 + | 9 | -- | 4.95 | 2.08 | -- + Percentage | 10 | 7.9 | 4.80 | -- | 2.97 + Increase | 11 | -- | -- | 1.72 | -- + in Weight, | 12 | 8.0 | -- | -- | 3.11 + in Days. | 13 | -- | -- | 2.52 | -- + | 14 | 8.0 | -- | -- | 3.39 + | 15 | -- | -- | 2.35 | -- + | 16 | 8.1 | -- | -- | 3.39 + | 17 | -- | -- | -- | -- + | 18 | 8.0 | -- | 2.32 | -- + | 19 | -- | -- | -- | -- + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Remarks. |Film showed | | |Slightly + |very little | | |tacky, end + |hardening | | |10th and 38th + |and remained| | |days. + |soft and | | | + |tacky. | | | + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + + (_b_) COTTON SEED OIL 20 PER CENT. + RAW LINSEED OIL 80 PER CENT. + + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Observer. | Gardner | Sabin | Pickard | { Rogers } + | | | | { North } + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Wt. of Oil for | 0.1516 | 0.9498 | 0.6160 | 0.2553 + Test, grams | | | | + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + | 1 | 8.5 | 11.00 | 10.94 | 11.83 + | 2 | 8.7 | 11.15 | 10.81 | 11.83 + | 3 | 9.1 | 10.58 | 10.51 | 10.15 + | 4 | 10.8 | 10.17 | 10.37 | 9.29 + | 5 | 11.9 | 9.82 | 9.87 | 9.29 + | 6 | 11.8 | -- | -- | 9.45 + | 7 | -- | 9.02 | 8.93 | -- + | 8 | 11.9 | 9.42 | -- | 10.00 + | 9 | -- | 9.35 | 8.90 | -- + Percentage | 10 | 11.9 | 9.27 | -- | 8.95 + Increase | 11 | -- | -- | 8.70 | -- + in Weight, | 12 | 11.8 | 9.32 | -- | 8.06 + in Days. | 13 | -- | -- | 9.29 | -- + | 14 | 11.8 | -- | -- | 8.61 + | 15 | -- | 8.81 | 9.63 | -- + | 16 | 11.8 | -- | -- | -- + | 17 | -- | 8.24 | -- | -- + | 18 | 10.7 | -- | 8.47 | -- + | 19 | -- | 7.92 | -- | -- + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Remarks. |Fair drying | | |Tacky on 1st + |observed at | | |and 2d days. + |end of 4th | | |Dry on 10th + |day. Film | | |day. + |slightly | | | + |tacky at end| | | + |of test. | | | + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + + TABLE X.--(_a_) SUN FLOWER OIL 100 PER CENT. + + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Observer. | Gardner | Sabin | Pickard | { Rogers } + | | | | { North } + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Wt. of Oil for | 0.1414 | 0.6292 | 0.5837 | 0.2540 + Test, grams | | | | + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + | 1 | 6.3 | 9.69 | 7.85 | 8.39 + | 2 | 8.2 | 9.42 | 7.73 | 6.94 + | 3 | 11.5 | 7.99 | 7.45 | 6.21 + | 4 | 11.6 | 7.43 | 7.02 | 6.13 + | 5 | 11.5 | 7.04 | 6.36 | 5.81 + | 6 | 11.5 | -- | -- | 6.01 + | 7 | -- | 6.12 | 5.16 | -- + | 8 | 11.3 | 6.45 | -- | 6.09 + | 9 | -- | 6.12 | 4.57 | -- + Percentage | 10 | 11.3 | 5.92 | -- | 4.81 + Increase | 11 | -- | -- | 4.20 | -- + in Weight, | 12 | 11.3 | 5.69 | -- | 4.73 + in Days. | 13 | -- | -- | 4.54 | -- + | 14 | 11.3 | -- | -- | 4.81 + | 15 | -- | 5.24 | 4.61 | -- + | 16 | 11.2 | -- | -- | 5.01 + | 17 | -- | 4.57 | -- | -- + | 18 | 11.0 | -- | 4.30 | -- + | 19 | -- | 4.26 | -- | -- + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Remarks. |Film fairly | | |Sticky, end + |firm, end of| | |1st day; + |3d day. | | |tacky, end 2d + | | | |day; slightly + | | | |tacky, end + | | | |10th day. + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + + TABLE X.--(_b_) SUN FLOWER OIL 20 PER CENT. + RAW LINSEED OIL 80 PER CENT. + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Observer. | Gardner | Sabin | Pickard | { Rogers } + | | | | { North } + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Wt. of Oil for | 0.1600 | 0.5030 | 0.4470 | 0.2261 + Test, grams | | | | + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + | 1 | 9.5 | 14.21 | 12.62 | 11.54 + | 2 | 11.0 | 14.21 | 12.02 | 11.85 + | 3 | 11.1 | 12.66 | 11.48 | 9.92 + | 4 | 11.3 | 14.01 | 11.65 | 9.13 + | 5 | 11.4 | 11.59 | 10.25 | 8.95 + | 6 | 10.9 | -- | -- | 9.04 + | 7 | -- | 10.24 | 8.14 | -- + | 8 | 10.8 | 10.63 | -- | 9.52 + | 9 | -- | 10.34 | 6.26 | -- + Percentage | 10 | 10.8 | 10.34 | -- | 8.55 + Increase | 11 | -- | -- | 5.54 | -- + in Weight, | 12 | 10.8 | 10.27 | -- | 7.67 + in Days. | 13 | -- | -- | 6.22 | -- + | 14 | 10.6 | -- | -- | 8.20 + | 15 | -- | 11.33 | 5.82 | -- + | 16 | 10.6 | -- | -- | -- + | 17 | -- | 10.73 | -- | -- + | 18 | 10.9 | -- | 5.35 | -- + | 19 | -- | 10.30 | -- | -- + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Remarks. |Good firm, | | |Dry on 1st, 2d + |glossy film | | |and 10th days. + |shown at end| | | + |of 2d day. | | | + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + + TABLE XI.--(_a_) MENHADEN OIL 100 PER CENT. + + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Observer. | Gardner | Sabin | Pickard | { Rogers } + | | | | { North } + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Wt. of Oil for | 0.1944 | 0.5282 | 0.7005 | 0.3150 + Test, grams | | | | + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + | 1 | 7.7 | 12.47 | 10.79 | 11.27 + | 2 | 8.1 | 12.17 | 10.98 | 10.16 + | 3 | 8.9 | 11.70 | 10.85 | 9.72 + | 4 | 10.1 | 11.47 | 10.90 | 9.97 + | 5 | 9.8 | 11.13 | 10.57 | 9.94 + | 6 | 9.8 | -- | -- | 10.27 + | 7 | -- | 10.28 | 9.27 | -- + | 8 | 9.8 | 11.20 | -- | 10.36 + | 9 | -- | 11.15 | 8.48 | -- + Percentage | 10 | 9.8 | 11.02 | -- | 8.80 + Increase | 11 | -- | -- | 8.27 | -- + in Weight, | 12 | 9.8 | 11.37 | -- | 9.22 + in Days. | 13 | -- | -- | 8.91 | -- + | 14 | 9.6 | -- | -- | 9.40 + | 15 | -- | 10.85 | 8.75 | -- + | 16 | 9.6 | -- | -- | 9.31 + | 17 | -- | 10.34 | -- | -- + | 18 | 9.6 | -- | 9.21 | -- + | 19 | -- | 9.90 | -- | -- + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Remarks. |Good drying | | |Sticky, end + |during 2d | | |1st day. + |day. Fairly | | |Slightly + |firm film. | | |sticky, end 2d + | | | |and 10th days. + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + + (_b_) MENHADEN OIL 20 PER CENT. + RAW LINSEED OIL 80 PER CENT. + + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Observer. | Gardner | Sabin | Pickard | { Rogers } + | | | | { North } + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Wt. of Oil for | 0.2448 | 0.4959 | 0.4201 | 0.2456 + Test, grams | | | | + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + | 1 | 8.5 | 14.11 | 13.19 | 10.99 + | 2 | 10.4 | 13.47 | 12.88 | 11.28 + | 3 | 12.2 | 12.68 | 12.23 | 9.56 + | 4 | 12.9 | 12.04 | 11.81 | 8.90 + | 5 | 12.9 | 11.59 | 11.17 | 8.72 + | 6 | 12.9 | -- | -- | 8.72 + | 7 | -- | 10.44 | 9.50 | -- + | 8 | 12.9 | 11.09 | -- | 9.34 + | 9 | -- | 11.04 | 8.48 | -- + Percentage | 10 | 12.9 | 10.74 | -- | 8.40 + Increase | 11 | -- | -- | 7.77 | -- + in Weight, | 12 | 12.9 | 10.90 | -- | 7.37 + in Days. | 13 | -- | -- | 8.33 | -- + | 14 | 12.8 | -- | -- | 8.11 + | 15 | -- | 10.18 | 8.24 | -- + | 16 | 12.7 | -- | -- | -- + | 17 | -- | 9.48 | -- | -- + | 18 | 12.9 | -- | 8.12 | -- + | 19 | -- | 8.93 | -- | -- + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Remarks. |Good firm, | | |Nearly dry on + |elastic film| | |1st and 2d + |shown after | | |days. + |2d day. | | | + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + + TABLE XII.--(_a_) RAW CHINESE WOOD OIL 100 PER CENT. + + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Observer. | Gardner | Sabin | Pickard | { Rogers } + | | | | { North } + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Wt. of Oil for | 0.2266 | 0.5545 | 0.4933 | 0.4036 + Test, grams | | | | + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + | 1 | 4.1 | -- | 0.59 | 0.54 + | 2 | 11.2 | -- | 2.09 | 2.80 + | 3 | 14.9 | 11.02 | 5.13 | 5.10 + | 4 | 14.4 | 11.53 | 7.56 | 6.00 + | 5 | 14.4 | 11.03 | 8.68 | 6.27 + | 6 | 14.2 | -- | -- | 7.09 + | 7 | -- | 10.53 | 10.11 | -- + | 8 | 14.2 | 10.74 | -- | 8.39 + | 9 | -- | 10.47 | 9.65 | -- + Percentage | 10 | 14.2 | 10.27 | -- | 8.01 + Increase | 11 | -- | -- | 9.43 | -- + in Weight, | 12 | 14.2 | 10.22 | -- | 8.55 + in Days. | 13 | -- | -- | 9.77 | -- + | 14 | 14.2 | -- | -- | 9.13 + | 15 | -- | 9.80 | 9.73 | -- + | 16 | 14.2 | -- | -- | 9.27 + | 17 | -- | 9.25 | -- | -- + | 18 | 14.5 | -- | 9.33 | -- + | 19 | -- | 8.86 | -- | -- + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Remarks. |Film crys- | | |Sticky, end of + |tallized and| | |1st and 2d + |remained | | |days; dry but + |soft until | | |drawn, end of + |3d day. Hard| | |10th day. + |but opaque | | | + |film shown | | | + |after 4th | | | + |day. | | | + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + + (_b_) RAW CHINESE WOOD OIL 20 PER CENT. + RAW LINSEED OIL 80 PER CENT. + + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Observer. | Gardner | Sabin | Pickard | { Rogers } + | | | | { North } + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Wt. of Oil for | 0.2087 | 0.2967 | 0.3683 | 0.2285 + Test, grams | | | | + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + | 1 | 9.0 | 14.46 | 14.37 | 11.99 + | 2 | 12.1 | 13.11 | 13.66 | 11.90 + | 3 | 12.9 | 11.72 | 13.11 | 10.14 + | 4 | 12.8 | 10.68 | 12.41 | 9.30 + | 5 | 12.8 | 9.77 | 11.78 | 9.08 + | 6 | 12.8 | -- | -- | 9.30 + | 7 | -- | 8.66 | 10.51 | -- + | 8 | 12.7 | 8.86 | -- | 9.70 + | 9 | -- | 8.80 | 8.72 | -- + Percentage | 10 | 12.6 | 8.49 | -- | 8.90 + Increase | 11 | -- | -- | 7.0 | -- + in Weight, | 12 | 12.6 | 8.15 | -- | 7.34 + in Days. | 13 | -- | -- | 8.82 | -- + | 14 | 12.5 | -- | -- | 7.78 + | 15 | -- | 8.05 | 8.39 | -- + | 16 | 12.5 | -- | -- | -- + | 17 | -- | 7.41 | -- | -- + | 18 | 12.7 | -- | 7.98 | -- + | 19 | -- | 7.04 | -- | -- + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Remarks. |Clear and | | |Dry at end of + |firm film | | |1st day. + |shown after | | | + |3d day. | | | + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + + TABLE XIII.--(_a_) CHINESE WOOD OIL (TREATED) 100 PER CENT. + + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Observer. | Gardner | Sabin | Pickard | { Rogers } + | | | | { North } + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Wt. of Oil for | 0.1678 | 0.4159 | 0.2934 | 0.3937 + Test, grams | | | | + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + | 1 |[13]38.0 |[13]19.06 |[13]0.92 | 3.53 + | 2 |[13]30.0 |[13]20.16 |[13]0.41 | 3.58 + | 3 |[13]28.0 |[13]20.47 | 0.72 | 3.25 + | 4 |[13]28.0 |[13]20.47 | 0.79 | 3.25 + | 5 |[13]28.0 |[13]20.80 | 0.13 | 3.33 + | 6 |[13]28.0 | -- | -- | 2.93 + | 7 | -- |[13]21.09 | 0.22 | -- + | 8 |[13]28.0 |[13]20.87 | -- | 2.55 + | 9 | -- |[13]20.98 | 0.46 | -- + Percentage | 10 | 27.5 |[13]20.78 | -- | 3.40 + Increase | 11 | -- | -- | 0.44 | -- + in Weight, | 12 |[13]26.0 |[13]20.70 | -- | 3.23 + in Days. | 13 | -- | -- | 0.43 | -- + | 14 |[13]26.0 | -- | -- | 2.61 + | 15 | -- |[13]20.97 | 0.42 | -- + | 16 |[13]26.0 | -- | -- | 2.48 + | 17 | -- |[13]21.22 | -- | -- + | 18 |[13]26.2 | -- | 0.43 | -- + | 19 | -- |[13]21.11 | -- | -- + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Remarks. |Loss ob- | | |Dry at end of + |served due | | |1st day. + |to presence | | | + |of vola- | | | + |tiles. Firm,| | | + |clear film | | | + |shown at end| | | + |of 1st day. | | | + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + + [13] Lost in weight throughout test. + + TABLE XIII.--(_b_) CHINESE WOOD OIL (TREATED) 20 PER CENT. + RAW LINSEED OIL 80 PER CENT. + + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Observer. | Gardner | Sabin | Pickard | { Rogers } + | | | | { North } + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Wt. of Oil for | 0.1638 | 0.6572 | 0.4892 | 0.2644 + Test, grams | | | | + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + | 1 | 8.4 | 9.25 | 8.93 | 3.21 + | 2 | 9.4 | 8.07 | 8.71 | 3.48 + | 3 | 9.8 | 7.36 | 8.44 | 2.15 + | 4 | 9.7 | 6.75 | 8.16 | 1.58 + | 5 | 9.9 | 6.25 | 7.95 | 1.56 + | 6 | 9.9 | -- | -- | 1.77 + | 7 | -- | 5.49 | 6.75 | -- + | 8 | 10.0 | 5.87 | -- | 2.30 + | 9 | -- | 5.70 | 5.99 | -- + Percentage | 10 | 9.6 | 5.67 | -- | 1.62 + Increase | 11 | -- | -- | 5.50 | -- + in Weight, | 12 | 9.5 | 4.37 | -- | 0.86 + in Days. | 13 | -- | -- | 6.40 | -- + | 14 | 9.5 | -- | -- | 1.50 + | 15 | -- | 5.15 | 6.01 | -- + | 16 | 9.5 | -- | -- | -- + | 17 | -- | 4.69 | -- | -- + | 18 | 9.6 | -- | 5.87 | -- + | 19 | -- | 4.17 | -- | -- + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Remarks. |Clear and | | |Dry at end of + |hard film | | |1st day. + |shown during| | | + |2d day. | | | + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------- + + TABLE XIV.--(_a_) 20 PER CENT. DRY ROSIN IN 80 PER CENT. LINSEED OIL + 100 PER CENT. + + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Observer. | Gardner | Sabin | Pickard | { Rogers } + | | | | { North } + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Wt. of Oil for | 0.2030 | -- | 0.5185 | 0.2554 + Test, grams | | | | + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + | 1 | 12.0 | -- | 3.76 | 1.80 + | 2 | 14.1 | -- | 8.76 | 11.78 + | 3 | 14.8 | -- | 9.20 | 12.17 + | 4 | 14.2 | -- | 9.20 | 12.29 + | 5 | 14.5 | -- | 8.49 | 12.02 + | 6 | 14.0 | -- | -- | 12.49 + | 7 | -- | -- | 9.07 | -- + | 8 | 14.1 | -- | -- | 13.15 + | 9 | -- | -- | 9.01 | -- + Percentage | 10 | 14.1 | -- | -- | 11.85 + Increase | 11 | -- | -- | 9.09 | -- + in Weight, | 12 | 14.0 | -- | -- | 11.78 + in Days. | 13 | -- | -- | 10.50 | -- + | 14 | 14.0 | -- | -- | 12.69 + | 15 | -- | -- | 10.16 | -- + | 16 | 14.0 | -- | -- | 12.83 + | 17 | -- | -- | -- | -- + | 18 | 14.1 | -- | 10.18 | -- + | 19 | -- | -- | -- | -- + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Remarks. |Rapid drying| | |Oily, end 1st + |observed. | | |and 2d days; + |Hard film | | |slightly + |shown during| | |tacky, end + |2d day. | | |10th day. + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------- + + (_b_) 20 PER CENT. DRY ROSIN IN 80 PER CENT. LINSEED OIL 20 PER CENT. + RAW LINSEED OIL 80 PER CENT. + + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Observer. | Gardner | Sabin | Pickard | { Rogers } + | | | | { North } + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Wt. of Oil for | 0.1500 | 0.7105 | 0.4568 | -- + Test, grams | | | | + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + | 1 | 10.9 | 14.19 | 12.86 | -- + | 2 | 13.5 | 13.17 | 12.73 | -- + | 3 | 13.6 | 11.84 | 12.13 | -- + | 4 | 13.0 | 11.46 | 12.02 | -- + | 5 | 13.0 | 10.87 | 11.30 | -- + | 6 | 13.0 | -- | -- | -- + | 7 | -- | 9.80 | 10.95 | -- + | 8 | 13.1 | 10.33 | -- | -- + | 9 | -- | 10.40 | 11.21 | -- + Percentage | 10 | 13.1 | 10.04 | -- | -- + Increase | 11 | -- | -- | 10.53 | -- + in Weight, | 12 | 13.0 | 10.35 | -- | -- + in Days. | 13 | -- | -- | 11.21 | -- + | 14 | 12.9 | -- | -- | -- + | 15 | -- | 9.64 | 10.88 | -- + | 16 | 13.0 | -- | -- | -- + | 17 | -- | 8.98 | -- | -- + | 18 | 13.2 | -- | 11.43 | -- + | 19 | -- | 8.62 | -- | -- + -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + Remarks. |Clear, hard | | | + |film after | | | + |2d day. | | | + ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------- + + TABLE XV.--(_a_) RAW LINSEED OIL 100 PER CENT.[14] + + ----------------+-----------+----------- + Observer. | Sabin | Pickard + | | + ----------------+-----------+----------- + Wt. of Oil for | 0.5274 | 0.5326 + Test, grams | | + -----------+----+-----------+----------- + | 1 | 0.26 | 12.42 + | 2 | 0.51 | 12.39 + | 3 | 0.11 | 11.88 + | 4 | 2.35 | 11.83 + | 5 | 9.14 | 11.08 + | 6 | -- | -- + | 7 | 14.48 | 10.29 + | 8 | 14.48 | -- + | 9 | 14.18 | 9.56 + Percentage | 10 | 13.86 | -- + Increase | 11 | -- | 9.85 + in Weight, | 12 | 13.00 | -- + in Days. | 13 | -- | 10.30 + | 14 | -- | -- + | 15 | 12.23 | 10.12 + | 16 | -- | -- + | 17 | 11.66 | -- + | 18 | -- | 10.78 + | 19 | 11.07 | -- + -----------+----+-----------+----------- + Remarks. | | + ----------------+-----------+----------- + + [14] The test of this oil was made without the addition of 5 per cent. + of drier, the quantity used in all the other tests. + + (_b_) DRIER 100 PER CENT. + + ----------------+-------------- + Observer. | { Rogers } + | { North } + ----------------+-------------- + Wt. of Oil for | 0.3445 + Test, grams | + -----------+----+-------------- + | 1 | 48.95 + | 2 | 48.53 + | 3 | 48.68 + | 4 | 48.68 + | 5 | 48.48 + | 6 | 48.26 + | 7 | -- + | 8 | 48.43 + | 9 | -- + Percentage | 10 | 48.89 + Increase | 11 | -- + in Weight, | 12 | 48.22 + in Days. | 13 | -- + | 14 | 48.22 + | 15 | -- + | 16 | -- + | 17 | -- + | 18 | -- + | 19 | -- + -----------+----+-------------- + Remarks. | Dry at end of + | 1st day. + ----------------+-------------- + + + + +CHAPTER III + +PAINT PIGMENTS AND THEIR PROPERTIES + + +For the student of paint technology, who is not already acquainted with +the chemistry and physics of the various raw pigments which are largely +used in the manufacture of paints, the writer advises a careful reading +of this chapter, in which the matter has been condensed as much as +possible. In order to more thoroughly acquaint the reader with the +physical constitution of the pigments under consideration, there has +been included photomicrographs, which show to advantage the structure of +each.[15] + + [15] The author gratefully acknowledges the assistance of Dr. J. A. + Schaeffer in the preparation of the photomicrographs shown in + this chapter. + +[Illustration: By Polarized Light + +By Transmitted Light + +Basic Carbonate-White Lead] + +=Basic Carbonate-White Lead.= This pigment is made by stacking clay pots +containing dilute acetic acid and lead buckles, in tiers, and covering +them with tan bark. Fermentation of the tan bark, with subsequent +formation of carbon dioxide acting on the acetate of lead formed within +the pots, produces basic carbonate of lead. After complete corrosion, +the white lead is ground, floated, and dried. Corroded white lead has a +specific gravity of 6.8 and contains about 85% lead oxide and 15% of +carbon dioxide and water. Its opaque nature and excellent body renders +it extremely valuable as a constituent of paints. Checking and chalking +progress rapidly when the pigment is used alone. The various sized +particles, both large and small, resulting from the corrosion process, +are prominently shown in the photomicrograph. + +[Illustration: Crystals of Cerussite in Old Dutch Process White Lead. +(Greatly magnified)] + +[Illustration: White Lead (Quick Process)] + +On account of its alkaline nature, this pigment acts upon the +saponifiable oil in which it is ground, forming lead soaps which +accelerate chalking of white lead--the greatest evil attending its use. +Solubility in carbonic acid of the atmosphere and decay in the presence +of sodium chloride may be active causes of the rapid chalking of this +pigment at the seashore. Checking in some climates appears to proceed +rapidly on white lead paints, in a deep hexagonal form, leaving a series +of rough crests and cracks. This checking is secondary to the chalking +which takes place. + +[Illustration: Corrosion cylinders used for making Quick Process White +Lead] + +[Illustration: Lead Melting Pots] + +=White Lead (Quick Process).= By acting on atomized metallic lead, +contained within large revolving wooden cylinders, with dilute acetic +acid and carbon dioxide, the quick-process white lead is produced. Its +value is equal to the Dutch-process white lead, and it is considered by +some as possessing greater spreading value. + +[Illustration: Sheet iron box luted at bottom with water. Atomized lead, +blown into box with steam, falls to bottom and becomes hydrated (Mild +Process)] + +[Illustration: _Photographs courtesy of Stowe Neal_ + +View of agitation tanks for making Mild Process Lead] + +[Illustration: Steam Jected Pans for Drying White Lead] + +=White Lead (Mild Process).= The Mild Process of manufacturing white +lead consists of first melting the pig lead and converting it into the +finest kind of lead powder, then mixing thoroughly with air and water. +The lead takes up water and oxygen and forms a basic hydroxide of lead. +Carbon dioxide gas is next pumped slowly through the cylinders which +contain the basic hydroxide of lead. The result is basic carbonate of +lead--the dry white lead of commerce. The process is called "Mild" +because it is the mildest process possible for the manufacture of white +lead. It is the only method in practical operation which does not +require the use of acids, alkalis or other chemicals, every trace of +which should be removed from the finished product by expensive purifying +processes. The failure of such washing and purifying means a product of +inferior quality, which necessarily reduces the durability of any paint +in which it is used. + +=Basic Sulphate-White Lead (Sublimed White Lead).= By the action of the +oxygen of the air on the fume produced by the roasting and subsequent +volatilization of galena, this fine, white, amorphous pigment is made. +On analysis, its composition shows approximately 75% of lead sulphate, +20% of lead oxide, and 5% of zinc oxide. It has a specific gravity of +6.2. Possessed of extreme stability, it finds wide use as a constituent +of paints and as a base for tinting colors. The photomicrograph of this +pigment shows its extremely fine, amorphous nature with complete absence +of crystals. In fineness it closely approaches zinc oxide. On account of +its non-poisonous properties it is replacing corroded lead in many +places. Unified paints containing sublimed white lead are of great +value, showing upon long exposure very little decay. + +[Illustration: View of Furnace for Making Sublimed White Lead] + +[Illustration: View of Goosenecks Used for Collecting Sublimed White +Lead Fume] + +[Illustration: Bag Room Where Sublimed White Lead is Deposited + +_Photographs courtesy of Picher Lead Co._] + +[Illustration: Sublimed White Lead] + +[Illustration: View of largest Zinc Oxide Works in America, at Hazards, +Pa.] + + +=Sublimed Blue Lead.= Sublimed blue lead is made by burning coarsely +broken lumps of galena, admixed with bituminous coal, in a special form +of furnace. The fumes which are volatilized from this mixture are very +complex in their chemical make-up, and in color are white, blue, and +black. After being drawn through the cooling pipes by the suction of +huge fans, whereby the fumes are cooled, the pigment is deposited in +bags. This pigment is bluish black in color, and has been highly +recommended for use on iron and steel. Its composition runs +approximately as follows: + + Lead sulphate 50% + Lead oxide 35% + Lead sulphide 5% + Lead sulphite 5% + Zinc oxide 2% + Carbon 3% + +[Illustration: View of Zinc Oxide Furnaces] + +[Illustration: _Photographs courtesy Geo. B. Heckel and N. J. Zinc Co._ + +View of Zinc Oxide Fume Pipes with electrically driven Suction Fans] + +The color of the pigment is largely due to the carbon and the lead +sulphide. Its specific gravity is 6.4, and it grinds in 10% of oil to a +stiff paste, 100 lbs. of which may be thinned with about 26 lbs. of oil +to working consistency. Paint manufacturers use it in mixture with iron +oxide and other pigments for the production of paints for metal +surfaces. Wood and others have found it of great value for this purpose. +It has a tendency to chalk, but this may be overcome by admixture with +other pigments such as zinc oxide and iron oxide. Lane has found it to +be very durable when admixed with lampblack. + +[Illustration: View of Bag Room receiving Zinc Oxide] + +=Zinc Oxide.= This extremely white and fine pigment is prepared by the +roasting and sublimation of franklinite, zincite, and other zinc-bearing +ores largely found in New Jersey. Its purity approaches in most +instances 99.5 or more. It has a specific gravity of 5.2. On account of +its stability, whiteness, and opacity, it is invaluable as a pigment +when a constituent in a combination formula. Its extreme hardness +renders it less resistant to temperature changes, when used alone. Under +the microscope the fineness and structure of the particles are clearly +evident. The French-process zinc oxide produced in America by the +sublimation and oxidation of spelter is the purest made, and superior to +imported grades which often contain ultramarine blue as a whitening +agent. + +[Illustration: Zinc Oxide] + +[Illustration: Zinc Lead White] + +[Illustration: Zinc Lead. By transmitted light + +(_The Pigment shows black_)] + +[Illustration: Lithopone] + +[Illustration: Magnesium Silicate (Asbestine)] + +=Zinc Lead White.= This extremely fine pigment, consisting of about +equal parts of zinc oxide and lead sulphate, results from the reduction, +volatilization and subsequent oxidation of sulphur-bearing lead and zinc +ores. It has a specific gravity of 4.4. Its slightly yellowish tint bars +it from being used alone very extensively, but when mixed with white +lead, zinc oxide and inert pigments, or used as a base for colored +paints, it is of considerable value. The magnification of the particles +shows the peculiar way in which the pigment agglomerates, and the +characteristics of a fine, uniform pigment. + +[Illustration: Asbestine Mine at Easton, Pa.] + +[Illustration: American Barytes. Transmitted light + +(_The Pigment shows black_)] + +[Illustration: German Barytes. Mag. 250 Diam. + +(_The Pigment shows white_)] + +=Lithopone.= Lithopone, probably the whitest of pigments, results from +the double decomposition of zinc sulphate and barium sulphide, thereby +forming a molecular combination of zinc sulphide and barium sulphate. +The peculiar property which it possesses, of darkening under the actinic +rays of the sun, makes it essential that it be combined with other, more +stable pigments to prolong its life when exposed to weather. Lithopone +contains approximately 70% barium sulphate, 25 to 28% zinc sulphide, and +as high as 5% of zinc oxide. Its specific gravity is about 4.25. It is +excellently suited for interior use in the manufacture of enamels and +wall finishes. When properly mixed with other pigments, such as zinc +oxide and calcium carbonate, fair results are obtained as a pigment for +outside work. Lead pigments are never used with lithopone, as lead +sulphide results, giving a black appearance. Its characteristic +flocculent, non-crystalline nature is plainly evident when examined +under the microscope. + +[Illustration: By Polarized Light + +By Transmitted Light + +Barium Sulphate (Barytes)] + +=Magnesium Silicate (Asbestine and Talcose).= This pigment comes in two +forms: as asbestine and as talcose (talc, etc.). The former is very +fibrous in nature and is a very stable pigment to use in the manufacture +of paint, on account of its inert nature and tendency to hold up heavier +pigments, and prevent settling. It also has the property of +strengthening a paint coat in which it is used. The talcose variety is +very tabular in form. Both varieties are transparent in oil, and very +inert. They have a gravity of about 2.7 and grind in about 32% of oil. + +[Illustration: Barium Carbonate. Mag. 250 Diam. + +(_The Pigment shows white_)] + +[Illustration: Barium Sulphate (Blanc Fixe)] + +[Illustration: Calcium Carbonate (Whiting)] + +[Illustration: Calcium Carbonate. By transmitted light + +(_The Pigment shows black_)] + +[Illustration: Calcium Sulphate. By transmitted light + +(_The Pigment shows black_)] + +[Illustration: Calcium Sulfate] + +[Illustration: Calcium Sulphate (Gypsum)] + +[Illustration: Silica (Silex)] + +[Illustration: Silex. Mag. 250 Diam. + +(_The Pigment shows white_)] + +[Illustration: China Clay. By transmitted light + +(_The Pigment shows black_)] + +=Barium Sulphate (Barytes).= By grinding the crude ore, treating with +acid to remove the iron, and finally washing, floating, and drying, +there is produced the commercial form of this valuable pigment. It is +used in large quantity as a base upon which to precipitate colors, and +also together with other white pigments in the manufacture of +ready-mixed paints. It renders the paint coating more resistant to +abrasion, and gives to the paint certain very important brushing +qualities. It is a very stable pigment, not being materially affected by +either acid or alkali, and can be used with the most delicate colors. In +oil it is transparent and must be mixed with opaque pigments when used +in ready-mixed paints. It is generally used with lighter pigments, such +as asbestine, in order to prevent settling. Under the microscope, both +by polarized and transmitted light, the sharp angles of the particles +appear distinctly, with no tendency to mass into a compact form. +Although transparent in oil, it is valuable in moderate percentage in a +ready-mixed paint. + +=Barium Sulphate (Blanc Fixe).= Blanc fixe is the precipitated form of +barium sulphate, resulting from the action of soluble barium salts on +soluble sulphates. The specific gravity (4.2) of this compound is lower +than that of barytes. Possessing greater opacity in oil, it is of more +value as a paint pigment for some purposes. It comes in for its greatest +use as a base on which to precipitate lake colors. The very fine +particles show a slight tendency to agglomerate. + +=Calcium Carbonate (Whiting).= The natural form of calcium carbonate, +prepared from chalk, has a much higher specific gravity (2.74) than that +of the artificial form (2.5) prepared by the precipitation of calcium +carbonate. The latter, however, possesses greater hiding properties. +Both grades find a wide use in distemper work and in the manufacture of +putty. It is often used in small percentage in many ready-mixed paints. +The photomicrograph of the pigment shows the presence of many large +particles. + +=Calcium Sulphate (Gypsum).= The mineral gypsum, consisting of calcium +sulphate and about 21% of water of combination, is sometimes used as a +paint pigment after grinding and dehydration. Being slightly soluble in +water it has a tendency to pass into solution when exposed to +atmospheric agencies. It lacks hiding power in oil. Its specific gravity +is 2.3. As in the case of all pigments prepared directly from mineral +substances, the many-sized and shaped particles appear clearly when +enlarged. Partially and wholly dehydrated forms of gypsum are also used +in paint. + +=Silica (Silex.)= This white pigment possesses great tooth and spreading +properties. It is of use as a wood filler and as a constituent in +combination paints. It wears especially well when used in combination +with zinc oxide and white lead. Its purity often approaches 97%. The +particles when enlarged are seen to have sharp angles and are not +uniform in size, which accounts for its marked tooth and properties. + +[Illustration: Aluminum Silicate (China Clay)] + +[Illustration: Ochre] + +[Illustration: Raw + +Burnt + +Sienna] + +[Illustration: Raw + +Burnt + +Umber] + +=Aluminum Silicate (China Clay).= China clay, or aluminum silicate, is a +permanent and valuable white pigment showing very little hiding power in +oil. It is found widely distributed in granitic formations. It is very +stable, with a gravity of 2.6. Particles are found in many shapes and +sizes, showing sharp and definite angles. + +=Ochre.= Ochre is a hydrated ferric oxide permeating a clay base, +largely used as a tinting material. It has a specific gravity of about +3.5, and a decidedly golden yellow color. A good quality should contain +20% or over of iron oxide. The particles of this pigment are flocculent +and very uniform in appearance. + +=Sienna.= Sienna, like umber, is essentially a silicate of iron and +alumina, containing manganic oxide. It contains, however, a lower +percentage of the latter than in the case of umbers. The photomicrograph +of the burnt variety shows clearly the fine condition of the pigment, +while large particles are shown in the raw variety. + +=Umber.= Umber, another naturally occurring pigment, consists of iron +and aluminum silicates, containing varying proportions of manganic +oxide, its color and tone varying according to the percentage of the +latter. The raw variety is drab in color, which in burning changes to +reddish brown. A marked percentage of large-sized particles exist in +this pigment. + +=Indian Red.= Indian red is the term applied to natural hematite ore +pigments and to those produced by the roasting of copperas (iron +sulphate). They generally contain 95% or more of iron oxide, with +varying percentages of silica. The pigment is heavier (specific gravity +5.2) than that of Metallic Brown. The crystalline, mineral-like +structure of the particles differ greatly from the amorphous particles +of Metallic Brown. + +=Metallic Brown.= The natural hydrated iron oxide or carbonate as mined +largely in Pennsylvania, yields, when roasted, a sesquioxide of iron +known as Metallic Brown. It contains a high percentage of alumina and +silica, and has a characteristic brown color with a gravity of 3.1. It +finds wide application as a pigment for protective purposes. The +particles when enlarged show the usual appearance of a natural compound +which has been roasted and ground. + + ==========+=====+===========+==========+=============+=======+========= + No. Name |Iron | Calc. | Alumina | Insoluble | Color | + |Oxide| Sulph. | | |(Silica| + +-----+-----------+(CaSO_{4})|(Al_{2}O_{3})| and | + | FeO |Fe_{2}O_{3}| | | Sili- | + | | | | | cates)| + ----------+-----+-----------+----------+-------------+-------+--------- + | % | % | % | % | % | + 0 Bright | 0.71| 96.52 | -- | -- | .30 |Bright + Red | | | | | |Scarlet + 1 Bright | .71| 95.92 | -- | -- | .30 |Scarlet + Red | | | | | |Tone + 2 Indian | .57| 96.00 | .78 | 1.40 | .90 |Indian + Red | | | | | |Red, + | | | | | |Medium + | | | | | |Shade + 3 Indian | 0.29| 97.82 | .85 | -- | .52 |Indian + Red | | | | | |Red, + | | | | | |Dark + | | | | | |Shade + 4 Indian | 0.28| 95.72 | 1.21 | 1.26 | .58 |Indian + Red | | | | | |Red, + | | | | | |Light + | | | | | |Shade + 5 Persian| 4.53| 62.25 | 1.75 | -- | 27.64 |Rich, + Gulf | | | | | |Medium + Mix | | | | | |Red + 7 Native | 0.85| 89.00 | -- | 0.91 | 6.09 |Medium + Red | | | | | |Red, + Oxide | | | | | |Brownish + | | | | | |Tone + 8 Special| 0.57| 43.87 | 50.88 | 2.03 | 1.30 |Scarlet + Red | | | | | |Tone + 10 Red | 1.44| 60.25 | .78 | 5.41 | 15.78 |Brownish- + Oxide | | | | | |Red + 11 Vene- | .30| 34.08 | 52.60 | 2.20 | 3.39 |Bright + tian | | | | | |Red- + Red | | | | | |Brown + 12 B. | 0.58| 67.68 | -- | 2.48 | 1.97 |Dark Red + Oxide | | | | | |Brown + 13 Vene- | 0.29| 25.92 | 58.62 | 2.16 | 1.42 |Medium + tian | | | | | |Red + Red | | | | | |Tone + 14 Vene- | 0.57| 35.36 | .99 | 12.06 | 47.97 |Brown + tian | | | | | | + Red | | | | | | + 15 Metal- | 2.59| 64.00 | .63 | 5.82 | 23.42 |Rich + lic | | | | | |Brown + Brown | | | | | | + 16 Crimson| 0.57| 66.24 | 1.77 | 3.60 | 25.63 |Rich + Oxide | | | | | |Dark + | | | | | |Red + 17 Red | 2.30| 80.39 | .37 | .03 | 9.63 |Medium + Oxide | | | | | |Brown + 18 Red | 0.57| 61.28 | .97 | 2.68 | 15.94 |Light + Oxide | | | | | |Choco- + | | | | | |late + | | | | | |Brown + 20 Red | 7.78| 46.72 | 1.70 | 7.64 | 20.38 |Dark + Oxide | | | | | |Reddish + | | | | | |Brown + 23 Special| 0.58| 72.48 | -- | 8.80 | 4.48 |Deep + French | | | | | |Choco- + Oxide | | | | | |late + | | | | | |Brown + 24 Mica- | 2.02| 86.27 | -- | 2.04 | 9.50 |Dark + ceous | | | | | |Gray + Black | | | | | |Tone + Oxide | | | | | | + 25 Black |33.12| 57.12 | -- | 1.44 | -- |Jet + Oxide | | | | | |Black + 26 Red | 0.57| 84.16 | 5.00 | 2.00 | .63 |Deep + Oxide | | | | | |Red + 27 Special| 0.57| 38.40 | 55.62 | 2.12 | 1.53 |Medium + Red | | | | | |Red + 28 Oxide C| -- | 30.40 | .94 | 13.60 | 42.30 |Brown + ==========+=====+===========+==========+=============+=======+========= + +=Analysis of Iron Oxide Pigments.= Because of the great consideration +now being given to iron oxide paints, the writer secured a series of +oxides widely used in this country, and has determined the most +important constituents of each. + +=Basic Lead Chromate (American Vermilion).= By boiling white lead with +chromate of soda and subsequently treating with small quantities of +sulphuric acid, American vermilion, or basic lead chromate, is prepared. +It contains 98% of lead compounds, frequently free chromates, and has a +gravity of 6.8. The particles appear granular and large, frequently +assuming a square structure. + +=Red Lead.= By the continued oxidation of litharge in reverberatory +furnaces, red lead is produced as a brilliant red pigment with a +specific gravity of 8.7. The pigment particles appear to be of many +sizes, showing a slight tendency to form a compact mass. + +=Paranitraniline Red.= Paranitraniline red, a very bright red material +largely used in tinting paints, is prepared by diazotizing +paranitraniline in hydrochloric acid by means of sodium nitrite in the +cold. This compound is rendered insoluble when precipitated directly on +barytes, by acting on it with an alkaline solution of beta naphthol. It +is the most stable and permanent bright red organic pigment which the +paint manufacturer uses. The particles of this pigment appear in various +sizes, due, no doubt, to a massing of the particles in the precipitation +process. + +=Chrome Yellow.= The neutral chromate of lead, made from either the +nitrate or acetate of lead and chromate of soda, finds wide use as a +tinting pigment. When precipitated on a white pigment base, various +trade names are given to it. The microscope shows clearly the physical +character of this pigment. + +=Zinc Chromate.= This pigment is made either from zinc salts and +bichromate of potash or zinc oxide heated with chrome salts, frequently +in the presence of acid. Like the rest of the chromate pigments, it is a +very slow-drying material, often requiring over a week to set up, unless +considerable drier is added. In spite of the impurities which it +carries, it has shown itself to be one of the most inhibitive pigments +known and has demonstrated its value in even small percentages in paints +for iron and steel. It dries to a hard adherent film that tends to +protect metal from corrosion. + +[Illustration: Indian Red] + +[Illustration: Metallic Brown] + +[Illustration: Basic Lead Chromate (American Vermilion)] + +[Illustration: Red Lead] + +[Illustration: Paranitraniline] + +[Illustration: Chrome Yellow] + +=Prussian Blue.= On oxidizing the precipitate resulting from the +interaction of solutions of prussiate of potash and copperas (iron +sulphate), Prussian blue as used in the paint trade is prepared. It has +a specific gravity of 1.9. The pigment shows an amorphous structure, the +particles varying greatly in size. + +=Ultramarine Blue.= This bright blue pigment is prepared by burning +silica, china clay, soda ash and sulphur in pots or furnaces. It has a +specific gravity of 2.4. It is of little value as a paint pigment on +account of its sulphur content, which causes darkening when mixed with +lead pigments, and corrosion when applied to iron or steel. The darkness +of the photograph is due to the massing of the pigment particles. + +=Chrome Green.= Chrome green is prepared as a paint pigment from nitrate +of lead, Chinese blue, and bichromate of soda. It has a gravity of 4 and +is liable to contain slight traces of lead salts. The particles when +magnified appear very fine and flocculent. This color is often +precipitated on pigments, such as barytes, which do not reduce its tone. + +=Bone Black.= By grinding the carbonaceous matter resulting from the +charring of bones, in iron retorts, the pigment bone black is prepared. +It contains about 15% of carbon and 85% of calcium phosphate. It has a +gravity of 2.7. Comparatively large particles of charred bone can be +seen scattered throughout the mass, resulting from the difficulty of +grinding to a uniform size. + +=Carbon Black.= This form of very pure carbon results from the +combustion of gas. Its gravity, 1.09, is lower than that of lampblack, +which shows a gravity of 1.8. It is used in much the same way and for +the same purposes as lampblack. In physical appearance it shows great +similarity to the particles of lampblack. + +=Lampblack.= This pigment, made from the combustion of oils, consists +very often of more than 99% carbon. It has wonderful tinting value. The +particles show a fine, fibrous structure with a tendency toward +agglomeration. They differ greatly in physical appearance from those of +either graphite or bone black, being exceedingly more uniform than the +latter. + +[Illustration: Zinc Chromate] + +[Illustration: Prussian Blue] + +[Illustration: Ultramarine Blue] + +[Illustration: Chrome Green] + +[Illustration: Bone Black] + +[Illustration: Carbon Black] + +=Graphite.= Graphite, both in the natural and artificial form, contains +impurities such as silica, iron oxide and alumina, but the natural form +has a much greater percentage of these foreign materials, in some cases +as high as 40%. Graphite is usually mixed with other pigments, such as +red lead and sublimed blue lead, thus serving better as a paint coating. +The difference in physical appearance of the various carbon pigments is +interesting, as each pigment has characteristics of its own. In graphite +we find a great tendency toward agglomeration or massing of particles. + +=Mineral Black.= Mineral black is a pigment made by grinding a black +form of slate. It contains a comparatively low percentage of carbon and +consequently has low tinting value. It finds use as an inert pigment in +compounded paints, especially for machine fillers. The pigment has a +flocculent appearance, the particles showing a strong tendency to mass. + +Photomicrographs of two combination paint pigments are here given, to +show the various pigments as they appear under the microscope, when in +combination. + +PERCENTAGES OF OIL REQUIRED FOR GRINDING VARIOUS DRY PIGMENTS INTO +AVERAGE PASTE FORM + + White lead (corroded) 9% + White lead (sublimed) 10% + Zinc lead (American) 12% + French process zinc oxide 17% + American process zinc oxide 16% + Blanc fixe 30% + Barytes (natural) 9% + Paris white (whiting) 20% + Terra alba (gypsum) 22% + Floated silica or Silex 26% + Kaolin (China clay) 28% + Asbestine 32% + Blue, ultramarine 27% + Blue, Chinese or Prussian 50% + Black, gas carbon 82% + Black, lamp 72% + Black, drop 60% + Black, bone 50% + Brown, mineral 24% + Brown, vandyke 50% + Chrome yellow, lemon 23% + Chrome yellow, medium 30% + Chrome yellow, orange 20% + Chrome yellow, dark orange 15% + Chrome green, Chem. pure light 21% + Chrome green, Chem. pure extra dark 25% + Chrome green, 25%, color light 13% + Chrome green, 25%, color extra dark 17% + Graphite (pure) 40% + Indian red, (98%) 20% + Ochre, yellow, American 26% + Ochre, yellow, French 28% + Ochre, golden 28% + Red, Venetian 23% + Red, Oxide 25% + Red, Tuscan 27% + Red, Turkey 28% + Red, lead 12% + Red, lake 55% + Sienna, Italian, raw 52% + Sienna, Italian, burnt 45% + Sienna, American, burnt 38% + Sienna, American, raw 40% + Ultramarine green 28% + Umber, Turkey, raw 48% + Umber, Turkey, burnt 47% + Umber, American, burnt 36% + Umber, American, raw 38% + Verona green (terra verte or green earth) 32% + Vermilion, English (quicksilver) 14% + Vermilion, American (chrome red) 16% + Paris green, American 23% + Zinc chromate (permanent yellow) 15% + +[Illustration: Lampblack] + +[Illustration: Graphite] + +[Illustration: Mineral Black] + +[Illustration: Asbestine and Whiting] + +[Illustration: Silica and Asbestine] + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +PHYSICAL LABORATORY PAINT TESTS + + +For the paint chemist who desires to familiarize himself with the more +recent analytical methods worked out in American laboratories, reference +may be had to treatises on the analysis of paints, by Gardner and +Schaeffer,[16] and Holley and Ladd.[17] Analytical methods are not +included in this chapter, the writer's desire being to treat the subject +from the standpoint of the physical properties of painting materials. +The work outlined herein is of a nature that affords a wide field of +research, and a brief study will doubtless suggest similar work to the +student of paint. + + [16] The Analysis of Paints and Painting Materials. McGraw-Hill Book + Co., New York, 1910. + + [17] Mixed Paints, Color Pigments and Varnishes. John Wiley & Sons, + New York, 1908. + +=Preparation of Paint Films.= The study of paint films is one that has +become of vital importance, and is receiving at the present time great +attention. Among the many methods which have been suggested and +attempted for securing paint films, a few already well known may be +mentioned. + +By painting upon zinc and eating away the zinc with acid: The objection +to this method is very evident, namely, the action of the acid upon the +paint coating, which is likely to be very severe. Another method has +been to spread paraffin on a glass plate, and painting upon this +surface. When the paint is dried, the paraffin is melted off and thus +the film is obtained. This method is open to objections, in that the +paraffin surface is not a comparable one upon which to paint, and also +that the complete removal of the paraffin is not assured. + +Another method consists in covering a piece of glass with tin foil, +painting out the film upon the foil, and after drying properly, to +remove the sheet of foil with its coating of paint and immerse in a bath +of mercury which, by amalgamation of the tin, leaves the paint film. + +We now come to a method worked out in our laboratories, which can be +recommended as being not only simple but efficient and practical. It has +been found that a size from noodle glue, when painted upon ordinary +fair-quality paper, makes a surface from which the paint may be +subsequently stripped. The paint is applied in the ordinary way to the +paper, which is held during the operation by thumb tacks, and allowed to +dry. The paint may be separated by immersion in water kept at about 50 +degrees Centigrade. By this method large films may be obtained, but it +has been found very unhandy to work with films exceeding an area of +eight inches square. When the film of paint has been detached from the +sized paper through the dissolving of the noodle glue, the paint film is +then immersed in a fresh solution of water, in order to remove whatever +excess of noodle glue there may be remaining. A glass rod is then +introduced into the bath, in which the paint film is floated upon the +glass rod, which is then hung up to dry in a suitable container to +prevent the accumulation of dust, etc. + +[Illustration: Bottles Showing Relative Permeability of Films by Amount +of Whiting Formed Within] + +=The Permeability of Paint Films.= A series of tests were made to +determine the water-excluding values of various combinations of painting +pigments ground in pure linseed oil. White pine boards, six inches long, +four inches wide, and one inch thick, were carefully prepared and +numbered and given three coats of a white paint formula of the +corresponding number. After drying, the boards were carefully weighed +and immersed in a tub of water for three weeks. After removal, the +surfaces of the boards were dried with blotting paper and the boards +weighed. The gain in weight, corresponding to the amount of water +penetrating through the pores of the wood, was observed. The boards were +again immersed and at the end of two months the following results were +obtained: + + Grammes of water + Formula absorbed + No. through paint + + 1. Soya bean oil 120 + 2. Linseed oil 102 + 3. Calcium sulphate 93 + 4. Barytes 88 + 5. Asbestine 74 + 6. Corroded white lead 59 + { Basic carb.--White lead 25% } + { Basic sulph.--White lead 20% } + 7. { Zinc oxide 25% } 58 + { Calcium sulphate 25% } + { Calcium carbonate 5% } + 8. Sublimed white lead 56 + 9. Zinc oxide 56 + { Zinc lead white 30% } + 10. { Zinc oxide 40% } 42 + { Basic carb.--White lead 20% } + { Calcium carbonate 10% } + 11. { Basic carb.--White lead 50% } 42 + { Zinc oxide 50% } + { Basic carb.--White lead 38% } + 12. { Zinc oxide 48% } 38 + { Silica 14% } + +The test boards were then exposed, with their content of water, to the +action of the sun's rays. Blistering of the painted surfaces took place +in many cases, caused by the rapid withdrawal of the water and its +consequent action on the paint film. The tests seem to indicate that a +mixture of white lead and zinc oxide, with or without a small percentage +of the inert pigments, is not as subject to the action of the water as +the single pigment paints. In order, however, to corroborate these +tests, it occurred to the writer to develop a more visible means of +demonstrating the passage of moisture through paint films. + +[Illustration: Bell Jar Apparatus for Testing Permeability of Paint +Films + +Paint films sealed over mouths of Bottles containing Lime Water. +Carbonic Acid Gas generated under Bell Jar passes through Plate Films +and precipitates Calcium Carbonate] + +Another series of white pine boards were therefore soaked in a solution +of iron sulphate for several hours. After removal, the surface of each +board was dried and coated with one coat of the paints previously +tested. After thorough drying for forty-eight hours, there was placed on +the surface of each board a few drops of a solution of potassium +ferrocyanide. This solution has the effect of producing a blue +coloration with iron sulphate, and in every case when it was placed on a +paint of considerable porosity, the solution penetrated through and +formed a blue coloration beneath the paint. The results corroborated the +original tests referred to above. + +A series of sheets or films of paints were then prepared according to +the method referred to on page 71. These films were placed over glass +dialyzing cups, allowing the inner surfaces to sag so as to hold a small +amount of dilute ammonium chloride solution. Distilled water was placed +on the reverse side of the dialyzing apparatus and the tests started. At +the end of six days the distilled water in each test was examined and +the following results obtained: + + Test No. 1 (corroded white lead and asbestine film) allowed the + passage of 0.002 gm. ammonium chloride. Test No. 2 (corroded + white lead and zinc oxide film) allowed the passage of 0.0003 gm. + ammonium chloride. + +Tests were also made with dilute solutions of other salts such as ferric +chloride, having a dilute solution of potassium sulpho-cyanide on the +reverse side of the apparatus. In the latter case the formation of a +pink color, characteristic upon the mingling of these solutions, was +obtained in a few hours. + +=Film-Testing Machine.= A film-testing apparatus, termed a "filmometer" +by its originator, Mr. R. S. Perry, was constructed, with the following +features: A graduated upright tube is fixed by means of sealing wax to +two metallic plates which carry an evenly bored hole, exactly under the +hole in the upright tube. This hole measures exactly one square +centimeter in area, and is circular. The upright tube is graduated into +lineal centimeters and is called the pressure tube. + +[Illustration: Gardner Accelerated Test Box] + +[Illustration: Perry Film Testing Machine] + +Attached to the lower end of this pressure tube, close to the metallic +plates which serve as carriers for the paint film to be tested, is a +side-neck, which is inclined at an angle of 45 degrees to the pressure +tube, and serves the purpose of introducing the mercury, as will be +described later. Immediately under the openings in the metallic plates +which carry the film are arranged two pieces of iron inclined at a +90-degree angle, so arranged that when the pressure of mercury is +applied and causes rupture of the film, the falling mercury shall be +caught between these two insulated plates and cause contact. These two +plates are connected up by wire with a pair of magnets, thence to an +electric bell, and from there to storage batteries which supply the +current. + +A film of paint is tested in the following manner: A piece of film one +inch square is cut out and placed between the two metallic plates which +hold the film immediately under the pressure tube. Mercury is run in +from a burette through the side-neck and applies pressure upon the film +by gravity. As the mercury is run in it rises of course in the tubes +until this pressure becomes so great as to finally break the film. At +this point the mercury will run out, and, falling upon the two insulated +iron plates immediately below, will cause contact and close the circuit +which rings an electric bell, which is a signal for the operator to shut +off the inflow of mercury through the side-neck from the burette. + +The pressure tube is also supplied with a piston which is made of a +piece of thin iron wire having a disc attached to its lower end. As the +mercury rises in the pressure tube this iron wire is pushed up, being +very delicately counterpoised over a wheel. Upon the breaking of the +film the mercury runs out, but upon falling upon the two iron plates +underneath causes contact to be made, which causes the current to run +through the pair of magnets before mentioned, which, becoming +electrified, attract the piston in the pressure tube, giving a reading +for the maximum height of the column of mercury. + +[Illustration: Diagram of Perry Filmometer] + +The supply of mercury being shut off, the operator is now in a position +to determine the total sum of both the elasticity and ductility of the +paint film, and also the pressure at which the film broke. The breaking +pressure of course is read directly upon the pressure column, which is +divided into centimeters as has been described above, the piston +indicating the maximum height of the mercury column. What may be termed +the elasticity of the film can now be calculated. As is perfectly +evident, the film in stretching does so by distending from a flat +surface to a curved or cup-like surface. If the pressure tube is +calibrated in cubic centimeters reckoned from a flat surface where the +film was introduced, the stretch of the paint film in distending from a +flat surface to a curved surface may be determined. The cubic contents +of the pressure tube and side-arm become increased, owing to the +cup-like shape the paint film takes on. By subtracting the amount of +mercury indicated by the piston in the pressure tube from the amount of +mercury delivered from the burette, the amount contained in the +distended paint film is obtained, which serves as a measure of +elasticity. The temperature is a most important point to consider in +running daily tests upon the filmometer. The tests made by the writer +were conducted at 70 degrees Fahrenheit throughout. + +[Illustration: Gardner-de Horvath film testing apparatus] + +=Gardner-de Horvath Filmometer.= Another type of filmometer which gives +very concordant results was recently devised by the writer and de +Horvath. This apparatus is shown above. + +It consists of a three-necked Wolff bottle having provision at one of +its necks for exhausting the air from the bottle. The reverse neck is +provided with a gauged glass tube dipping into a porcelain crucible +containing mercury, thus acting as a manometer. The middle neck is +fitted to accommodate two ground glass plates. Both these plates are +provided with a central orifice one millimeter in diameter. Between the +plates is placed a small section of paint film. The plates may be +pressed together or clamped together and placed over the middle neck of +the bottle, a close contact being made with Canada balsam. As the air is +exhausted from the bottle, the mercury in the tube will rise and +continue in its ascent until the film, which is exposed to atmospheric +pressure, has offered it maximum resistance, which is shown by the +breaking point. This point is observed on the manometer and the result +expressed in centimeters of mercury. + +=Table of Film Testing Results.= By means of the Perry film-testing +apparatus, described in the above, interesting results have been +obtained, which are embodied in the following table: + +COMPARATIVE STRENGTHS OF FILMS AS OBTAINED BY THE BREAKING MACHINE + + ============================+=========+==========+===========+======== + |No. Coats| Pressure | Thickness | Stretch + ----------------------------+---------+----------+-----------+-------- + 1. Zinc oxide | 3 | 33.2 | 0028 | .30 + 2. Zinc lead | 3 | 32.7 | 0034 | .35 + 3. Asbestine | 3 | 28.0 | 0045 | .15 + 4. Sublimed white lead | 3 | 17.9 | 0024 | .38 + 5. Barytes | 3 | 13.3 | 0042 | .33 + 6. Lithopone | 3 | 13.1 | 0024 | .49 + 7. Whiting | 3 | 13.0 | 0033 | .32 + 8. Quick process white lead| 3 | 11.3 | 0025 | .38 + 9. Gypsum | 3 | 10.8 | 0039 | .29 + 10. China clay | 3 | 10.8 | 0035 | .16 + 11. Silex | 3 | 9.6 | 0032 | .32 + 12. Blanc fixe | 3 | 8.5 | 0030 | .28 + 13. Corroded white lead | 3 | 7.3 | 0020 | .33 + 14. Barium carbonate | 3 | 7.2 | 0028 | .16 + ============================+=========+==========+===========+======== + +By means of this machine it is possible to obtain very valuable +information concerning the effect of age upon a paint as influencing its +strength and elasticity. These are two vital qualities in a paint, as it +is through its strength that a paint resists abrasion, cracking, +peeling, and blistering. That elasticity is a vital qualification of a +paint may easily be seen through the checking of oil paintings, which, +as Ostwalt has pointed out, is due to the unequal coefficients of +expansion between the ground and the paint. This is particularly +noticeable in the alligatoring of many enamels which contain large +percentages of zinc. + +Curves have been prepared having pressure as an abscissa and elasticity +as ordinate. These curves show remarkable differences in different +pigments. For instance, in the case of white lead, the curve takes a +steep upward trend when it apparently reaches a maximum, the curve then +flattening out and finally taking another steep upward trend just before +breaking. This may be construed as follows: That under low pressures the +white lead film is perfectly elastic, when a maximum is obtained, beyond +which elasticity does not extend. This point is the maximum point of the +upward trend. From here on pressure may be applied without any increase +in stretch, this being represented by the flat part of the curve, while +the steep upward trend just before breaking shows where the paint begins +to tear, finally culminating in breaking. In the case of asbestine, +however, the curve is more of a straight line up to the breaking point, +which would go to prove that elasticity is proportionate to pressure in +the case of this pigment. + +=Moisture Absorption.= The structure of certain pigments is such that +when they are ground in linseed oil and painted out, films are produced +which are very water-resistant. This action is possibly due to the +filling of the voids in the oil, thus making a compact and +water-resistant film. Pigments which are coarse and which present an +angular crystalline structure, often produce films which contain a +relatively large number of voids and are less waterproof. Certain +pigments are chemically active and tend to produce, when ground in oil, +metallic soaps which act for a time more or less as varnish gums, in +keeping out moisture. Later on, however, such films are apt to break +down and admit moisture in quantity. The tests herein described were +designed by the author to determine the water-excluding value of a +number of typical pigments when ground in linseed oil and painted out +into films. Unfortunately, no method has been devised by which films of +the same gauge could be prepared. The variations in the thickness of the +films used in these experiments, however, are not very great. + +[Illustration: Apparatus for Determining Excluding Properties of Paint +Films] + +A series of small glass bottles with wide mouths, holding about two +ounces, were half filled with concentrated sulphuric acid, and paint +films were tightly sealed over the mouths of the bottles with Canada +balsam. The bottles were then carefully labeled, numbered, and +accurately weighed upon chemical balances. Later they were exposed under +a large glass bell jar containing air saturated with moisture and kept +at a constant temperature. The bottles were removed from the receptacle +every week and reweighed. The increase in weight, due to the amount of +moisture which had penetrated through the films, and absorbed by the +sulphuric acid, owing to its hygroscopic nature, was thus determined. In +another series of bottles, lumps of calcium chloride were substituted +for the sulphuric acid. The results obtained from these tests correspond +to those of the former tests, and led to the conclusion that the +porosity of linseed oil films varied when different pigments were used +in the oil. + +MOISTURE EXPERIMENTS + +Figures Given Express Percentage Gain in Weight, e.g., Water Absorbed + + ==========================+=========+=========+========= + | 7 days | 21 days | 49 days + --------------------------+---------+---------+--------- + White lead and zinc oxide | 0.043% | 0.115% | 0.266% + Zinc lead white | 0.049 | 0.130 | 0.284 + Red lead | 0.049 | 0.130 | 0.295 + Sublimed white lead | 0.049 | 0.128 | 0.292 + Zinc chromate | 0.064 | 0.176 | 0.417 + Zinc oxide | 0.065 | 0.172 | 0.391 + Barytes | 0.074 | 0.202 | 0.466 + Willow charcoal | 0.077 | 0.236 | 0.694 + Lithopone | 0.083 | 0.228 | 0.550 + Chinese blue | 0.092 | 0.276 | 0.671 + Natural graphite | 0.104 | 0.350 | 0.951 + Ultramarine | 0.119 | 0.336 | 0.814 + ==========================+=========+=========+========= + +Another series of tests was started, in which were used films prepared +from various oils and varnishes made especially for the test from +different gums. The results of this series are very interesting, as they +indicate that certain gums are more powerful than others in making oils +resistant to moisture. The reader should study with care the data on +treated Chinese wood oil, most excellent results having been obtained +when it was used in the proper percentage. + +EXCLUDING TESTS ON OIL VEHICLES AND VARNISHES SHOWING PERCENTAGE OF +MOISTURE ABSORBED AT VARIOUS PERIODS + + ===================================+=========+=========+========= + | 6 days | 18 days | 24 days + -----------------------------------+---------+---------+--------- + Linseed oil, 100% | .233 | .686 | .895 + Soya bean oil, 100% | .340 | 1.06 | 1.39 + Linseed oil, 80% } | .250 | .755 | .987 + Soya bean oil, 20%} | | | + Linseed oil, 60% } | .289 | .857 | 1.125 + Soya bean oil, 40% } | | | + Linseed oil, 40% } | .355 | 1.05 | 1.39 + Soya bean oil, 60%} | | | + Linseed oil, 20% } | .260 | .789 | 1.03 + Soya bean oil, 80% } | | | + China wood oil treated, 100% | .130 | .297 | .375 + Linseed oil, 80% } | .182 | .559 | .728 + China wood oil treated, 20%} | | | + Linseed oil, 60% } | .173 | .540 | .708 + China wood oil treated, 40% } | | | + Linseed oil, 40% } | .119 | .348 | .450 + China wood oil treated, 60%} | | | + Linseed oil, 20% } | .127 | .375 | .494 + China wood oil treated, 80% } | | | + Kauri gum, 33% } | | | + Linseed oil, 33%} | .061 | .191 | .302 + Turpentine, 33% } | | | + Kauri gum, 25% } | | | + Linseed oil, 50% } | .096 | .266 | .346 + Turpentine, 25% } | | | + Kauri gum, 20% } | | | + Linseed oil, 60%} | .122 | .367 | .449 + Turpentine, 20% } | | | + Kauri gum, 15% } | | | + Linseed oil, 70% } | .187 | .421 | .601 + Turpentine, 15% } | | | + Congo copal gum, 20% } | | | + Linseed oil, 50% } | .228 | -- | -- + Turpentine, 30% } | | | + Sierra Leone copal, 20% } | | | + Linseed oil, 50% } | .099 | -- | -- + Turpentine, 30% } | | | + Zanzibar gum, 20% } | | | + Linseed oil, 50% } | .082 | -- | -- + Turpentine, 30% } | | | + Amimi gum, 20% } | | | + Linseed oil, 50% } | .080 | -- | -- + Turpentine, 30% } | | | + Boiled linseed oil (linoleate type)| .210 | -- | -- + Collodion solution (6 oz.), 80% } | .201 | -- | -- + Boiled linseed oil, 20% } | | | + ===================================+=========+=========+========= + +[Illustration: Microscopic view of section of cedar] + +[Illustration: Microscopic view of section of maple] + +[Illustration: Microscopic view of section of white pine] + +[Illustration: Gardner photomicroscope in position against painted +surface] + +[Illustration: Inside White on White Pine] + +=Use of the Microscope.= 4. The microscope is a necessary adjunct of +every well-ordered paint laboratory, as has been recognized throughout +the whole paint industry. The writer has attempted to collect certain +data which may materially assist those manufacturers who employ this +instrument to judge of the quality of their raw and finished products. +The fineness of grinding considerably affects the quality of the paint, +and this can be easily controlled through the intelligent use of the +microscope. This instrument may also be used to detect certain +adulterations. Appended is a table giving the fineness of grinding of +the various pigments, together with their characteristics under the +microscope. In this table measurements are given both in millimeters and +in inches, in order to accommodate itself to the use of those chemists +employing a millimeter stage micrometer, or those employing the English +or inch system. Although it is not yet certain that any and all +combinations of pigments may be detected under the microscope the writer +is working toward a method which will allow a manipulator to judge of +the composition of the paint under observation. + +In order to properly prepare a paint for microscopic examination, the +following method is recommended: A microscopic turn-table is a +convenient accessory of the microscope, and its use is to be +recommended. A glass slide being placed in position upon the turn-table, +a very small amount of either the pigment rubbed up in oil, or the +paint, is applied to the slide; a small drop of Canada balsam is then +applied by means of a glass rod dipped in a solution of balsam in xylol, +and dropped upon the slide. The rod is then used to thoroughly +incorporate the pigment with the balsam, and a cleaned cover glass is +dropped over the whole and pressed down tightly, so that a small amount +of balsam will exude from under the edges and thus firmly seal the +glass. In order to make permanent slides it has been found advisable to +rim the cover glass with balsam and even follow this up with some +suitable black varnish, the slide being then carefully labeled and +placed in the collection. Following is a table of the characteristics of +the fourteen chief pigments: + +TABLE OF THE SIZE OF PARTICLES OF THE CHIEF PIGMENTS WITH THEIR +CHARACTERISTICS UNDER THE MICROSCOPE + + ===+===================+======================+======================= + | | Diameter in | Diameter in + | | Millimeters | Inches + | +-------+-------+------+-------+------+-------- + No.|Name | Small | Aver. |Large | Small | Aver.| Large + ---+-------------------+-------+-------+------+-------+------+-------- + 1|Asbestine |.002 | -- |.12 |.00015 | -- |.049 + 2|China clay |.003 | -- |.065 |.00009 | -- |.025 + 3|Barium carbonate |.00076 |.0055 |.0172 |.00003 |.00024|.0011 + 4|Blanc fixe |.00073 |.0037 |.0073 |.00003 |.00014|.0003 + 5|Silex |.0037 |.0092 |.03 |.00014 |.00036|.0012 + 6|Gypsum |.0037 |.011 |.05 |.00014 |.00044|.0022 + 7|Amer.-Paris white |.0015 |.0050 |.04 |.00006 |.00022|.0018 + 8|Barytes |.0015 |.0092 |.05 |.00006 |.00036|.0021 + 9|Zinc lead |.00037 |.0018 |.0037 |.000014|.00007|.00014 + 10|Sublimed white lead|.00037 |.0018 |.0037 |.000014|.00007|.00014 + 11|Lithopone |.00076 |.0018 | -- |.00003 |.00007| -- + 12|Zinc oxide |.00046 |.0018 |.00037|.00002 |.00007|.00014 + 13|Quick Pro. lead |.00061 |.0030 |.0048 |.00002 |.00012|.00018 + 14|Dutch Pro. lead |.00061 |.0018 |.0066 |.00002 |.00007|.00026 + ===+===================+=======+=======+======+=======+======+======== + +=Film Sectioning and Deductions to be Drawn Therefrom.= 5. +Investigations were undertaken into the innermost structure of paint +films as revealed under the microscope. Up to the present time, work has +been done upon barytes, asbestine, blanc fixe, and white lead, painted +upon wood, and a combination paint upon wood. The films, the preparation +of which has been described in the foregoing, were sectioned and +prepared for microscopic examination in the following manner: + +A solidifying dish was partly filled with low melting-point paraffin +which was allowed to harden, when a small piece of paint was thrown upon +it and then more paraffin poured over it. After hardening, sections were +obtained of the paint film by means of a microtome. + +[Illustration: Section Barytes Film] + +A view of these sections of paint films under the microscope gave to the +operator a better idea of the structure of a paint than had ever been +afforded heretofore. It was easy to perceive the relative position of +the pigment particles and the three coats. The penetration of one coat +into another was easily discernible, and measurements were made upon the +sections in order to determine the average thickness of coat and its +general appearance. + +Sections were also made of Inside and Outside White upon wood. These +sections revealed under the microscope the thickness of the coats and +also the penetration of the priming coat into the wood. Appended is a +table giving microscopic measurements. + +PAINT SECTION MEASUREMENTS UNDER MICROSCOPE + + ======================+=============+===========+====== + | |Millimeters|Inches + ----------------------+-------------+-----------+------ + Barytes |3 coats (sum)| .1068 |.00421 + |Single coat | .0356 |.00140 + | | | + Inside. White on wood |3 coats (sum)| .1624 |.00639 + |Outside coat | .0230 |.00091 + |Next coat | .0443 |.00175 + Field in photographs |Next coat | .0620 |.00245 + |Penetration | .0294 |.00116 + White lead |Inside | .0215 |.00085 + |Middle | .0405 |.00159 + |Outside | .0184 |.00073 + |3 coats (sum)| .0811 |.00319 + Asbestine |3 coats (sum)| .1840 |.00725 + | | | + Blanc fixe |3 coats (sum)| .1068 |.0042 + |Single coat | .0356 |.00014 + | | | + Outside. White on wood|Outside coat | .1329 |.00523 + |Inside | .1845 |.00727 + |Penetration | .0737 |.00290 + ======================+=============+===========+====== + +=Polar Micro-Examinations and Photomicrographs.= By Polar +Micro-Examination is meant the examination of pigments under polarized +light. A polarizing apparatus, though not an essential in the hands of +the paint chemist, is nevertheless much to be desired, for by its help +deductions may be drawn as to the contents of a paint, which by other +means might not be possible. The polarizing apparatus as marketed by +most manufacturers of the microscope is attached in the following +manner: + +The diaphragm immediately under the sub-stage container is swung out and +opened to its widest limit, allowing the insertion of the polarizer. +This polarizer carries one of the pair of Nicols prisms and is +countersunk to allow of the introduction of gypsum or selenite plates. +The analyzer fits over the eyepiece on the tube. + +The use of polarized light upon paint is valuable on account of its +action upon crystalline substances. The re-enforcing pigments, such as +Asbestine, China Clay, Gypsum, Silex, Barytes, etc., are crystalline and +consequently act upon the polarized light. In most cases these pigments +are used in ready-mixed paints in small amounts, varying between 5 and +25%. When a slide containing a small amount--for example, less than +3%--of these crystalline pigments is examined under the microscope by +ordinary transmitted light, they will often escape observation, owing to +the small amount in which they are present. However, in the case of +polarized light, this could hardly happen. + +[Illustration: Microscopic View of Barytes under Polarized Light] + +A slide of paint containing these re-enforcing pigments is prepared in +the usual manner. On examining this under the microscope and using the +polarizing apparatus, the crystalline pigments are at once detected by +revolving the analyzer. At one position of the analyzer, one sees an +ordinary field, as with transmitted light, but if one revolves the +analyzer, the field gradually becomes darker until total darkness is +obtained throughout, except in such places where crystalline substances +are present, when the crystal is shown up with beautiful distinctness. +Photomicrographs of various single pigments and pigment combinations are +shown under Chapter III. + +=Effect of Pigments on Oil.= Certain pigments have the property of +acting upon the linseed oil in which they are ground, forming metallic +linoleates which accelerate the drying of oil. This is especially true +of lead and zinc pigments. The inert crystalline pigments, when ground +in linseed oil and painted out, distribute the oil so as to allow a +great surface to be exposed to the air. Thus by physical action, and +possibly catalytic or contact action, these inert pigments stimulate the +drying of oil paints in which they are ground. Lead and zinc paints, of +course, have the greatest drying values on account of the added effect +of the linoleates formed, as outlined above. The writer has made a +series of tests in which the action of various pigments upon linseed oil +is shown. The tests were made in the following manner: + +Five grams of each of a series of commonly used paint pigments, +including those of inert crystalline nature as well as the more valuable +amorphous pigments which are considered more or less chemically active, +were ground separately in an agate mortar, with 5 grams of raw linseed +oil. The ground paste in each case was placed in a marked glass beaker, +and allowed to stand in a dustless section of the laboratory for one +month. The oil-pigment paste from each beaker was then separately +extracted with benzine to remove the linseed oil from the pigment. The +benzine solutions of oil were then heated to remove the benzine and the +residue of oil burned to ash in crucibles. The ash from each test was +weighed, and if it ran above the percentage of ash determined on a blank +sample of linseed oil (namely, .003%), the ash was analyzed +qualitatively for metallic constituents. The following table of results +shows the percentage increase in ash, as well as the constituents of ash +on the various samples tested: + +TABLE OF RESULTS + + ===============================+==============+======================== + | Per cent. of | + | Ash in Oil | + Pigment in Oil |Extracted from|Analysis of Ash + | Oil-Pigment | + | Paste | + -------------------------------+--------------+------------------------ + Raw linseed oil without pigment| 0.003 | -- + Barytes | 0.003 | -- + Blanc fixe | 0.003 | -- + Silica | 0.003 | -- + Asbestine | 0.005 | -- + China clay | 0.007 | -- + Whiting | 0.008 | -- + Chrome yellow | 0.025 |Lead oxide (PbO) + Lithopone | 0.031 |Zinc oxide (ZnO) + Prussian blue | 0.032 |Iron oxide (Fe_{2}O_{3}) + Sublimed white lead | 0.033 |Lead oxide (PbO) + Zinc oxide | 0.105 |Zinc oxide (ZnO) + Corroded white lead | 0.116 |Lead oxide (PbO) + Red lead | 0.2112 |Lead oxide (PbO) + ===============================+==============+======================== + +Observation of these results shows that pigments such as Barytes, Blanc +Fixe, and Silica have no chemical action on the linseed oil. The results +on Asbestine and China Clay also are negative, the extremely slight +increase in amount of ash from these samples probably being due to +traces carried over mechanically into the oil mixture; the last named +pigments being more fluffy and difficult to separate from oil. Slight +action seemed to be apparent in the case of whiting, a pigment somewhat +alkaline in nature. A longer test might have shown this pigment to have +possessed still greater action. Corroded white lead showed considerable +action, resulting in the formation of lead linoleate or some other +organic compound. Zinc oxide and lithopone, the latter pigment +containing 30% of zinc sulphide, both indicated action on the oil. +Chrome yellow (chromate of lead) showed some action, as did also +Prussian blue, the ash from the last named pigment showing a heavy +percentage of iron oxide. + +Red Lead showed a most astounding gain in these tests, chemical action +of the pigment on the oil being apparent soon after the tests were +started, as shown by the formation of a hard cake with the linseed oil. + +The Raw Linseed Oil which was used in these tests had an acid value of +1.84%, which is very low. The neutralization of this free fatty acid by +some of the alkaline pigments used, may account for part of the +increased percentage of ash, but in most cases the pigments, and more +especially the basic pigments, had a direct saponifying action upon the +glycerides of the oil. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF SCIENTIFIC PAINT MAKING + + +=Laws of Paint Making.= To secure a proper comprehension of the +composition of paints, and to be able to interpret the functions of +their various constituents, requires an understanding of the general +physical principles involved. The modern grinder has accepted the Law of +Minimum Voids, and upon this law he bases the design of paint formulae, +aiming toward the production of what have been properly termed +Scientifically Prepared Paints. Perry's formulation of the Law of +Minimum Voids in a paint coating, and the analogy which he has drawn +between a scientifically prepared paint and a well-proportioned +concrete, was the result of genuine scientific thought following +observation and experimentation. It must be admitted that analogies are +not always safe to draw conclusions from, but it surely is no fallacy in +reasoning to draw analogies between these two materials, when they +resemble each other in so many ways. To carry out processes of +reasoning, and to formulate laws from such close analogies, is certainly +a step in the right direction. + +A graphic summary of the analogies between a properly proportioned +concrete and a paint, are shown on next page. + +Although this table graphically summarizes the principles involved, the +matter is presented with greater clearness in the following: + +Law No. 1--The law of minimum voids to be observed in constructing a +paint formula--this law having already been accepted as mathematically +correct and technically proved in the technology of concrete and cement. + +Corollary--The requisite thickness of a paint film together with the +utmost attainable strength and impermeability can best be obtained by a +properly proportioned blend of pigments of three or more determinate +sizes. + + +AN EXHIBITION OF CERTAIN ANALOGIES GOVERNING THE MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE +AND OF PAINT + + 1 Concrete aggregate = solids + vehicle|Paint aggregate = solids + vehicle + | + 2 Solids = coarse + medium + fine |Solids = coarse + medium + fine + (stone) (gravel) (sand) | {pulverized }{precipi-} + |(pig- {cryst'lline}{tated }(fume) + |(ments {(etc.) } + | + 3 Vehicle = |Vehicle = + = reactive binder + evapor'g thinner |= reactive binder+evaporating thinner + { cement and com- } (excess water) | (linseed oil) (volatiles) + { bining water } | + | + 4 Solids + compacting = |Solids + compacting = + (tamping) | (brushing) + = elimination of accidental voids + | = elimination of accidental voids + + + proper adhesive contact | + proper adhesive contact + | + 5 Vehicle + reaction = hydrosilicates, |Vehicle + reaction = linoxyn + etc. | + (setting) | (drying) + | + 6 Solids + vehicle + |Solids + vehicle + + + lubrication + chemical reaction = | + lubrication + chemical reaction = + = final product { solidified binder+}| = final product {solidified binder+} + { + solids }| {+ solids } + | + 7 Final product = concrete |Final product = paint coating + { shearing }| { strength } + (of max. strength { tensile }| (of maximum { impermeability } + { crushing, etc. }| { durability } + + * * * * * + + If we assume for both paint and concrete + proper lubrication + proper proportion of vehicle and solids + Then the _essential difference_ between a thin film of + + Concrete and Paint + is + + Cement Binder Linoxyn Binder + + _Disadvantages_ + + Non-elastic and hence an impracticable |Slowly perishable from oxidation by + binder for a film to protect non- |the air. + similar structural surfaces. | + + _Advantages_ + + Durable and with the qualities of a |Semi-elastic and therefore a practic- + natural mineral. |able binder for a film to protect + |structural surfaces. + + Postulate (def. Webster's Dictionary--A self-evident problem) + + Postulate No. 1--The organic linoxyn or semi-elastic binder of the + paint vehicle (unlike the cement binder) is perishable and its purity, + strength and protection from attack means life to the paint coating, + and hence the _life_ of the oil is the _life_ of the paint. + + Postulate No. 2--The inorganic or powdered mineral solids of a paint + coating will crumble unless held together by the binder, but the + imperishable pigments must be so ground and blended in the binder that + they will protect the binder and present the greatest possible solid + front to the atmospheric attack. + + * * * * * + + A paint, to secure the greatest protection and life for the linoxyn, + together with the durable qualities of cement, + + _Therefore_ + + Should expose to air decay + + within limits of physical strength |within limits required for elasticity, + The greatest amount of pigm't material |etc. The least amount of exposed + |linoxyn + (which is) | or + Durable and with the inert qualities of|Considering the linoxyn present be- + natural mineral |tween pigment particles as the void + |or point of attack, + | Then + |the minimum exposure of linoxyn + or minimum voids obtainable by proportioned pigments of different particle + sizes. + +Law No. 2--The law of the flat arch in paint coatings--i.e., the fact +that in studying the fundamental physical principles governing the +strength and durability of a paint coating it is necessary to regard the +coating as consisting of a series of flat arches, in which the pigment +particles of largest characteristic size serve as the piers or supports +for the flat arches of which the continuous film is composed. + +Corollary A--The strength and durability of a paint coating is +determined by the strength and durability of the piers or supports +(which consist of the characteristic pigment particles of the largest +size). + +Corollary B--Owing to their inherent strength and durability the pigment +particles of largest characteristic size which serve as supports for the +paint coating should consist, in part at least, of chemically inert +pigments, such as natural crystalline barium sulphate, calcium +carbonate, magnesium silicate, etc. + +Corollary C--It follows directly that the thickness of a paint coating +is determined by the particles of pigments having the largest +characteristic size, even if that pigment be present only in moderate +percentage. Upon this principle depends the comparatively great +thickness of film and moderate spreading rate of paints composed of such +pigments as basic carbonate--white lead, red lead, barytes, etc., and +the strongly contrasted thinness of film and high spreading rate of +paints composed of the sublimated pigments such as lamp black, zinc +oxide, basic sulphate--white lead, zinc-lead white, leaded zinc, etc. + +In commenting upon the announced laws set forth above, Heckel says: "The +recognition of these laws was an exercise of pure deduction. Paint +manufacturers before Mr. Perry's announcement were producing paints +containing three or more pigments with particles of varying +characteristic sizes; but their procedure was based largely on empirical +knowledge, the result of accumulated experience, due to a conscientious +endeavor to produce the highest type of paints for economic service. In +the absence of any law to govern or to limit the use of the reinforcing +pigments, inexperienced manufacturers had brought upon the market paints +which were badly proportioned as to the several pigments, or burdened +beyond the limits of effectiveness with reinforcing pigments. To all +paint manufacturers Perry rendered a substantial service in deducing for +them the laws set forth in his address. In the results following a +recognition of these laws there was nothing new or startling, but Perry +was the first to give the principles from which it can be determined in +advance whether a paint formula will prove to be physically good or bad +in practice. + +[Illustration: Series of Paint Chasers, Mixers, and Grinders] + +[Illustration: Overhead Churn Mixer] + +[Illustration: Battery of Paint Mixers and Grinders of Modern +Underdriven Type] + +[Illustration: _Photographs courtesy of Ernest Heath_ + +View showing Shrinkage in Bulk of Paint Pigment after being ground in +Oil. Filled Barrel on Right with the Oil forms one-third Barrel Paste as +shown in Barrel on Left] + +[Illustration: View showing careful Dressing of Bull Stone Mill from +Grinder] + +"As has been before stated, he was not the first to recognize the law +governing minimum voids, but by that scientific use of the imagination +which Tyndall so highly commends, he recognized, as by inspiration, the +fundamental similarity existing between a film composed of solid +particles cemented together by a semi-solid homogeneous menstruum and a +layer of concrete composed of solid particles cemented together by a +solid homogeneous medium. His application of the law permits the paint +manufacturers to design a paint formula with full knowledge of the +controlling conditions, so that it shall produce a coating neither too +thick, and therefore uneconomical and subject to excessive internal +strains, nor too thin, and thus weak and inefficient for protection. +That Mr. Perry's contention was well-founded, other paint technologists +have since demonstrated; notably Mr. Wirt Tassin, in his microscopic +studies of paint films in situ, and Prof. G. W. Thompson who, in his +address to the Penna. Association of Master Painters at Reading, +said:--"I want to agree with Mr. Perry * * * where he says that a +pigment should be made up of particles of different sizes. Mr. Perry +also draws a further parallel between paint and concrete where he refers +to the form of the reinforcing pigment particles and suggests that in +paint coatings as in concrete a field can be found for the chemically +inert pigments with rod-like or hair-like structure, to strengthen the +film, just as the steel rods and iron mesh are used to reinforce +concrete in structural work--a suggestion which, since the first +publication of the address, has been widely accepted as a practical aid +in the manufacture of good paints."" + +=Use of Inert Pigments.= There seems to be no reasonable doubt as to the +efficiency of a small amount of inert pigments in paint, and the writer +has often compared the manufacture of paint of the above type to the +making of various alloys wherein zinc, copper, and other metals are +added to gold in order to make a product possessed of greater +durability, etc. + +[Illustration: Batteries of Color Grinding Mills] + +There has been considerable inquiry as to just what is meant by the +statement that "a moderate percentage of inert pigments, combined with +properly adjusted mixtures of white lead and zinc oxide, have given +wonderful service in all the tests." The writer has been asked to define +what "moderate" means. A "moderate percentage of inert pigments" should +be defined as that amount of natural crystalline pigments that will, +when mixed with white lead and zinc oxide, not materially detract from +the hiding power of white lead and zinc oxide. It is possible to mix a +certain percentage of these crystalline pigments with white lead and +zinc oxide, and, by thorough grinding, incorporate them in such a manner +that the mixture will show nearly as good a hiding power as the straight +white lead and zinc oxide. When certain limits have been reached, +however, and these limits must be determined by the manufacturer and +painter in making practical tests, the further addition of inert +pigments lowers the hiding power of the paint and therefore lowers the +value of the paint. These remarks do not apply to artificial crystalline +pigments, such as precipitated whiting, which possess greater hiding +values than the natural pigments. + +=Perry's Principles of Paint Making.= Parts of the original paper[18] in +which Perry so clearly set forth the principles from which the preceding +laws were formed, follow: + + [18] Physical Characteristics of a Paint Coating. R. S. Perry. + Michigan Chapter, Amer. Institute of Architects, 1907. + +=Sealing Quality or Imperviousness of the Coating.= "It has been +emphasized that for durability and protection, the strength and +imperviousness of a paint coating are vital factors. The protective +value of the paint coating of course ceases with its chalking or +disintegration, but, while it is true that the protecting or final life +of the coating ceases with this disintegration, it is also true that a +paint coating has always during its true life more or less porosity from +the nature of the linoxin or oxidized linseed oil. Therefore during its +protecting life the degree of its imperviousness influences its +resistance to attack upon its own life and its protection of the +underlying materials. The more impervious the paint coating without loss +of strength, the slower the oxidation or disintegration of the paint +coating itself and the greater protection to the underlying material. + +"A coating of linseed oil alone is not only weak, but the simplest and +crudest experiments will show its porosity and this porosity increases +rapidly with progressive oxidation, the porosity of course definitely +hastening the over-oxidation or chalking. In proportion, therefore, to +our success in filling the voids in the linseed oil film with proper +pigment materials, we will in that degree succeed in excluding agencies +of decay, not only from the mass of the paint coating itself, but also +from the surface to be protected. These conditions are exactly parallel +in the requirements and performance of the best-made concrete, and +Taylor & Thompson in their work on concrete have clearly stated that to +obtain imperviousness there must be freedom from voids, and that to +obtain these conditions, the materials used must have at least three +determining sizes. + +[Illustration: Equal Volume (One Cubic Centimetre) of Each Size of Shot +Taken. Note that the Smaller Shot Cover more than Half as much again as +the Larger Shot and the Voids are Smaller.] + +[Illustration: Diagram Illustrating Two Determining Sizes of Solid +Particles in Concrete] + +[Illustration: Diagram Illustrating Three Determining Sizes of Solid +Particles in Concrete] + +"'It is a fact that with particles of different sizes as against uniform +size the densest mixture can be obtained. This is so evident as to +require no proof.' It follows that the least density and hence the +largest percentage of voids occur when the grains are all of the same +size, and it is shown that the most voids occur in a mass of large +particles. The least voids occur when the voids between the large +particles are filled with smaller particles and when these smaller voids +between the smaller particles are in turn filled with still finer +particles. In other words--particles with three determining sizes will +fill up a given space more completely than particles of two determining +sizes and very much more completely than particles of one size. + +=Elasticity and Strength.= "The paint coating here again is governed by +many of the laws which govern the similar material, i.e., concrete. We +find, by again referring to Taylor & Thompson, on Concrete, page 275, +that tests at the Watertown Arsenal on concrete convinced the +investigators that the ultimate strength of a concrete is identical with +the shearing strength of particles of stone making up the aggregate. + +"This means that in its ultimate form the good concrete will crack or +shear through the broken rock contained therein, and resistance to +shearing is directly proportionate to the strength of the broken rock +chosen for the mixture. The film of semi-liquid linseed oil when fresh +is extremely weak, but as it hardens, its characteristics and physical +properties will obviously be those qualities which are a composite of +the qualities of the solid particles and of the semi-solid linolein +incorporated together in the paint coating. These physical properties of +the suspended and incorporated pigments profoundly modify the film in +this respect. + +"The dried vehicle, linoxin, is notable for its elasticity, and it is +weak in crushing and tensile strength, and in hardness or resistance to +surface wear. The fact that it is a semi-solid furnishes an opportunity +to modify and improve those characteristics of a solid in which it is +deficient. The semi-solid, rubber-like linoxin between the coarser +particles of the pigment obviously uses these coarser particles as +supporting points. The medium sized particles of the second group of +alteration products serve the same purpose as the broken rock in +concrete. The coarser particles absolutely do not, and can not, serve +the purpose of stiffening or of reinforcing or modifying the consistency +and qualities of the semi-solid linoxin, for a number of reasons, one +of which may be mentioned, namely, that particles of the first, or +coarse, class have a determining size which is a large fraction--a heavy +percentage--of the total thickness of coating, and are in some instances +thicker in diameter than the thickness of an oil coating not reinforced +with the fine or fire group. + +"We must think of the coarser particles as piers. The mixture of linoxin +with the other two groups of particles in the spaces between these +coarser particles, or piers, is the true paint body and consists of flat +reinforced arches which have the extra support of falsework, in the +shape of the structural material on which the coating rests. Asbestine +pulp, a natural product and one of our most important natural +reinforcing pigments, serves not only in the coarse group as supporting +particles for the linoxin arch, but also because of its peculiar +properties serves the more important purposes of reinforcement. It +retains, no matter how finely ground, its peculiar needle-like, or +rod-like, form of particles, and obviously serves the purpose of +reinforcing the flat arch of linoxin, exactly as iron bars or iron +netting serve in reinforced concrete arches. The medium sized particles +of the second group of pigments produced by chemical alteration or +precipitation, serve the purpose of the broken rock in concrete, and +together with the coarser supporting particles and the finest +reinforcing particles, give minimum voids and a maximum imperviousness +to agencies of internal decay. + +"It goes without saying that the pigments of any one group contain +particles of dimensions which fall into the other two groups, but no one +pigment supplies the correct proportion of each of the three required +dimensions, and each pigment has so large a percentage of approximate +dimensions as to bar it from exclusive use in the other two groups. +Given similar homogeneous coatings under identical conditions, we +recognize the law that elasticity will vary directly with thickness. +Direct deduction from this law teaches us that of two paint coatings +equal in wear, in strength, opaqueness, and in all other qualities +except thickness, we should choose the thinner coating. Therefore if we +have two paint coatings fulfilling every requirement, the first +compounded with pigments giving a thicker coating and the second with +pigments yielding a thinner coating, we must choose the second formula +and obtain the thinner coating. + +=Adhesive Power.= "The adhesion of the linoxin to the coarse group of +particles and to the underlying material is vital to the life of the +paint coating. If the coating parts from the surface beneath, we have +scaling or peeling. It is universally admitted that this will result +from use of zinc oxide as the sole pigment. We have only to conceive of +our flat arch of reinforced linoxin and leave out our points of support, +to realize that this is the inevitable result if the coating be subject +to extreme exposure, although good results may be obtained from zinc +oxide used alone, as, for instance, in interior house painting where +extreme changes of temperature and exposure are avoided. + +"Three major lines of force hold our linoxin in place--adhesion toward +the underneath surface, adhesion to the coarse particles, and cohesion +within the linoxin itself. These lines must be represented by a flat +arch of linoxin with a downward pointing magnet therefrom, to represent +adhesion to the surface. Magnets on each side of the arch pointing +toward the supporting coarse particles, and two magnets within the arch +and pointing toward each other, or to the centre of the arch, these +latter to represent the force of cohesion." + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +THE SCOPE OF PRACTICAL PAINT TESTS + + +=The Pigment Contention.= During the year 1906 officials of the North +Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station examined a number of paints on +sale in the northwestern States. The presence of large quantities of +inert pigments as well as water, in some of these paints, prompted +agitation for State laws requiring the formula-labeling of paints. +Certain paints made of white opaque pigments such as white lead and zinc +oxide were exempted from the statute. The white opaque pigments used in +these paints were believed by certain manufacturers as well as by many +prominent paint authorities of high standing to be benefited in their +wearing value by the addition of small percentages of inert crystalline +pigments, such as barytes, silica, China clay, etc. Laboratory +experiments had already determined that these inert crystalline pigments +had a certain definite action in increasing the life of paints, but it +had become evident that they should be used with discretion, in +moderation, and with a proper understanding of their limitations, if the +best results were to be obtained. The addition of very large quantities +of such pigments was not indulged in by discriminating manufacturers, +but the exact percentage to use was a matter of great doubt, even to the +most experienced. In order to determine just what percentage of +crystalline pigments, admixed with white opaque paint pigments, would +give the best service and results, it seemed imperative that practical +paint tests should be made. A series of paint tests on commercial brands +of paint had already been started at the Fargo Agricultural College, +and, at the suggestion of the Paint Manufacturers' Association of the +United States, another series of practical paint tests were instituted, +and carried out under the supervision of Dr. E. F. Ladd, Director of the +North Dakota Experiment Station. + +=Test Fences to Solve the Problem.= It was apparent that the pigment +question could be solved only through field tests made on a +comprehensive basis and placed under the control of scientific and +technical societies of renown, so that they might be fair and unbiased +from every standpoint. In order to secure a comparison of the wearing of +different paint formulas in various sections of the country and under +differing climatic conditions, another series of tests was started in +the East soon after the North Dakota tests had been started. +Simultaneously fences were erected at Atlantic City, N. J., and +Pittsburg, Pa. The site of the Atlantic City fence is a strip of land +running due north from Atlantic and Savannah Avenues and within a short +distance from the Atlantic Ocean, the exposure being a severe one. The +site of the Pittsburg fence is back of the athletic field of the +Carnegie Technical Schools, the fence running east and west and being +exposed to the heavily charged sooty atmosphere coming from the many +industrial plants near by. + +=Construction of Framework of Fences.= At these two locations framework +fences were built, upon which were placed a series of painted panels. +Heavy yellow pine posts six inches square were set in the ground about +six feet apart and to the depth of about four feet, upon a concrete +base. The posts were solidly tamped and then braced at the top with +supplementary studding braces two inches thick. Connecting the posts was +a line of studding six inches by two inches, forming a solid framework, +the bottom of which was approximately fifteen inches from the ground. +The bottoms and tops of the fences were protected by heavy boards two +inches thick, so that the moisture and rain might be prevented from +working itself up into the wood. The whole fence was sheathed with +twelve-inch planed white pine, thus forming a solid background for the +test panels. + +=Lumber for Panels.= The lumber for the test panels was most carefully +selected, being of three grades--white pine, yellow pine, and cypress. A +large amount of each grade of lumber was secured, and after the best +portion had been made up into panels, the panels were inspected by an +expert lumber classer; nearly 40% being rejected on account of the +presence of knots or sappy places which appeared upon the surface. Each +of the panels finally passed upon as suitable for the test was branded +with a hot iron with consecutive numbers running from 1 to 186. The +grade of wood used for each panel was indicated by an abbreviated +mark--W for white pine, C for cypress, and Y for yellow pine. In order +that a record of each panel might be kept on file, previous to the +application of paint to the panels, a complete series of photographs was +taken of the panels in sets of four. This work seemed advisable so that +the future failure of paint on any one panel, which might be thought due +to faulty wood, could be either verified or refuted by a reference to +the series of photographs made of the bare panels. + +[Illustration: View of Atlantic City Test Fence] + +=Construction of Panels.= The panels were constructed of Dutch weather +boarding, tongued and grooved together in strips of three pieces and +capped at the top with a weather strip, forming a finished surface three +feet long and fifteen and a half inches high. They were firmly braced +together at their backs and nailed in such a manner that no portion of +the nails would appear on the surface of the panel, thus preventing the +staining of the panel from rust. The construction of the framework of +the fences at Atlantic City and Pittsburg was of such a nature that they +would each accommodate 560 panels of this type. + +=Starting of Tests.= On account of the lateness of the season, it was +found necessary to do the painting of the tests within a building, so +that each formula might be subjected to fair and equal conditions of +application, thus excluding the blowing of dust or rain upon the painted +surfaces, which would have taken place had the panels been painted upon +the fence. The painting of the panels began in January, 1908, the +temperature within the buildings in which the work was done averaging 50 +degrees Fahrenheit throughout the work. + +It was decided to test each formula in three colors, in duplicate, and +on each grade of wood, exposing the duplicates on either side of the +fence. Thus for one paint formula there were required 18 panels, or 6 +painted in each color and on 3 grades of wood. + +=Paints for Tests.= The mixed paints received for the tests were in +quart cans, having been especially prepared from the formulas submitted +to manufacturers by the technical committee in charge of the work. They +were properly labeled with their number and color, in each case. The +formulas decided upon for the test are described later. The various +white leads and other single pigment paints which were used were +received in kegs weighing 12-1/2 pounds each, having been bought in the +open market and then given a formula number. The formulas of the paints +designed for both the Atlantic City and Pittsburg tests, as well as the +numbers of the panels upon which the paints were applied, are shown on +pages 131-133-145. The analysis of one of the combination paints applied +is herewith given, to show the correct method of stating the composition +of a paint. + +FORMULA NO. 20, ATLANTIC CITY TEST FENCE + +Percentage Composition + + ===================+=======+=======+=======+======= + |Pigment|Vehicle| Total | + -------------------+-------+-------+-------+------- + Corroded white lead| 67.01 | -- | 42.84 | + Zinc oxide | 19.89 | -- | 12.71 | + Asbestine | 3.86 | -- | 2.47 | + Calcium carbonate | 9.24 | -- | 5.91 | + Raw oil | -- | 94.30 | 34.02 | + Japan drier | -- | 3.89 | 1.40 | + Turpentine | -- | 1.81 | 0.65 | + -------------------+-------+-------+-------+------- + |100.00 |100.00 |100.00 | + ===================+=======+=======+=======+======= + +=Brushes.= Heavy 7-O round bristle brushes were used for the priming +coat so that the paint might be well worked into the wood, while for the +second and third coats three-inch chisel edge brushes were used. These +brushes were, of course, washed several times with turpentine after +painting each panel, so that pigments from one paint could not be +carried over into a paint containing other pigments. + +[Illustration: Cypress Panels] + +=Shellacking Panels.= The shellacking of any bad places of minor nature +which may have been present on the surfaces of some of the panels, was +done with the highest grade orange shellac. It was thought advisable to +determine whether shellacking over the priming coat of paint or on the +bare wood previous to the application of the priming coat, was the +better method. Panels Nos. 1 to 8 in each test were therefore shellacked +over the priming coat, while on all other panels the shellacking was +done directly on the bare wood previous to the application of the +priming coat of paint. + +=Application of Paints.= In order to determine just how much paint was +applied to each panel and to reckon the spreading rate therefrom, +careful weighings were made during the application of every paint. This +was carried out by placing a quart can of paint as received, upon a +laboratory balance, the gross weight being taken and recorded. The can +was shaken and its contents transferred to a quart-size enameled cup +where with the aid of a paddle it was broken up into a mixture of even +consistency. A portion of this paint was then transferred to two small +sample cans carefully numbered with the formula number, for future +reference and analysis. The reduction of the paint was then made. The +brush used on the priming coat was placed with the pot and the paint on +the balance and the weight taken by the official weigher. The pot was +then given to the painter who applied the priming coat to one panel. The +brush, pot, and paint were then handed back to the official weigher and +the difference in weight recorded. From these data could be reckoned the +spreading rate of the formula applied. + +The drying of the panels was noted every few hours and observations made +to determine whether the paints were penetrating properly into the +surface of the wood. A period of eight days was allowed between each +coat in order that thoroughly hard setting might take place. + +During the application of the second coat of paint to the panels, fresh +cans of paint were used in every case so that fresh reductions could be +made of the proper consistency. Full data were also recorded on the ease +of application, working, and nature of drying shown, as well as +appearance presented by each paint after each coat had been applied. New +packages of paint were also used for the third coat, and, as a rule, the +paint was applied without reduction or with full oil reduction, +turpentine being eliminated in nearly every case for the third coat +work. + +=Reductions.= The single pigment paints, such as white leads, were +reduced by the so-called ounce system, each ounce of oil added to 12-1/2 +ounces of paste pigment representing one gallon of vehicle to one +hundred pounds of lead. A complete report of the reductions, spreading +rates, etc., used in the tests would take up three or four hundred pages +of printed matter. The reductions shown on the following formulas are, +however, fairly representative of the reductions used on the combination +and single pigment paints. + +REDUCTIONS ON FORMULA NO. 2 + +_White and Yellow_ + + 1st Coat Condition when opened--good. Consistency when broken + up--heavy. Reduction recommended by manufacturer--none. Reduction + used--3 pints raw oil, 1 pint turps, 1 gallon paint. Consistency after + reducing--good, stiff. Working--fair. Drying--fair on pines; + cypress--poor. Penetration, pines--good; cypress--poor. + + 2nd Coat Consistency when broken up--heavy. Reduction used--1-1/2 + pints turpentine, 1 pint boiled oil. Consistency after reducing--good. + Working--good. Hiding--medium. Drying on pines--good; cypress--poor. + One-half pint japan added to gallon of paint. Penetration--fair. + + 3rd Coat Reduction used--1-1/2 pints oil, 1/2 pint turpentine. + + _Reductions for Lead Pastes_ Calculated on 100 lb. keg. + + Formulas Nos. 37-38. (Corroded White Lead.) + + 1st Coat 6-1/2 gallons oil, 1/2 gallon turpentine, 1 pint turpentine + japan. + + 2nd Coat 3-1/2 gallons oil, 1 gallon turpentine, 1 pint japan. + + 3rd Coat 3 gallons oil, 1 pint turpentine, 1/2 pint japan. + +=Hiding Power of Paints.= When the priming coat had thoroughly dried on +each panel, the painter carefully stencilled a black Geneva cross over +the priming coat with lampblack in oil. The object of this black cross +was to make a determination of the comparative opacity or hiding power +of the different paints applied. It is well known that various pigments +when ground in oil differ in their hiding power in direct proportion to +the difference in the refractive indices of the pigments and oils used, +those containing high percentages of pigments such as white lead and +zinc oxide being superior in hiding power. After the second and third +coat of paint had been applied to each panel, there was evident a +remarkable difference in the hiding power, as the black cross showed +through in some cases quite clearly, while in other cases it was almost +completely hidden. The hiding power of a paint is one of the properties +which the master painter looks upon as most essential, but it should, of +course, be accompanied in a satisfactory paint by good spreading power +and longevity. + +=Actinic Light Tests.= After the drying of all the paints, it was +decided that it would be of extreme interest to conduct a test on the +resistance of certain paints to actinic light. It is well known that the +ultraviolet or chemical rays of the sun are most energetic in causing +chemical reactions that result in the early decay of certain types of +paint. It was thought that the disintegrating effect of these rays, as +well as their effect in the bleaching out of colors, might be prevented +by placing upon certain panels small orange colored glass slides which +would prevent the passing of these rays to the painted surface. The +slides used were five inches long and three inches wide and were placed +upon the middle board of certain panels, with picture framing, putty, +and galvanized iron tacks. The preservation of the underlying surface +from the sun's rays would, it was thought, prevent the deterioration of +the paint, and at the same time preserve its original color so that it +might be compared to the color of the exposed portion at the time of +inspection. + +=Supervision of Tests.= The Atlantic City tests were under the constant +supervision of Committee E of the American Society for Testing +Materials, this committee having accepted the inspection of the fence. A +representative was constantly present throughout the work in order to +see that each formula received fair treatment. The actual painting work +was under the supervision of the writer, together with a master painter +representing George Butler who was chosen by the Master Painters' +Association of Philadelphia as the official painter of the Atlantic +City test fence. Mr. J. B. Campbell of Chicago also acted as an official +of the Paint Manufacturers' Association in the application of the +formulas to both the Atlantic City and Pittsburg fences. + +At Pittsburg the fence was placed directly under the supervision and +control of the Carnegie Technical Schools, who chose for the fence work +a committee of their technical force. Drs. James and Schaeffer of this +institution were present throughout most of the work and were constantly +represented during the test. The Pittsburg Master Painters' Association +appointed a committee consisting of Messrs. Dewar, Rapp, and Cluley, for +the actual painting work, and they were represented with the writer +throughout the tests. + +Great interest was exhibited in the work by the committees in charge, +and the skill of the practical painters, combined with the care of the +inspectors, made the treatment of each formula fair and satisfactory. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +CONDITIONS NOTED AT INSPECTION OF TESTS + + +=Inspection of Atlantic City Tests.= During the month of March, just one +year after the placing of the painted panels on the Atlantic City fence, +an inspection was made jointly by a committee representing the Master +Painters' Association of Pennsylvania, the Scientific Section of the +Paint Manufacturers' Association of the United States, and certain +members of sub-Committee E of the American Society for Testing +Materials. + +=Methods Used at Inspection.= One of the most important tests made when +inspecting paint is the determination of the chalking taking place.[19] +There was developed during the inspection of the Atlantic City panels a +new method for determining the comparative chalking of the various +paints. It was thought desirable to secure a method, if possible, that +would show results which might be photographed and even tabulated in +percentage form, if desired. The apparatus for the new test consisted of +a small strip of black felt three inches wide by five inches long, +placed across a small block of wood which would fit in the palm of the +inspector's hand. This outfit resembled a blackboard eraser and was used +in a similar way. By holding the apparatus firmly against the panel and +drawing it half-way across the panel in a straight line toward the +operator, there was obtained on the black cloth a white mark +proportional in intensity to the amount of chalking which had taken +place on the given area. When a series of these cloths were made, they +were assembled and photographed for comparison. It should be noted that +the above chalking test is useful only where the painted panels under +examination have been exposed over a period of one to two years, during +which period the chalking of paints has been shown to be greatest and +the chalked surface of a fairly adherent nature. Where longer exposures +have been made and where rains have removed from the painted panels a +considerable amount of the chalked pigment which has formed, such a test +would not be fairly representative of the amount of chalking which had +taken place. + + [19] Mr. Macgregor of the Picher Lead Co. has just developed a new + test to determine the relative imperviousness of paints which + have begun to chalk. He draws a mark about two inches long upon + the painted surface with a fountain pen. The ink mark will spread + rapidly to a wide area if the chalking is of a bad order. If the + chalking is slight and the film in good condition, the ink mark + will not spread. + +[Illustration: Series of Black Felt Cloths used in making the Chalk +Tests on the Various Formulas. Numbers over Cloths represent Panels] + +[Illustration: CHALKING.--Type of Decay Exhibited by Improperly Made +Paint (magnified view)] + +[Illustration: CHECKING.--Type of Decay Exhibited by Improperly Made +Paint (magnified view)] + +[Illustration: BLISTERING.--Type of Decay Exhibited by Improperly Made +Paint (magnified view)] + +[Illustration: CRACKING.--Type of Decay Exhibited by Improperly Made +Paint (magnified view)] + +[Illustration: GENERAL DISINTEGRATION.--Type of Decay Exhibited by +Improperly Made Paint (magnified view)] + +[Illustration: SCALING.--Type of Decay Exhibited by Improperly Made +Paint (magnified view)] + +=Gloss.= The gloss of the various panels was a condition which was also +reported upon, the middle board of each panel being washed with a wet +sponge one day before the inspection so that any surface dirt might be +removed. By looking at a panel from the side, a day after the washing, +the inspector was enabled to get a fair idea of the degree of gloss +exhibited by each formula. + +=Hiding Power.= The hiding power of each paint was determined, as before +described, by observing the degree to which the stencilled lampblack +cross on the priming coat was visible through the second and third +coats. Single pigment paints such as white lead possessed very great +hiding power and obscured the black cross almost completely, while the +cross was quite visible through paints containing high percentages of +crystalline pigments. + +=Checking.= The checking of each panel was determined by examining with +a small high-power hand glass magnifying fifteen diameters. It is well +known that examinations with such a hand glass will not determine +whether so-called fine matt checking is taking place, but it will +determine whether checking has appeared to any marked extent. Fine matt +checking is the first sign of the decomposition of a paint, and is +preliminary to the visible checking seen by the naked eye, which is +often followed by alligatoring. Examination of some formulas disclosed +this so-called alligatoring and even the exposed wood between the +fissured surface which had developed from what were at first fine hair +checks. It is, in the opinion of the writer, possible to predict with a +fair degree of accuracy by examination of a painted surface, one year +after exposure, how the paint will wear in the future and what its +appearance will be at the end of another year. + +=Hardness.= The hardness of each panel could not be determined with any +degree of accuracy, but the inspectors were able to roughly determine +this condition by very close inspection. From practical experience of +the wearing of white lead and zinc oxide, and the comparative hardness +of these two pigments, zinc oxide was selected as the maximum for +hardness and termed number 10, while white lead was selected as the +minimum and termed number 1. The varying degrees of hardness exhibited +by the formulas were recorded in terms from one to ten. This comparison +of course was only an approximate one. + +=General Condition.= The so-called general conditions of the panels was, +as a rule, the consensus of the judgment held by the various inspectors, +with due regard to such properties as chalking, checking, gloss, hiding +power, color maintenance, condition of surface, etc. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +RESULTS OF ATLANTIC CITY TESTS + + +=Results on Various Woods.= On the Atlantic City Fence all the tests +made on yellow pine and cypress were found to be in an unsatisfactory +condition for a report, for in every case the sap and small knots +contained in such wood had a very bad effect upon the paint, causing +peeling and scaling. The white pine panels were in very much better +condition, and it was therefore decided to make the inspection entirely +from the white pine panels and in the future to remove the yellow pine +and the cypress panels from the fence and from the test. The Committee +advised that all future tests be made on white pine, as it is obviously +unfair to use anything but the highest grade wood for a paint test in +which the desire is to determine the comparative wearing value of +pigments. + + NOTE.--Recent tests have shown that Cypress may be successfully + painted when the priming coat of paint is thinned with Benzol + (Solvent Naphtha). + +[Illustration: Panels on Atlantic City Fence Two Lower Sets of Panels +are painted with Lithopone Paints. Rapid Failure shown] + +[Illustration: Panels on Atlantic City Fence] + +[Illustration: Panels on Atlantic City Fence + +Two Lower Sets of Panels are Painted with Combination Pigment Paints. +Excellent Results shown] + +=Paints Containing Lithopone.= One of the most striking exhibitions of +paint disintegration in the whole test was the failure of nearly all the +lithopone formulas tested. At the time these formulas were suggested for +the test, various European technical journals had advocated the use of +lithopone in large percentage for paints to be used on exterior +surfaces. Good results had been obtained in the northwestern section of +Europe, with this pigment in certain mixtures, and the object of these +lithopone tests at Atlantic City and Pittsburg was to determine whether +satisfactory paints could be made of this pigment for exposure in this +country. Failure of the tests, however, in nearly every case except +where zinc oxide and whiting were mixed with the lithopone, indicated +that pigments such as zinc and whiting are necessary in order to prevent +the decomposition of lithopone pigment paints. The decay of lithopone +paints after they are applied seems to start with rapid oxidation of the +linseed oil, and this oxidation seems to continue in a progressive and +even accelerated way; after six months' exposure the surface of the +paint being chalked to a great extent and showing rapid decomposition of +the binder or vehicle. Inasmuch as lithopone is really an inert pigment, +this rapid decomposition of its vehicle cannot be explained in the same +way as the decomposition of the vehicle of pure white lead paints, where +the alkaline nature of the lead is probably responsible for the +formation of easily destroyed compounds. As complete failure had taken +place in nearly every case where lithopone had been used, it was decided +to condemn the lithopone panels on the fence, consisting of formulas 21 +to 27, including panels 151 to 164 in white, panels 131 to 144 in +yellow, and 109 to 122 in gray. These lithopone tests were later on +replaced by new tests in 1909, which will be reported upon later in this +book. + +=General Results.= From these tests, the inspectors reached the +unanimous conclusion that a paint made from any mixture of more than one +white opaque pigment, either when used alone or in combination with +small percentages of inert pigments, is far superior to any one single +pigment paint. It was found that the straight white lead paints failed +in every case, and this failure was so marked as to make it a conclusive +demonstration of the unfitness of white lead along the Atlantic coast, +when used without other pigments. Paints made with large percentages of +white lead, however, gave excellent results. + +Gypsum was found unsafe to use in any large proportion in a paint, +because of its solubility and liability to percolate through the coating +of linoxyn or dried film, thus destroying the surface of the paint. +Whiting, or calcium carbonate, demonstrated that it could be used in +moderate percentage with some efficiency, but it was evident that any +great excess of this pigment must also be avoided on account of its +tendency towards rapid chalking. Magnesium silicate, aluminum silicate, +and silica are three inert pigments which proved to be of great value in +strengthening and reinforcing paints, especially when they were used in +small percentage. In the same way, black fixe and barytes, or barium +sulphate, also appeared to be useful in strengthening a paint. As these +two last named pigments are chemically the same but physically +different, the use of both in a paint formula is considered +advantageous, because of the differences in size and form of their +particles. + +=Color Tests.= It was the unanimous conclusion of all the inspectors +that panels of all formulas which were tinted either gray or yellow were +showing far superior wear and less chalking and checking than those +which were painted in plain white. The reinforcing action of the tinting +materials must be credited for this lengthening of the wear of such +paints. Formulas 5, 6, 9, and 16, for instance, in the gray, were in +most excellent condition, and in these formulas were used ochre, umber, +bone-black, carbon-black, Venetian red and other inert bases. On the +yellow panels, formulas 5, 6, 9, and 16 were also in very superior +condition, and in these formulas chrome yellow and inert pigments were +also used. + +Some of the color tests included the priming of boards with white lead, +zinc oxide, sublimed white lead, lithopone, and other single pigment +paints. Over these priming coats was placed a high grade brilliant +paranitraniline red. Fairly good results were obtained in every case, +but especially when lithopone or zinc oxide was used as a priming base. +These pigments seemed to have no effect upon the constitution of the +para red. + +Prussian blue, a colored pigment largely used, but one liable to react +with certain paint pigments, was admixed with various paints applied to +certain panels. This color was found in some cases to have faded +materially, especially when mixed with alkaline pigments such as white +lead. Sublimed white lead and zinc oxide, which are more inert in +nature, did not have such action on Prussian blue, and the tinted bases +of these pigments stood up in a remarkable manner. The greens which were +tested were all in very good condition, with absence of fading, and +showing only slight mildew. + +=Condensed Results of Inspection.= The results of inspection as obtained +by the fence committee[20] having in charge the inspection of the test, +have been condensed into table form, and are presented on pages 130-131. + + [20] R. S. Perry, Director Scientific Section, Paint Manufacturers' + Association of the U. S.; George Butler, Official Painter, + representing Master House Painters' & Decorators' Association, H. + A. Gardner, Asst. Director. + +=Second Annual Inspection of the Atlantic City Test Fence.= After the +original paints which had been applied to the Atlantic City Fence had +been exposed for over two years, another inspection was made by a +committee representing the Master Painters' Association of Philadelphia +and the Scientific Section of the Paint Manufacturers' Association of +the United States. A digest of the report of this committee[21] follows: + + [21] George Butler, Official Painter Atlantic City Test Fence, + representing Philadelphia Master Painters' Association; Charles + Macnichol, Master Painter; Henry A. Gardner, Director Scientific + Section, Paint Manufacturers' Association of the U. S. + +"The painted panels were all carefully inspected by the inspectors in +the usual manner. With the aid of high-power magnifying glasses, +checking was determined. The degree of chalking exhibited by the various +paints was ascertained by rubbing a piece of black cloth across the +surface of each paint. Close observance was made to determine scaling, +peeling, cracking, gloss, color, and the other factors to be considered +when examining a painted surface. From these observations it was +possible for the inspectors to state whether a panel exhibited general +good condition, general fair condition, or general poor condition. + +CHART OF RESULTS--FIRST INSPECTION--ATLANTIC CITY TEST FENCE + + ==============================+=================================+ + Formula | INERT PIGMENTS | + No. |---------------------------------| + |Carbonate |Calcium | + |Lead |Carbonate | + | |Zinc | |Calcium | + | |Oxide | |Sulphate | + | | |Sublimed | | |Magnesium | + | | |White | | |Silicate | + | | |Lead | | | |Barium | + | | | |Zinc | | | |Sulphate | + | | | |Lead | | | | |Silica | + | | | |White | | | | | |Blanc| + | | | | | | | | | |Fixe | + --+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+----+----+-----+ + | % | % | % | % | % | % | % | % | % | % | + 1| 30.0 | 70.0 | | | | | | | | | + 2| 50.0 | 50.0 | | | | | | | | | + 3| 20.0 | 50.0 | 20.0 | |10.0 | | | | | | + 4| 48.5 | 48.5 | | | 3.0 | | | | | | + 5| 22.0 | 50.0 | | | 2.0 | |26.0 | | | | + 6| | 64.0 | | | | | |36.0| | | + 7| 37.0 | 63.0 | | | | | | | | | + 8| 38.0 | 48.0 | | | | | | |14.0| | + 9| | 73.0 | | | | | 2.0 | |25.0| | + 10| 44.0 | 46.0 | | | 5.0 | | 5.0 | | | | + 11| 50.0 | 50.0 | | | | | | | | | + 12| 60.0 | 34.0 | | | 6% Inert Pigments | + 13| | 27.0 | 60.0 | | 3.0 | |10.0 | | | | + 14| 25.0 | 25.0 | 20.0 | | 5.0 |25.0 | | | | | + 15| 20.0 | 40.0 | | 30.0 |10.0 | | | | | | + 16| 33.0 | 33.0 | | | | | |34.0| | | + 17| 40.0 | 40.0 | | | | | 3.0 |13.0| | 4.0 | + 18| 75.0 | 25.0 | | | | | | | | | + 19| | 25.0 | 75.0 | | | | | | | | + 20| 67.0 | 19.5 | | |10.0 | | 3.5 | | | | + 33| 15.0 | 30.0 | 25.0 | | | | | |30.0| | + 34| 38.95| 33.58| 4.81| |19.48| | 3.18| | | | + 35| 37.51| 25.87| 7.84| |20.36| | 8.42| | | | + 36|100.0 | | | | | | | | | | + 37|100.0 | | | | | | | | | | + 38|100.0 | | | | | | | | | | + 39| | | |100.0 | | | | | | | + 40| | |100.0 | | | | | | | | + 45| |100.0 | | | | | | | | | + 46| | 61.0 | | | | | |39.0| | | + 47| |100.0 | | | | | | | | | + ==+======+======+======+======+=====+=====+=====+====+====+=====+ + + ======================+==========+======+=========+======+ + Formula |Panel |Hiding|Color |Hard- | + No. |No. |Power | | ness | + |First | |Condi-| | | | + |Coat | | tion | | | | + | |Second | | | | | | + | |Coat | | | | | | + | | |Third | | | | | | + | | |Coat | | | | | | + | | | |Aver-| | | | | | + | | | | age | | | | | | + --+---+----+----+-----+---+------+------+---------+------+ + | | | | | | | | | | + 1|610| 987| 664| 754| 1|Good |Good |Excellent| 8 | + 2|913|1066| 948| 976| 3|Good |Good |Good | 5 | + 3|912| 914| 786| 871| 5|Good |Fair |Good | 4 | + 4|759| 939|1047| 915| 7|Good |Good |Good | 5 | + 5|714|1000| 709| 808| 9|Good |Weak |Good | 8-1/2| + 6|928|1189| 863| 993| 11|Fairly|Weak |Good | 8 | + | | | | | |Good | | | | + 7|763| 972| 891| 875| 13|Good |Good |Off Color| 7 | + 8|786| 910| 767| 821| 15|Good |Good |Good | 8-1/2| + 9|716|1081| 812| 870| 17|Fair |Poor |Good | 9 | + 10|861|1014| 862| 912| 19|Good |Fair |Good | 5 | + 11|822| 959| 918| 900| 21|Good |Good |Excellent| 7-1/2| + 12|862| 965| 734| 854| 23|Good |Medium|Good | 4 | + 13|916|1031|1121| 1073| 25|Good |Good |Good | 4 | + 14|564| 806| 785| 718| 27|Bad |Medium|Good | 5 | + 15|935|1044|1359| 1113| 29|Good |Medium|Good | 8-1/2| + 16|799| 903| 994| 899| 31|Fair |Fair |Good | 7-1/2| + 17|806|1016| 884| 902| 33|Good |Fair |Good | 4 | + 18|788|1257| 973| 1006|145|Good |Good |Excellent| 3 | + 19|700|1183|1400| 1094|147|Good |Good |Excellent| 2 | + 20|776|1063| 877| 905|149|Good |Good |Good | 5 | + 33|512| 836| 689| 679|176| |Fair | | | + 34|523| 800| 810| 711|175|Good |Medium|Good | 4 | + 35|450| 893| 724| 689|180|Good |Good |Good | 4 | + 36|408| 711| 861| 660|181|Bad |Good |Good | 1 | + 37|524|1065| 828| 806|182|Bad |Good |Good | 1 | + 38|555| 888| 794| 746|177|Bad |Good |Good | 1 | + 39|550| 941| 916| 802|178|Good |Fair |Good | 6 | + 40|643| 810| 998| 817|168|Good |Good |Good | 2 | + 45|850| | | |170|Fair |Fair |Good | 9 | + 46|783| | | |169|Fair |Good |Good | 9 | + 47|730| | | |172| |Good |Good |10 | + ==+===+====+====+=====+===+======+======+=========+======+ + + ==============+===========+===========+=============================== + Formula | | | + No. | | | + |Checking |Chalking |Gloss |Remarks + --+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------------------------- + | | | | + 1| |Very Slight|High |Like rubbed varnish work. + 2|Hard Matt |Moderate |Med. High | + 3| |Medium |Slight | + 4| |Very Slight|Med. High | + 5| |Slight |High |Hard surface. + 6|Matt | |Good |Surface rough. + 7| |Slight |High | + 8| |Slight |High | + 9|Heavy Matt |Medium |High |Peeling started. + 10| |Some | Med. High | + 11|Med. Matt |Some |Med. High |Some washing and discoloration. + 12|Heavy Matt |Bad |Medium | + 13| |Medium |Fair | + 14|Evident |Some |Medium |Dead, spongy, surface. White + | | | |incrustations. + 15|Coarse Matt|Slight |High | + 16|Bad |Slight |Good |White incrustations. + 17| |Some |Fair | + 18|Hard Matt |Moderate |Medium | + 19|Hard Matt |Slight |Very Little| + 20| |Very Little|Medium | + 33| | |Good |Rough surface. + 34|Evident |Slight |Egg Shell | + 35|Matt | |Egg Shell | + 36|Very |Bad |Egg Shell |Same as 177, but + |Apparent | | |checking not so bad. + 37|Very |Bad |Egg Shell |Same as 177 but wood + |Apparent | | |shows more plainly. + 38|Bad |Bad |Egg Shell |Cracking and perishing evident. + 39| |Some |Good | + 40| |Consider- |Egg Shell | + | |able | | + 45|Very Evi- | |High | + |dent | | | + 46|Some | |Good | + 47|Apparent | |Good |Indication of scaling. + ==+===========+===========+===========+=============================== + +"An inspection of the white lead paints on the fence indicated in every +instance a rough, chalked, and disintegrated surface that seemed to be +well worn, in some cases nearly to the wood. The strongly oxidizing air +of the seacoast is probably responsible for the early decay of this +pigment. + +"It was observed that the combination type of paint showed better hiding +power than white lead, over the black crosses placed on the priming coat +of each panel, as a hiding power test. + +[Illustration: Front of Fence showing Present Rearrangement of Panels] + +TESTS INAUGURATED IN 1907 + +CHART OF RESULTS OF SECOND ANNUAL INSPECTION OF ATLANTIC CITY TEST +FENCE, MAY, 1910 + + =========================================================+ + FORMULAS | + --+------------------------+-----------------------------+ + F | | INERT PIGMENTS | + o | +-----------------------------+ + r |Basic Carbonate |Calcium | + m |White Lead |Carbonate | + u | |Zinc Oxide | |Calcium | + l | | |Basic | |Sulphate | + a | | |Sulphate | | |Magnesium | + | | |White Lead| | |Silicate | + N | | | |Zinc | | | |Barium | + u | | | |Lead | | | |Sulphate | + m | | | |White| | | | |Silica | + b | | | --+ | | | | | |Blanc| + e | | | | | | | | | | Fixe| + r | | | | | | | | | --+ | + --+------+------+------+---+-----+--+----+-----+-----+---+ + | % | % | % | %| % | %| % | % | % | %| + 1| 30 | 70 | -- | --| -- |--|-- |-- |-- | --| + 2| 50 | 50 | -- | --| -- |--|-- |-- |-- | --| + 3| 20 | 50 | 20 | --|10 |--|-- |-- |-- | --| + 4| 48.5 | 48.5 | -- | --| 3.0 |--|-- |-- |-- | --| + 5| 22 | 50 | -- | --| 2 |--|26 |-- |-- | --| + 6| -- | 64 | -- | --| -- |--|-- |36 |-- | --| + 7| 37 | 63 | -- | --| -- |--|-- |-- |-- | --| + 8| 38 | 48 | -- | --| -- |--|-- |-- |14 | --| + 9| -- | 73 | -- | --| 2 |--|-- |-- |25 | --| + 10| 44 | 46 | -- | --| 5 |--| 5 |-- |-- | --| + 11| 50 | 50 | -- | --| -- |--|-- |-- |-- | --| + 12| 60 | 34 | -- | --| -- | 6% Inert Pigment | --| + 13| -- | 27 | 60 | --| 3 |--|10 |-- |-- | --| + 14| 25 | 25 | 20 | --| 5 |25|-- |-- |-- | --| + 15| 20 | 40 | -- | 30|10 |--|-- |-- |-- | --| + 16| 33 | 33 | -- | --| -- |--|-- |34 |-- | --| + 17| 40 | 40 | -- | --| -- |--| 3 |13 |-- | 4| + 18| 75 | 25 | -- | --| -- |--|-- |-- |-- | --| + 19| -- | 25 | 75 | --| -- |--|-- |-- |-- | --| + 20| 67.0 | 19.5 | -- | --|10.0 |--| 3.5|-- |-- | --| + 33| 15 | 30 | 25 | --| -- |--|-- |-- |30 | --| + 34| 38.95| 33.58| 4.81| --|19.48|--|-- | 1.59| 1.59| --| + 35| 37.51| 25.87| 7.84| --|20.36|--|-- | 4.21| 4.21| --| + 36|100 | -- | -- | --|-- |--|-- |-- |-- | --| + 37|100 | -- | -- | --|-- |--|-- |-- |-- | --| + 38|100 | -- | -- | --| -- |--|-- |-- |-- | --| + 39| -- | -- | -- |100| -- |--|-- |-- |-- | --| + 40| -- | -- |100 | --| -- |--|-- |-- |-- | --| + 45| -- | 90 | -- | --|10 |--|-- |-- |-- | --| + 46| -- | 61 | -- | --| -- |--|-- |39 |-- | --| + 47| -- |100 | -- | --| -- |--|-- |-- |-- | --| + ==+======+======+======+===+=====+==+====+=====+=====+===+ + + ==+========================================+=== + F | | + o | | + r | | P + m | | a + u | | n + l | | e + a | | l + | REPORT OF INSPECTION | + N +-----------+------------+------+--------+ N + u | | |GENE- | | u + m | | |RAL | | m + b | | |CON- | | b + e | | |DI- | | e + r |CHALKING |CHECKING |TION |REMARKS | r + --+-----------+------------+------+--------+--- + 1|Very slight|Very slight |Good |-- | 1 + 2|Medium |Slight |Very |-- | 3 + | | |good | | + 3|Medium |Slight |Good |-- | 5 + 4|Very slight|Slight |Good |-- | 7 + 5|Slight |Slight |Good |-- | 9 + 6|Very slight|Slight |Good |-- | 11 + 7|Medium |Slight |Good |-- | 13 + 8|Slight |Very slight |Good |-- | 15 + 9|Very bad |Deep, with |Poor |-- | 17 + | |scaling | | | + 10|Heavy |Deep |Medium|-- | 19 + 11|Medium |Medium |Fair |-- | 21 + 12|Medium |Deep |Fair |-- | 23 + 13|Medium |Slight |Very |-- | 25 + | | |good | | + 14|Medium |Lateral |Fair |-- | 27 + 15|Slight |Visible with|Poor |-- | 29 + | |naked eye | | | + 16|Slight |Slight |Good |-- | 31 + 17|Medium |Slight |Good |-- | 33 + 18|Medium |Slight |Very |-- |145 + | | |good | | + 19|Consider- |Deep |Good |-- |147 + |able | | | | + 20|Medium |Slight |Good |-- |149 + 33|Medium |Slight |Very |-- |176 + | | |good | | + 34|Slight |Slight |Good |-- |175 + | |lateral | | | + 35|Slight |Lateral |Good |-- |180 + 36|Consider- |Heavy |Fair |Rough |181 + |able | | |surface | + 37|Consider- |Heavy and |Poor |Rough |182 + |able |deep | |surface | + 38|More than |Very deep |Poor |-- |177 + |Panel no. | | | | + |182 | | | | + 39|Consider- |Very slight |Good |-- |178 + |able | | | | + 40|Heavy |Slight |Good |-- |168 + 45|Slight |Slight |Good |-- |170 + 46|Slight |Medium |Fair |-- |169 + 47|None |Very deep |Poor |-- |172 + ==+===========+============+======+========+=== + +"There are no pigments possessing greater hiding properties when first +used than white leads, but the lack of hiding power on the white lead +panels after two years' exposure was caused by the chalking away of the +lead. The superior hiding power of the composite paints was due to the +action of the other pigments in these combination paints in preventing +the lead from chalking away. + +"The Committee finds that the addition of a reasonable percentage of +zinc oxide to white lead increases its durability and retards its +chalking, renders it whiter, and forms a surface that presents a much +better repainting condition. The combinations of white lead and zinc +oxide on the Atlantic City Test Fence were in general good condition +throughout. + +"Corroded white lead, sublimed white lead, zinc oxide, and zinc lead are +the standard white opaque pigments. They were all tested on the Atlantic +City Fence and it was found that to use any one alone results in +inferior protection to the wood. Barium sulphate, silica, asbestine, +china clay, and calcium carbonate are the standard crystalline pigments. +In the past, the overloading of paints with these crystalline or inert +pigments has been the cause of the prejudice that painters have had +against their use. It has been established beyond controversy, however, +that the use of these pigments, in moderate percentage, combined with +any of the standard opaque white pigments, such as white leads, zinc +oxide, etc., undoubtedly results in better service from every standpoint +and forms the most satisfactory white paint for general outside use. +Some of the most perfect painted surfaces on the fence were those made +on the above basis as reference to the charted report will show." + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +RESULTS OF PITTSBURG TESTS + + +The First Annual Inspection of the Pittsburg Test Fence took place +during May, 1909, a little over one year after the painted panels had +been placed in position. The inspectors found that in Pittsburg a heavy +deposit of soot had formed on the panels, and they considered it +therefore inadvisable to make a detailed report of the inspection until +the second year of the exposure. The general results of the Pittsburg +inspection as reported by the three committees[22] having supervision +over the work, is, however, given herewith. + + [22] J. H. James, Chairman Test Fence Committee, Carnegie Technical + Schools. + A. C. Rapp, Chairman Fence Committee, Pittsburg Branch + Pennsylvania State Association of Master Painters. + R. S. Perry, Director Scientific Section, Paint Manufacturers' + Association of the U. S.; H. A. Gardner, Asst. Director. + +[Illustration: Pittsburg Test Fence] + +During the inspection of the Pittsburg tests it was decided to condemn +the lithopone panels on the fence, which consisted of formulas 21 to 27, +including panels 151 to 164 in white, 131 to 144 in yellow, 109 to 122 +in gray. Almost complete failure had taken place in every case where +lithopone had been used. These lithopone tests were later on replaced by +new tests which are described later in this book. + +"=Wood Most Valuable for Test.= As on the Atlantic City Fence, the white +pine panels afforded the best results and gives the best indication of +the comparative wearing of the paints and affords no unfair condition, +such as other woods might offer, to interfere with the test. + +"=Condition of Cypress.= Cypress showed inferior conditions, except that +it was more pronounced and more discoloration of the panels was noticed +on this grade of wood, which seems to be extremely greasy in nature and +difficult to properly prime, even when the paint used upon this wood +contains a large percentage of volatile diluent. + +"=Removal of Lithopone Panels.= The Joint Committees confirmed the +previous recommendation to remove all the lithopone formulas, and they +decided to remove the cypress and the yellow pine panels in every +formula except in the white paints. + +"It was decided to reassemble all the white pine panels and group them +together for purposes of comparison, and in place of the panels +condemned and removed, to substitute a series of new formulas, to +further widen the scope of the tests. + +"=Ultimate Value of Mixed Paints.= The results of the inspection +conclusively show that a mixture of more than one prime white pigment, +whether this mixture be alone or in combination with a small percentage +of inert pigment, produces a paint far superior to a paint manufactured +from one pigment alone. + +"As a general statement of the comparative wearing of the paints, it +might be said that the composite formulas are less advanced toward +destruction than the paints made from single pigments such as +lithopones, white leads and zinc oxides. It is not to be understood from +this statement that it is the opinion of the committee that all of the +composite formulas are of equal value or that all of them are to be +recommended, but it is meant that the higher types, as evidenced by the +appearance of the panels, are in the above relation to the single +pigment paints. + +[Illustration: Panels on Pittsburg Test Fence] + +"=Lithopone Destroyed Rapidly at Pittsburg.= It was evident some time +ago that the formulas containing large percentages of lithopone were +rapidly failing, and their appearance was very much the same as those +formulas of a similar type at Atlantic City. There seems, however, to be +some difference in the way these formulas broke down; those on the +Pittsburg Fence having shown the quicker destruction, possibly due to +the action of the acid gases in the air upon the paint coating. This +further confirms the statement that paint compositions containing such +heavy percentages of lithopone and intended for outside use must be +designed with relation to the particular uses of the product and to the +climate in which they are to be used. It will also be necessary to +consider more carefully the vehicle of the paints which are to be made +of this pigment. + +"=Possible Value of Excluding Vehicle for Lithopone.= It was the belief +of the committee that much better paints containing lithopone could be +designed by varying the percentages of the materials contained in the +formulas, and it was suggested that a less penetrable vehicle, made more +on the line of a varnish, and not as easily affected as straight +linoxyn, should be experimented with in connection with these lithopone +formulas. + +"The success of certain European countries in using lithopone as a +pigment, even in a very high percentage, may be due to the use of a +special vehicle, and, if it is found in future tests that this material, +which has been reported as well suited in Northern European climates, +may be benefited and made of service by the addition of special oils and +special vehicles, then this test would be of great value to the whole +paint trade at large. + +"Preliminary inspections were made on October 6th and later on December +12th, 1908, and a marked difference was observed at the two inspections +in the wearing of the various formulas. + +"The lapse of the two months between these inspections gave opportunity +during which cold weather caused contraction of the paint film which had +been previously subjected to the hot summer sun, and caused marked +chalking of the white lead formulas. On October 6th this chalking was +just commencing, while in the December inspection it was well advanced, +and at the annual inspection, had proceeded to such an extent that the +pigment had been washed from the panels representing those paints which +had started early chalking. + +"Panel 177, representing Zinc Lead, was found to be extremely dark in +color throughout the coating and was more on the order of a grayish +tint. It resisted all attempts to wash it down to a white surface. The +panel, however, in other respects, was in fairly good condition. + +"=Condition of Corroded White Lead Panels.= Panel 174, representing Type +B Pure Basic Carbonate-White Lead, was very badly perished and +discolored, and an examination of the surface showed very bad checking. +Long continued washing with a sponge removed a discolored surface and +showed but a rather thin coating. Panel 175, representing Type C Pure +Basic Carbonate-White Lead, showed most marked checking and was in very +much the same condition as 174 and 176. Panel 176, representing Type A +Pure Basic Carbonate-White Lead, was in the same condition as the Type B +and C Basic Carbonate-White Leads. + +"=Condition of Sublimed White Lead.= Panel 178, representing Sublimed +White Lead (Basic Sulphate-White Lead,) was chalking, and the paint coat +was somewhat disintegrated. The chalking present on this formula, +however, showed that the disintegration of the paint coat had not taken +place for several months after the Basic Carbonate-White Leads. This +panel maintained good color, not being acted upon by sulphur gases. + +"=Blackening of Corroded White Lead.= The black and gray formation on +all the Basic Carbonate-White Lead panels was probably due to the action +of sulphur gases which are present in the district immediate to +Pittsburg, and which may cause the formation of black sulphide of lead. + +"Possibly a general conclusion from all these panels might be described +as a perishing of the paint coating, with the formation of sulphide of +lead which to a certain extent protects the coating beneath it, but the +perishing has proceeded to such an extent that the unaltered paint +coating left is but a slight protection to the wood, being extremely +thin. + +"The committee resolved that the detailed observations of the panels +could not be made and that they would not be justified in making +detailed comparisons between the various formulas, giving the gloss, +hardness, general condition, checking, etc. Precision in this work at +such a time was impossible, and it was decided that a further period +would have to elapse before such a detailed comparison could be made +between the various blended or composite formulas on the fence. + +"=Report on Colors.= It was resolved that at the next inspection of the +Pittsburg Fence, portions of the original samples of the original paints +used for the yellows and grays should be on hand, previously painted out +on small panels for comparison for the deterioration of the colors on +these same panels on the fence. + +"An examination of the combination formula grays by the committee led to +the general conclusion that those grays which did not contain a very +large percentage of white lead were superior in their maintenance of +tone and tint and general condition to any of the other grays upon the +fence. However, the presence of umber, ochre, and red oxide in some of +the grays which showed to the best advantage may account for their +permanence of tone. Some of these grays were the so-called warm grays +and were much darker in tone and tint than the ordinary drab which is +generally applied. + +"The straight pure Basic Carbonate-White Lead paints were not painted +out in grays or yellow, the test upon this material being only in white. + +"On Panels 120 and 126, which represent formulas 6 and 9 respectively, +the grays are in most excellent condition, and it will be found, by +reference to formulas 6 and 9, that there is an absence of white lead in +their composition. These formulas, however, contained a small percentage +of umber and ochre. Formulas 5 and 16 contained over 20% White Lead and +the gray of these formulas maintained their blue tone very well. These +formulas were tinted solely with lampblack. + +"An inspection of Panel 138, which represents Formula 15, showed good +maintenance of color in the gray, and was in much better condition as +regards permanence of color than the other grays containing white lead. + +"A study of the yellow panels on the fence led to the unanimous +conclusion that a liberal amount of Basic Carbonate-White Lead seemed to +have a beneficial result in preserving the bright tone of the chrome +yellow in tints so strong as those used on the fence. It was noted that +Panel 108, which represents Formula 28, and in which zinc yellow was +used, showed great permanence of tone and tint. Unfortunately this zinc +chromate was added to a formula containing a large percentage of +lithopone, and the destruction of the lithopone to a great extent +affected the value of this test. + +[Illustration: Whiteness of Sublimed White Lead + +Darkness of Corroded White Lead + +On Pittsburg Test Fence] + +"=Maintenance of Para Reds.= A study of the paranitraniline or azo reds +painted over the various pigments as priming coats demonstrated that the +reds on this fence are in better condition than the reds at Atlantic +City. As is well known, para red is manufactured by precipitation in an +acid solution and is best maintained under acid conditions. The acidity +of the Pittsburg atmosphere, caused by the large amount of acid gases +which are being poured into the air, day in and day out, and which are +constantly condensing on the surface of structures, may account for the +better preservation of these reds. + +"It was noted that the para reds which were applied to panels prime +coated with white lead seemed to be brightening in color and seemed to +be gradually working over toward a lightening which may in the future +show a pinkish tint. + +"=Report on Greens.= The bronze green is in most excellent condition and +shows an absence of the mildew appearance which was observed at Atlantic +City. + +"The chrome green is standing up exceedingly well, there being +practically no change whatsoever in the color since it was exposed. + +"=Best Base for Blues.= An inspection of the blues showed that those +which gave the greatest permanence and the least amount of fading were +applied in combination with either Sublimed White Lead (Basic +Sulphate-White Lead), or zinc oxide, while those blues which were +applied in combination with Basic Carbonate-White Lead showed marked +failure and were completely bleached out, due, of course, to the +alkaline nature of the corroded white lead; Prussian blues being +transformed by alkalies to a white compound. + +"=Superior Value of Composite Formulas.= Some of the mixed leads, or +so-called graded leads, which are combinations of white leads with other +high-grade pigments and containing some inert pigments, were not +deteriorated so far as the white lead formulas, and the general +conclusion was that they were upward of six months behind the +deterioration of the straight white leads, and this was confirmed by the +presence of moderate chalking, showing an excellent repainting surface +and a better thickness and condition of the paint coating. + +"The same conclusions which were reached at Atlantic City, as to the +best method of shellacking, obtained also on the Pittsburg Fence, +namely, that application of the shellac to the wood previous to the +first coat is the better method. + +"=Analysis of Paints.= At the time of the painting of the fence a sample +of each paint was placed in small friction top cans, carefully labeled, +and sent to the Carnegie Technical Schools' laboratory for analysis. +The analyses of these paints were made by members of the Test Fence +Committee, representing the schools, and appear in this bulletin. The +results obtained conform very closely to the formulas which were applied +to the fence, a variance of only one or two per cent. being shown in the +amount of the different pigments." + +=Second Annual Inspection of Pittsburg Test Fence.= The second annual +inspection of the Pittsburg Test Fence was made on Thursday, May 7th, +1910. The panels in Pittsburg after having weathered for over two years +presented an appearance which allowed the making of a detailed +inspection, this having been found impossible during the first annual +inspection. The inspection party[23] included those master painters who +represented the Pittsburg Master Painters' Association, who were in +charge of the application of the paints in 1907, 1908, and 1909, +together with the test fence committee from the faculty of the Carnegie +Technical Schools, and representatives of the Scientific Section. A +summary of the report issued by this committee follows: + + [23] A. C. Rapp, Chairman, Test Fence Committee, Pittsburg Branch, + Master Painters' Association; John Dewar, member Fence Committee, + Pittsburg Branch, Pennsylvania State Association of Master + Painters; J. H. James, Chairman, Carnegie Technical Schools' Test + Fence Committee; John A. Schaeffer, member Test Fence Committee, + Carnegie Technical Schools; Henry A. Gardner, Director Scientific + Section, Paint Manufacturers' Association of the U. S. + +"Two of the members of the inspection party have been impressed with the +lumber lottery existing in some field tests, which have been conducted, +and feel that when the object of a test is to determine the relative +value of paints, such tests should be conducted on a standard grade of +wood, such as white pine. The use of cypress, pitch pine, and other +faulty woods, is often the cause of the failure of a paint, which on +good wood would show up well. For this reason, only the white pine +panels painted with white paints were considered in the inspection, the +yellow pine panels and cypress panels having been thrown out of the test +at last year's inspection. + +"Checking, cracking, and alligatoring on the painted surfaces were +determined by using a magnifying glass. The degree of chalking existing +was decided upon by using small pieces of black felt cloth, rubbing +them against the surface of the panel; the degree of whiteness removed +upon the cloth being indicative of the amount of chalking taking place. +General condition was decided upon after carefully weighing the opinion +of each member of the inspection party, as regards the general +characteristics shown by each paint, such as checking, chalking, +scaling, condition for repainting, hiding power, etc. The results have +been charted and presented in this manner:[24] + + [24] An endeavor was made to use uniform terms in reporting on each + formula. In some cases it was necessary to bring out more + forcibly the condition by the insertion of qualifying remarks. + +[Illustration: Panel on Left Painted with Single Pigment Paint; Panel on +Right Painted with Combination Pigment Paint. Photograph taken after Two +Years' Exposure on Pittsburg Test Fence] + +"=Conclusions Reached from the Test.= The primary object of the test +made at Pittsburg was to determine whether a combination paint, made of +two or more pigments, would be equal or superior to single pigment +paints. After one year's exposure, the combination type of paint proved +more durable than the single pigment paints. + +"It was early apparent that the combination type of paints, that is, +those paints made of more than one pigment, indicated in most cases very +excellent wear, with a minimum of blackness and a general good condition +of surface. + +TESTS INAUGURATED IN 1907 + +CHART OF RESULTS OF SECOND ANNUAL INSPECTION OF PITTSBURG TEST FENCE, +MAY, 1910 + + =========================================================+ + FORMULAS | + --+------------------------+-----------------------------+ + F | | INERT PIGMENTS | + o | +-----------------------------+ + r |Basic Carbonate |Calcium | + m |Wh. L'd |Carbonate | + u | |Zinc Oxide | |Calcium | + l | | |Basic | |Sulphate | + a | | |Sulphate | | |Magnesium | + | | |Wh. L'd | | |Silicate | + N | | | |Zinc | | | |Barium | + u | | | |Lead | | | |Sulphate | + m | | | |White| | | | |Silica | + b | | | --+ | | | | | |Blanc| + e | | | | | | | | | | Fixe| + r | | | | | | | | | --+ | + --+------+------+------+---+-----+--+----+-----+-----+---+ + | % | % | % | %| % | %| % | % | % | % | + 1| 30 | 70 | -- | --|-- |--|-- |-- |-- |-- | + 2| 50 | 50 | -- | --|-- |--|-- |-- |-- |-- | + 3| 20 | 50 | 20 | --|10 |--|-- |-- |-- |-- | + 4| 48.5 | 48.5 | -- | --| 3.0 |--|-- |-- |-- |-- | + 5| 22 | 50 | -- | --| 2 |--|26 |-- |-- |-- | + 6| -- | 64 | -- | --|-- |--|-- |36 |-- |-- | + 7| 37 | 63 | -- | --|-- |--|-- |-- |-- |-- | + 8| 38 | 48 | -- | --|-- |--|-- |-- |14 |-- | + 9| -- | 73 | -- | --| 2 |--|-- |-- |25 |-- | + 10| 44 | 46 | -- | --| 5 |--| 5 |-- |-- |-- | + 11| 50 | 50 | -- | --|-- |--|-- |-- |-- |-- | + 12| 60 | 34 | -- | --|-- | 6% Inert Pigment | + 13| -- | 27 | 60 | --| 3 |--|10 |-- |-- |-- | + 14| 25 | 25 | 20 | --| 5 |25|-- |-- |-- |-- | + 15| 20 | 40 | -- | 30|10 |--|-- |-- |-- |-- | + 16| 33 | 33 | -- | --|-- |--|-- |34 |-- |-- | + 17| 40 | 40 | -- | --|-- |--| 3 |13 |-- | 4 | + 18| 75 | 25 | -- | --|-- |--|-- |-- |-- |-- | + 19| -- | 25 | 75 | --|-- |--|-- |-- |-- |-- | + 20| 67.0 | 19.5 | -- | --|10.0 |--| 3.5|-- |-- |-- | + 33| 15 | 30 | 25 | --|-- |--|-- |-- |30 |-- | + 34| 38.95| 33.58| 4.81| --|19.48|--|-- | 1.59| 1.59|-- | + 35| 37.51| 25.87| 7.84| --|20.36|--|-- | 4.21| 4.21|-- | + 36|100 | -- | -- | --|-- |--|-- |-- |-- |-- | + 37|100 | -- | -- | --|-- |--|-- |-- |-- |-- | + 38|100 | -- | -- | --|-- |--|-- |-- |-- |-- | + 39| -- | -- | -- |100|-- |--|-- |-- |-- |-- | + 40| -- | -- |100 | --|-- |--|-- |-- |-- |-- | + 45| -- | 90 |-- | --|10 |--|-- |-- |-- |-- | + 46| -- | 61 |-- | --|-- |--|-- |-- |39 |-- | + 47| -- |100 |-- | --|-- |--|-- |-- |-- |-- | + ==+======+======+======+===+=====+==+====+=====+=====+===+ + + ==+========================================+=== + F | | + o | | + r | | P + m | | a + u | | n + l | | e + a | | l + | REPORT OF INSPECTION | + N +-----------+------------+------+--------+ N + u | | |GENE- | | u + m | | |RAL | | m + b | | |CON- | | b + e | | |DI- | | e + r |CHALKING |CHECKING |TION |REMARKS | r + --+-----------+------------+------+--------+--- + 1|Slight |None |Good |Slight | 2 + | | | |scaling;| + | | | |fairly | + | | | |white | + | | | |surface | + 2|Medium |Very slight |Fair |Panels | 4 + | | | |quite | + | | | |dark and| + | | | |some | + | | | |scaling | + 3|Consider- |None |Good |Fairly | 6 + |able | | |white | + 4|Consider- |Lateral and |Fair |White | 8 + |able |irregular | |surface | + 5|Medium |Very |Very |Extreme-| 10 + | |slight |good |ly white| + | | | |surface | + 6|Very slight|Very bad; |Poor |Black | 12 + | |rough sur- | |surface | + | |face | | | + 7|Slight |Slight |Good |Medium | 14 + | | | |white | + | | | |surface | + 8|Slight |Slight |Good |White | 16 + | | | |surface;| + | | | |slight | + | | | |scaling | + 9|None |Deep; |Very |Film | 18 + | |peeling in |poor |brittle | + | |places | |and sur-| + | | | |face | + | | | |dark | + 10|Medium |Slight la- |Good |Surface | 20 + | |teral in | |very | + | |places | |white | + 11|Consider- |Deep matt |Fair |Consi- | 22 + |able |checking | |derable | + | | | |scaling;| + | | | |forma- | + | | | |tion of | + | | | |black | + | | | |coating | + | | | |shat- | + | | | |tered | + | | | |off | + 12|Medium |Slight |Fairly|Surface | 24 + | | |good |white | + 13| Medium |None |Excel-|Very | 26 + | | |lent |white | + 14|Consider- |Medium |Fair |Panel | 28 + |able | | |fairly | + | | | |white | + 15|Slight |Medium |Good |Surface | 30 + | | | |quite | + | | | |dark | + 16|Medium |Very slight |Good |Quite | 32 + | | | |white | + 17|Consider- |Slight, |Fair |Surface | 34 + |able |along | |fairly | + | |lateral | |white | + | |lines | | | + 18|Medium |Slight, with|Good |Surface | 36 + | |some scaling| |has be- | + | | | |come | + | | | |quite | + | | | |dark | + 19|Consider- |None |Excel-|No black| 38 + |able | |lent |coating;| + | | | |surface | + | | | |very | + | | | |white, | + | | | |due to | + | | | |inert- | + | | | |ness of | + | | | |pigment | + | | | |or pro- | + | | | |gressive| + | | | |chalking| + 20|Medium |Medium |Good | | 40 + 33|Heavy |None |Fair |White |168 + | | | |surface | + 34|Consider- |Very slight |Good |Surface |172 + |able | | |is very | + | | | |white; | + | | | |progres-| + | | | |sive | + | | | |chalking| + | | | |may have| + | | | |prevent-| + | | | |ed for- | + | | | |mation | + | | | |of black| + | | | |coating | + 35|Bad |None |Good |Very |173 + | | | |white; | + | | | |no black| + | | | |coating | + | | | |evident | + 36|Bad |Bad |Fair |Surface |174 + | | | |is dead | + | | | |black; | + | | | |shatter-| + | | | |ed in | + | | | |places | + 37|Extremely |Medium |Fair |Very |175 + |bad | | |black | + | | | |surface | + | | | |and | + | | | |mottled | + | | | |in | + | | | |places | + 38|Very bad |Very bad, |Poor |Black |176 + |and quite |with scaling| |surface | + |dusty | | |is loose| + | | | |and | + | | | |shatter-| + | | | |ed | + 39|Consider- |Slight |Good |Panel |177 + |able | | |surface | + | | | |quite | + | | | |white | + 40|Very bad |Slight |Good |Surface |178 + | | | |very | + | | | |white, | + | | | |possibly| + | | | |due to | + | | | |progres-| + | | | |sive | + | | | |chalking| + | | | |or in- | + | | | |ertness | + | | | |of pig- | + | | | |ment | + 45|Slight |Considerable|Fair |White |169 + | | | |surface | + 46|Slight |Slight |Fair |Consi- |170 + | | | |derable | + | | | |scaling | + | | | |present;| + | | | |surface | + | | | |fairly | + | | | |white | + 47|Bad |Bad |Bad |Bad con-|171 + | | | |dition | + | | | |through-| + | | | |out | + ==+===========+============+======+========+=== + +[Illustration: Middle white panel is painted with a combination pigment +formula + +Middle white panel is painted with pure Corroded White Lead + +Notice Difference in Color after Two Years' Wear] + +"=Recommendation.= On account of the peculiar conditions which obtain in +and around Pittsburg, as exemplified by these tests, the committee +finds, as a result thereof, that the best white paint for general +exterior use is made of white lead combined with zinc oxide and a +moderate percentage of inert pigments, such as silica, asbestine, or +barytes. + +"=Some Peculiar Conditions Affecting the Tests.= The inspectors were +most impressed during the inspection by the blackness exhibited to such +a high degree by certain panels, and the fair degree of whiteness by +others. It is well known that in Pittsburg nearly all paints become +darkened by the deposition on their surface of carbon particles +emanating from the combustion of soft coal. Certain of the paints, +however, presented fairly white surfaces, and it would thus appear that +the extreme darkness shown by other paints was due to their composition. +Corroded white lead when used alone was uniformly covered by black +particles, and the higher the percentage of corroded white lead in a +paint the darker was the surface. It was at first thought that this +darkness was due to the softness of the white lead pigment or to its +roughened surface, in causing adherence of soot particles. Sublimed +white lead, however, which is also a soft pigment, chalked even more +progressively than corroded white lead, but its surface was not rough, +and presented a very white appearance. Scrapings from the different +panels are being taken, and after a careful analysis the findings from +the investigations will be reported by a member of the Inspection +Committee." + + A. C. RAPP. _Chairman Test Fence Committee, Pittsburg Branch, + Master Painters' Association_ + + JOHN DEWAR. _Member Fence Committee, Pittsburg Branch, Penna. State + Association of Master Painters_ + + J. H. JAMES. _Chairman Carnegie Technical Schools' Fence Committee_ + + J. A. SCHAEFFER. _Instructor in Chemical Practice, Carnegie Technical + Schools Pittsburg, Pa._ + + H. A. GARDNER. _Director Scientific Section, Paint Mfrs. Asso. of U. S._ + +_May 31, 1910_ + + +PITTSBURG TEST FENCE + +COMPARATIVE SPREADING RATES OF WHITE PAINT ON WHITE PINE PANELS + +_Average Spreading Rate 266 Square Feet_ + + =======+===========+===========+===========+==========+============== + Formula|First Coat |Second Coat|Third Coat | Average |Spreading Rate + Number | (sq. ft.) |(sq. feet) | (sq. ft.) |Spreading | Rate + | | | | Rate | 3-Coat Work + | | | |(sq. feet)| (sq. feet) + -------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+-------------- + 1 | 759 | 1020 | 768 | 849 | 283 + 2 | 694 | 975 | 1229 | 966 | 322 + 3 | 743 | 873 | 770 | 795 | 265 + 4 | 537 | 987 | 1019 | 848 | 283 + 5 | 509 | 896 | 886 | 764 | 255 + 6 | 765 | 1045 | 994 | 935 | 312 + 7 | 734 | 922 | 996 | 884 | 295 + 8 | 565 | 862 | 854 | 760 | 253 + 9 | 622 | 926 | 1160 | 903 | 301 + 10 | 610 | 1013 | 1070 | 900 | 300 + 11 | 651 | 933 | 1010 | 865 | 288 + 12 | 675 | 1027 | 623 | 775 | 258 + 13 | 663 | 892 | 981 | 845 | 282 + 14 | 498 | 785 | 807 | 697 | 232 + 15 | 688 | 1000 | 984 | 891 | 297 + 16 | 669 | 880 | 860 | 803 | 268 + 17 | 635 | 982 | 1077 | 900 | 300 + 18 | 636 | 959 | 1031 | 875 | 292 + 19 | 626 | 1076 | 1037 | 913 | 304 + 20 | 591 | 1015 | 929 | 845 | 282 + 21 | 595 | 948 | 910 | 818 | 273 + 22 | 617 | 868 | 810 | 765 | 255 + 23 | 549 | 1002 | 986 | 846 | 282 + 24 | 539 | 918 | 783 | 747 | 249 + 25 | 530 | 929 | 850 | 770 | 257 + 26 | 532 | 916 | 1011 | 820 | 273 + 27 | 520 | 850 | 656 | 675 | 225 + 33 | 600 | 1340 | 810 | 917 | 306 + 34 | 471 | 743 | 690 | 635 | 212 + 35 | 402 | 598 | 645 | 548 | 183 + 36 | 398 | 668 | 838 | 635 | 212 + 37 | 579 | 653 | 838 | 690 | 230 + 38 | 463 | 615 | 704 | 594 | 198 + 39 | 474 | 954 | 849 | 759 | 253 + 40 | 446 | 815 | 871 | 711 | 237 + 45 | 527 | 841 | 916 | 761 | 254 + 46 | 605 | 740 | 818 | 721 | 240 + 47 | 735 | 961 | 993 | 896 | 299 + =======+===========+===========+===========+==========+============== + + + + +CHAPTER X + +A LABORATORY STUDY OF TEST PANELS + + +=Panel Sections for Laboratory Test.= In order to make a laboratory +study of the painted panels on the Atlantic City and Pittsburg fences, +it was thought advisable to remove small sections from representative +areas and transfer them to the laboratory for such work. The fences were +visited by the official inspection committees soon after the first +annual inspection, and the panels were carefully looked over. Upon each +was marked out a representative portion, care being exercised to select +areas where previous inspections had not disturbed the surface of the +film in any manner. The inspectors then placed the number of the panel +upon the areas which had been marked off, as well as their initials. The +marked sections were sawed out, wrapped in tissue paper, and then +transferred to the laboratory where they were placed upon models of the +respective fences from which they had been removed. The illustration +shows the model test fences set up together. It is very apparent that +the Pittsburg panels are much the darker in color, due to the soot, and +in some cases lead sulphide formed upon their surfaces. This difference +was undoubtedly due to the atmospheric conditions prevailing where the +tests were made. One would be led to suppose that a paint film exposed +to an atmosphere such as is found in Pittsburg would show deterioration +more rapidly than one exposed in Atlantic City. In all the tests and +experiments, however, the Atlantic City panels appeared broken down to a +much greater extent; though it is true that the Pittsburg panels had +darkened considerably and presented a rather mottled appearance. The +deposit of soot on the Pittsburg panel seemed to act as a preservative +coating for the film beneath, and prevented marked disintegration. + +[Illustration: Sections of Atlantic City and Pittsburg Fences Arranged +for Laboratory Examination] + +[Illustration: Sections of Atlantic City and Pittsburg Fences] + +[Illustration: Upper set of tests made on Panels from Atlantic City +Fence + +Lower set of tests made on Panels from Pittsburg Fence + +Figures at left indicate Formula Number + +Figures at right indicate Degree of Chalking] + +[Illustration: Color Standard used in Comparison of Panel Section] + +=Chalking Test.= Small strips of black felt, about one inch square, were +firmly attached to a block of wood, and by a clamp having the same +pressure in each case, the wood with its surface of black felt was fixed +to the panel. This apparatus, which resembles a blackboard eraser, is +firmly drawn across the panel in one direction for a certain definite +distance, during which time it gathers all the chalked surface presented +by the painted wood. Upon detaching the apparatus from the panel it is +observed that the black cloth becomes whitened to an extent +proportionate to the chalking that has taken place on the given area. + +After each one of the panels had been treated in the same manner by the +same operator, the black cloths were assembled on one large board and +photographed. A definite standard of chalking was made up, and the +operator was enabled to put down opposite the report on each panel the +degree of chalking which had taken place, No. 1 representing the least +amount and No. 10 the greatest amount of chalking. + +=Degree of Whiteness Shown by Panels.= It was a very simple matter to +gauge the whiteness of the various panels, by comparing them with a +series of standard boards painted with three coats of white paint. +Florence Brand, New Jersey zinc oxide, was used as the standard for +whiteness and termed "No. 1." In making "No. 2" standard, to the zinc +oxide was added .01% of lampblack. By adding .02% of lampblack to the +zinc, standard "No. 3" was obtained, and so on, increasing the amount of +lampblack in each case by .01%. These standards were run up to "No. 30," +and the various panels on the different fences compared with them. The +degrees of whiteness are recorded in progressive numbers, No. 1 being +the standard for whiteness and No. 30 the darkest. The Atlantic City +panels ranged from 3 to 8 in the scale of whiteness, while the Pittsburg +panels required the use of the entire range of standards. + +=Resistance to Abrasion.= The apparatus used for determining the +abrasion resistance of a paint was made of a glass tube about six feet +long, having an internal bore of 7/8 inch. This was supported in an +upright position over a dish which held the panel under test at an angle +of 45 degrees. The abrasive material consisted of No. 00 emery, which +was dropped into the tube through a funnel having a bore of 5 mm. When +the emery reached the bottom of the long tube it scattered itself so as +to strike a surface on the panel about an inch in diameter. The emery +was constantly poured in until the paint coating had worn away, showing +the bare wood. The weight in pounds of emery powder required to show the +disruption of the coating is recorded and reported as the measure of the +"abrasion resist." The panel requiring the greatest weight of emery to +cause abrasion is evidently the most resistant to abrasion. Paint is +often subjected to serious abrasion, through the blowing of sand, +especially at the seashore, and to withstand such action should contain +a proportion of pigments especially resistant to abrasion, such as +silica, zinc oxide, asbestine, and barytes. + +[Illustration: Apparatus for Determining the Abrasion Resistance of +Paints] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 1, A. C.] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 2, A. C.] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 3, A. C.] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 4, A. C.] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 5, A. C.] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 6, A. C.] + + NOTE: The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance of Dr. J. + A. Schaeffer in the preparation of the photomicrographs herewith + shown. + +[Illustration: Formula No. 7, A. C.] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 8, A. C.] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 9, A. C.] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 10, A. C.] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 11, A. C.] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 12, A. C.] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 13, A. C.] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 14, A. C.] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 15, A. C.] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 16, A. C.] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 17, A. C.] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 18, A. C.] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 19, A. C.] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 20, A. C.] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 33, A. C.] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 34, A. C.] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 35, A. C.] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 36, A. C.] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 37, A. C.] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 38, A. C.] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 39, A. C.] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 40, A. C.] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 45, A. C.] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 46, A. C.] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 47, A. C.] + +=Making Photomicrographs.= The photomicrographs which are herewith shown +were made in the following manner: A part of a panel was placed upon the +stage of the microscope and held firmly in place with clips. By varying +the adjustment and carefully running over the field the condition of the +surface was readily given, using the same eye-piece and objective +throughout the tests, and obtaining a magnification of thirty-three. +Great care was exercised to secure an average field showing the general +and typical appearance of every panel. Little difficulty was experienced +in so doing, as the laboratory panels gave very representative surfaces +of the large panels on the fence. The instrument was then inclined +horizontally and the eye-piece was fitted into the camera nose. In the +back of the bellows of the camera was placed the ground glass for +focusing. To secure illumination the light from an electric arc lamp +was reflected from a mirror directly upon the painted surface of the +panel, which in turn was reflected through the camera on to the ground +glass. The plate-holder was then put in position and six-second +exposures were made, afterward developing and printing. + +=Checking and Cracking.= What was termed "fine matt checking" at the +First Annual Inspection was not visible at the time to certain members +of the Inspection Committee, but it is an established fact that the +checking was an existing condition, as the photomicrographs have shown. +This checking has a very peculiar characteristic in that the lines are +very narrow and hair-like, being somewhat interlaced and peculiarly +forked. That this hair matt checking is a preliminary condition which +afterwards develops into matt checking and into marked or heavy checking +seems to be indicated. + +It appears from an examination of the photomicrographs of the paint +films that a paint coating closely resembles the surface of the earth, +and is subject to the same basic laws that have caused the various +geodetic changes in the earth's crust. Observation of a dried pond or +lake bed will disclose types of fissuring and cracking similar to those +shown by dried paint coatings in which the oil has been fully oxidized, +and especially in the case of paints containing pigments which act upon +the oil to produce compounds brittle in nature. + +At Atlantic City the panels were all clean and free from dirt, +presenting continuous exposure of the films, and thus maintaining +conditions for active checking. At Pittsburg, soon after the panels +began to chalk, the large amount of dust and black soot in the +atmosphere completely covered the panels with a very thick, resistant +coating of carbon, which acted as a seal or protector, preventing +disintegration to a great extent. This coating was extremely hard to +remove, and photomicrographs, before and after removal of this coating +by rubbing with a damp cloth, failed to reveal marked checking on any of +the formulas except those made of strictly pure basic carbonate-white +lead. The checking, even on these, was not as marked as at Atlantic +City. It is presumed that after the chalking had taken place and the +chalked pigment had been washed from the panels, the gradually +increasing coat of carbon and lead sulphide had protected the panels +from checking, or possibly the atmosphere of Pittsburg, which in other +respects had deteriorated the panels to a greater extent than at +Atlantic City, did not have the extreme action in causing checking that +the Atlantic City atmosphere seemed to have effected. + +[Illustration: Combination Formula No. 1, Pittsburg + +BEFORE WASHING + +Mottled surface due to external coating of impurities.] + +[Illustration: AFTER WASHING] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 4, Pittsburg + +BEFORE WASHING] + +[Illustration: AFTER WASHING] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 38, Pittsburg + +Basic Carbonate--White Lead Panels on Fence + +BEFORE WASHING + +Checking evident even through the outer covering of foreign matter.] + +[Illustration: AFTER WASHING] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 36, Pittsburg + +Basic Carbonate--White Lead Panels on Fence + +BEFORE WASHING + +Peculiar network-like checking appearing through outer coat of +impurities.] + +[Illustration: AFTER WASHING] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 40, Pittsburg] + +[Illustration: Formula No. 45, Pittsburg] + +=Results on Combination Pigment Paints.= It will be noticed that the +checking on most of the combination pigment paints made of lead, zinc, +and inert pigments, was moderate, and in many cases of a fine order. It +has been observed that the percentage of zinc oxide in a paint is not +always a criterion upon which future checking may be judged. Nor could +it be said that the checking is dependent upon the percentage of basic +carbonate-white lead added to the paint. However, it appears that +scientific blending of the various pigments, with regard to their +physical properties in oil, such as their strength and elastic limit, +develops the greatest resistance to both cracking and checking. +Elasticity is vital, but strength must be combined therewith in order to +prevent disruptions of the paint coating. Paint films made of certain +inert pigments, when tested on the filmometer, were relatively high in +strength, but relatively low in elasticity. Such pigments, when used in +large percentage, form coatings which are hard and apt to crack. The +use, however, of these pigments in moderate percentages seems very +beneficial in overcoming the effect of using an excessive percentage of +white lead, or of zinc oxide. + +=Results on White Lead Paints.= The maximum checking was observed on the +basic carbonate-white lead panels, the size of the checks in some cases +being several times larger than those on the other panels. + +On some of the basic carbonate-white leads the checking was of a very +peculiar nature, consisting of very broad fissures in the paint coating, +disclosing the wood surfaces beneath. The type of checking existing was +also distinct in its structure, being hexagonal in shape. One of the +most marked features shown by the basic carbonate-white lead films was +the extreme roughness of their surfaces. This roughness is most likely +due to the excessive chalking which had taken place. + +=Results on Silica and Barytes Paints.= The checking of paints very high +in silica resolved itself into fine hair-like lines which are generally +lateral to each other, and indicate a cracked appearance. The checking +of paints containing very high percentages of barytes was also of a +distinct nature, being generally forked in appearance and of no definite +striation. + +=Surface Condition of Fume Pigment Paints.= The panels painted with +basic sulphate-white lead (sublimed white lead) showed complete absence +of checking. This was also true of the panels painted with zinc lead. +These are both fume products and are extremely fine in their physical +size, which may account for this condition. Although zinc oxide is made +in a similar manner, it gives a much harder paint coating than either of +the afore-mentioned pigments, and presents a surface which develops +considerable checking, generally of a medium order. The past theories +regarding zinc oxide, in which it has been maintained that zinc oxide +gives the maximum checking, are evidently incorrect, as the checking +found on the zinc oxide panels was not as marked or deep as the checking +on the basic carbonate-white lead panels; in fact, the checking might be +more in the line of a cracking, possibly due to the brittle nature of +the coating composed of straight zinc. This is especially true of zinc +paints containing insufficient oil. + +=The Importance of the Physical Nature of Pigments.= It appears that +very fine grinding of materials, chosen for their characteristic +fineness, with the absence of any unfavorable physical condition or +chemical sensitiveness, are important factors in the making of a paint +to resist cracking or checking. The purity of the essential materials, +as well as the scientific compounding of these materials, with due +regard to the law of minimum voids, are great factors which enhance the +qualities of paints, greater, perhaps, than the variation of percentages +of the various pigments which go to make up a paint. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +ADDITIONAL TESTS AT ATLANTIC CITY AND PITTSBURG + + +A series of new test panels to take the place of those panels which were +condemned and subsequently removed from the Atlantic City and Pittsburg +fences, were painted and exposed during June, 1909. These new test +panels are of white pine, this wood having been selected by the joint +inspection committee as offering the best condition for future tests. +The method used in painting these panels was the same as in the previous +tests, together with the adoption of certain refinements in the +reductions, application, etc. Thirty-six formulas were selected with +careful regard to the percentage of components, including several paints +containing lithopone combined with whiting and zinc oxide,[25] two +pigments which gave promise of supporting the lithopone for outside use. +Some of these lithopone paints contained special vehicles which it was +thought would prevent the destructive action which lithopone seems to +have upon linseed oil. In order to obtain a criterion of the value of +the new formulas applied, as against the wearing of straight white +leads, the original white leads used in the previous tests were +included, and other brands were added. Each formula was painted out in +white, yellow, and gray, upon panels of white pine wood arranged in +sequence upon the fence, and properly identified. The customary opacity +test, in the form of a small black square, was stencilled over the +priming coat of each panel, as in the former tests. The composition of +the vehicle in all the new tests was standard, using pure linseed oil +with a small percentage of turpentine drier. The tints used in each +formula were secured at the time of application by the use of standard +colors, lampblack, and medium chrome yellow, using an approximate amount +for each formula. + + [25] A brief study of the theory of solutions (See Cushman and Gardner + on "Corrosion and Preservation of Iron and Steel"), involving the + modes of iron formation, will be invaluable to the student who is + inquiring into the cause of the peculiar fogging of lithopone, + with the idea in view of correcting this evil by physical or + chemical treatment. Inasmuch as our observations thus far have + led us to believe that the fogging of lithopone takes place in + the presence of moisture, with the contributory and necessary + action of chemically active rays from the sun or other source, it + is fair to assume that under these conditions the insoluble + molecule of zinc sulphide and barium sulphate reverts by + intricate molecular disturbance and ionization back to the + soluble barium sulphide and zinc sulphate from which the + lithopone is formed by metathesis. If this be true, then the acid + nature of these soluble salts is no doubt combated and overcome + at the moment of formation by the basic nature of zinc oxide and + calcium carbonate, which tend to ionize to an alkaline reaction. + The value of zinc oxide and calcium carbonate in lithopone paints + as detergents of blackness, has been demonstrated at both + Atlantic City and Pittsburg." H. A. G. + +[Illustration: Section of Fence Showing New Panels Recently Placed] + +[Illustration: Appearance of 1909 Tests] + +An inspection of these new tests was made during June, 1910, and the +results of the inspection are shown on pages 178 to 181. The results of +the inspection prove that it is unsafe to use lithopone in a paint +containing white lead of any type, early darkening and failure being +shown in every case where such a combination existed. The formulas in +the new test, which were properly balanced and which had a low +percentage of lithopone combined with zinc oxide and whiting, presented +in some cases very good surfaces. A rough, sandy surface, however, was +shown where lithopone was used in any great quantity. + +TESTS INAUGURATED IN 1909 + +RESULTS OF INSPECTION OF ATLANTIC CITY TEST FENCE, MAY, 1910 + + ===============================================+ + FORMULAS | + --+-----------------------+--------------------+ + F | | | + o | | | + r |Basic Carbonate | | + m |White Lead | | + u | |Zinc Oxide | | + l | | |Basic Sulphate | | + a | | |White Lead | INERT PIGMENTS | + | | | |Precipi- +--------------------+ + N | | | |tated |Calcium Carbonate | + u | | | |White Lead | |Silica | + m | | | | |Zinc | | |Asbestine | + b | | | | |Lead | | | |China Clay| + e | | | | | |Li- | | | | |Barytes| + r | | | | | |tho-| | | | | |Blanc| + | | | | | -pone| | | | | +-Fixe| + --+----+--+---+---+---+---+--+---+--+--+--+----+ + | % | %| %| %| %| %| %| %| %| %| %| % | + 1| -- |--| 45| --| --| 40|15| --|--|--|--| -- | + 2| -- |--| 45| --| --| 40|--| 15|--|--|--| -- | + 3| -- |45| --| --| --| 45|10| --|--|--|--| -- | + 4| -- |--| 45| --| --| 45|10| --|--|--|--| -- | + 5| -- |40| --| --| --| 40|20| --|--|--|--| -- | + 6| -- |--| 45| --| --| 35|--| --|20|--|--| -- | + 7| 50 |--| --| --| 36| --|--| --| 2| 8| 4| -- | + 8| -- |--| 50| --| --| 36|--| --| 2| 8| 4| -- | + 9| -- |--| 50| --| --| 36|--| --| 2|--|12| -- | + 10| -- |36| 50| --| --| --|--| --| 2| 8| 4| -- | + 11| 28 |55| --| --| --| --|--| --| 3|--| 7| 7 | + 12| -- |55| 28| --| --| --|--| --| 3|--| 7| 7 | + 13| -- |60| --| --| --| 30|10| --|--|--|--| -- | + 14| -- |30| 30| --| --| 30|10| --|--|--|--| -- | + 15| -- |--| 60| --| --| 30|--| --|10|--|--| -- | + 16| -- |--| --| --| --|100|--| --|--|--|--| -- | + 17| -- |--| --| --| --|100|--| --|--|--|--| -- | + 18| 33 |33| --| --| --| --|--| 17|--|17|--| -- | + 19| 34 |33| --| --| --| --|--| 33|--|--|--| -- | + 20| 34 |33| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|33|--| -- | + 21|100 |--| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- | + |[26]| | | | | | | | | | | | + 22|100 |--| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- | + 23|100 |--| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- | + 24| -- |--|100| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- | + 25| -- |--| --| --|100| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- | + 26| -- |--| --|100| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- | + 27|100 |--| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- | + 28|100 |--| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- | + 29| 24 |45| 13| --| --| --|--| --|18|--|--| -- | + 30| 45 |--| --| --| --| 40|15| --|--|--|--| -- | + 31| 45 |--| --| --| --| 40|--| 15|--|--|--| -- | + 32| 45 |--| --| --| --| 35|--| --|20|--|--| -- | + 33| 50 |--| --| --| --| 36|--| --| 2|--|12| -- | + 34| 75 |--| 25| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- | + 35| 50 |--| 50| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- | + 36| -- |--| --| --| --| --|--|100|--|--|--| -- | + ==+====+==+===+===+===+===+==+===+==+==+==+====+ + + [26] This pigment on analysis proved to be zinc lead. + + ==+===============================================+== + F | | + o | | + r | | P + m | | a + u | | n + l | | e + a | | l + | | + N | | N + u | | u + m | REPORT OF INSPECTION | m + b |---------+---------+----------------+----------+ b + e |CHALKING |CHECKING |GENERAL |REMARKS | e + r | | |CONDITION | | r + --+---------+---------+----------------+----------+-- + 1|None |None |Rough surface, | | 1 + | | |but fair for re-| | + | | |painting | | + 2|None |None |Fair; rough sur-| | 2 + | | |face and slight-| | + | | |ly dark | | + 3|Very |Very |Good; very white| | 3 + |slight |slight |surface | | + 4|None |None |Rough surface | | 4 + | | |and slightly | | + | | |dark | | + 5|Very |Very |Good; very white| | 5 + |slight |slight |surface | | + 6|None |None |Rough surface; | | 6 + | | |dark | | + 7|None |Very |Good | | 7 + | |slight | | | + | |lateral | | | + | |checking | | | + 8|Heavy |Slight |Excellent; very | | 8 + | | |white | | + 9|Heavy |Some |Excellent; very | | 9 + | | |white | | + 10|None |Slight |Good | |10 + 11|None |Slight |Good; slightly | |11 + | | |dark | | + 12|None |Slight |Good | |12 + | |lateral | | | + 13|Very |Consider-|Fair | |13 + |slight |able | | | + | |lateral | | | + | |running | | | + | |along | | | + | |grain of | | | + | |wood | | | + 14|Very |Consider-|Fair | |14 + |slight |able | | | + | |lateral | | | + | |running | | | + | |along | | | + | |grain of | | | + | |wood | | | + 15|Heavy |Slight |Fair | |15 + | |lateral | | | + | |checking | | | + 16|Heavy |Consider-|Dark color; | |16 + | |able |rough surface | | + 17|Consider-|Medium |Better than No. | |17 + |able | |16; not as rough| | + | | |or dark | | + 18|Very |None |Good | |18 + |slight | | | | + 19|Very |Slight |Good | |19 + |slight | | | | + 20|Very |None |Good | |20 + |slight | | | | + 21|Slight |Slight |Fair; rough | |21 + | | |surface | | + 22|Very |Lateral |Fairly good | |22 + |slight |cracking | | | + 23|Medium |Lateral |Fair | |23 + | |cracking | | | + 24|Slight |Slight |Good for | |24 + | |cracking |repainting | | + 25|Medium |None |Good surface | |25 + 26|Heavy |Slight |Fair; surface | |26 + | |cracking |rough & dark | | + 27|Heavy |Lateral |Fair | |27 + | |cracking | | | + 28|Medium |Consider-|Poor; very | |28 + | |able |rough, dark | | + | | |surface | | + 29|Slight |None |Good | |29 + 30|Heavy |Heavy |Poor | |30 + | |checking | | | + | |and alli-| | | + | |gatoring | | | + 31|None |Alliga- |Rough surface; | |31 + | |toring |dark | | + 32|Slight |Medium |Dark and rough | |32 + | | |surface | | + 33|Consider-|Slight |Poor; dark | |33 + |able | |surface | | + 34|None |None |Fair; dark | |34 + | | |surface | | + 35|None |Slight |Fair; rough | |35 + | | |surface | | + 36|Extremely|Medium |Fair |Vehicle |36 + |bad | | |disinte- | + | | | |grated; | + | | | |spotted in| + | | | |places | + ==+=========+=========+================+==========+== + +TESTS INAUGURATED IN 1909 + +RESULTS OF INSPECTION OF PITTSBURG TEST FENCE, MAY, 1910 + + ===============================================+ + FORMULAS | + --+-----------------------+--------------------+ + F | | | + o | | | + r |Basic Carbonate | | + m |White Lead | | + u | |Zinc Oxide | | + l | | |Basic Sulphate | | + a | | |White Lead | INERT PIGMENT | + | | | |Precipi- +--------------------+ + N | | | |tated |Calcium Carbonate | + u | | | |White Lead | |Silica | + m | | | | |Zinc | | |Asbestine | + b | | | | |Lead | | | |China Clay| + e | | | | | |Li- | | | | |Barytes| + r | | | | | |tho-| | | | | |Blanc| + | | | | | -pone| | | | | --Fixe| + --+----+--+---+---+---+---+--+---+--+--+--+----+ + | % | %| %| %| %| %| %| %| %| %| %| % | + 1| -- |--| 45| --| --| 40|15| --|--|--|--| -- | + 2| -- |--| 45| --| --| 40|--| 15|--|--|--| -- | + 3| -- |45| --| --| --| 45|10| --|--|--|--| -- | + 4| -- |--| 45| --| --| 45|10| --|--|--|--| -- | + 5| -- |40| --| --| --| 40|20| --|--|--|--| -- | + 6| -- |--| 45| --| --| 35|--| --|20|--|--| -- | + 7| 50 |--| --| --| 36| --|--| --| 2| 8| 4| -- | + 8| -- |--| 50| --| --| 36|--| --| 2| 8| 4| -- | + 9| -- |--| 50| --| --| 36|--| --| 2|--|12| -- | + 10| -- |36| 50| --| --| --|--| --| 2| 8| 4| -- | + 11| 28 |55| --| --| --| --|--| --| 3|--| 7| 7 | + 12| -- |55| 28| --| --| --|--| --| 3|--| 7| 7 | + 13| -- |60| --| --| --| 30|10| --|--|--|--| -- | + 14| -- |30| 30| --| --| 30|10| --|--|--|--| -- | + 15| -- |--| 60| --| --| 30|--| --|10|--|--| -- | + 16| -- |--| --| --| --|100|--| --|--|--|--| -- | + 17| -- |--| --| --| --|100|--| --|--|--|--| -- | + 18| 33 |33| --| --| --| --|--| 17|--|17|--| -- | + 19| 34 |33| --| --| --| --|--| 33|--|--|--| -- | + 20| 34 |33| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|33|--| -- | + 21|100 |--| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- | + 22|100 |--| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- | + |[27]| | | | | | | | | | | | + 23|100 |--| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- | + 24| -- |--|100| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- | + 25| -- |--| --| --|100| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- | + 26| -- |--| --|100| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- | + 27|100 |--| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- | + 28|100 |--| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- | + 29| 24 |45| 13| --| --| --|--| --|18|--|--| -- | + 30| 45 |--| --| --| --| 40|15| --|--|--|--| -- | + 31| 45 |--| --| --| --| 40|--| 15|--|--|--| -- | + 32| 45 |--| --| --| --| 35|--| --|20|--|--| -- | + 33| 50 |--| --| --| --| 36|--| --| 2|--|12| -- | + 34| 75 |--| 25| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- | + 35| 50 |--| 50| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- | + 36| -- |--| --| --| --| --|--|100|--|--|--| -- | + ==+====+==+===+===+===+===+==+===+==+==+==+====+ + + [27] This pigment on analysis proved to be zinc lead. + + ==+===============================================+== + F | | + o | | + r | | P + m | | a + u | | n + l | | e + a | | l + | | + N | | n + u | | u + m | REPORT OF INSPECTION | m + b +---------+---------+----------------+----------+ b + e |CHALKING |CHECKING |GENERAL |REMARKS | e + r | | |CONDITION | | r + --+---------+---------+----------------+----------+-- + | | | | | + 1|Consider-|Slight |Fair |Dark in | 1 + |able | | |places. | + | | | |Diffused | + 2|Slight |Bad |Fair |Dark in | 2 + | | | |places | + 3|Medium |None |Good |Darkening | 3 + | | | |shown in | + | | | |places | + 4|Consider-|None |Good |Medium | 4 + |able | | |dark | + 5|Slight |None |Good |No exces- | 5 + | | | |sive dark-| + | | | |ness | + 6|Medium |Slight |Good |Surface | 6 + | | | |fairly | + | | | |white | + 7|Medium |None |Excellent |Whitest | 7 + | | | |surface of| + | | | |new tests | + 8|Extremely|Slight |Fair |Surface | 8 + |bad | | |darkening | + 9|Extremely|Slight |Fair |Not as bad| 9 + |bad | | |as No. 8 | + 10|Slight |None |Good |Excellent |10 + | | | |surface; | + | | | |very white| + 11|Slight |None |Excellent |Surface |11 + | | | |fairly | + | | | |white; | + | | | |thin soot | + 12|Medium |None |Good |Surface |12 + | | | |white | + 13|Medium |Very bad |Fair |Slight |13 + | |in spots | |darkening | + 14|Heavy |Consider-|Fair |Slight |14 + | |able | |darkening | + 15|Extremely|Slight |Fair |Fairly |15 + |bad | | |white | + 16|Extremely|Advanced |Bad |Surface |16 + |bad |and deep | |rough with| + | | | |consider- | + | | | |able dis- | + | | | |integra- | + | | | |tion and | + | | | |much dark-| + | | | |ness | + 17|Not as |Less ad- |Fair |Not as |17 + |bad as |vanced | |dark as | + |No. 16 |than No. | |No. 16; | + | |16 | |slightly | + | | | |mottled in| + | | | |places; | + | | | |buff color| + 18|Very |Practi- |Fair |Surface |18 + |slight |cally | |white | + | |none | | | + 19|Very |None |Good |Surface |19 + |slight | | |fairly | + | | | |white | + 20|None |None |Good |Surface |20 + | | | |fairly | + | | | |white | + 21|Slight |Slight |Fair |Surface |21 + | | | |very rough| + | | | |and dark | + 22|Medium |Slight |Fair |Surface |22 + | | | |fairly | + | | | |white | + 23|Slight |Bad |Fair |Surface |23 + | | | |rough and | + | | | |darkest on| + | | | |fence | + 24|Bad |None |Good |Surface |24 + | | | |white | + 25|Slight |None |Good |Fairly |25 + | | | |white | + | | | |surface | + 26|Medium |Slight |Fair |Rough and |26 + | | | |very dark;| + | | | |chalking | + | | | |is dis- | + | | | |rupting | + | | | |black | + | | | |coating | + 27|Medium |Slight |Good |Surface |27 + | | | |fairly | + | | | |white | + 28|Medium |Deep; |Poor |Surface |28 + | |evident | |rough and | + | |without | |very dark | + | |glass | | | + 29|Slight |Slight |Good |Very white|29 + | | | |surface | + 30|None |Slight |Fair |Color dark|30 + 31|Very |Advanced |Fair |Color very|31 + |slight | | |dark | + 32|Extremely|Consider-|Fair |Color very|32 + |slight |able | |dark; | + | | | |rough | + | | | |surface | + 33|Extremely|Slight |Fair |Surface |33 + |slight | | |dark and | + | | | |rough | + 34|Slight |Deep |Fair |Surface |34 + | | | |medium | + | | | |dark | + 35|Consider-|Slight |Fair |Surface |35 + |able | | |medium | + | | | |dark | + 36|Extremely|None |Fair |Vehicle |36 + |bad | | |disinte- | + | | | |grated, | + | | | |leaving | + | | | |very | + | | | |white, | + | | | |chalked | + | | | |surface of| + | | | |pigment | + ==+=========+=========+================+==========+== + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +NORTH DAKOTA PAINT TESTS + + +An inspection of the original test fence, erected and painted by the +North Dakota Agricultural College, on the grounds of the agricultural +Experiment Station at Fargo, was made by the inspection committee[28] +representing the Paint Manufacturers' Association of the United +States, on the 19th and 20th of November, 1909. The fence was erected +in 1906 and painted with commercial paints, procured in the open +market. The east side of the fence was built of soft pine and cedar +weather-boarding, such as is almost universally used on houses in that +locality, presenting a very good surface for test purposes, while the +west side was built largely of flat trimmed boards of hard pitch pine +which, unfortunately, contained knots, pitch pockets, and uneven +surfaces, causing to a greater or lesser extent cracking, scaling, and +bad general results on all paints applied thereto. + + [28] Henry A. Gardner, Director Scientific Section, Educational + Bureau, Paint Manufacturers' Association of U. S.; George Butler, + Master Painter; Charles Macnichol, Master Painter. + +The fences built in 1907 and 1908 at the suggestion of the Paint +Manufacturers' Association, were inspected on the 20th, 21st, and 22nd +of November, 1909, and the detailed results of the inspection of all +these fences follow in this report. The same general conclusions as to +the woods represented in the 1906 fence also apply to the 1907 and 1908 +fences, and because of the general bad quality of wood used on the +western exposure of all fences, the detailed reports were made only from +an examination of the eastern side of the fences, both on cedar and soft +pine. + +The following general summary of the inspection and its results applies +to all the test fences on the grounds of the college and is the +unanimous conclusion drawn by the inspectors from this work: + +[Illustration: North Dakota Test Fences] + +[Illustration: Typical Sample of Hard Pine Trim Board Showing Knot and +Sappy Grain] + +[Illustration: Test No. 13--1906 Fence + +Complete Disintegration and Failure of Cheap Paint] + +"Non-absorbent woods, difficult to penetrate, such as those on the west +side of the fences, would undoubtedly have given much better results had +they been painted with paints properly reduced to suit the nature of the +wood. This treatment seems to have been overlooked in the North Dakota +tests, and the painting of the hard pine boards was done with the same +consistency of mixtures and the same reductions as upon soft pine. +Scaling of course resulted. One of the chief purposes of the fences, +however, was to study the different types of wood, and compliance with +this desire resulted in the bad conditions herein noted. It has been +shown in many other field tests that adherence of paints to hard wood +surfaces can be obtained only by causing the priming coat to become +amalgamated with the woody fibre, by the use of a large percentage of +volatile diluent turpentine, benzole, asphaltum spirits, etc., to secure +penetration. If such treatment is omitted, failure soon results, as was +evidenced by the uniformly bad conditions presented by the paints on the +hard pine panels. + +[Illustration: Pine Weatherboarding Showing Knots and Grain] + +[Illustration: Condition of Lumber Affecting Paint, West Side 1906 +Fence] + +[Illustration: Hail-stone Abrasions on House Repainting Tests] + +[Illustration: Hail-stone Effect, West Side of 1907 Test Fence] + +"During July, 1908, a violent hailstorm occurred in Fargo, and left its +impression on nearly every wooden structure; in many cases deep dents +being made into the wood. The west side of the test fences, which +received the most injury from this storm, was covered with these dents +over almost its entire surface, causing cracks in the form of concentric +rings to appear on the abraded paint coatings. The bad condition of the +wood, improper method of applying priming coat, combined with the +hailstorm effect on the painted surfaces on the west side of the fences, +were undoubtedly responsible for the universal failure of the paints +thereon, and, for these reasons, the west side was eliminated from the +detailed inspection, only general observations of these tests being +made. These general observations, however, showed that paints Nos. 6 and +8 on the 1906 fence, and paints Nos. 8, 10, and 13 on the 1907 fence, +proved the most satisfactory on the western exposure.[29] + + [29] These formulas were the same as those respectively numbered on + the Atlantic City and Pittsburg fences. + +[Illustration: Peculiar Crystallization Effect on Section 41. New +Special Fence Paint Applied During Cold Weather] + +"Ochre was tried out as a priming coat on several formulas, but it was +found to be most unsatisfactory, affecting the subsequent coats of paint +and causing early failure, as evidenced by broad checking, +discoloration, and general bad condition. These conditions also apply +to those panels on the 1908 fence coated with shellac as a primer. + +"The colored formulas in every case showed a great superiority over the +same paints in white untinted, and demonstrated that a percentage of +color has a wonderful influence on the preservation of the paint +coating, reducing chalking, checking, and general disintegration. This +condition is probably due to the reinforcing value of the color pigments +used. + +"It is safe to state that the combination formulas tinted yellow were of +better appearance than the corroded white leads tinted yellow, the +latter appearing quite dark in many cases. + +"The wearing of the paints made solely from white lead and zinc oxide +seemed to indicate that a percentage of a third pigment, of an inert +nature, would have been beneficial. + +"The high-type mixtures of pigments containing lead and zinc, with +moderate percentages of inert pigments, on good wood, were in most +excellent general condition; in fact, much superior to the single +pigment paints. Their surface exhibited only minor checking and moderate +chalking with good maintenance of color, and presenting surfaces well +adapted to repainting. + +"The sublimed white lead was in fair condition, with very little +checking, and offering a fair repainting surface. The corroded white +lead was somewhat whiter than the sublimed white lead, but a careful +observation of the surface of the corroded lead revealed deep checking. + +"It was clearly demonstrated, however, that in climates of the North +Dakota type, white lead alone is not entirely satisfactory. The addition +of zinc oxide to white lead forms paint that has proved much superior to +the white lead alone. + +"It was conclusively demonstrated that mixtures of white lead and zinc +oxide, properly blended with moderate percentages of reinforcing +pigments, such as asbestine, barytes, silica and calcium carbonate, are +most satisfactory from every standpoint, and are superior to mixtures of +prime white pigments not reinforced with inert pigments. + +"The white leads painted out on the 1908 fence exhibited different +degrees of checking, the mild-process lead and sublimed white lead which +presented the best surfaces, being free from checking, while the +old-process leads seemed to show very deep and marked checking, even +after one year's wear. + +[Illustration: Corroded White Lead + +Sublimed White Lead + +Condition of Two White Leads on Two Grades of Wood] + +[Illustration: Photomicrographic Apparatus and Method of Use] + +CONDENSED REPORT OF INSPECTION OF "1906" TEST FENCE + +FARGO, N. D., NOV. 19-23, 1909 + +_No gloss shown by any of the paints. Formulas in white on white pine +only included here, on east side of fence_ + + ==+=========================================================================++ + T| FORMULAS || + e+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------++ + s| PIGMENT | VEHICLE || + t+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------++ + |Corroded |Linseed Oil || + N|White Lead | |Turp. and Drier || + o| |Sublimed | | |Japan Drier || + .| |White Lead | | | |Water || + | | |Zinc Oxide | | | | |Benzine || + | | | |Calcium | | | | |Drier || + | | | |Carbonate | | | | | |Vola-|| + | | | | |Silica and | | | | | |tile || + | | | | |Silicates | | | | | |Oil || + | | | | | |Barium Sulphate | | | | | | || + | | | | | | |Magnesium | | | | | | || + | | | | | | |Silicate | | | | | | || + | | | | | | | |Clay and | | | | | | || + | | | | | | | |Silica | | | | | | || + | | | | | | | | |Bary-| | | | | | || + | | | | | | | | |tes | | | | | | || + | | | | | | | | |and | | | | | | || + | | | | | | | | |Sili-| | | | | | || + | | | | | | | | |cate | | | | | | || + --+-----+-----+----+----+---+----+---+---+-----+----+----+--+----+----+-----++ + | % | % | % | % | %| % | %| %| % | % | % | %| % | % | % || + 1|100 | -- | -- | -- | --| -- | --| --| -- | -- | -- |--| -- | -- | -- || + 2| -- |100 | -- | -- | --| -- | --| --| -- | -- | -- |--| -- | -- | -- || + 3| 50 | -- |50 | -- | --| -- | --| --| -- |90 |10 |--| -- | -- | -- || + 4| -- | 60 |40 | -- | --| -- | --| --| -- |90 | -- |10| -- | -- | -- || + 5| 28.7| -- |71.3| -- | --| -- | --| --| -- |93 | 7 |--| -- | -- | -- || + 6| 40.2| -- |50.3| 4.1|5.4| -- | --| --| -- |90.7| 9.3|--| -- | -- | -- || + 7| 21.9| 21.9|45.8|10.4| --| -- | --| --| -- |89.6| 9.7|--| 0.7| -- | -- || + 8| 44.1| -- |46.0| 4.6| --| -- |5.3| --| -- |86.0|12.6|--| 1.4| -- | -- || + 9| In gray only No report. || + 10| 13.9| -- |34.9|26.8| --| -- | --| --| 24.4|72.2| -- |--|24.0| 3.8| -- || + 11| 55.0| -- |15.2| -- | --| -- | --| --| 29.8| Test not finished || + 12| -- | 5.1|25.0| -- | --| -- | --| --| 69.9| -- | -- |--| -- | -- | -- || + 13| -- | -- |31.3|45.4| --|22.8| --|0.5| -- |57.2| -- |--|16.1|26.7| -- || + 14| 34.8| 5.4|59.2| -- | --| -- | --| --| -- |86.0|13.7|--| 0.3| -- | -- || + 15| -- | -- |64 | -- | --|36 | --| --| -- |98 | -- |--| -- | -- | 2 || + ==+=====+=====+====+====+===+====+===+===+=====+====+====+==+====+====+=====++ + + ==+============================================== + | REPORT OF CONDITION + +--------+-----------+-------+-------+--------- + T| | | | | + e| | | | | + s| | | | | + t| | | | | + | | | | | + N| | | | |CONDITION + o|CHALKING|CHECKING |HIDING |COLOR |FOR RE- + .| | |POWER | |PAINTING + --+--------+-----------+-------+-------+--------- + 1|Very bad|Extremely |Good |Good |Only fair + | |deep | | | + 2|Bad |Very slight|Good |Light |Fair + | | | |yellow-| + | | | |ish | + | | | |tint | + 3|Medium |Fine matt--|Good |Fair |Fair to + | |deep in | | |good + | |places | | | + 4|Medium |Surface |Good |Good |Fair + | |checking, | | | + | |very slight| | | + 5|Slight |Quite deep |Medium |Good |Poor. + | | | | |Coating + | | | | |wrinkled + | | | | |and hard + 6|Medium |Slight |Good |Good |Good + | |surface | | | + | |checking | | | + 7|Medium |Surface |Fair |Good |Slight + | |checking | | |shelling + | |with slight| | |from wood + | |cracking | | | + 8|Medium |Very slight| Good |Good |Good + 9| | | | | + 10|Slight |Very bad | Bad condition throughout. + 11| | | | | + 12|Medium |Medium |Defici-|Good |Shelling + | | |ent | |from wood + 13| Worst looking surface in North Dakota tests. + 14|Medium |Slight |Fair |Good |Good + | |surface | | | + | |checking | | | + | |and peeling| | | + 15|Slight |Lateral |Good |Good |Hard film + | |cracking | | | + | |quite deep | | | + ==+========+===========+=======+=======+========= + +CONDENSED REPORT OF INSPECTION OF "1907" TEST FENCE + +FARGO, NORTH DAKOTA, NOV. 19-23, 1909 + + ===+========================================================================== + T | FORMULAS + e +-------------------------------------------+------------------------------ + s | PIGMENT | VEHICLE + t +-------------------------------------------+------------------------------ + |Corroded White Lead |Linseed Oil + N | |Sublimed White Lead | |Turpentine + o | | |Zinc Oxide | |Drier + . | | | |Calcium Carbonate | | |Turpentine + | | | | |Aluminum and | | |and + | | | | |Magnesium Silicate | | |Japan + | | | | | |Barytes | | | |Water + | | | | | | |Silica | | | | |Turpentine + | | | | | | | |Inert | | | | |and Benzine + | | | | | | | | |Magnesium | | | | |Japan Drier + | | | | | | | | |Silicate | | | | | |Drier + | | | | | | | | | |Calcium| | | | | | |Vola- + | | | | | | | | | |Sul- | | | | | | |tile + | | | | | | | | | |phate | | | | | | |Oil + | | | | | | | | | | |Zinc| | | | | | | |[B] + | | | | | | | | | | |Lead| | | | | | | | + ---+----+---+----+---+--+--+----+--+---+--+----+----+----+--+----+--+--+--+--- + 1| 30 | --|70 |-- |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- |93 | 7 |--| -- |--|--|--|-- + 2| 50 | --|50 |-- |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- |86 | -- |10| 4 |--|--|--|-- + 3| 20 | 20|50 |10 |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- |90 | -- |--| -- |10|--|--|-- + 4|48.5| --|48.5| 3 |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- |83 | -- |--| -- |17|--|--|-- + 5| 22 | --|50 | 2 |26|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- |90 | -- |--| -- |--|10|--|-- + 6| -- | --|64 |-- |--|36| -- |--|-- |--| -- |98 | -- |--| -- |--|--| 2|-- + 7| 37 | --|63 |-- |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- |85 |13 |--| 2 |--|--|--|-- + 8| 38 | --|48 |-- |--|--|14 |--|-- |--| -- |91 | 9 |--| -- |--|--|--|-- + 9| -- | --|73 | 2 |--|--|25 |--|-- |--| -- |66 |-- |--|12 |22|--|--|-- + 10| 44 | --|46 | 5 |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- |86.0|12.5|--| 1.5|--|--|--|-- + 11| 50 | --|50 |-- |--|--| -- |--| 5 |--| -- |78 |22 |--| -- |--|--|--|-- + 12| 60 | --|34 |-- |--|--| -- | 6|-- |--| -- |91 | 7 |--| 2 |--|--|--|-- + 13| -- | 60|27 | 3 |--|--| -- |--|10 |--| -- |90 | -- |--| -- |--|10|--|-- + 14| 25 | 20|25 | 5 |--|--| -- |--|-- |25| -- |90 | -- | 6| -- |--|--|--| 4 + 15| -- | 20|40 |10 |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| 30 |90 | -- | 8| 2 |--|--|--|-- + 16| 33 | --|33 |-- |--|34| -- |--|-- |--| -- |90 | -- |10| -- |--|--|--|-- + 17|100 |(Type A)|-- |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- | -- | -- |--| -- |--|--|--|-- + 18|100 |( " B)|-- |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- | -- | -- |--| -- |--|--|--|-- + 19|100 |( " C)|-- |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- | 10 gal. oil |--|--|--|-- + | | | | | | | | | | | reduction | | | | + 20| -- |100| -- |-- |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- | -- | -- |--| -- |--|--|--|-- + 21| -- | --|100 |-- |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- | -- | -- |--| -- |--|--|--|-- + 22| -- | --| -- |-- |--|--| -- |--|-- |--|100 | -- | -- |--| -- |--|--|--|-- + 23|100 |(Type C)|-- |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- | 5-1/2 gal. oil reduction for + | | | | | | | | | | | | priming + 24| 37.|7. |25. |20.|--|--|8.42| (Michigan Seal | -- |--| -- |--|--|--|-- + | 51 |84 |87 |36 | | | | White Lead) | | | | | | | + 25| 38.|4. |33. |19.|--|--|3.18|(Railway White| -- | -- |--| -- |--|--|--|-- + | 95 |81 |58 |48 | | | | Lead) | | | | | | | | + 200|15. | --|-- | 1.|--|--| -- |--| 1.|--|43. |32. | 4. |--| 1. |--|--|--|-- + |625 | | |875| | | | |250| |750 |250 |000 | |250 | | | | + ===+====+===+====+===+==+==+====+==+===+==+===+====+=====+==+====+==+==+==+=== + + [B] = Benzine + + ===+=========+========================================= + T | | REPORT OF CONDITION + e | +------------+------+------+-------------- + s | | | | | + t | | | | | + | | | | | + N | | | | | + o | | | | | + . | | | | | + |CHALKING |CHECKING |HIDING|COLOR |CONDITION FOR + | | |POWER | |REPAINTING + ---+---------+------------+------+------+-------------- + 1|Medium |Considerable|Fair |Fair |Poor surface; + | |with lateral| | |too hard + | |cracking | | | + 2|Medium |Considerable|Good |Fair |Rather poor + | |with lateral| | | + | |cracking | | | + 3|Bad |Medium-- |Good |Good |Fair + | |scaling some| | | + 4|Medium |Considerable|Good |Good |Medium + | |with lateral| | | + | |cracking | | | + 5|Slight |Slight |Good |Good |Good + 6|Medium |Considerable|Medium|Medium|Fair + 7|Consider-|Present; |Fair |Fair |Poor + |able |long cracks | | | + 8|Slight |Surface |Good |Good |Fair + | |checking | | | + 9|Not |Considerable|Medium|Good |Medium + |evident |with lateral| | | + | |cracking | | | + 10|Medium |Very slight |Good |Good |Good + 11|Slight |Lateral |Fair |Fair |Fair + | |cracking | | | + 12|Consider-|Present with|Fair |Fair |Not very good + |able |slight | | | + | |cracking and| | | + | |scaling | | | + 13|Medium |Surface |Good |Good |Good + | |checking | | | + | |only | | | + 14|Consider-|Considerable|Medium|Fair |Medium; some + |able |with lateral| | |washing shown + | |cracking | | | + 15|Medium |Medium |Good |Good |Medium + 16|Medium |Slight; some|Fair |Good |Medium + | |shelling | | | + 17|Bad |Alligator- |Good |Fair |Poor + | |ing; deep | | | + | |checking | | | + 18|Bad |Alligator- |Fair |Fair |Poor + | |ing; deep | | | + | |checking | | | + 19|Bad |Deep |Good |Fair |Poor + 20|Consider-|Slight |Good |Fair |Fair + |able | | | | + 21|Not |Consider- |Fair |Good |Poor + |evident |able; slight| | | + | |cracking; | | | + | |scaling | | | + 22|Medium |Lateral |Good |Good |Fair + | |cracking; | | | + | |split | | | + 23|Bad |Medium deep |Good |Good |Fair + 24|Consider-|Slight; |Fair |Good |Good + |able |lateral | | | + | |cracking | | | + 25|Consider-|Some; |Fair |Good |Excellent + |able |lateral | | | + | |cracking | | | + 200|Medium |Bad cracking|Good |Good |Fair + ===+=========+============+======+======+============== + +"As before stated, the committee believes that a serious mistake was +made on the test fence in painting out the leads and other formulas on +the various woods without any special attention to reduction to suit the +nature of the wood, thus accounting largely for the difference of the +wearing of the paints on the different woods. + +"The reduction of the white leads especially was to be criticised in +these tests, in many cases too much oil and not sufficient turpentine +being present to cause penetration. + +"The application of paint to cedar was satisfactory in most all cases, +and this wood showed much better results than the other woods upon the +fences. The exudation of resinous pitch on the hard pine was extremely +serious, in some cases coming through the paint in large streaks, +causing bad results. + +"It is to be regretted that the house repainting tests which were +conducted are of no special value, inasmuch as no information is on file +as to the composition of the old paints originally on the houses before +the application of the test paints. Imperfections in the old coating, +such as excessive chalking, deep checking, scaling, rosin exudations, +etc., affected the subsequent coats in such a manner as to prevent any +knowledge of where the new and old paint troubles began. The committee, +therefore, omitted a detailed inspection of such tests. + +"Examination of the three houses which were painted over new wood showed +results which correspond with the results obtained from the fence tests. +That is, they showed the ultimate value of high type mixtures of several +pigments over one pigment alone. These tests seem to indicate that very +good results can be secured from most of the paints sold in North +Dakota. If the consumer or householder would exercise more care in the +selection of wood and preparation of surfaces, with due regard to the +proper reduction for various coats, more satisfactory results would be +obtained. + +"From an examination of certain paints on the 1908 fence containing +petroleum spirits, it would appear that this paint thinner is of value, +and in the face of conditions such as are presented by the present +scarcity of turpentine, the use of petroleum spirits in moderate +quantity would be justified." + +NORTH DAKOTA TESTS + +[Illustration: 1. Formula No. 21, Section 31, on 1907 Fence] + +[Illustration: 2. Section 80, on 1908 Fence] + +[Illustration: 3. Formula No. 6, Section 9, on 1907 Fence] + +[Illustration: 4. Formula No. 2, Section 3, on 1907 Fence] + +[Illustration: 5. Formula No. 1, Section 1, on 1907 Fence] + +[Illustration: 6. Formula No. 14, Section 21, on 1907 Fence] + +[Illustration: 7. Formula No. 13, Panel 19, on 1907 Fence] + +[Illustration: 8. Formula No. 19, Panel 28. Broad, Deep Checking on +Corroded White Lead on 1907 Fence] + +[Illustration: 9. Formula No. 24, Panel 36, on 1907 Fence. Good +Condition. Surface Checking Only] + +[Illustration: 10. Formula No. 25, Section 37, on 1907 Fence. Good +Condition. Surface Checking Only] + +[Illustration: 11. Formula No. 8, Panel 12, on 1907 Fence] + +[Illustration: 12. Formula No. 10, Panel 15, on 1907 Fence] + +[Illustration: 13. Panel No. 34, Formula 23, on 1907 Fence. Deep +Checking on Corroded White Lead] + +[Illustration: 14. Test No. 13 on 1906 Fence. White Spots Show Paint +Left on Wood. Balance of Paint Split and Disintegrated from Surface] + +[Illustration: 15. Test No. 6 on 1906 Fence. Surface Checking Only] + +[Illustration: 16. Test No. 2, 1906 Fence. Sublimed White Lead] + +[Illustration: 17. Cracks in Test No. 15 on 1906 Fence] + +[Illustration: 18. Effect of Cracking on Hard Pine, Causing Splitting of +Painting Coating] + +[Illustration: 19. Formula No. 22, Section 23, 1907 Fence. Cracks in +Paint Coating, Caused by Cracks in Wood; Coating Otherwise in Good +Condition] + +[Illustration: 20. Test No. 8, on 1906 Fence. Surface Checking Only] + +[Illustration: 21. Combination Cracking and Checking on Section 69, on +1908 Fence] + +[Illustration: 22. Cracks in Paint Coating, Caused by Cracking of Hard +Pine Wood] + +[Illustration: 23. Section 65 on 1908 Fence. Showing Early Breakdown of +Corroded White Lead] + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +TENNESSEE PAINT TESTS + + +=Location and Object of Tests.= On September 15, 1910, the erection of a +wooden test fence was completed on the State Fair Grounds at Nashville, +Tenn. Upon this fence were exposed forty-two samples of white paint, the +object of the test being to determine whether the combination type of +formula is superior to the single pigment type in the southern plateau, +of which Nashville is the centre. + +=Construction of Tests.= The construction and outline of these tests +differ somewhat from those conducted at Atlantic City and elsewhere by +the Scientific Section. The fence frame is 150 feet long, being made of +6-inch bevelled girders supported three feet from the ground by 4-inch +posts set six feet apart. Upon this girder were placed a series of +forty-two test panels supported at top and bottom with weather strips +and braces. The test panels used were 40 inches high, 30 inches wide, +and one inch thick, being made of the highest grade white pine, tongued +and grooved together, and protected on the edges by weather strips +projecting from the surface of the panels. Each panel was painted on +both sides with the same paint, thus giving an eastern and western +exposure, the fence running north and south. The formulas used in the +test vary in their percentage composition, being made up in some cases +of single pigments, and again with combinations of the opaque white +pigments, with and without certain percentages of the crystalline or +inert pigments. The paints were applied under the supervision of +prominent master painters and a committee representing the Scientific +Section and other technical organizations. + +Other field tests have shown that the sap and knots in hard-grained +woods, such as yellow pine, cypress, etc., have been the cause of the +failure of even the best paints, and that all tests should be conducted +upon soft woods, such as white pine and poplar, if definite results are +to be obtained. Paints tinted with ochre, chrome yellow, lampblack, +iron oxide, etc., have shown on the other field tests which have been +conducted at Atlantic City, Pittsburg, and Fargo the value of these +pigments in giving to the paints increased wearing properties. On the +Southern Test Fence, therefore, all the formulas were ground in white +only and placed upon white pine so as to make the test primarily one to +determine the value of the various white pigments upon good wood. + +[Illustration: Tennessee Test Fences] + +=Oil and Thinner Tests.= Upon one series of panels on the fence was +placed one of the formulas which had given universal satisfaction on the +various test fences in the past, and this formula was made up with +various oils other than linseed oil, in order to determine the value of +these oils as painting materials. For instance, the vehicle part of the +one formula referred to is made up of 50% linseed oil and 50% soya bean +oil, and again 50% linseed oil and 50% rosin oil, etc., an effort being +made to test out a few of the available semi-drying oils. + +The same formula referred to was ground in pure linseed oil and +subjected to a series of tests where it has been thinned for application +as priming and second coats with a series of wood turpentines obtained +from the United States Forest Products Laboratory at Madison, Wis. These +turpentines were made from southern pine stumps and sawdust, and they +vary greatly in their properties. Some were objectionable in odor, while +others were of excellent quality, having an odor almost equal to that of +pure gum spirits. + +[Illustration: Views of Fence] + +One product under test on the Southern Test Fence is pine oil, a high +boiling point product obtained from the manufacture of wood turpentine +from sawdust. This oil has a boiling point of over 210 degrees +Centigrade as against the 150 degrees of ordinary gum spirits. It is +almost water white and has the same penetrating qualities as the pure +gum spirits; when mixed with 50% linseed oil forming a paint oil of +extremely light color, that produces a semi-flat paint of great +whiteness. + +=Reductions and Application.= Formulas No. 1 to No. 37 were all ground +in pure refined linseed oil. They were made in the form of semi-paste +and then thinned down with sufficient refined linseed oil so that each +would have a relative viscosity. To each formula was then added a +sufficient amount of pure lead and manganese linoleate drier to give +proper drying qualities. On thinning for the priming coat, one pint of +turpentine was added to each gallon of paint. For the second coat, +one-half pint turpentine and one-half pint refined linseed oil were +added to each gallon. For the third coat work, reduction was made with +one pint of refined linseed oil. + +In the case of formulas 31 to 37, reductions were the same, except that +a series of specially prepared wood turpentines were used in place of +the pure gum spirits used in formulas 1 to 31. + +Formulas 38 to 41, as will be shown, were ground in equal parts of the +oils tested. These formulas, however, were all thinned for application +with pure gum spirits of turpentine, and the respective vehicle in which +they were ground. + +No inspection of the Tennessee Test Fence has yet been made. The +formulas tested are as follows: + +FORMULAS FOR SOUTHERN TEST FENCE + +VEHICLE: _Bleached Linseed Oil with Lead and Manganese Linoleate Drier_. + + Formula + No. + + 1 [30]Corroded white lead 100% + 2 [30]Sublimed white lead 100% + 3 Zinc oxide XX 100% + 4 Zinc lead white 100% + 5 Leaded zinc 65%, corroded white lead 35% + 6 [30]Corroded white lead 100% + 7 [30]Corroded white lead 100% + + [30] Corroded White Lead is the Basic Carbonate of Lead. Sublimed + White Lead is the Basic Sulphate of Lead. + +No. 8 + + Corroded white lead 85% + Zinc oxide 15% + ---- + 100% + +No. 9 + + Corroded white lead 65% + Zinc oxide 35% + ---- + 100% + +No. 10 + + Corroded white lead 50% + Zinc oxide 50% + ---- + 100% + +No. 11 + + Corroded white lead 40% + Zinc oxide 60% + ---- + 100% + +No. 12 + + Corroded white lead 30% + Zinc oxide 70% + ---- + 100% + +No. 13 + + Corroded white lead 45% + Zinc oxide 45% + Silica 10% + ---- + 100% + +No. 14 + + Corroded white lead 45% + Zinc oxide 45% + Asbestine 10% + ---- + 100% + +No. 15 + + Corroded white lead 45% + Zinc oxide 45% + China clay 10% + ---- + 100% + +No. 16 + + Corroded white lead 45% + Zinc oxide 45% + Barytes 10% + ---- + 100% + +No. 17 + + Corroded white lead 45% + Zinc oxide 40% + Silica 15% + ---- + 100% + +No. 18 + + Corroded white lead 45% + Zinc oxide 40% + Asbestine 15% + ---- + 100% + +No. 19 + + Corroded white lead 45% + Zinc oxide 40% + Barytes 15% + ---- + 100% + +No. 20 + + Sublimed white lead 45% + Zinc oxide 40% + Silica 15% + ---- + 100% + +No. 21 + + Sublimed white lead 45% + Zinc oxide 40% + Asbestine 15% + ---- + 100% + +No. 22 + + Sublimed white lead 45% + Zinc oxide 40% + Barytes 15% + ---- + 100% + +No. 23 + + Zinc oxide 90% + Calcium carbonate 10% + ---- + 100% + +No. 24 + + Sublimed white lead 40% + Zinc oxide 45% + Calcium carbonate 15% + ---- + 100% + +No. 25 + + Corroded white lead 35% + Zinc oxide 50% + Silica 15% + ---- + 100% + +No. 26 + + Corroded white lead 20% + Sublimed white lead 30% + Zinc oxide 40% + Asbestine 10% + ---- + 100% + +No. 27 + + Corroded white lead 20% + Sublimed white lead 20% + Zinc oxide 40% + Barytes 10% + Asbestine 10% + ---- + 100% + +No. 28 + + Corroded white lead 20% + Sublimed white lead 20% + Zinc oxide 40% + Calcium carbonate 10% + Silica 10% + ---- + 100% + +No. 29 + + Sublimed white lead 20% + Corroded white lead 20% + Zinc oxide 30% + Barytes 10% + Asbestine 10% + Calcium carbonate 10% + ---- + 100% + +No. 30 + + Corroded white lead 33% + Zinc oxide 33% + Barytes 33% + ---- + 99% + +No. 31 + + Corroded white lead 45% + Zinc oxide 45% + Asbestine 5% + Calcium carbonate 5% + ---- + 100% + +Formula No. + +32. Same as No. 31 but thinned with wood turpentine No. 1. + +33. Same as No. 31 but thinned with wood turpentine No. 2. + +34. Same as No. 31 but thinned with wood turpentine No. 3. + +35. Same as No. 31 but thinned with wood turpentine No. 4. + +36. Same as No. 31 but thinned with wood turpentine No. 5. + +37. Same as No. 31 but thinned with high-boiling-point petroleum spirits +(turpentine substitute). + +38. Same as No. 31 but ground in 50% raw linseed oil, 50% soya bean oil. + +39. Same as No. 31 but ground in 50% raw linseed oil, 50% corn oil. + +40. Same as No. 31 but ground in 50% raw linseed oil, 50% cotton seed +oil. + +41. Same as No. 31 but ground in 50% raw linseed oil, 50% rosin oil. + +42. Same as No. 31 but ground in 50% raw linseed oil, 50% pine oil. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +WASHINGTON PAINT TESTS + + +The new vehicle test fence at Washington is fully described in the +writer's paper[31] as presented before the American Society for Testing +Materials, as follows: + + [31] The Practical Testing of Drying and Semi-Drying Paint Oils, by + Henry A. Gardner. Paper presented at Fourteenth Annual Meeting, + Amer. Soc. for Test. Mater., Atlantic City, N.J., June, 1911. + +"The high price attained by linseed oil during the past two years of +over a dollar a gallon, together with the unusual scarcity of this +valuable oil, has led many investigators into the field of research, +with a view of discovering some mixture of other oils to partly replace +linseed oil. Many valuable contributions to oil technology have +resulted, but the makers and users of paints have wisely demanded +specific and authoritative information as to the practical value of +proposed mixtures before adopting them. The Institute of Industrial +Research, at the request of the Paint Manufacturers' Association of the +United States, has recently started a series of practical paint vehicle +tests designed to decide the question at issue. + +"Forty-eight white-pine panels have been placed upon a test frame on the +grounds of the new laboratory building of the Institute, at Washington, +D. C. They are painted with a standard white pigment formula reduced +with a different oil formula for every panel. White-pine panels were +selected for the test on account of the good painting surface which this +type of lumber presents; the grade selected was free from knots or pitch +pockets--defects which often ruin a paint test. Each panel was +constructed of four tongued-and-grooved planed boards, 22 inches long, 1 +inch thick, and 9 inches wide. The boards were leaded together and +capped at the sides with weather strips, making the finished panels +about 2 feet wide and 3 feet high. The fence upon which the panels were +placed was constructed of 4-inch squared yellow pine with open +framework, allowing the panels a resting place upon which they were +finally secured with sherardized screws. + +"Before erecting the panels, they were carefully painted in a paint +laboratory especially fitted out for the tests. The work was done during +the months of April and May, the temperature averaging from 60 degrees +to 90 degrees Fahrenheit. This precaution was taken in order that the +paint in each case might become thoroughly dry and hard before exposure, +so that there would be no accumulation of dust or effect from exposure +during the drying period. The actual painting of each panel was done +personally by Mr. Charles Macnichol, master painter, of Washington, D. +C., who has had a wide experience in the practical application and +testing of paints. + +[Illustration: View of Panels on Washington Test Fence] + +"The viscous nature of several of the oils tested precluded the +possibility of grinding each oil formula with the white pigment base +selected; great heating of the paint mills and a paste of insufficient +fineness was the result of an early attempt at this method. It was +decided, therefore, to grind the standard pigment formula to a thick +paste in the minimum amount of raw linseed oil. Subsequently a weighed +amount of the white pigment base was thinned with the oil formula to be +tested, to a standard viscosity, judged by the experienced master +painter in charge of the practical application of the formulas as +sufficiently heavy for third-coat work. When making the reductions with +oil mixtures, an allowance was made for the amount of linseed oil +already contained in the ground white pigment base. + +"During the application of the first coat an equal amount of turpentine +was added to each formula, in the proportion of one-half pint to a +gallon of paint; in the application of the second coat there was added +to each formula a like amount of an equal mixture of turpentine and the +oil formula under test. The third coat was applied without the addition +of thinners of any kind. + +"It is well known that the time of drying and the condition of the dried +film of any oil or mixture of drying or semi-drying oils will vary +widely. It is for the purpose of causing oils to set up to a hard film +in a short time that metallic driers in the form of salts of manganese +and lead, soluble in oil, are added to a paint. Some oils require a +large amount of drier, while others require only a very small amount. +Those which require a large amount are apt, upon exposure, to be burned +up by the drier, resulting in the formation of a powdered and +disintegrated film. To add various types of drier or even differing +amounts of a drier to the oils under test, seemed very unfair from every +standpoint, and it was therefore decided to eliminate the drier question +entirely, so as not to vitiate the results by bringing in a factor of +this nature. The plan of omitting driers proved successful in the +Atlantic City steel-panel paint tests, erected three years ago by the +writer under the supervision of Committee A-5 of this Society. + +"The systematic methods which are necessary when making paint tests were +carefully followed. A standard weighed amount of white pigment paste was +placed in a clean paint cup and thinned to the proper consistency with a +weighed amount of the oil under test. Proper reductions were made, as +before stated. Weighings of the paint, cup, and brush were made before +and after application to the panel, in order to determine the quantity +of paint used and the spreading power. A period of fifteen days was +allowed between the application of successive coats, in order to give +each formula sufficient time to dry thoroughly. Although several of the +formulas remained tacky for over a week, all dried thoroughly in the +time allotted. (Oils which when used alone have slow drying properties, +have been found to yield good firm films when used with drying pigments +such as lead and zinc.) The backs and edges of each panel were painted +with two coats of the paint used on the face of the panel, so as to +prevent the admission of moisture. After erection, the panels were +numbered with aluminum figures pressed into the surface. Frequent +inspections will be made, and at the proper time reports will be issued +giving the results of the tests. + +"During the painting of the panels considerable interesting data were +collected, of which the following is a brief resume: + +"The hiding power of a paint is one of its most important requisites. It +was found in the tests that some oils had the effect of lessening, while +others had the effect of increasing the hiding power of the standard +pigment formula. This may be due in part to the varying refractive +indices of the oils used, as well as to the difference in the quantity +of oil required in each test. Some oils were very viscous, while others +were very light. + +"The stiff working of heavy-bodied, blown, or heat-oxidized oils, +produced films which in some cases gave a very glossy surface, even on +the priming coat. Some of these resembled varnished work when finished. +It will be of importance to watch these tests carefully for any signs of +early breakdown, which might come from too thick a film. The treated +Chinese wood oil paints worked rather stiff but produced very smooth +films. The rosin oil paints became slightly lumpy on standing, but +worked out to a smooth finish somewhat yellowish in color. The marine +animal oils, especially the menhaden oil mixtures, dried to a film +slightly flatter than straight linseed oil. Any odor which was present +in the paints made from the animal oils seemed to disappear a few hours +after application. The cotton seed and corn oil mixtures made the +slowest drying paints, but at the end of the second week of the drying +period they set up rapidly to firm films. Soya bean and perilla oils +behaved like straight linseed oil, the former being a little slower and +the latter slightly more rapid in drying properties. The perilla oil was +made from one of the first importations into this country, and was dark +in appearance. It made, however, a very easy-working and hard-drying +paint. + +"The oils used in the tests were obtained from reliable sources. After +they were received, they were carefully analyzed. The results of the +analyses appear in Table 1. + +TABLE 1. ANALYSES OF OILS USED IN THE VEHICLE TESTS + + ===================================+=========+=========+========+======== + |Specific |Saponifi-|Iodine | Acid + |Gravity | cation |Number |Number + | | Number | | + -----------------------------------+---------+---------+--------+-------- + Raw linseed oil |0.931 | 188 | 186 | 2.0 + Boiled linseed oil (linoleate type)|0.941 | 187 | 172 | 2.7 + Boiled linseed oil (resinate type) |0.930 | 186 | 176 | 2.2 + Blown linseed oil |0.968 | 189 | 133 | 2.8 + Lithographic linseed oil |0.970 | 199 | 102 | 2.7 + Soya bean oil |0.924 | 189 | 129 | 2.3 + Menhaden oil |0.932 | 187 | 158 | 3.9 + Perilla oil |0.94 | 188 | 180 | 2.0 + Chinese wood oil (raw) |0.944 | 183 | 166 | 3.8 + Chinese wood oil (treated)[32] |0.898[32]| 128[32]| 104[32]| 6.8[32] + Corn oil |0.925 | 191 | 118 | 9.5 + Cottonseed oil |0.921 | 193 | 105 | 3.6 + Rosin oil |0.966 | 27 | 41 |16.7 + Whale oil |0.924 | 191 | 148 | -- + Neutral petroleum oil[33] |0.916 | 6 | 12 | -- + ===================================+=========+=========+========+======== + + [32] Low constants due to presence of over 40% of volatile matter, + largely petroleum spirits. + + [33] This oil contained over 20% of petroleum spirits. + +"The pigment formula selected for the tests had the following +composition: + + Basic carbonate-white lead 20% + Sublimed white lead 30% + Zinc oxide 35% + Magnesium silicate 10% + Barytes 5% + +100 lbs. of pigment base ground to a stiff paste in 16 lbs. of linseed +oil. + +"While this pigment formula was not selected as being superior to +certain other formulas, it is of a type that has given very fair service +in paint tests throughout the country, and will no doubt serve admirably +for the purpose designed in these tests. + +"The vehicle formulas in the finished paints are as follows: + + No. 1 + Raw linseed oil 100% + + No. 2[34] + Soya bean oil 100% + + [34] Dry pigment formula in soya bean oil. + + No. 3[35] + Menhaden oil 100% + + [35] Dry pigment formula in menhaden oil. + + No. 4 + Raw linseed oil 25% + Boiled linseed oil (resinate) 75% + + No. 5 + Raw linseed oil 25% + Boiled linseed oil (linoleate) 75% + + No. 6 + Raw linseed oil 50% + Boiled linseed oil (resinate) 50% + + No. 7 + Raw linseed oil 50% + Boiled linseed oil (linoleate) 50% + + No. 8 + Raw linseed oil 50% + Blown linseed oil 50% + + No. 9 + Raw linseed oil 50% + Litho. linseed oil 50% + + No. 10 + Raw linseed oil 50% + Soya bean oil 50% + + No. 11 + Raw linseed oil 50% + Menhaden oil 50% + + No. 12 + Raw linseed oil 50% + Perilla oil 50% + + No. 13 + Raw linseed oil 50% + Treated wood oil 50% + + No. 14 + Raw linseed oil 50% + Corn oil 50% + + No. 15 + Raw linseed oil 50% + Cottonseed oil 50% + + No. 16 + Raw linseed oil 50% + Rosin oil 50% + + No. 17 + Raw linseed oil 50% + Whale oil 50% + + No. 18 + Raw linseed oil 75% + Soya bean oil 25% + + No. 19 + Raw linseed oil 75% + Menhaden oil 25% + + No. 20 + Raw linseed oil 75% + Perilla oil 25% + + No. 21 + Raw linseed oil 75% + Treated wood oil 25% + + No. 22 + Raw linseed oil 75% + Corn oil 25% + + No. 23 + Raw linseed oil 75% + Cottonseed oil 25% + + No. 24 + Raw linseed oil 75% + Rosin oil 25% + + No. 25 + Raw linseed oil 50% + Soya bean oil 25% + Menhaden oil 25% + + No. 26 + Raw linseed oil 50% + Soya bean oil 25% + Treated wood oil 25% + + No. 27 + Blown linseed oil 50% + Soya bean oil 50% + + No. 28 + Raw linseed oil 25% + Soya bean oil 25% + Menhaden oil 25% + Treated wood oil 25% + + No. 29 + Raw linseed oil 25% + Soya bean oil 25% + Menhaden oil 25% + Corn oil 25% + + No. 30 + Raw linseed oil 25% + Soya bean oil 25% + Menhaden oil 25% + Cottonseed oil 25% + + No. 31 + Raw linseed oil 25% + Soya bean oil 25% + Menhaden oil 25% + Rosin oil 25% + + No. 32 + Raw linseed oil 25% + Soya bean oil 25% + Treated wood oil 25% + Rosin oil 25% + + No. 33 + Raw linseed oil 20% + Soya bean oil 20% + Treated wood oil 20% + Menhaden oil 20% + Cottonseed oil 20% + + No. 34 + Raw linseed oil 20% + Soya bean oil 20% + Treated wood oil 20% + Menhaden oil 20% + Rosin oil 20% + + No. 35 + Raw linseed oil 40% + Soya bean oil 20% + Corn oil 20% + Cottonseed oil 20% + + No. 36 + Whale oil 33% + Treated wood oil 33% + Raw linseed oil 33% + + No. 37 + Raw linseed oil 25% + L. O.[36] 75% + + No. 38 + Raw linseed oil 50% + Raw Chinese wood oil 50% + + No. 39 + Raw linseed oil 75% + Reducing oil[37] 25% + + No. 40 + Raw linseed oil 50% + Soya bean oil 35% + Neutral petroleum oil 15% + + No. 41 + Raw linseed oil 50% + Soya bean oil 25% + Neutral petroleum oil 15% + Tungate drier 10% + + No. 42 + Linseed oil 25% + Soya bean oil 37% + Neutral petroleum oil 23% + Tungate drier 15% + + No. 43 + Raw linseed oil 25% + Soya bean oil 37% + Whale oil 19% + Tungate drier 19% + + [36] Mixture of boiled tung and soya bean oil, thinned with petroleum + and turpentine. + + [37] 25% raw linseed oil. 73% petroleum oil. 2% drier--lead and + manganese linoleate." + +No. 44 + +Special test on white base of the following composition, in pure linseed +oil: + + Asbestine 10% + Corroded white lead 20% + Sublimed white lead 30% + Zinc oxide 40% + +Upper board of panel reduced with straight turpentine on priming coat. +Second board of panel reduced with wood turpentine on priming coat. +Third board of panel reduced with pine oil on priming coat. Bottom board +of panel reduced with petroleum spirits on priming coat. + +No. 45 + +Same pigment formula as No. 44, reduced with: + + Pine oil 50% + Linseed oil 50% + +No. 46 + +Special test of white base of the following composition, in pure linseed +oil: + + Corroded white lead 20% + Sublimed white lead 30% + Zinc oxide 35% + Asbestine 15% + +No. 47 + +Cypress panel unpainted. + +No. 48 + +Cypress panel painted with formula No. 1, thinned with benzol on the +priming coat. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +CEMENT AND CONCRETE PAINT TESTS + + +=Damp-proofing and Waterproofing.= The decoration and preservation of +cement and concrete is a subject which is being given the careful +consideration of many technologists on account of the wide usage of +cement for structural purposes, and the necessity of properly guarding +it against the destructive effects of moisture. + +To obtain with various paints decorative effects, and, at the same time, +provide a high degree of damp-proofing, is a process quite distinct from +that of water-proofing cement and concrete superstructures. The use, in +small percentage, of stearic acid solutions, aluminum stearate, marine +animal soaps, and other lime-reacting materials, as a component of +concrete while it is being mixed, has been in practice for some time, +the resulting mixture being used largely upon base-work subjected to +water under high pressure. Although some of the materials used for such +purposes actually do give to the concrete a high power of water +resistance, the degree of waterproofing to be obtained through the use +of many such compounds varies to a wide extent, often interfering with +the lime-silica reactions, and ultimately affecting the strength of the +finished concrete. + +=Decorative and Preservative Coatings.= The necessity of obtaining +suitable paint coatings for cement and concrete surfaces suggested to +the writer a series of tests on paints designed to prevent the +destructive action of the lime which, by seepage and other physical +action, is brought to the surface, causing saponification of some oil +coatings, as well as destruction of color. The tests referred to were +carried out during 1908, and although great advances have been made +since that time in the preparation of concrete paints, the tests have, +nevertheless, afforded information of a valuable nature as indicating +the proper methods to follow in the painting of cement, as well as +suitable materials to use in the manufacture of cement paints. The +tests, moreover, show the comparative durability of a number of paints +typical of those prominent in the market at the time the tests were +started. + +[Illustration: View of Concrete Paint Test Panels] + +=Acid Reacting Compounds.= A series of acid reacting washes were +included in the tests, having been designed as prime coaters for use +previous to the application of oil paints. The application of many of +these washes has the effect of neutralizing the lime within cement and +concrete surfaces, and often precipitate insoluble lime compounds which +aid in filling up the outer voids, thus presenting a surface more +suitable to receive oil coatings. To the writer who has since made a +careful study of the painting of concrete, it would seem advisable for +painters to avoid, when possible, the use of these lime neutralizing +washes, as some of them have more or less disintegrating and weakening +influences upon concrete. Recent laboratory experiments, however, have +indicated that zinc sulphate, an acid reacting material used for many +years as a wash for concrete surfaces by Macnichol, actually has a +strengthening effect upon cement and concrete surfaces. The more +successful coatings of to-day, however, are those which may be placed +directly upon the cement and concrete surfaces without the aid of such +washes. Several fairly successful paints of this type have recently +appeared in the market; some of them being made of acid rosins +compounded with vegetable oils. Probably one of the first mixtures of +this sort was the so-called suction varnish which the master painter has +for years used as a prime coating on plastered walls previous to +painting. These suction varnishes generally contain a high percentage of +rosin, a material having an exceptionally high acid value and thus +lending itself successfully to the neutralization of free lime. It has +been claimed, however, by certain practical painters that the lime-rosin +compounds formed when such paints are applied to the exterior of +buildings, are of a brittle nature and subject to early failure. If this +is true, it would seem advisable to use in a concrete paint an oil of a +relatively unsaponifiable nature, which would withstand successfully the +action of the lime, and, at the same time, prevent disruption of the +coating and failure of the color used in the paint. + +=Outline of Tests.= The tests referred to as carried out by the writer +were made on a brick wall forty feet long, surface-coated with a +four-inch coating of Portland cement mortar made of one part of Portland +cement and three parts of sharp, clean sand. After the cement had +hardened for three days, the solutions under test were applied. + +In many of the tests outlined above, one-coat, as well as two-coat work, +was used on different sections of the test surfaces. It was shown that +the two-coat work gave far better results than with the one-coat work, +and the writer would recommend for the painting of concrete at least +two-coat work. Whenever paints containing Prussian blue or chrome green +are applied to concrete surfaces, immediate whitening in the case of the +blue, and yellowing in the case of the green, will take place, if any +degree of action has been exerted by the lime within the concrete. For +this reason, green is an especially delicate color to test and should be +utilized for this purpose. + +The materials used, and the results shown at an inspection made after +two years' exposure, are given herewith. + +=Test No. 1.= Concrete primed with a 25% solution of zinc sulphate +crystals dissolved in water. A wide brush was used for the application, +and the spreading rate was approximately 200 square feet per gallon. +Second and third coated on the second day with No. 119 blue paint of the +following composition: + +NO. 119 BLUE PAINT + + Sublimed white lead 50% + Zinc oxide 35% + Silica and barytes 12% + Prussian blue 3% + +Ground in linseed oil, turpentine and drier. + +This panel, after three years' exposure, is in good condition. Slight +checking observed. + +=Test No. 2.= Concrete primed with a 20% solution of (alum) (aluminum +sulphate). Second and third coated with No. 119 blue. + +In similar condition to Test No. 1. + +=Test No. 3.= Concrete primed with zinc sulphate followed by two coats +of para red. + +PARA RED FORMULA + + Blanc fixe 60% + Whiting 25% + Zinc oxide 3% + Paranitraniline lake 12% + +Ground in linseed oil, turpentine and drier. + +Panel in fair condition with exception of slight crazing. Characteristic +dullness of color after exposure shown. Bright red color restored upon +washing. + +=Test No. 4.= Concrete primed with an 8% solution of stearic acid and +rosin dissolved in benzine. Second and third coated with No. 119 blue. + +This panel is not in as good condition as Tests Nos. 1 and 2, and would +indicate the inferiority of the priming liquid used. Color failing in +spots and checking observed. + +=Test No. 5.= Concrete primed with mixture used in Test No. 4, and then +given two coats of para red. + +Test is in about the same condition as No. 4. + +=Test No. 6.= Concrete primed with a 10% mixture of acid calcium +phosphate, followed with two coats of No. 119 blue. + +The acid phosphate solution evidently had a neutralizing effect upon the +lime in the concrete, as the paint is in fair condition. + +=Test No. 7.= Concrete primed with one coat of a soap emulsion of the +following composition, then painted with two coats of No. 119 blue. + + Water 85% + Linseed oil 12% + Alkali 3% + +Very poor results obtained. Destruction of color and peeling resulted. + +=Test No. 8.= Concrete primed with one coat of white paint of the +following composition: + +PRIMER + + Zinc oxide 25% + Silica 35% + Corroded white lead 20% + Gypsum 15% + Whiting, etc. 5% + +Ground in a vehicle of linseed oil and containing 35% of volatile +hydrocarbon spirits and drier. + +This coat was followed by one of the following composition, tinted blue: + + Zinc oxide 60% + Gypsum 20% + Silica 20% + +Ground in linseed oil with 12% of turpentine and drier. + +Fair results shown during first year, but a breakdown occurred during +the second year, and cracking and scaling resulted. + +=Test No. 9.= This test was a duplicate of No. 8 with the addition of 5% +of zinc sulphate solution emulsified into the primer. + +Slightly superior to Test No. 8. + +=Test No. 10.= Primed with a white paste paint thinned with turpentine. +Second coated with same paint tinted blue. + +FORMULA OF PASTE + + Zinc oxide 40% + Whiting 30% + Silica 20% + Alumina and gypsum 10% + +Ground in 16% of linseed oil vehicle. + +Scaling and peeling due to lack of binder and use of saponifiable oil +resulted during the first six months' exposure. Entire destruction of +coating at end of two years. + +=Test No. 11.= Primed with a white mixture, and second coated with the +same mixture tinted blue. + +FORMULA OF MIXTURE + + Whiting 30% + Silica 30% + Zinc oxide 40% + +Stirred into a 5% solution of glue in water, until a fairly thick paste +was obtained. + +Much chalking was shown, and a bleaching of color. It is evident that +this mixture would not serve to keep moisture out. + +=Test No. 12 A.= Primed with a 5% solution of soluble nitrated cotton +and paraffin dissolved in equal parts of amyl acetate and benzine. +Second coated with No. 119 blue. + +Not very good results were obtained, chalking and slight scaling +resulting. + +=Test No. 12 B.= Primed with a heavy varnish containing Chinese wood oil +and kauri gum. Second coated with No. 119 blue. + +Fair results obtained. + +=Tests Nos. 13, 14, 15, and 16.= Primed with a solution made by +dissolving 10 parts of sodium oxalate in 100 parts of water. Second and +third coated with linseed oil paints in red, brown, blue, and green. + +Very good results shown at end of test. + +=Test No. 20, Special.= Primed and second coated with a green paint +containing zinc oxide and barytes, ground in an oil having a low +saponification value. Very slow drying was shown. Excellent results. No +failure of color. Extremely glossy, waterproof surface presented. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +STRUCTURAL STEEL PAINT TESTS + + +=The Necessity of Protective Coatings.= Most painters have in the past +considered of minor importance the painting of iron and steel; any paint +that would properly hide the surface of the metal being accepted without +much question. The demand, however, for structural steel for office +buildings, factories, steel cars, railroad equipment, etc., has doubled +the output of structural paints, and created a demand for painters +having a knowledge of the proper materials to use in the painting of +steel, so that its life may be preserved, and its strength maintained. +Such knowledge is as important to the painter as a knowledge of how to +properly select materials for the painting of wood, and how to temper +these materials to suit the various conditions met with. + +=The Cause of Rust.= Everyone is familiar with the appearance of rust, +but few actually understand what causes rust. No attempt will be made +here to present even an outline of the many theories advanced to explain +the phenomenon of the rusting of iron, for the subject is as diverse as +it is interesting. A brief resume, however, will be given of the now +generally accepted theory that explains the subject. This theory is +called the electrolytic theory. "Auto-electrolysis" is the term used to +define the peculiar tendency of iron to be transformed from a metal +possessing a hard lustrous surface, high tensile strength, and other +useful properties, to a crumbling oxide that falls to the ground and +again becomes part of the earth from which it was originally taken by +man. + +[Illustration: A Side View of Steel Test Fences] + +This "going back to nature" is more readily accomplished by most of the +steel produced to-day than by the old hand-made irons produced many +years ago. It seems to be a curious fact that the more quickly a product +or an article is fashioned by man, the more quickly it tends to return +again to its original oxidized condition. Some manufacturers of steel, +however, through an understanding of the causes of rust, have progressed +in the manufacture of slow rusting materials, either by the elimination, +or by the proper distribution of impurities. + +When iron is brought into contact with moisture, currents of electricity +flow over the surface of the iron between points that are relatively +pure and points that contain impurities. These currents stimulate the +natural tendency of the iron to go into solution, and the solution +proceeds with vigor at the positive points. The air which the water +contains oxidizes the iron which has gone into solution, and +precipitates the familiar brown iron rust. Thus water, which acts as an +acid, and air, which acts as an oxidizer, have combined together to +accomplish the downfall of the metal. + +[Illustration: Three Photomicrographs of Corroding Steel] + +=Inhibition and Stimulation of Rust.= It is obvious that if means could +be devised to stop the solution pressure of iron and make it resistant +to the flow of surface electric currents, rust could be prevented. Such +methods have been devised, and to better illustrate how they operate, an +analogy may be drawn between iron in water and shellac in alcohol. + +It is common knowledge that when shellac is placed in alcohol, the +shellac will force itself into solution in the alcohol, and form a +clear, transparent lacquer. If, however, there should be mixed with the +alcohol a quantity of water, it would be found that the shellac could no +longer go into solution, and it would remain in its original condition. +In the same way, if there be placed in water a small quantity of +material, such as soluble chromates, or an alkaline substance like +caustic soda or lime, it will be found that iron will no longer have a +tendency to go into solution in this treated water, but will stay bright +and clean. These materials which prevent the rusting of iron have been +called by Cushman, who first advanced these explanations, "rust +inhibitors," or materials which inhibit rusting. The paint maker, +realizing the importance of these rust inhibitors, is incorporating them +into paints designed for the protection of iron and steel, and the +success which paints of this type have met with from a practical +standpoint is a justification of what was first called the "electrolytic +theory," which suggested their use. + +By placing small, brightly polished steel plates into a mush of paint +pigment and water, a determination may be made of the pigment's effect +upon the metal. Some pigments, under such conditions, cause rapid +corrosion of the steel plates. Such pigments are stimulators of +corrosion, on account of acid impurities which they contain, or because +of their effect in stimulating galvanic currents. Many carbonaceous +pigments are of this type. Other pigments have the effect of keeping +bright the steel plates and preventing rust. Such pigments are of the +inhibitive type, and their action is to check or retard the solution +pressure of the iron. + +=The Effects of Moisture.= It might occur to the reader that although +paint pigments, when mixed up with water and brought into contact with +the surface of steel, might show either an inhibitive or stimulative +action, that it is by no means certain that the same tendency will be +exhibited by pigments when they are properly mixed with linseed oil and +laid out as a film upon the surface of steel. In answer to this, it may +be well to state that almost no material used by mankind is absolutely +dry. Linseed oil, as it is pressed from the seed, comes from the cells, +carrying with it a certain small definite percentage of water, and it is +quite certain that even the best linseed oil that goes into use is not +theoretically dry. Everyone knows, of course, that oil and water do not +readily mix and are, in fact, more or less repellent to each other. It +is, however, true that, in spite of this, oils can carry quite a +percentage of water, without the admixture being apparent to the eye. In +addition to this, careful experiments have proved very conclusively that +linseed oil films, even after they have oxidized and hardened, have the +power to a certain extent of absorbing water from the atmosphere. It is, +therefore, safe to say that no linseed oil film in a paint coating is +dry all the time. As a matter of fact, there is abundant evidence to +show that in rainy weather, and, in fact, when the humidity in the air +is high, paint films have absorbed water. As the sun comes out and warms +the paint coating, and the humidity content of the atmosphere falls, +this water to a large extent evaporates out of the film, only to be +taken up again when the weather conditions change. This action may be +likened to a breathing of the paint film, that is to say, an indrawing +of water under humid conditions, followed by an exhaling of water under +dry conditions. With these facts in mind, it must be apparent that +pigments laid out in intimate contact with the surface of steel are +subjected at all times either more or less to the reactions produced by +water contact. Furthermore, as it is a property of water to become +saturated with the gases of the atmosphere, such as oxygen, carbonic and +sulphurous acids, and other impurities, there is present in a protective +paint film at all times the elements necessary to carry on the corrosive +process and reactions. + +An outline of Cushman's original research work, upon which has been +based the classification of pigments as inhibitors, stimulators, and +inerts, is clearly presented in his report[38] as Chairman of Committee +U of the American Society for Testing Materials, of which the following +is an excerpt: + + [38] Page 73, 1910 Proceedings of the American Society for Testing + Materials. + +[Illustration: Ferroxyl Tests on Painted Steel Surfaces. Upper Row +Painted with Stimulative Paints--Lower Row with Inhibitive Paints.] + +[Illustration: Water Test on Plates Painted--Except in Center Spot. Left +Hand Plates Painted with Stimulative Paints, Right Hand Plates Painted +with Inhibitive Paints.] + +[Illustration: View of Steel Plates Painted with Stimulative Paints, +after Immersion in Ferroxyl Jelly.] + +"Three years ago the suggestion was made in a paper presented before the +Tenth Annual Meeting of this Society that the various types of +substances used as pigments in protective coatings might exert a +stimulative or an inhibitive action on the rate and tendency to +corrosion of the underlying metal. It was further suggested on a +theoretical ground that slightly soluble chromates should exert a +protective action when employed as pigments by maintaining the surface +of the iron in a passive condition in case water and oxygen penetrated +the paint film. In view also of the well-known fact that alkalies +inhibit while acids stimulate the corrosion of iron, it was suggested +that the action of more or less pure pigments on iron in the presence of +water should be thoroughly investigated. Two years ago this Committee +invited the co-operation of Committee D-1 (then known as Committee E) in +the investigation, and a special sub-committee representing the two main +committees was appointed. + +"The methods and results of the water-pigment tests have previously been +reported and published, and need not be given in detail. Briefly, the +method consisted in immersing samples of steel in water suspensions of +the various pigments and blowing air through the containers for definite +periods of time, the corrosion being measured by the loss in weight +sustained by the test pieces. About fifty pigments which are in more or +less common use for painting steel were purchased in the open market and +distributed among a number of the members of the Committee, who agreed +to carry out the work. Each investigator worked independently of the +others, except that the same general method was followed; the time of +exposure to the corroding action, however, varied in the different +experiments. When the results were compared and analyzed by the +sub-committee, it was felt that the general agreement of the results +obtained by the several investigators was striking and merited further +and more systematic work. As a result of these tests the sub-committee +tentatively divided the pigments into inhibitors, stimulators, and +indeterminates. The word 'indeterminate' was selected after considerable +discussion, because the words 'neutral' or 'inert' already possess a +special meaning as applied to paint technology. The Committee takes this +occasion to emphatically state that in adopting this tentative +classification, the words 'inhibitive' and 'stimulative' as used by them +up to the present time apply only to the results obtained in the water +tests, and the inference that the results obtained have decided which +class the pigment will fall into when made into a paint with the usual +vehicles and used as a protective coating on iron and steel, is not +justified. In order to make this point quite clear, it has been agreed +by the Committee to qualify the classification so as to speak of the +various materials tested as 'water stimulative' or 'water inhibitive.'" + +[Illustration: Apparatus for Testing the Inhibitive Value of Pigments] + +=Importance of Field Tests.= Although the laboratory accelerated tests +for the determination of the relative value of structural steel paints +afford information of some import, there seems to be a general opinion +that the best method to follow, if information of a reliable character +is to be obtained, is to make actual field exposure tests upon large +surfaces. The results of the above described water-pigment tests +suggested the erection of a series of steel panels on which to test out +the same pigments under practical service conditions. The Paint +Manufacturers' Association of the United States erected and painted the +panels, the work being under the constant supervision of the writer, and +the inspection of the work under Committee U of the American Society for +Testing Materials. A brief resume of the work[39] is herewith presented. + + [39] Page 181, "Corrosion and Preservation of Iron and Steel"--Cushman + and Gardner--McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York City. + +=Pickling and Preparation of Plates.= The three types of metal[40] +selected for the test were rolled to billets, the middle of which were +selected, and worked up into plates 24 inches wide, 36 inches high, and +1/8 inch in diameter--approximately 11 gauge. A number of plates of each +of the metals selected, in all 450, were pickled in 10% sulphuric acid, +kept at 180 to 200 degrees Fahrenheit, in order to remove the +mill-scale. The plates were then washed in water, and later in 10% +solution of caustic soda. Finally the plates were again washed in water +and wiped dry. They were then packed in boxes containing dry lime, in +order to prevent superficial corrosion. By this method the plates were +secured in perfect condition, the surfaces being smooth and free from +scale. Upon these pickled plates paints were applied with a definite +spreading rate of 900 square feet per gallon. The unpickled plates, +coated with mill-scale, were painted with the same paints, but without +adopting any special spreading rate, thus following more closely the +ordinary method of painting structural steel. A few extra plates of +special Bessemer steel and Swedish charcoal iron were also included in +the test, some of which were painted, while others were exposed without +any protective coating. Plates of the three types of metal already +mentioned were also exposed unpainted, both in the black and pickled +condition. + + [40] Bessemer Steel, Open Hearth Steel, and Pure Iron. + +[Illustration: Front View of Steel Test Fences] + +=Fence Erection and Preparation for Work.= The fences which were erected +for the holding of the plates were constructed of yellow pine, the posts +being set deeply in the ground and properly braced. The framework of the +fence was open, with a ledge upon the lateral girders, upon which the +plates might rest, and to which the plates were secured by the use of +steel buttons. After the framework had been erected, painted, and made +ready for the placement of the panels, a small shed was built upon the +ground, and the materials for the field test placed therein. The steel +plates were unpacked from the boxes in which they were shipped, brushed +off, and stacked up ready for painting. Small benches were erected, and +the accessories of the work, such as cans, brushes, pots, balances, +etc., were placed in position. + +=Methods Followed in Painting Plates.= A frame resting upon the +workbench served to hold the plates in a lateral position while being +painted, room being allowed beneath the plate for the operator to place +his hands in order to lift the plates from the under surface after the +painting had been finished. + +A pickled plate having been placed upon the framework everything was in +readiness for the work. The specific gravity and weight per gallon of +the paint to be applied was determined, and the amount, in grams, to be +applied to each individual panel was calculated according to the +following formula: + + Spreading rate Sq. ft. in plate Grams paint in gal. + 900 sq. ft. : 6 :: 5400 : x + +The reciprocal of _x_ being the number of grams of paint to be applied +to the panels. + +An enamel cup was then filled with the paint and a brush well stirred +within. The cup, paint, and brush were placed upon the balances and +accurately weighed in grams. After most of the paint had been applied to +the panel, cross-brushing of the panel was continued until the pot with +brush and paint exactly counterbalanced the deducted weight. The painted +panel was then set in a rack, in a horizontal position to dry. + +A period of eight days elapsed between the drying of each coat. The +greatest care was taken in the painting of the edges of the plates, and +the racks for containing the plates after they were painted were so +constructed that the paint would not be abraded while sliding the plates +back and forth. The working properties of each paint, and the appearance +of the surface of each plate after painting, were carefully noted and +included in the report. No reductions were made to any of the paints +applied except in three cases, where the viscosity was so great that it +was necessary to add a small amount of pure spirits of turpentine. The +amount of paint was proportionately increased in such cases, so that the +evaporation of the turpentine would leave upon the plate the amount of +paint originally intended. + +The appearance of the completed series of test panels is shown on page +221. + +=Vehicles Used and Reasons for Avoidance of Japan Driers.= The pigments +used were selected with the view to securing as nearly as possible +purity and strength, and as already noted, were out of the same lots +used in making the preliminary laboratory tests on inhibitives. They +were ground in a vehicle composed of two parts of raw linseed oil and +one part of pure boiled oil. Paint is generally caused to dry rapidly by +the use of japan or driers. These materials contain a large amount of +metallic oxides which might have some effect in either exciting or +retarding corrosion. To prevent the introduction of such a factor, these +materials were not used in the test. The boiled oil, with its small +percentages of metallic oxides, was sufficient, however, to cause the +paints to dry in a short time after they were spread. + +=Testing Effect of Various Prime Coats.= Some of the special tests made +included a series of plates prime-coated with different inhibitive +pigments, and these tests were designed to determine which pigments +offer the best results for such work. These plates were all +second-coated with the same paint. It is the opinion of the authors that +any good excluding paint may be used whether it be inhibitive in action +or not, provided the contact coat is inhibitive. If, however, both coats +can be designed so as to have the maximum possible value from both these +points of view, the best results would, of course, accrue. The only way +such data can be obtained is by careful observation of the results of +exposure tests. + +=Combination Formulas Tested.= By selecting a series of pigments which +in the water tests showed inhibitive tendencies, and properly combining +these pigments into a paint, it was thought possible that a more or less +inhibitive paint would be produced. If this proved to be the case, it +would follow that the selection and introduction into a paint of the +stimulative pigments would inevitably produce a paint unfit for use on +iron or steel. + +=Data on Application of Paints.= The recorded data on the application of +the paint to the panels is voluminous. There is presented herewith, +however, the data on two of the paints. + + NO. 2, QUICK PROCESS WHITE LEAD: + + Sp. Gr. of pigment 6.78 + Lbs. to gallon oil 20.34 + Sp. Gr. of paint as received 2.47 + Wt. of paint per gallon 20.56 + Grams to panel 62 + Condition of paint Good + Working properties Works easy + Drying 24 hrs. all coats + + 1 coat Oct. 26 T 60 B 29.94 W. fair + 2 coat Nov. 3 T 54 B 30.23 W. clear + 3 coat Nov. 7 T 52 B 29.66 W. cloudy + + NO. 9, ORANGE MINERAL (AMERICAN): + + Sp. Gr. of pigment 8.97 + Lbs. to gallon oil 26.91 + Sp. Gr. of paint as received 2.97 + Wt. of paint per gallon 24.74 + Grams to panel 74.7 + Condition of paint Good + Working properties Smooth--no brush marks + Drying Good + + 1 coat Oct. 28 T 58 B 30.01 W. cloudy + 2 coat Nov. 4 T 65 B 29.61 W. cloudy + 3 coat Nov. 9 T 58 B 29.91 W. clear + +=Composition of Paints.= The following table gives data regarding the +composition, etc., of paints applied to the steel panels. + +=Results of Inspection.= The results of an inspection of the steel test +plates, made by Sub-committee D representing Committee D-1 of the +American Society for Testing Materials, is herewith presented: + +"On Wednesday, June 28, 1911, the second inspection of the Atlantic City +Steel Test Panels, erected in October, 1908, was made by Sub-committee D +of Committee D-1, this Committee having agreed to report upon the +condition of the painted surfaces, leaving any report on the comparative +corrosion of the various types of metal used in the test to Committee +A-5 on the corrosion of iron. + + ===+=========================+=======+=======+======+=======+========= + | | | | | |Grams + | | | | | |Paint + | | |Wt. of | Sp. |Wt. of |to Panel + | Name | Sp. |Pigment| Gr. | Paint |at 900 + | | Gr. |to Gal.| of | per |Sq. ft. + Pigment |of Pig-|of oil |Paint | Gal. |spreading + No.| | ment | Lbs. |Rec'd | Lbs. |rate + ---+-------------------------+-------+-------+------+-------+--------- + 1|Dutch process white lead | 6.83 | 20.49 | 2.45 | 20.49 | 61.0 + 2|Quick process white lead | 6.78 | 20.34 | 2.47 | 20.34 | 62.0 + 3|Zinc oxide | 5.56 | 16.68 | 2.12 | 16.68 | 59.0 + 4|Sublimed white lead | 6.45 | 19.17 | 2.36 | 19.17 | 59.0 + 5|Sublimed blue lead | 6.39 | 19.17 | 2.42 | 19.17 | 61.0 + 6|Lithopone | 4.26 | 12.78 | 1.80 | 12.78 | 45.3 + 7|Zinc lead white | 4.42 | 13.26 | 1.96 | 13.26 | 49.4 + 9|American orange mineral | 8.97 | 26.91 | 2.97 | 26.91 | 74.7 + 10|Red lead | 8.70 | 26.10 | 2.93 | 26.10 | 73.6 + 12|Bright red oxide | 5.26 | 15.78 | 2.05 | 15.78 | 60.0 + 14|Venetian red | 3.1 | 9.30 | 1.52 | 9.30 | 38.0 + 15|Prince's metallic brown | 3.17 | 9.51 | 1.50 | 9.51 | 37.7 + 16|Natural graphite | 2.60 | 7.80 | 1.37 | 7.80 | 34.4 + 17|Acheson graphite | 2.21 | 6.63 | 1.22 | 6.63 | 30.8 + 19| {Lampblack | | 1.82}| | 1.82 | + | {Barytes | 1.82 | 8.92}| 1.60 | 8.92 | 40.2 + 20|Willow charcoal | 1.49 | 4.47 | 1.08 | 4.47 | 27.0 + 21| {Gas carbon black | 1.85 | 1.39}| 1.67 | 1.39 | + | {Natural barytes | | 10.03}| | 10.03 | 50.7 + 24|French yellow ochre | 2.94 | 8.82 | 1.46 | 8.82 | 37.0 + 27|Natural barytes | 4.46 | 13.38 | 1.83 | 13.38 | 46.0 + 28|Precipitated barytes | 4.23 | 12.69 | 1.84 | 12.69 | 46.0 + |(blanc fixe) | | | | | + 29|Calcium carbonate | 5.48 | 8.22 | 1.37 | 8.22 | 34.5 + |(whiting) | | | | | + 30|Calcium carbonate | 2.56 | 7.68 | 1.35 | 7.68 | 34.0 + |precipitated | | | | | + 31|Calcium sulphate (gypsum)| 2.33 | 6.99 | 1.25 | 6.99 | 31.4 + 32|China clay (kaolin) | 2.67 | 8.01 | 1.34 | 8.01 | 34.0 + 33|Asbestine (silicate of | 2.75 | 8.25 | 1.38 | 8.25 | 34.7 + |magnesium) | | | | | + 34|American vermilion | 6.83 | 20.49 | | 20.49 | 64.5 + |(chrome scarlet) | | | | | + 36|Medium chrome yellow | 5.88 | 17.64 | | 17.64 | 67.1 + 39|Zinc chromate | 3.57 | 10.71 | 1.57 | 10.71 | 39.2 + 40|Zinc and barium chromate | 3.45 | 10.35 | 1.58 | 10.35 | 40.0 + 41|Chrome green (blue tone) | 4.44 | 13.32 | 1.94 | 13.32 | 49.0 + 44|Prussian blue | 1.96 | 5.88 | | 5.88 | 30.0 + 45|Prussian blue | 1.93 | 5.79 | | 5.79 | 34.5 + 48|Ultramarine blue | 2.40 | 7.20 | 1.29 | 7.20 | 32.5 + 49|Zinc and lead chromate | 4.76 | 14.28 | 1.92 | 14.28 | 48.3 + 51|Magnetic black oxide | | 15.00 | 1.92 | 15 | 48.3 + | | | | | | + | _Composite Paints_ | | | | | + | | | | | | + 111|Brown } Made from pig- | | 10.82 | 1.30 | 10.82 | 32.7 + 222|Black } ments that were | | 10.86 | 1.30 | 10.86 | 32.8 + 333|White } inhibitive in the| | 14.52 | 1.74 | 14.52 | 43.8 + 444|Green } water test | | 12.77 | 1.53 | 12.77 | 38.6 + | | | | | | + 555|Black } Made from pig- | | 9.37 | 1.125| 9.37 | 28. + 666|Brown } ments that were | | 11.74 | 1.41 | 11.74 | 35.5 + 777|White } stimulative in | | 14.55 | 1.75 | 14.55 | 44. + 888|Green } the water test | | 14.57 | 1.75 | 14.57 | 14.57 + ===+=========================+=======+=======+======+=======+========= + +"According to the amount of rust apparent on the painted surfaces of the +panels, as well as the degree of checking, chalking, scaling, cracking, +peeling, loss of color, and other signs of paint failure shown, ratings +were given each panel. The system of rating which took into +consideration all the above conditions, was similar to the system used +at the first inspection during 1910, when 0 (zero) recorded the worst +results and 10 (ten) the best results. + +"In Table No. 1 there is shown the rating accorded by each inspector to +each panel, as well as an average for each panel. + +TABLE NO. 1.--SECOND INSPECTION OF STEEL PAINT TEST PANELS AT ATLANTIC +CITY, N. J., BY SUB-COMMITTEE D OF COMMITTEE D-1 + + =======+========================+======+======+=======+=======+======= + | | | | H. A. | | + Panel | |W. H. |P. H. |Gardner| C. | + No. | Pigment |Walker|Walker|Chair- |Chapman|Average + | | | | man | | + -------+------------------------+------+------+-------+-------+------- + 1 |Dutch process white lead| 2 | 3 | 3 | 5 | 3.7 + 2 |Quick process white lead| 4 | 4 | 3 | 6 | 4.2 + 3 |Zinc oxide (XX) | 1 | 1-1/2| 1 | 2-1/2| 1.5 + 4 |Sublimed white lead | 9 | 9-1/2| 9 | 8-1/2| 9.0 + 5 |Sublimed blue lead | 9 | 9-1/2| 9-1/2| 7-1/2| 8.8 + 6 |Lithopone | 2 | 1-1/2| 2 | 3-1/2| 2.2 + 7 |Zinc lead white | 3 | 4 | 5 | 7 | 4.7 + 9 |Orange mineral | 9 | 9 | 9 | 6-1/2| 8.3 + 10 |Red lead | 9 | 9 | 9 | 6-1/2| 8.3 + 12 |Bright red oxide | 8-1/2| 9 | 8 | 7 | 8.1 + 14 |Venetian red | 7 | 9 | 7 | 9 | 8.0 + 15 |Prince's metallic brown | 5 | 7-1/2| 6 | 8 | 6.3 + 16 |Natural graphite | 6 | 8 | 4 | 9-1/2| 6.8 + 17 |Artificial graphite | 5 | 7-1/2| 4 | 7 | 5.9 + 19 |Lampblack | 5 | 7-1/2| 5 | 8 | 6.3 + 20 |Willow charcoal | 9 | 8-1/2| 9 | 9 | 8.8 + 21 |Carbon black | 7 | 8-1/2| 5 | 8-1/2| 7.2 + 24 |Yellow ochre (French) | 5 | 7 | 2 | 8 | 5.5 + 27 |Barytes (natural) | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0.7 + 28 |Barytes (precipitated) | 2 | 1-1/2| 2 | 2 | 1.8 + 29 |Calcium carbonate | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.0 + |(whiting) | | | | | + 30 |Calcium carbonate (pre- | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.0 + |cipitated) | | | | | + 31 |Calcium sulphate | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 1.7 + |(gypsum) | | | | | + 32 |China clay (kaolin) | 6 | 6 | 7 | 6-1/2| 6.3 + 33 |Asbestine (magnes. sili-| 5 | 4-1/2| 6 | 5 | 5.1 + |cate) | | | | | + 34 |American vermilion |10 |10 | 10 | 10 | 10.0 + 36 |Lead chromate | 7 | 7-1/2| 8-1/2| 8 | 7.7 + 39 |Zinc chromate | 9 | 9 | 10 | 9-1/2| 9.5 + 40 |Zinc and barium chromate| 9 | 9-1/2| 10 | 9-1/2| 9.5 + 41 |Chrome green (blue tone)|10 |10 | 10 | 9-1/2| 9.8 + 44 |Prussian blue, W. S | 9 | 9-1/2| 9-1/2| 9 | 9.0 + 45 |Prussian blue, W. I | 8 | 9-1/2| 8-1/2| 8-1/2| 8.5 + 48 |Ultramarine blue | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.0 + 49 |Zinc and lead chromate |10 | 9-1/2| 10 | 9-1/2| 9.7 + 51 |Magnetic black oxide | 9 | 9-1/2| 10 | 9-1/2| 9.5 + 111 |Brown composite paint | 7 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 8.5 + 222 |Black composite paint | 9 | 9 | 9 | 8-1/2| 8.8 + 3333 |White composite paint | 4 | 4 | 7 | 3 | 4.5 + 444 |Green composite paint | 5 | 7 | 7 | 8 | 6.7 + 555 |Black composite paint | 9 | 9 | 6 | 9 | 8.2 + 666 |Brown composite paint | 8 | 8 | 6 | 9 | 7.7 + 777 |White composite paint | 7 |10 | 5 | 7 | 7.2 + 888 |Green composite paint | 7 | 8 | 8 | 9 | 8.0 + 2000 |1 coat zinc chromate }| 8 | 8-1/2| 8 | 8 | 8.1 + |1 coat iron oxide ex- }| | | | | + |cluder }| | | | | + 3000 |1 coat lead chromate | 7 | 8 | 7 | 7-1/2| 7.3 + 4000 |1 coat red lead }| 7 | 8-1/2| 8 | 7-1/2| 7.7 + |1 coat iron oxide ex- }| | | | | + |cluder }| | | | | + 100 |Straight carbon black | 5 | 8-1/2| 4 | 8-1/2| 6.5 + |paint with turps and | | | | | + |drier | | | | | + 90 |Straight lampblack paint| 5 | 7 | 3 | 8 | 5.7 + |with turps and drier | | | | | + 5555 |Coal tar paint over red | 4 | 8 | 2 | 7 | 5.2 + |lead | | | | | + 1000 |Chrome resinate in oil | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0.7 + |(1 coat) | | | | | + 1 plate|3 coats boiled linseed | 1 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 1.5 + |oil | | | | | + =======+========================+======+======+=======+=======+======= + +"In Table No. 2 there is shown the rating obtained by those panels which +were considered by the committee as meriting from 8 to 10, and having +given the best all-round service. + +TABLE NO. 2.--ANALYSIS OF AVERAGES. GRADE OF EXCELLENCE FROM 8 TO 10 + + =====+=============================================+======= + Plate| Pigment |Average + -----+---------------------------------------------+------- + 34 | American vermilion (basic chromate of lead) | 10.0 + 41 | Chrome green | 9.8 + 49 | Lead and zinc chromate | 9.7 + 39 | Zinc chromate | 9.5 + 40 | Zinc and barium chromate | 9.5 + 51 | Black oxide of iron | 9.5 + 4 | Sublimed white lead | 9.0 + 44 | Prussian blue | 9.0 + 5 | Sublimed blue lead | 8.8 + 20 | Willow charcoal | 8.8 + 222 | Composite paint | 8.8 + 45 | Prussian blue | 8.5 + 111 | Composite formula | 8.5 + 9 | Orange mineral | 8.3 + 10 | Red lead | 8.3 + 555 | Composite paint | 8.2 + 12 | Bright red oxide of iron | 8.1 + 2000 | 1 coat zinc chromate; 1 coat iron oxide | 8.1 + 14 | Venetian red | 8.0 + 888 | Composite paint | 8.0 + =====+=============================================+======= + +=Comparison of Results.= It is of interest to compare with Table 2 of +the above report, Table 2 of the 1910 report of Committee U of the +American Society for Testing Materials. Both charts show the highly +inhibitive pigments to be in the lead. + + +COMMITTEE U REPORT 1910 + +TABLE II.--ANALYSIS OF AVERAGES. GRADE OF EXCELLENCE FROM 8 TO 10 + +(_Only resistance to corrosion was considered, and only pigments which +were common to both tests are included_) + + ===+====================================+======= + No.| Pigment |Average + ---+------------------------------------+------- + 34 | American vermilion (chrome scarlet)| 9.8 + 41 | Chrome green (blue tone) | 9.7 + 40 | Zinc and barium chromate | 9.7 + 5 | Sublimed blue lead | 9.6 + 4 | Sublimed white lead | 9.5 + 49 | Zinc and lead chromate | 9.5 + 39 | Zinc chromate | 9.4 + 12 | Bright red oxide | 9.3 + 44 | Prussian blue (water stimulative) | 9.2 + 16 | Natural graphite | 9.1 + 9 | Orange mineral (American) | 9.0 + 36 | Medium chrome yellow | 9.0 + 2 | White lead (quick process) | 8.9 + 20 | Willow charcoal | 8.8 + 45 | Prussian blue (water inhibitive) | 8.8 + 1 | White lead (Dutch process) | 8.7 + 10 | Red lead | 8.7 + 7 | Zinc lead white | 8.0 + ===+====================================+======= + +The writer has recently made a careful inspection of the panels painted +with single pigment paints, and has made the following brief summary of +the characteristic appearance of each. + +=Panel No. 1--Dutch Process White Lead.= The excessive chalking which +took place began to disappear at the end of a year, being washed away by +the rains and carried away by the winds, so that there was left upon the +surface but a thin coating of pigment, insufficient to give good +protection. Slight corrosion was apparent beneath the film. + +=Panel No. 2--Quick Process White Lead.= In the same condition as Panel +No. 1. + +=Panel No. 3--Zinc Oxide.= Panel covered with thin lateral streaks of +rust, due to the admittance of moisture in cracks caused by brittleness +of film. Result doubtless due to insufficient amount of oil used with +pigment. Removal of film shows steel very bright except where cracks +have formed. + +=Panel No. 4--Sublimed White Lead.= Although sublimed white lead chalked +very heavily, the chalked pigment seemed to be tenacious and adhered to +the plate, presenting an excellent surface with absence of rust. Film of +good color and quite elastic. + +=Panel No. 5--Sublimed Blue Lead.= In same condition as Panel No. 4, but +color has slightly faded. + +=Panel No. 6--Lithopones.= Lithopone was early destroyed, as is usual +with this pigment when used alone on exterior surfaces. It became rough +and discolored, presenting a very blotchy appearance and disclosed the +formation of rust working through the film. + +=Panel No. 7--Zinc Lead White.= In general good condition with the +exception of the color, which is slightly dark. Medium chalking was +apparent but only very slight corrosion appeared. + +=Panel No. 9--Orange Mineral.= In excellent condition, showing a good +firm surface with no checking or corrosion apparent. Shortly after +exposure the film became covered with a white coating of carbonate of +lead, which indicates action of the red lead with the carbonic acid of +the atmosphere. Removal of this white coating with water discloses the +brilliant color of the unaffected portion of the red lead. + +=Panel No. 10--Red Lead.= In same condition as Panel No. 9. + +=Panel No. 12--Bright Red Iron Oxide.= In general good condition. Film +intact and unfading in color. + +=Panel No. 14--Venetian Red.= Similar to Panel No. 12, but slight +corrosion apparent beneath, in localized spots, and film showing slight +wart-like formations. + +=Panel No. 15--Prince's Metallic Brown.= Similar to Panel No. 14. + +=Panel No. 16--Natural Graphite.= Deeply pitted in spots, showing +bulbous eruptions, indicating the stimulative nature of this pigment. + +=Panel No. 17--Artificial Graphite.= In same condition as Panel No. 16. + +=Panel No. 19--Lampblack and Barytes.= Although the film seems to be +intact, there are apparent abrasions of the surface showing stimulative +corrosion effects of a pronounced nature. + +=Panel No. 21--Carbon Black and Barytes.= In same condition as Panel No. +19. + +[Illustration: Corrosion Pits on Graphite Panel] + +[Illustration: Rust on Stripped Graphite Film] + +[Illustration: Section of Wire Painted with a Stimulative Carbonaceous +Paint] + +[Illustration: Corroded and Pitted Surface of Plate Painted with +Stimulative Paint] + +The longevity of lampblack and carbon black paint films when applied to +wood has been attributed to the slow drying nature of these pigments +when mixed with oil. It is assumed that they have the property of +keeping the oil in a semi-drying condition, which will not disintegrate +as early as when the oil is thoroughly dried to linoxyn. If this is +true, it would seem advisable to use with hard-drying pigments, a +proportion of some oil that is semi-drying in nature or one which will +leave a film not too hard. Soya bean oil, wood oil, and fish oil present +themselves as candidates for such use. How they will work in practice, +however, is a question not yet determined. On the other hand, it is well +known that these pigments require enormous quantities of oil in order to +grind to a working consistency, and it is possible that the life of +such coatings is due rather to the property of these pigments, of taking +up large quantities of oil, than to their effect upon the slow drying of +oil. Excessive oil carrying, however, should be avoided, as shown by the +early failure and pitting of those carbon black and lampblack paints +ground with very large quantities of oil, as is the usual practice. When +these carbon and lampblack pigments were ground with barytes (which is a +heavy pigment and requires only about 9 pounds of oil to 100 pounds of +pigment, as against 175 pounds of oil to 100 pounds of lampblack), it +was found that the lampblack and carbon black paints were reinforced and +made more suitable for actual practice. The stimulative nature of these +black pigments, however, asserted itself in both cases, and large +pittings and eruptions were evident at the end of a year. Carbon black, +lampblack, graphite, or any other good conductor of electricity should +never be placed next to the surface of iron. They are good as +top-coatings, but not as prime-coaters. Some pigments are stimulators of +corrosion, because they contain water-soluble impurities that hasten the +rusting, while others, like graphite, hasten it simply because, being +good conductors, they stimulate surface electrolysis. + +=Panel No. 20--Willow Charcoal.= In excellent condition throughout. +Presence of small quantities of potash may be responsible for the +inhibitive nature of this black pigment. + +=Panel No. 24--Ochre.= While the film seems intact, it has a very +mottled appearance and examination shows eruptions of rust through the +film, in several places. + +=Panel No. 27--Natural Barytes.= Within a year the film became +pin-holed, and corrosion was apparent. At the end of three years very +little of the pigment was left upon the plate, having chalked and scaled +off. Barytes has proved its usefulness as a constituent of a combination +type of paint, but it should not be used alone. + +=Panel No. 28--Blanc Fixe.= In the same condition as Panel No. 27, but +slightly more chalking and disintegration was shown. + +[Illustration: Panel Painted with Blanc Fixe. Right Side Stripped of +Paint to Show Corrosion] + +[Illustration: Scaled Whiting Films + +Chemically Active Pigments and Their Effect After Eighteen Months' +Wear] + +[Illustration: Plate Showing Effect of Chemically Active Pigments on Oil +after One Year's Wear] + +=Panel No. 29--Whiting.= Plates coated with calcium carbonate or whiting +in oil presented a very fair appearance at the start of the test, but +they soon began to chalk and disintegrate. It is well known that +whiting, being alkaline, has the property of acting on oil and causing +its early disintegration by saponification. As a matter of fact, six +months after the whiting plates were exposed, crumbling of the surface +appeared, and twelve months was sufficient for the total destruction of +the paint. At this time the rusted surface of the plates which had been +painted with calcium carbonate, seemed not to rust as fast as those +plates which were exposed without paint coatings, and the rust which had +formed appeared to be of an even, fine texture. On the lower left-hand +corner of these plates had been lettered the figures "29" and "30," +using lampblack in oil. One of the most remarkable things which appears +on the fence to-day is the perfect condition of these lampblack letters +over their priming coat of calcium carbonate, standing out in clear +relief against the rusted metal. This test would suggest, therefore, +that if the surface of metal is properly protected with a pigment which +is slightly alkaline or inhibitive in nature, and then topped with a +good weather-resisting material, such as lampblack, graphite or carbon +black, good results would be obtained. Further tests will be made to +determine the value of this suggestion. + +=Panel No. 30--Precipitated Calcium Carbonate.= Showed more rapid +destruction than Panel No. 29. + +[Illustration: Corrosion Adhering to Film Stripped from Panel Painted +with Gypsum (Calcium Sulphate)] + +=Panel No. 31--Calcium Sulphate.= Under the paint film of gypsum, rust +soon appeared, showing that the film was not a good excluder of +moisture. Although the film remained intact, rusting progressed +throughout the test and considerably darkened the color of the paint. + +=Panel No. 32--China Clay.= This pigment gave excellent service for +eighteen months. Afterwards indications of corrosion were shown, and +apparent breakdown of the film was indicated. + +[Illustration: China Clay + +Asbestine + +Gypsum] + +=Panel No. 33--Asbestine.= In the same condition as Panel No. 32. + +[Illustration: Excellent Surface shown by American Vermilion after +nearly Four Years' Exposure] + +=Panel No. 34--American Vermilion.= This pigment has given perfect +protection to the plates. The film is strong and elastic, and upon +removal reveals the bright steel. No chalking, checking, discoloration, +or other signs of paint failure are shown. It would appear that the +inhibitive characteristics of this pigment are pronounced, and it +promises to give efficient service for several years more. + +=Panel No. 36--Lead Chromate.= This panel is in generally fair +condition, but slight checking is shown. + +[Illustration: Perfect Condition of Plate Painted with Zinc Chromate; +One Half Stripped. (_Negative cracked_)] + +=Panel No. 39--Zinc Chromate.= This panel is in condition similar to +Panel No. 34, presenting a perfect appearance, with decided maintenance +of color, elasticity of film, and freedom from any bad characteristics. +It has proved to be one of the highest type rust inhibitive pigments. + +=Panel No. 40--Zinc-and-Barium-Chromate.= Although the color of this +pigment is not very pleasing, it has proved itself to be the equal of +zinc chromate in its protective value. + +=Panel No. 41--Chrome Green.= In excellent condition. Presents an +appearance similar to Panels Nos. 34 and 39. Its surface is perfect and +will doubtless give service for many years. + +=Panel No. 44--Prussian Blue.= This panel stands forth as the most +wonderful moisture-excluder in the whole test, its surface presenting an +appearance similar to a varnished plate, even after three years' +exposure. Action between the pigment and the oil, resulting in the +formation of iron linoleate, may account for this property. + +=Panel No. 45--Prussian Blue.= In same condition as Panel No. 44. + +=Panel No. 48--Ultramarine Blue.= Soon after this test was exposed, +early vehicle decay and excessive chalking were observed. The admittance +of moisture may have caused the formation of acid with the sulphur +content of the pigment, which would account for the rapid corrosion +which followed. It is of a pronounced stimulative type. The effect of +stimulative under-coatings is well shown on some special plates on the +fence, which when received were not pickled before painting, but had +upon their surfaces the ordinary coating of mill scale. Over this had +been stencilled in a triangular form the trade mark of the manufacturer. +The stencilling material was made of ultramarine blue. When these plates +were painted with some of the special paints, and exposed, the +stimulative nature of the ultramarine blue began to assert itself, and +within a short time, wherever the stencil marks were located, signs of +rust began to appear through the coatings of top paint which had been +applied. Corrosion under these stencil marks became so great that the +trade mark was plainly outlined in letters of rust. This would seem to +be final proof that pigments of a stimulative nature should never be +used for the priming of iron and steel. + +=Panel No. 49--Zinc-Lead Chromate.= In excellent condition throughout, +with a smooth surface and showing no corrosion. Stands in the same class +as Panels Nos. 34 and 39. + +[Illustration: Effect of Stimulative Paint. Manufacturer's Trade Mark +Stencilled on Bare Metal in Triangular Form, showing Through Subsequent +Paint Coating] + +=Panel No. 51--Black Magnetic Oxide of Iron.= In excellent condition. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +THE SANITARY VALUE OF WALL PAINTS + + +=Decoration and Sanitation.= The proper decoration of the interior of +dwellings and public buildings has become of even greater importance +than the protection and decoration of exteriors. There is, moreover, an +increasing demand for harmonious effects and the production of more +sanitary conditions than have prevailed in the past. Up until a few +years ago a great variety of wall papers of more or less pleasing +appearance were almost exclusively used for the decoration of walls in +the interior of buildings, and their application was commonly considered +the most effective means of wall decoration. There seems to be no +question, however, that the use of wall paper is steadily decreasing, +and that the art of interior decoration is undergoing a transition to +the almost universal use of paint. + +Modern progress demands the maintenance of sanitary conditions for the +benefit of the public welfare, and there is no doubt that from the +standpoint of sanitation and hygiene, properly painted wall surfaces are +far superior to papered walls. There is an abundance of evidence which +shows that dust germs may easily be harbored, and thus disease +transmitted from wall paper. In the tenement houses, which are common to +the larger cities, and to a lesser extent in the dwellings found in +smaller communities, where tenants are more or less transient, the +continued maintenance of sanitary conditions presents a difficult +problem. Infectious and epidemic illnesses generally leave behind +bacilli of different types, which may find a culture medium in the +fibrous and porous surfaces presented by wall paper, backed up as they +invariably must be by starch, casein, or other organic pastes. +Occasionally the restrictions of local boards of health provide in such +events for proper fumigation, but too often no precautions are taken to +destroy the disease germs which are caught in the dust which collects on +wall paper. As a rule, both tenant and landlord are oblivious to all +conditions which cannot be readily seen or detected. Burning sulphur, +one of the most effective means of fumigation, will generally cause +bleaching and consequent fading of the delicate colors used in printing +the designs upon wall paper. Washing of the paper with antiseptic +solutions will destroy its adhesiveness to the plaster and often cause +bulging and general destruction. + +[Illustration: Heavy Colonies of Bacteria Developing in Agar Jelly +Treated with Washings from Wall Paper + +Practically no Development of Bacterial Colonies in Agar Jelly Treated +with Washings from Sanitary Wall Paint] + +=Hospital Practice.= In hospitals, where it is necessary to maintain +sanitary conditions, the walls are invariably painted, and requirements +should demand the use of paints which can be washed frequently, so that +there will be no possibility of uncleanliness. Inquiry made of a +prominent surgeon[41] connected with one of the large metropolitan +hospitals substantiated the writer's findings regarding the greater +sanitary value of wall paints, and brought forth the information that in +hospitals under construction provision had been made for the finishing +of walls so that a hard, non-absorbent, and washable surface might be +obtained. The same authority stated that the common practice, in +apartments and tenements, of covering the old wall paper over with a +layer of new each time a tenant moved in, should be condemned, and that +from a hygienic standpoint the use of sanitary wall paints should be +advocated in all dwellings as well as public buildings. + + [41] Dr. F. F. Gwyer, Cornell Uni. Med. Col., New York City. + +If such conditions are maintained in hospitals, where special attention +is paid to sanitation, it would appear that similar precautions should +be equally as necessary in public buildings and in dwellings--wherever, +in fact, people congregate or live. + +=Sanitary Wall Paints.= There have recently appeared in trade a number +of wall paints composed of non-poisonous pigments ground in paint +vehicles having valuable waterproofing and binding properties, and of a +nature to produce the flat or semi-flat finish that has become so +popular. Such paints produce a sanitary, waterproof surface, which +permits of frequent washing. By their use it is possible to secure a +more permanent and a wider range of tints than can be obtained with wall +paper, as they are produced in a myriad of shades, tints and solid +colors, from which any desired combination may be selected. On the +border or on the body of walls decorated with such paints, attractive +stencil designs, which bring out in relief the color combinations, may +be applied. + +For the decoration of chambers and living rooms, delicate French grays, +light buffs, cream tints and ivory whites may be used, while in the +library and other rooms richer and more solid colors, such as greens, +reds, and blues, may be harmoniously combined. + +=Defects of Wall Paper.= It recently occurred to the writer to +investigate the conditions which obtain in many apartment houses in the +larger cities. Inspection of a number of such places, in which wall +paper had been exclusively used on the walls, showed generally bad +conditions; bulging of the surfaces, caused by dampness in the walls, +which had loosened up the binder, as well as peeling and dropping of the +paper from the ceilings, were frequently observed. In many cases a +shabby appearance was shown, accompanied by an odor which suggested +decomposition of the paste binder used on the paper. The writer was +impressed with the fact that such conditions could easily be avoided by +the very simple expedient of using properly manufactured wall paints, +which are so easily made dustproof and waterproof. + +Samples of wall paper, which had been applied to plastered walls for a +year or more, were obtained, and examination under the microscope showed +a most uncleanly surface. Cultures were made of these samples, and +bacilli of different types were developed in the culture medium in a +short time. + +=Experimental Evidence.= That the above conditions could not have +existed, had proper wall paints been used, seemed doubtless, and +suggested a carefully conducted experiment to prove the relative +sanitary values of wall paper and wall paints. A large sheet of fibre +board, such as is occasionally used to replace plastered walls, was +painted on one side with a high-grade wall paint, three-coat work. A +similar sheet was papered on one side with a clean, new wall paper. +These test panels were placed where unsanitary conditions, such as +dampness, foul odors, and a scarcity of air were present. After a short +period of exposure, the panels were taken to the bacteriological +laboratory and a small section of the painted surface, about two inches +square, as well as a small section of the papered surface of similar +size, were removed and used for making cultures. In each case the +surface of the section under test was washed with 100 c.c. of distilled, +sterilized water. The washings which dripped from the surface were +collected in a graduated flask. One c.c. of the washings was used in +each case, admixed with bouillon and again with agar-agar. The enormous +development of bacteria in the bouillon, treated with the washings from +the wall-papered surface, was sufficient evidence to convince one of the +greater sanitary value of the wall paint, the washings from which gave a +culture practically free from bacteria. The colonies of bacteria shown +in the petri-dish test made of the washings from wall paper further +supports these findings. It will be noticed that the tests made from the +washings of the wall paint show practical absence of bacteria, and was +clear, as was the bouillon-solution test of the paint. The washings from +the wall paper showed active development of bacteria, both in the +bouillon and agar tests. + +[Illustration: DEVELOPMENT OF BACTERIA IN BOUILLON SOLUTIONS + +Note Practical Freedom of Bacteria in Clear Bouillon Solution Treated +with Washings from Sanitary Wall Paint + +Note Milky Appearance of Solution Due to Heavy Development of Bacteria +in Bouillon Treated with Washings from Wall Paper] + +_From the Conservation Standpoint_: It would be of interest to sum up in +figures the acreage and cordage of wood that annually is transformed +into pulp for the manufacture of wall paper. Unfortunately, there are no +available statistics on this subject. It is clear, however, that from +the standpoint of conservation the use of wall paints should take +precedence over the use of wall paper. + + + + +INDEX + + + PAGE + + Abrasion, apparatus for determining resistance to, 153 + Acid reacting compounds, 215 + Actinic light tests, 112 + Adhesive power of Paint Coating, 104 + Aluminum Silicate, 62 + American Vermilion, 64 + Analogies of Paint and Concrete manufacture, 94 + Analyses of Averages in Atlantic City steel paint test, 235, 236 + Corn Oil, 16 + Cottonseed Oil, 15 + Debloomed Mineral Paint Oil, 18 + Iron Oxide Pigments, table, 63 + Linseed Oil, 7 + Menhaden Oil, 14 + Oils used in Washington tests, 211 + Petroleum Spirits, 20 + Rosin Oil, 16 + Soya Bean Oil, 8 + Sunflower Oil, 15 + Tung Oil, 12 + Whale Oil, 14 + Wood Turpentine, 19 + Asbestine, 55 + Atlantic City fence tests, 107 + steel paint tests, 228-235 + Checking, 122 + Gloss, 122 + Hiding power, 122 + inspection of, 114 + Methods used, 114 + Results, 124 + Auto-electrolysis, 220 + + Bacteria in wall paper, 256 + Barium Sulphate, 55 + Barytes, 55 + and Silica Paints in Pittsburg tests, 172 + Basic Carbonate-White Lead, 42 + Benzine, 20 + Benzol, 20 + Blanc Fixe, 60 + Blue Lead, Sublimed, 47 + Blue Paint for concrete wall, formula, 215 + Blue paints in Pittsburg tests, 142 + Boiled Linseed Oil, 2 + Driers in, 28 + Bone Black, 66 + + Calcium Carbonate, 60 + Calcium Sulphate, 60 + Carbon Black, 66 + Cause of rust in steel work, 220 + Chalking test for laboratory, 149 + Checking and cracking in Pittsburg tests, 166 + Checking, in Atlantic City tests, 122 + China Clay, 62 + Chrome Green, 66 + Chrome Yellow, 64 + Coatings for cement and concrete, 214 + Colored formulas in North Dakota tests, 190 + Colors, report of, in Pittsburg tests, 139 + Combination formulas in inhibitive paints, 231 + Composite formulas in North Dakota tests, 190 + in Pittsburg tests, 142 + Composition of paints, in steel test, 232 + Conclusion from Pittsburg tests, 144 + Concrete primer formula, 218 + Constants of Pine Oil, 18 + Pure Gum Turpentine, 19 + Co-operative tests of Driers, 29-41 + Corn Oil, 16 + Cottonseed Oil, 15 + + Damp-proofing and Waterproofing, 214 + Decay of Lithopone paints, 124 + Decomposition of Paint, 122 + Driers, Co-operative tests of, 29-41 + in Boiled Oil, 28 + Tests of Manganese, Lead and Combination, tables, 24-25 + Drying Properties of Oil, 1, 26, 27 + + Elasticity and Strength of Paint Coating, 102 + + Fence tests of paints, 105 + Supervision of, 112 + Film sectioning, 87 + Film testing results, table, 80 + Filmometers, 74-79 + Formula for Blue Paint for concrete wall, 215 + Concrete primer, 218 + Para Red Paint for concrete wall, 217 + Formulas of Atlantic City fence test, 108 + Tennessee tests, 202, 204 + Washington tests, 208, 211 + Fume Pigments Paints in Pittsburg tests, 173 + + General results of Atlantic City tests, 128 + Gloss, in Atlantic City tests, 122 + Graphite, 66 + Green paints in Pittsburg tests, 142 + Grinding Pigments, 87 + Gums as moisture resisters, 84 + Gypsum, 60 + + Hailstorm, effects of in North Dakota tests, 185 + Hospital, painting practice, 254 + House paint tests in North Dakota, 196 + Hydrocarbon Oils, 16 + + Imperviousness of paint coating, 100 + Indian Red, 62 + Inert Pigments, use of, 99 + Inhibition of rust, 222 + Iodine Values of Linseed and Mixed Oils, table, 8 + Iron Oxide Paints, 64 + + Japan driers in tests on steel, 231 + + Laboratory tests, panels for, 149 + Lampblack, 66 + Laws of Paint Making, 93 + Lime action on paint, 214 + Linoxyn, 21 + Linseed Oil, boiled, 2 + Chemical action of pigments upon, 91 + Table of Analyses of Various Types of, 7 + tests of Driers with, 24, 25 + Lithopone, 53 + paint in Pittsburg tests, 136 + tests at Atlantic City, 124 + Lumbang Oil, 12 + + Magnesium Silicate, 55 + Manufacturing Barytes, 55 + Blue Lead, 47 + Bone Black, 66 + Paint Pigments, 42-68 + White Lead, 42 + Menhaden Oil, 12 + Constants of, table, 14 + Metallic Brown, 62 + Microscope, use of in paint laboratory, 86 + Microscopic examination of paint, preparation for, 86 + measurements of paint sections, 89 + Mineral Black, 68 + Oils, 17 + Moisture Absorption, tests in, 84 + experiments with various Pigments, 83 + + North Dakota Paints tests, 182 + test fence, 105 + report of, table, 193-195 + + Ochre, 62 + Oil and Thinner tests, 202 + Oil, Corn, 16 + Cottonseed, 15 + Effects of Pigments on, 90 + Linseed, 1 + Linseed, Analyses of Various Types of, table, 7 + Linseed, Iodine Values of, table, 8 + Linseed, Tests of Driers with, 24, 25 + Lumbang, 12 + Menhaden, 12 + Menhaden, Constants of, table, 14 + Perilla, 21 + Pine, 18 + Rosin, 16 + Soya Bean, and Driers, table, 9 + Soya Bean, 7 + Chemical Characteristics of, table, 8 + Sunflower, 14 + Tung, 9 + Whale, 14 + Oils, Constants and Characteristics of, 1 + Drying properties of, 1, 26 + Hydrocarbon, 16 + In Washington paint tests, 210 + Iodine Value of Linseed and Mixed, table, 8 + Mineral, 17 + Moisture resistance of, 84 + Oxygen Absorbing qualities, 21 + Outline of tests of paints on concrete walls, 216 + Oxygen Absorption in Oils, 21 + + Paint Coating, Adhesive power of, 104 + Elasticity and Strength of, 102 + imperviousness of, 100 + decomposition of, 122 + films, action of water upon, 223 + permeability of, 71 + Testing machine, 74 + preparation of, 70 + in Hospitals, 254 + making, Laws of, 93 + Perry's Principles of, 100 + pigments, 42-69 + pigments, properties of, 42 + preparation for microscopic examination of, 86 + tests at North Dakota Experiment Station, 105 + at Washington, 207-213 + supervisors of, 113 + woods used on, 124, 135 + Painting steel plates for tests, 230 + Paints for cement and concrete surfaces, 214 + composition of in steel test, 233 + hiding power of, 111 + sanitary value of, 252 + Panels for laboratory tests, 149 + Para Red formula for concrete wall, 217 + Paranitraniline paints in Pittsburg tests, 140 + Paranitraniline Red, 64 + Perilla Oil, 21 + Perry's analogies of paint and concrete manufacture, 99 + principles of Paint Making, 100 + Petroleum Spirits, 20 + Photomicrographs, 89, 165 + Pigment contention, the, 105 + grinding, 87 + Pigments, 42-69 + as stimulators of rust, 223 + Chemical action of upon Linseed Oil, table, 91 + Effects of on Oil, 90 + inert, use of, 99 + moisture experiments with, table, 83 + percentages of Oil required for grinding, 68 + re-enforcing, 89 + report of results of steel paint tests, 236-251 + Water resistance of, 81 + Pine Oil, 18 + Pittsburg fence tests, 107 + Polar Micro-Examinations and Photomicrographs, 89 + Primer for concrete, 218 + Properties of Paint Pigments, 42 + Prussian Blue, 66 + + Red Lead, 64 + Reductions used in fence tests, 111 + Re-enforcing Pigments, 89 + Results of new test at Atlantic City test fence in 1910, + table, 178-181 + Pittsburg tests, 135 + steel test plates, 232 + Rosin Oil, 16 + Rust, cause of in steel work, 220 + inhibition of, 222 + stimulation of, 223 + + Sanitary value of paints, 252 + wall paints, 254 + Sienna, 62 + Silex, 60 + Silica, 60 + Silica and Barytes Paints in Pittsburg tests, 172 + Solvent Naphtha, 20 + Soya Bean Oil and Driers, table, 9 + Chemical Characteristics of, table, 8 + Steel Paint test, rating report, 234 + reports on pigments used, 236-251 + Steel paint, result of tests at Atlantic City, 234, 235 + Steel, preparation of for paint tests, 228 + water contact and paint, 224 + Structural steel paint tests, 220 + Sublimed Blue Lead, 47 + Sublimated White Lead, 46 + Suction varnish, 215 + Sunflower Oil, 14 + Constants of, table, 15 + Supervisors of paint tests, 113 + + Table Analysis of Averages in Atlantic City Steel Paint + test, 235, 236 + Analyses of Corn Oil, 16 + Analyses of Debloomed Mineral Paint Oil, 18 + Analysis of Iron Oxide Pigments, 63 + Analyses of Oils used in Washington tests, 211 + Analyses of Petroleum Spirits, 20 + Analyses of Rosin Oil, 16 + Analyses of various types of Linseed Oil, 7 + Analyses of wood Turpentine, 19 + Atlantic City test fence formula, 108 + Chemical Characteristics of Soya Bean Oil, 8 + Comparative spreading rates of White Paint in Pittsburg + tests, 148 + Composition of Blue Lead, 49 + Composition of paints in Atlantic City Steel test, 233 + Constants of Cottonseed Oil, table, 15 + Constants of Menhaden Oil, 14 + Constants of Pine Oil, 18 + Constants of Sunflower Oil, 15 + Constants of Whale Oil, 14 + Co-operative drying tests, 32-41 + Excluding tests for moisture absorbed, 84 + Fineness for grinding pigments, 87 + Formulas in Tennessee tests, 204 + Iodine Value of Linseed Oil and Mixed Oils, 84 + Moisture experiments with various pigments, 83 + Paint section measurements under microscope, 89 + Percentages of Oil required for grinding various dry + pigments, 68 + Permeability of Paints, 72 + Ratings of Atlantic City Steel Paint test, 234 + Report of North Dakota test fence, 193-195 + Results of Atlantic City test fence, 130, 131 + Results of new tests at Atlantic City test fence in + 1910, 178-181 + Results of second annual inspection Atlantic City test + fence, 133 + Results of second annual inspection in Pittsburg tests, 145 + Showing action of various pigments upon Linseed Oil, 91 + Soya Bean Oil and Driers, 9 + Tests of Linseed Oil and Manganese, Lead and Combination + Driers, 24, 25 + Talcose, 55 + Tennessee Paint tests, 201-206 + Test Fences in Paint Experiments, 105 + at Atlantic City, 114-134 + at Pittsburg, 135-148 + at Washington, 207-213 + Cement and concrete, 214 + in Tennessee, 201-206 + laboratory, chalking, 149 + North Dakota, 182 + of Oil and Thinners, 202 + of various pigments in steel paint, 236-251 + panel sections for, 149 + Structural steel paints, 220 + Water pigment, 226 + Thinner, Wood Turpentine as a, 202 + Tung Oil, 9 + Tung Varnishes, 11 + Turpentine, 18 + + Ultramarine Blue, 66 + Umber, 62 + + Varnishes from Tung Oil, 11 + Vermilion, American, 64 + + Wall paints, 252 + Wall paper, defects of, 255 + Washington Paint tests, 207-213 + Water, action of upon paint films, 223 + contact with steel and paint, 224 + resistance of Pigments, 81 + tests, 226 + Water-pigment tests, 226 + Waterproofing and damp-proofing, 214 + Whale Oil, 14 + White Lead, Basic Carbonate, 42 + Basic Sulphate, 46 + Mild Process, 46 + Quick Process, 45 + in Pittsburg tests, 139 + in North Dakota tests, 190 + Paints, checking in Pittsburg tests, 172 + processes of manufacture of, 43-46 + Whiting, 60 + Wood Turpentine, 19 + experiments with as a thinner, 202 + Woods used in paint tests, 124, 135 + + Zinc Chromate, 64 + Zinc Lead White, 51 + Zinc Oxide, 51 + + + + + +------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES: | + | | + | * Page 25, Table VIII: the table header row contains duplicate | + | values which may be a typographical error. | + | * Pages 86 and 87: two section titles are followed by numbers | + | without any obvious reason. These have not been deleted. | + | * The original spelling (including hyphenation) has been | + | preserved, except as indicated below. Some minor inconsisten- | + | cies and typographical errors have been corrected silently. | + | * Changes made to the text: | + | * Page 26: 'as discolored and turned brown' changed to 'was | + | discolored and turned brown'. | + | * Page 87, table 3rd row: '0.00067--' changed to '0.00067'. | + | * Page 94, exposition: some elements re-arranged for better | + | readability. | + | * Page 124: the note at the bottom of the page has been moved | + | to directly underneath the first paragraph. | + | * Page 130: 'MacNichol' changed to 'Macnichol' as elsewhere. | + | * Page 137 (caption): 'Pittsburgh' changed to 'Pittsburg' as | + | elsewhere in text (and in illustration itself). | + | * Page 142: 'prussian blues' changed to 'Prussian blues'. | + | * Page 177: 'pages 174 to 177' changed to 'pages 178 to 181'. | + | * Page 211: one footnote anchor changed from '*' to '[32]' as | + | others in row. | + | * Page 230, formula: '4500' changed to '5400'. | + | * Page 234, table: row for Panel No. 2000: '}' inserted for | + | combined rows. | + | * Index: changed to agree with text: 'determinating' to | + | 'determining', 'Derbloomed' to 'Debloomed', 'Filometers' to | + | 'Filmometers', 'Parilla Oil' to 'Perilla Oil'. 'Grinding | + | Pigments' moved to proper alphabetic location. | + | | + +------------------------------------------------------------------+ + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Paint Technology and Tests, by Henry A. 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