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+Project Gutenberg's Paint Technology and Tests, by Henry A. Gardner
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Paint Technology and Tests
+
+Author: Henry A. Gardner
+
+Release Date: September 13, 2011 [EBook #37420]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PAINT TECHNOLOGY AND TESTS ***
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+  |                      TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES                         |
+  |                                                                  |
+  | * Where the original work uses text in italics or bold face, this|
+  |   e-text uses _text_ and =text=, respectively. Small caps in the |
+  |   original work are represented here in all capitals. Subscripts |
+  |   are represented as _{subscript}.                               |
+  | * Footnotes have been moved to directly below the paragraph or   |
+  |   table to which they belong.                                    |
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+  |                                                                  |
+  | More Transcriber's Notes will be found at the end of this text.  |
+  +------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+  PAINT TECHNOLOGY AND TESTS
+
+
+  Published by the
+  McGraw-Hill Book Company
+  New York
+
+
+  Successors to the Book Departments of the
+
+  McGraw Publishing Company                      Hill Publishing Company
+
+
+  Publishers of Books for
+
+  Electrical World                    The Engineering and Mining Journal
+  Engineering Record                                  American Machinist
+  Electric Railway Journal                                      Coal Age
+  Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering                           Power
+
+
+
+
+  PAINT TECHNOLOGY
+  AND TESTS.
+
+  BY
+
+  HENRY A. GARDNER
+
+  _Assistant Director, The Institute of Industrial Research,
+  Washington, D. C._
+
+  _Director, Scientific Section, Paint Manufacturers' Association
+  of the United States, etc._
+
+  McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY
+  239 WEST 39TH STREET, NEW YORK
+  6 BOUVERIE STREET, LONDON, E.C.
+  1911
+
+
+
+
+  _Copyright, 1911, by the_ MCGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY
+
+  THE·PLIMPTON·PRESS·NORWOOD·MASS·U·S·A
+
+
+
+
+  TO
+  MY MOTHER
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+A few years ago the producer and consumer of paints possessed
+comparatively little knowledge of the relative durability of various
+pigments and oils. There existed in some cases a prejudice for a few
+standard products, that often held the user in bondage, discouraging
+investigation and exciting suspicion whenever discoveries were made,
+that brought forth new materials. Such conditions indicated to the more
+progressive, the need of positive information regarding the value of
+various painting materials, and the advisability of having the questions
+at issue determined in a practical manner.
+
+The desire that such work should be instituted, resulted in the creation
+of a Scientific Section, the scope of which was to make investigations
+to determine the relative merits of different types of paint, and to
+enlighten the industry on various technical problems. Paint exposure
+tests of an extensive nature were started in various sections of the
+country where climatic conditions vary. This field work was supplemented
+in the laboratory by a series of important researches into the
+properties of pigments, oils, and other raw products entering into the
+manufacture of protective coatings. The results of the work were
+published in bulletin form and given wide distribution. The demand for
+these bulletins early exhausted the original impress, and a general
+summary therefore forms a part of this volume.
+
+The purpose of the book is primarily to serve as a reference work for
+grinders, painters, engineers, and students; matter of an important
+nature to each being presented. Without repetition of the matter found
+in other books, two chapters on raw products have been included, and
+they present in condensed form a summary of information that will prove
+of aid to one who desires to become conversant with painting materials
+with a view to continuing tests such as are outlined herein. In other
+chapters there has been compiled considerable matter from lectures and
+technical articles presented by the writer before various colleges,
+engineering societies, and painters' associations.
+
+The writer wishes to gratefully acknowledge the untiring efforts of the
+members of the Educational Bureau of the Paint Manufacturers'
+Association, whose early endeavors made possible many of the tests
+described in this volume. Kind acknowledgment is also made to members of
+the International Association of Master House Painters and Decorators of
+the United States and Canada, who stood always ready to aid in
+investigations which promised to bring new light into their art and
+craft.
+
+HENRY A. GARDNER.
+
+WASHINGTON, October, 1911.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER                                                  PAGE
+
+     I PAINT OILS AND THINNERS                                1
+
+    II A STUDY OF DRIERS AND THEIR EFFECT                    21
+
+   III PAINT PIGMENTS AND THEIR PROPERTIES                   42
+
+    IV PHYSICAL LABORATORY PAINT TESTS                       70
+
+     V THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF SCIENTIFIC PAINT MAKING    93
+
+    VI THE SCOPE OF PRACTICAL PAINT TESTS                   105
+
+   VII CONDITIONS NOTED AT INSPECTION OF TESTS              114
+
+  VIII RESULTS OF ATLANTIC CITY TESTS                       124
+
+    IX RESULTS OF PITTSBURG TESTS                           135
+
+     X A LABORATORY STUDY OF TEST PANELS                    149
+
+    XI ADDITIONAL TESTS AT ATLANTIC CITY AND PITTSBURG      174
+
+   XII NORTH DAKOTA PAINT TESTS                             182
+
+  XIII TENNESSEE PAINT TESTS                                201
+
+   XIV WASHINGTON PAINT TESTS                               207
+
+    XV CEMENT AND CONCRETE PAINT TESTS                      214
+
+   XVI STRUCTURAL STEEL PAINT TESTS                         220
+
+  XVII THE SANITARY VALUE OF WALL PAINTS                    252
+
+
+
+
+PAINT TECHNOLOGY
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+PAINT OILS AND THINNERS
+
+
+=Constants and Characteristics of Oils and Their Effect upon Drying.= An
+attempt has been made to give in this chapter a brief summary of the
+most important characteristics of those oils finding application in the
+paint and varnish industry. For methods of oil analysis, the reader is
+referred to standard works on this subject; the analytical constants
+herein being given only for comparative purposes.
+
+It is well known that one of the most desirable features of a paint oil
+is the ability to set up in a short period to a hard surface that will
+not take dust. This drying property is dependent upon the chemical
+nature of the oil. If it is an unsaturated compound, like linseed oil,
+rapid absorption of oxygen will cause the film to dry rapidly and become
+hard. If the oil be of a fully satisfied nature, like mineral oil,
+oxygen cannot be taken up to any great extent and drying will not take
+place. The various animal and vegetable oils differ in their power of
+oxygen absorption to a lesser or greater extent. This difference is
+referred to by the chemist in terms of the iodine value. The iodine
+value of linseed oil is approximately 190, meaning that one gram of the
+oil will take up 190 centigrams of iodine. Oils with high iodine values
+have good drying powers, while those with low iodine values are, as a
+rule, very slow drying in nature.
+
+For a description of the working and drying properties of various oils
+used in paints, see Chapter XIV. The oxygen absorption of various oils
+and mixtures is shown in Chapter II.
+
+=Linseed Oil.= The seed of the flax plant which is extensively grown in
+North Dakota, Argentine Republic and Russia, contains approximately 36%
+of oil which may be obtained by grinding, heating, and expression. Ripe
+native seed generally produces a pale oil of little odor; the oil from
+Argentine seed often having a greenish tint and an odor resembling
+sorghum. While filtering, pressing and ageing will remove considerable
+of the ("foots") mucilaginous matter, phosphates, silica, etc., from the
+oil, the better grades which are intended for varnish making are often
+refined with sulphuric acid. A light colored oil which may be heated
+without "breaking" results from this treatment, but such oils are apt to
+contain considerable free fatty acid, unless they are washed with alkali
+subsequent to the sulphuric acid treatment. On account of its rapid
+drying properties and general adaptability for all classes of paints and
+varnishes, linseed oil has never been supplanted by any other oil.
+Chemically it consists of the glycerides of linoleic, oleic, and
+isolinoleic acid, its constitution being responsible for its very high
+iodine value.
+
+[Illustration: Field of Flax in bloom in North Dakota]
+
+Boiled linseed oil, a heavier and darker product, is made by heating the
+raw oil in open kettles to high temperatures, generally with the
+addition of metallic driers such as litharge, and black manganese. The
+resinates of lead and manganese are often added to oil heated at a lower
+temperature, to obtain a boiled oil of lighter color.
+
+[Illustration: New type of Flax Harvester which pulls plant up by the
+roots, thus preventing infection of soil]
+
+[Illustration: Modern Concrete Elevators for storing Flaxseed]
+
+[Illustration: View of Linseed Oil Factory showing hydraulic press,
+tanks, etc.]
+
+[Illustration: _Photographs courtesy of Spencer Kellogg Sons_
+
+Flaxseed Crushers]
+
+[Illustration: Filter Presses for removing extraneous matter from
+linseed oil]
+
+[Illustration: Linseed Cake from Oil Press]
+
+[Illustration: Glycine Hispida
+
+Mammoth soya bean plants]
+
+[Illustration: _Photographs courtesy of David Fairchild, Plant Explorer,
+U. S. Dept. of Agriculture_
+
+Glycine Hispida
+
+Soya bean plants under cultivation at Arlington, Va.]
+
+By blowing air through linseed oil that has been heated to approximately
+200 degrees Fahrenheit, either with or without drier, heavy bodied oils
+are obtained, which find special application in varnishes and technical
+paints. As the viscosity of these oils increase, the iodine values
+decrease, and a slight rise in saponification value and specific gravity
+is observed. The following analyses of various types of linseed oil were
+recently made by the writer:
+
+  ===========+========+========+=========+========+=========+=========
+             |Pure Raw| Boiled | Boiled  | Blown  |  Litho. |  Old
+             |Linseed |  L. O. |  L. O.  | L. O.  |  L. O.  |Treated
+             |  Oil   | (Lino- | (Resin- |        |         |  Oil
+             |        | leate) |  ate)   |        |         |
+  -----------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+---------
+  Color      | Amber  |  Dark  | Reddish |  Pale  |  Dark   |  Amber
+             | Clear  | Brown  |  Brown  |        |  Brown  |  Clear
+             |        |        |         |        |         |
+  Sp. Gr. at |   .933 |  .941  |   .930  |  .968  |  .970   |  .943
+  15° C.     |        |        |         |        |         |
+             |Average |        |         |        |         |
+  Iodine No. |   180  |  172   |   176   |   133  |   102   |   172
+             |        |        |         |        |         |
+  Saponifi-  |   191  |  187   |   186   |   189  |   199   |   197
+  cation No. |        |        |         |        |         |
+             |        |        |         |        |         |
+  Free Fatty |   3.2  |  2.7   |   2.2   |   2.8  |   2.7   |   6.9
+  Acid       |        |        |         |        |         |
+             |        |        |         |        |         |
+  Unsaponi-  |   1.4  |   --   |    --   |    --  |    --   |   1.8
+  fiable     |        |        |         |        |         |
+             |        |        |         |        |         |
+  Maumene    |   111  |   --   |    --   |    --  |    --   |   96
+             |        |        |         |        |         |
+  Moisture   |   .2%  |   --   |    --   |    --  |    --   |  none
+  ===========+========+========+=========+========+=========+=========
+
+[Illustration: Glycine Hispida
+
+Mammoth soya bean plant]
+
+[Illustration: Glycine Hispida
+
+Soya bean plant, showing nitrogen gathering tubercles on roots]
+
+=Soya Bean Oil.= The soya plant which is extensively cultivated in Asia
+produces a seed bearing up to 22% and over of a golden colored oil
+having a peculiar leguminous odor. The oil, which probably consists of
+the glycerides of oleic, linoleic, and palmitic acids, is secured by
+crushing, steaming and pressing the seed. There are several varieties of
+the plant, and they are said to be the best annual legume for forage,
+the straw and fruit being rich in nitrogen and very fattening as a
+cattle food. Soya may be grown in nearly any country and is a great
+carrier of nitrogen to land deficient in this element. Although the oil
+has been used abroad for many years for soap-making purposes, its use as
+a drying oil is comparatively recent; being introduced into the paint
+industry of the United States during the year 1909, when linseed oil
+started on its phenomenal rise in price.
+
+The oil has given fair service in some paints when mixed with upwards of
+75% of pure linseed oil. It is of a semi-drying nature, but may be made
+to dry rapidly when mixed with manganese and lead linoleate driers. By
+compounding it under heat with tung oil and rosin, a substitute for
+linseed oil is produced, which some claim to be quite valuable.
+
+     Table I gives the constants of several samples of soya oil
+     examined by the writer. Table II shows the iodine value of
+     mixtures of soya and linseed oils. Table III shows the results of
+     drying experiments on soya oils containing different percentages
+     of lead and manganese driers.
+
+TABLE I
+
+CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOYA BEAN OIL
+
+  =======+==========+===========+============+==========+===========
+  Sample | Specific | Acid No.  |  Saponifi- | Iodine   |Per cent.
+    No.  | gravity  |           |   cation   |   No.    | of foots
+         |          |           |    No.     |          |
+  -------+----------+-----------+------------+----------+-----------
+    1    |  0.9233  |   1.87    |   188.4    |  127.8   |    3.81
+    2    |  0.9240  |   1.92    |   188.3    |  127.2   |     --
+    3    |  0.9231  |   1.90    |   187.8    |  131.7   |     --
+    4    |  0.9233  |   1.91    |   188.4    |  129.8   |     --
+    5    |    --    |    --     |     --     |  130.0   |     --
+    6    |    --    |    --     |     --     |  132.6   |     --
+    7    |    --    |    --     |     --     |  136.0   |     --
+  Average|  0.9234  |   1.90    |   188.2    |  130.7   |     --
+  =======+==========+===========+============+==========+===========
+
+TABLE II
+
+IODINE VALUES OF LINSEED OIL AND MIXED OILS
+
+  ==============+============+============+============+============
+                |            |    Soya    |    Soya    |    Soya
+    Sample No.  |  Straight  |25 per cent.|50 per cent.|75 per cent.
+                |  linseed   |  Linseed   |  Linseed   |  Linseed
+                |            |75 per cent.|50 per cent.|25 per cent.
+  --------------+------------+------------+------------+------------
+        1       |   190.3    |   175.2    |   160.7    |   140.4
+        2       |   189.5    |   175.9    |   161.7    |   140.8
+        3       |   188.0    |   175.4    |   160.3    |   139.0
+  --------------+------------+------------+------------+------------
+     Average    |   189.3    |   175.5    |   160.9    |   140.4
+  ==============+============+============+============+============
+
+TABLE III
+
+SOYA BEAN OIL AND LEAD DRIER
+
+  =========+==========+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====
+  Per cent.|          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+    PbO    |          |0.05|0.10|0.30|0.50|0.70|1.00|1.30|1.60
+  ---------+----------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----
+           | {  1 day | -- |0.07|0.63|1.34|1.05|1.53|0.93|1.35
+           | {  3 days| -- |0.07|3.52|4.31|2.75|4.86|4.82|4.12
+  Per ct.  | {  5 days| -- |0.09|5.04|6.06|6.09|6.75|6.66|5.52
+  gain     | { 12 days| -- | -- |6.88|7.54|7.43|7.76|7.32|6.47
+           | { 15 days| -- | -- |8.84|8.93|8.59|8.81|8.44|7.46
+           | { 20 days|0.05|0.20|9.02|9.08|8.90|9.03|8.65|7.83
+  ---------+----------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----
+
+SOYA BEAN OIL AND MANGANESE DRIER
+
+  -----------------+----------+----+----+----+----+----
+  Per cent. MnO_{2}|          |0.01|0.05|0.15|0.26|0.30
+  -----------------+----------+----+----+----+----+----
+                   | {  1 day | -- | -- |0.02|0.02|0.01
+    Per ct. gain   | { 10 days| -- |5.06|6.48|6.10|5.97
+                   | { 20 days|0.05|9.07|8.80|6.78|6.51
+  -----------------+----------+----+----+----+----+----
+
+SOYA BEAN OIL, MANGANESE AND LEAD DRIER
+
+  -------------+----------+----+----+----
+  Per cent. PbO|          |0.20|0.30|0.50
+  -------------+----------+----+----+----
+  MnO_{2}      |          |0.05|0.15|0.25
+  -------------+----------+----+----+----
+               | {  1 day |3.04|3.77|3.74
+  Per ct. gain | {  8 days|5.96|6.43|6.47
+               | { 12 days|6.33|6.78|6.67
+  =============+==========+====+====+====
+
+=Tung Oil.= There are grown in China and Japan many varieties of the
+"aleurites cordata," popularly known as the tung tree. This tree bears
+great quantities of large sized nuts containing as high as 40% of an oil
+which yields itself in a viscous yellow form upon heating and crushing
+of the fruit. The raw oil, which chemically consists of the glycerides
+of oleic, oleo-margaric, and probably isomeric acids, is distinguished
+by its rapid drying properties. When spread in a thin layer it produces
+a hard film with an opaque frosted surface, often showing a tendency to
+wrinkle. Treated tung oil will dry to a clear, water-shedding, elastic
+film. This oil is made by heating the raw tung oil at a comparatively
+low temperature with other oils and a metallic drier such as litharge.
+
+[Illustration: _Photographs courtesy of David Fairchild_
+
+Aleurites Cordata (Chinese Wood Oil)
+
+Barrel Factory at Cooperage Shop]
+
+[Illustration: _Photographs courtesy of David Fairchild_
+
+Aleurites Fordii (Chinese Wood Oil)
+
+Fruit from trees at the end of fourth year]
+
+The affinity of tung oil for rosin has resulted in the production of a
+series of moderate-priced varnishes most suitable for use in floor and
+deck paints or wherever great hardness is required. These varnishes are
+also finding application in the manufacture of concrete, steel, and flat
+wall paints; being especially suitable for the above purposes when
+compounded with kauri gum japan.
+
+[Illustration: Aleurites Fordii
+
+Flowering specimen of the Chinese Wood Oil tree, thirty feet high and
+three feet in diameter, on banks of Yangtse River, Western Szechuan,
+China. Opium Poppy in the foreground]
+
+[Illustration: Aleurites Cordata
+
+Wood Oil tree at Riverside, California, planted in 1907. Photograph
+taken in 1910, when tree had borne fifty fruits]
+
+During the boiling of raw tung oil the temperature must not exceed much
+over 400 degrees Fahrenheit. Otherwise a peculiar "hamming" will take
+place, the whole mass becoming solid and of no further value as a
+varnish or paint vehicle. Some peculiar internal disturbance or
+rearrangement of the molecules is evidently effected by heat, and
+although the reaction is not clearly understood, it has been ascribed to
+auto-polymerization. Scott has stated that the phenomenon of
+gelatinization is due to the exposure of the surface of the oil to the
+air, and that boiling in vacuo obviates such results. The lusterless
+surface produced when tung oil varnishes are dried in vitiated air would
+tend to confirm the conclusion that the oil is very subject to
+atmospheric influences.
+
+Lumbang Oil, which is obtained from a tropical species of Tung, is very
+similar in appearance and properties to Linseed Oil.
+
+CONSTANTS OF TUNG OILS
+
+  =====+=========+============+==============+==========
+       | Sp. Gr. | Iodine No. |Saponification| Acid No.
+       |         |            |     No.      |
+  -----+---------+------------+--------------+----------
+  No. 1|   .944  |    166     |     188      |   3.6
+  No. 2|   .940  |    164     |     184      |   1.8
+  =====+=========+============+==============+==========
+
+[Illustration: _Photographs courtesy Alpin I. Dunn_
+
+Menhaden Net drying in the Sun]
+
+[Illustration: Transporting Menhaden from net to deck of boat, in
+swinging basket]
+
+[Illustration: A big catch of Menhaden made off Narragansett Bay]
+
+=Menhaden Oil.= Of all the marine-animal oils, such as seal, herring,
+sardine, whale, and menhaden, the latter is the most valuable. It is
+produced by steam digestion and pressure of the menhaden or "piogey"
+fish, which are caught in great quantities off the Atlantic Coast.
+Prompt cooking and treatment of the fish results in a light-colored oil
+having very little odor, the residue left in the presses being of great
+value as a fertilizer. Although several grades of oil termed crude,
+brown, light, etc., are produced, the most satisfactory for use in paint
+is that grade termed "light winter pressed." This oil is of a pale straw
+color and has a high iodine number which is responsible for its rapid
+drying value. It contains less of the stearates that precipitate from
+crude oil, but sufficient to render its film water-shedding and elastic.
+The presence of too great a quantity of stearates is apt to result in a
+very soft film, and the use of hard driers, such as the metallic
+tungates, is therefore advisable with menhaden oil. When mixed with
+linseed oil paints the odor of menhaden oil is sometimes noticeable, but
+it disappears entirely after such paints are applied. Its use with
+linseed oil in technical paints exposed to the salty air of the Coast
+has given good results, often preventing "checking" and "chalking."
+
+The following constants were determined on samples of menhaden oil
+received in the writer's laboratory:
+
+  ========+==========+==========+==============+==========
+          | Sp. Gr.  |  Iodine  |Saponification|   Acid
+          |          |  Value   |    Number    |  Number
+  --------+----------+----------+--------------+----------
+  Light   |   .927   |  175.8   |    187.9     |   7.55
+  Medium  |   .925   |  178.7   |    187.6     |   6.19
+  Dark    |   .927   |  178.0   |    187.3     |   7.19
+  ========+==========+==========+==============+==========
+
+=Whale Oil.= While ordinary whale oil is too dark and odorous to ever
+come into extensive use as a paint oil, it is probable that the refined
+oil will be utilized in the manufacture of certain technical paints.
+Whale oil is boiled from chopped whale blubber, the first trying being
+the lightest in color, while the later tryings, as well as the product
+made from bones, are of darker color and of very bad odor. Oil of
+mirbane is often used to mask this odor. The oil contains large
+quantities of stearin and palmitin, as well as wax-like constituents
+which are apt to be thrown out of solution in very cold weather, or when
+the oil is mixed with other oils. The refined oil, when ground with lead
+and zinc pigments and mixed with equal parts of linseed oil and treated
+tung oil, dries to an elastic and soft film. Experiments are being made
+to utilize whale oil in the linoleum industry.
+
+The analyses of samples of whale oil tested by the writer are as
+follows:
+
+  =============+=========+========+==============+============
+               | Sp. Gr. | Iodine |Saponification| Free Fatty
+               |         | Value  |    Number    |    Acid
+  -------------+---------+--------+--------------+------------
+  Light Refined|  .924   |  148   |    190.2     |    1.2
+  Dark Yellow  |  .920   |  142   |    187       |    7.0
+  Dark Brown   |  .910   |  140   |    184       |   18.0
+  =============+=========+========+==============+============
+
+=Sunflower Oil.= Sunflower oil is produced largely in Russia and
+Hungary, finding favor in those countries as an edible oil. The ripe
+seeds of the sunflower plant contain over 30% of oil which is very pale
+in color and of a pleasant smell. It has been found that sunflowers may
+be grown to advantage in dry parts of the United States, and if suitable
+yields are obtained from a few experimental acres now being cultivated,
+the industry may receive encouragement in this country. The oil should
+be well suited for varnish making, and although the iodine number is not
+very high, it dries quite rapidly.
+
+[Illustration: Russian Sunflower Seeds]
+
+CONSTANTS OF SUNFLOWER OIL
+
+  ========+============+================+======
+  Sp. Gr. | Iodine No. | Saponification | Acid
+          |            |      No.       |  No.
+  --------+------------+----------------+------
+    .929  |    128     |      188       |  4
+  ========+============+================+======
+
+=Cottonseed Oil.= This oil is expressed from the seed of the cotton
+plant, varying in color according to the time of its pressing and degree
+of refinement. Being edible as well as highly suited for soap making,
+very little of it comes into the market as a paint oil. It contains
+large quantities of stearin and has a low iodine value, making it a slow
+drying oil. Some samples are extremely light in color and contain less
+mucilaginous matter and foots than is present in ordinary varieties.
+
+CONSTANTS OF COTTONSEED OIL
+
+  ========+============+================+======
+  Sp. Gr. | Iodine No. | Saponification | Acid
+          |            |      No.       |  No.
+  --------+------------+----------------+------
+    .922  |    106     |      190       | 2.4
+  ========+============+================+======
+
+=Corn Oil.= As a by-product in the manufacture of starch and alcoholic
+liquids, this material comes into the market having a golden yellow
+color, and an odor resembling fermented grain. It has a lower drying
+value than cottonseed oil, and its use in the paint industry will
+probably be limited to color grinding, where an oil with a semi-drying
+value is often desired. Like cottonseed oil, it belongs more properly to
+the soap oil class. It contains glycerides of linoleic and especially
+palmitic acid.
+
+ANALYSIS OF CORN OIL
+
+  ========+============+================+=====
+  Sp. Gr. | Iodine No. | Saponification | Acid
+          |            |      No.       |  No.
+  --------+------------+----------------+-----
+    .925  |    118     |      191       | 9.5
+  ========+============+================+=====
+
+=Rosin Oil.= By the dry distillation of rosin, there is yielded a series
+of heavy dark oils consisting principally of hydrocarbons, resinous
+bodies, and free acid. These oils vary in their saponification number
+from 10 to 60, while their unsaponifiable value averages about 80. Of
+the grades termed first, second, third, and fourth run, the latter two
+are superior for use in paints, as a rule containing less free acid than
+the preliminary runs. Treatment with steam and alkali serve to
+neutralize the acid nature of the oils and to remove impurities. Refined
+oils are lighter in color and are often blown and bodied to fairly rapid
+drying products, especially when treated with manganese driers. Rosin
+oils are seldom used with lead pigments, on account of the presence of
+sulphur in the oils, which would result in darkening. Rosin oil paints
+work very smoothly, even when they are curdled, producing glossy
+surfaces. The rapid checking of rosin oil paints on wooden surfaces bars
+the use of this oil for such purposes.
+
+ANALYSES OF ROSIN OILS
+
+  ==+=========+============+================+======
+    | Sp. Gr. |   Iodine   | Saponification | Acid
+    |         |   Value    |      No.       |  No.
+  --+---------+------------+----------------+------
+  A |   .966  |     41     |       27       | 16.7
+  B |   .99   |     48     |       38       | 10.0
+  ==+=========+============+================+======
+
+=Hydrocarbon Oils.= Several grades of neutral or mineral oils, varying
+somewhat in gravity, color, and quality, are produced as the last
+distillate in the refining of petroleum. These oils when mixed with
+drying oils and strong driers find application in the manufacture of
+some freight-car, barn, and other paints which sell at a low price. A
+small percentage of mineral oil is said to be valuable in structural
+steel paints, acting as a preventative of hard drying and thus keeping
+the film soft and elastic. Streaking and sweating is apt to ensue if any
+great quantity is used. Mineral oils have a characteristic bloom,
+showing a greenish fluorescence when examined by transmitted light. This
+bloom is due to the presence of some strongly fluorescent material which
+is shown up with intensity when mineral oils are exposed to ultraviolet
+rays such as emanate from an enclosed arc light. Outerbridge[1] first
+proposed this test for mineral oils, and he has worked out a
+"fluorescent scale," by which very small percentages of hydrocarbon oils
+may be detected in other oils. Several types of so-called debloomed oil
+have been placed upon the market, and although such oils appear under
+ordinary light conditions to be free from bloom, they fluoresce quite
+strongly when given the Outerbridge test.
+
+  [1] Alexander E. Outerbridge, Jr.: "A Novel Method of Detecting
+      Mineral Oil and Resin Oil in Other Oils." Proc. 14th Annual Meet.,
+      Amer. Soc. for Testing Mater., Atlantic City, N.J., June 28, 1911.
+
+[Illustration: View of Stills Where Petroleum Paint Thinners are
+Manufactured (Waverly)]
+
+ANALYSIS OF DEBLOOMED MINERAL PAINT OIL[2]
+
+  ========+============+================+=====
+  Sp. Gr. | Iodine No. | Saponification | Acid
+          |            |      No.       |  No.
+  --------+------------+----------------+-----
+    .92   |     12     |       4        |  0
+  ========+============+================+=====
+
+  [2] Oil of mirbane present, probably as a deblooming agent, or to mask
+      the odor.
+
+=Pine Oil.= This oil is produced by the redistillation of the heavy,
+high boiling point fractions resulting from the steam distillation of
+wood turpentine. It is a heavy straw-colored oil, and should be of some
+use in the paint and varnish industry, where a high boiling point
+solvent with an oxidizing principle is desired. It will probably find
+application in the manufacture of Baking Japans, Asphalt Paints and
+Enamels. Its oxidizing and solvent values are very high. It has a
+distinctive sweet pine smell, which makes it popular in the manufacture
+of turpentine substitutes from petroleum spirits.
+
+The writer has examined samples of this material, and the following
+appear to be of the best grade:
+
+CONSTANTS OF PINE OILS
+
+  ==========================+======================+====================
+                            |        No. 1         |         No. 2
+  --------------------------+----------------------+--------------------
+  Color                     |Straw Color           |Light Yellow
+  Specific Gravity at 15° C.|.934                  |.936
+  Boiling Point             |192° C.               |202° C.
+  Distillation              |95% distils between   |95% distils between
+                            |  192-270° C.         |  202-280° C.
+  Residue on Evaporation    |14.34%                |14.60%
+  Polymerization Test       |3-2/3% unpolymerized  |2-1/2% unpolymerized
+                            |  at end of 1/2 hour  |  at end of 1/2 hour
+  Flash-Point               |72° C.                |76° C.
+  Spot Test                 |Leaves no grease spot |Same as Pine Oil No.
+                            |but only evaporates   |1.
+                            |completely in 24 hours|
+  ==========================+======================+====================
+
+=Turpentine.= By direct fire or steam distillation of the sap drippings
+collected in pockets cut into pine trees, there is obtained the
+turpentine of commerce. It consists largely of pinene and isomeric
+terpenes, and has the property of attracting oxygen, with the formation
+of peroxides which stimulate the drying of oils. It is a high-grade
+solvent for various gums, and is therefore used in the manufacture of
+many lacquers as well as for thinning down oil-gum varnishes.
+
+REQUISITE CONSTANTS OF PURE GUM TURPENTINE
+
+  Color                        Water White
+  Specific Gravity at 15° C.   .862-.875
+  Boiling Point                About 156° C.
+  Distillation                 95% should distil between 153 and 165° C.
+  Residue on Evaporation       Not over 2%
+  Polymerization               Not over 5% should remain unpolymerized
+                               at end of half hour
+  Flash-Point                  Over 40.5° C.
+  Spot Test                    No grease spot should remain when dropped
+                               on paper and allowed to evaporate
+  Water                        None
+
+=Wood Turpentine.= High-grade wood turpentine is now produced by the
+steam distillation of finely cut fat pine wood. The lower-grade
+qualities are often produced from the destructive distillation of
+sawdust, stumpage, etc., and these products, on account of their content
+of formaldehyde, are objectionable in odor. In the steam distillation
+process, however, a high quality product is obtained by cutting out the
+heavy fractions and redistilling the lower and purer fractions. It has a
+high oxidizing value, causing the rapid drying of paints and varnishes
+to which it has been added. Its solvent value is often greater than that
+of gum turpentine. When properly refined it has a sweet smell and is to
+be highly recommended.
+
+Analyses of samples of pure wood turpentine which have come to the
+writer for examination follow:
+
+  ======================+==========================+====================
+                        |           No. 1          |        No. 2
+  ----------------------+--------------------------+--------------------
+  Sp. Gr. at 15° C.     |.862                      |.862
+  Boiling Point         |158° C.                   |162° C.
+  Distillation: 95%     |                          |
+    distils between     |158 and 185° C.           |162 and 177° C.
+  Residue on Evaporation|1.03%                     |3.06%
+  Polymerization Test   |4.1% remains unpolymerized|0.1 cc. out of 6 cc.
+                        |at end of 1/2             |  unpolymerized =
+                        |hour                      |  1.66%
+  Spot Test             |No grease spot on         |No grease spot on
+                        |  evaporation             |  evaporation
+  Odor                  |Excellent                 |Not objectionable
+  Color                 |Water White               |Water White
+  Flash Point           |                          |47.6° C.
+  ======================+==========================+====================
+
+=Petroleum Spirits.= There are produced from Texas crude oil which has
+an asphaltum base, and Pennsylvania crude oil which has a paraffin base,
+high boiling-point petroleum spirits which have come into wide use as
+paint and varnish thinners. When such materials have the proper
+evaporating value, high flash-point and freedom from sulphur, they are
+to be highly recommended as paint thinners. The following shows the
+analyses of a few of these materials examined in the writer's
+laboratory:
+
+PETROLEUM SPIRITS
+
+  =======================+=============+============+==============
+                         | Texas Base  | California | Penna. Base
+                         |             |    Base    |
+  -----------------------+-------------+------------+--------------
+  Color                  | Water White | White      | Water White
+  Specific Gravity       | .811        | .79        | .81
+  Boiling Point          | 156° C.     | 138° C.    | 146° C.
+  Flash-Point            | 44° C.      | 40.5° C.   | 43° C.
+  Residue on Evaporation | .2          | .15        | .12
+  =======================+=============+============+==============
+
+=Benzol.= "Solvent naphtha" or 160-degree benzol is a product obtained
+from the distillation of coal tar, differing from benzine, a product
+obtained from the distillation of petroleum. It is a valuable thinner to
+use in the reduction of paints for the priming of resinous lumber and
+refractory woods such as cypress and yellow pitch pine. The penetrating
+and solvent values of benzol are high, and it often furnishes a unison
+between paint and wood, that is a prime foundation to subsequent
+coatings, preventing the usual scaling and sap exudations which often
+appear on a painted surface. Because of the great solvent action of
+benzol, it should never be used in second and third coatings. The writer
+has successfully painted inferior grades of cypress with a paint
+containing benzol in the priming coat.
+
+=Benzine.= Benzine is seldom used in paints on account of its rapid
+evaporation, which is apt to cause pinholing of films and other surface
+defects. In paints of the dipping type where rapid evaporation is
+essential, benzine finds its widest application.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+A STUDY OF DRIERS AND THEIR EFFECT
+
+
+The proper drying of oils and their behavior with various siccatives in
+varying quantity is an interesting problem, and obviously of
+considerable importance from a practical standpoint. Unfortunately there
+is a decided scarcity of reliable literature dealing with the subject
+for the guidance of those concerned in the manufacture or application of
+siccative products. Furthermore, when the problem is investigated, it is
+not difficult to see why this is so.
+
+=Uniform Conditions.= At a glance it is evident that a decided obstacle
+in experimentation on the drying properties of oils is the difficulty in
+obtaining identical conditions for comparative purposes. Inasmuch as a
+multitude of factors, such as uniformity and homogeneity of the driers
+and the oils themselves, intensity and source of light, temperature,
+uniformity of application, and many others, play a decisive part in the
+siccative tendencies of oils, the resources and ingenuity of the chemist
+engaged in the research are severely taxed.
+
+=Oxygen Absorption.= It is a well-known fact that linseed oil, when
+applied to a clean surface, such as a glass plate, will undergo
+oxidation and take up oxygen to the extent of about 16%, forming a hard,
+elastic, non-sticky product which has been called linoxyn. This
+material, unlike the oil from which it has been formed, is insoluble in
+most solvents. Other oils, such as cottonseed, hemp, rape, olive, etc.,
+are more fully satisfied in nature and have not the power to absorb the
+amount of oxygen taken up by linseed oil.
+
+In carrying out the following tests, on the drying of oils, a quantity
+of pure linseed oil of the following analysis was secured:
+
+  Specific gravity at 15° C.             0.934
+  Acid number                            5
+  Saponification number                191-1/2
+  Iodine number                        188
+
+This oil was distributed into a number of 8-oz. oil sample bottles, and
+to a series of these bottles was added varying quantities of a very
+concentrated drier made by boiling oil to 400 degrees Fahrenheit in an
+open kettle, with the subsequent addition of lead oxide. The amount of
+drier added to each bottle varied according to the percentage desired;
+being calculated on the lead content of the drier, which was very
+accurately determined by analysis.
+
+There was secured in this manner a series of oils containing varying
+amounts of lead oxide, and from this lot was selected a certain number
+of samples which would be representative and typical of paint vehicles
+now found in the market.
+
+Another series of tests were made by combining with a large number of
+samples of pure linseed oil as used above, various percentages of a
+manganese drier made by boiling oil at 400° F. and incorporating
+therewith manganese dioxide.
+
+Still another series of tests were made upon a number of oils into which
+were incorporated various small quantities of lead oxide and manganese
+oxide together, using the standard driers made in the above manner, all
+of which were carefully analyzed to determine their contents.
+
+In view of the errors in manipulation that could occur where so many
+tests were made, it was not deemed advisable, in carrying out the tests,
+to use glass plates on which only a minute quantity of oil could be
+maintained. A much better solution of the difficulty presented itself in
+using a series of small, round, crimped-edge tin plates, about three
+inches in diameter, such as are used for lids of friction-top cans.
+
+With paints it is impossible to secure films as thin as those presented
+by layers of oil on glass, nor would it be desirable to secure films of
+this same relative thickness. For this reason an endeavor was made to
+conduct the following tests with films of the same relative thickness as
+that possessed by the average coating of paint. The drying of the films
+did not take place in the same short period, nor in the same ratio, as
+with the thin layer that is secured by flowing oil upon glass. The
+results, however, are more practical, and of greater value to the
+manufacturer.
+
+The cans were carefully numbered in consecutive order, corresponding to
+the numbers on the various samples of oil. A very small quantity of oil
+was placed in each of the can covers, which were previously weighed, and
+allowed to distribute itself over the bottom surface thereof. Reweighing
+of the covers gave the amount of oil which was taken for each test. The
+test samples in the covers were all placed in a large box with glass
+sides, having a series of perforated shelves. In the side of this box is
+an opening through which a tube was passed, carrying a continual current
+of air washed and dried in sulphuric acid. Oxidation of the oil films
+commenced at once, and the amount of oxygen absorbed was determined at
+suitable periods by weighing, the increase in weight giving this factor.
+This test was kept up for a period of twenty days.
+
+A test was also made in the same manner with a current of damp air
+passing into the box, to observe the relative oxidation under such
+conditions. A chart of the results obtained has been made (Table VI), to
+show the effect of the various driers.
+
+=Results of Tests.= The following outline will present to the mind of
+the reader the most salient points which have been gleaned from these
+experiments, and which should give the manufacturer definite knowledge
+as to the best percentage of oxides to use either in boiled oil, paints
+or varnishes.
+
+In the case of lead oxide, an increase in the percentage of lead oxide
+in the oil causes a relative increase in the oxygen absorption, but when
+a very large percentage of lead has been added, the film of oil dries to
+a leathery skin.
+
+In the case of manganese oxide, the increase in oxygen absorption on the
+first day is much more pronounced than is the case with lead oxides.
+Furthermore, the oxidation of manganese oils seems to be relative to the
+increase in manganese up to a certain period, when the reverse of this
+law seems to take place, and beyond a certain definite percentage of
+manganese, added percentages seem to be of no value. It was furthermore
+observed that the films dry to a more brittle and harder skin than is
+the case when lead oxide is used. The oxygen absorption with oils high
+in manganese has been noticed to be excessive, and the film of oil
+becomes surface-coated, drying beneath in a very slow manner; a
+condition that often leads to checking. The critical percentage where
+the amount of manganese appears to give the greatest efficiency seems to
+be 0.02%. This critical percentage, as it may be termed, should not be
+exceeded, and any added amount of manganese has the effect of making the
+film much more brittle and causes the so-called "burning up" of the
+paint. The loading of paint with drier and the bad result therefrom may
+be explained to some extent from the above results.
+
+TABLE VI--LINSEED OIL AND MnO_{2} (MANGANESE) DRIER--TEST NO. 1
+
+  =========+=========+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====
+  Per cent.|         |0.02|0.05|0.15|0.25|0.35|0.45|0.55|0.70|1.00
+  MnO_{2}  |         |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  ---------+---------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----
+           |{  1 day |0.08|0.11|0.16| -- |3.21|3.46|3.27|3.01|2.76
+           |{  2 days|0.16|5.88|4.48| -- |3.63|4.01|3.70|3.51|3.18
+           |{  3 days|0.21|6.79|4.61| -- |3.83|4.31| -- |3.91| --
+           |{  4 days| -- | -- |4.64| -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | --
+           |{  5 days|3.01|6.84| -- | -- |4.13|4.68|4.19|3.91|3.99
+           |{  6 days|8.00| -- |4.88| -- |4.37| -- |4.51|4.32|4.13
+  Per      |{  7 days|8.58|6.92|4.90| -- |4.48| -- |4.61|4.52|4.23
+  cent.    |{  8 days|9.06| -- |5.03| -- |4.55|5.23|4.77|4.62|4.44
+  gain     |{  9 days| -- | -- |5.12| -- |4.63|5.40|4.94|4.79|4.51
+           |{ 10 days|9.07|6.89|5.18| -- |4.81|5.47| -- |4.98|4.73
+           |{ 11 days|9.15|7.03| -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | --
+           |{ 12 days| -- | -- | -- | -- |4.98| -- |5.45|5.33|5.22
+           |{ 13 days|9.22|7.17| -- | -- |5.25|6.00|5.60|5.42|5.33
+           |{ 14 days|9.25|7.18|5.55| -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | --
+           |{ 20 days| -- |7.21|5.81| -- |5.84|6.70|5.94|5.84|5.77
+  =========+=========+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====
+
+TABLE VII--LINSEED OIL AND MnO_{2} (MANGANESE) DRIER--TEST NO. 2 (CHECK)
+
+  =========+=========+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====
+  Per cent.|         |0.02|0.05|0.15|0.25|0.35|0.45|0.55|0.70|1.00
+  MnO_{2}  |         |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  ---------+---------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----
+           |{  1 day | -- |3.12|4.42|3.86| -- |3.19|2.98|3.27|2.56
+           |{  2 days| -- |6.15|4.73| -- | -- |3.51|3.28|3.70|2.96
+           |{  3 days|0.28|6.29| -- |4.12|3.72| -- |3.39|3.71|3.15
+           |{  4 days|3.83|6.32|4.75|4.21|3.87|3.61|3.58|4.05|3.43
+  Per      |{  5 days|6.64| -- |4.84|4.23|3.94|3.73|3.65|4.21|3.56
+  cent.    |{  6 days|8.61| -- |4.87| -- |4.08|3.81|3.78|4.35|3.73
+  gain     |{  7 days|9.07|6.35|5.00|4.41|4.18|3.91|3.85|4.54|3.87
+           |{  9 days|9.25|6.39|5.16| -- |4.44|4.11|4.21|4.63|4.26
+           |{ 11 days| -- | -- | -- |4.63|4.59|4.36|4.31|5.07|4.46
+           |{ 16 days| -- |6.43|5.30|4.91|4.83|4.72|4.71|5.40|4.87
+  =========+=========+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====
+
+TABLE VIII--LINSEED OIL AND PbO (LEAD) DRIER
+
+  =====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+======+======+=====+======+=====+====+====
+   Per |     |     |     |     |     |      |      |     |      |     |    |
+  cent.|     | 0.00| 0.05| 0.10| 0.30| 0.50 | 0.70 | 1.00| 1.30 | 1.60|1.30|1.60
+   PbO |     |     |     |     |     |      |      |     |      |     |    |
+  -----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+------+-----+------+-----+----+----
+       |{ 1  |0.042|0.049|0.092|0.058| 0.066| 0.062|0.062| 0.079|0.039|0.14|0.72
+       |{day |     |     |     |     |      |      |     |      |     |    |
+       |{ 2  |0.098|0.104|0.153|0.116| 0.158|  --  |0.194| 4.83 |4.79 |5.27|6.11
+       |{days|     |     |     |     |      |      |     |      |     |    |
+       |{ 3  |0.128|0.159|0.170|0.137| 0.279| 0.185|7.11 | 8.60 |5.35 |7.89|8.28
+       |{days|     |     |     |     |      |      |     |      |     |    |
+       |{ 4  |0.164|0.214|0.206|0.178|   -- | 4.07 |7.39 | 9.55 |8.53 |7.93|8.68
+       |{days|     |     |     |     |      |      |     |      |     |    |
+       |{ 5  |0.176|  -- |0.306|  -- | 0.340| 7.60 |7.47 | 9.87 |8.78 |8.18| --
+       |{days|     |     |     |     |      |      |     |      |     |    |
+  Per  |{ 6  |0.188|0.231|  -- |0.243| 0.472| 9.36 |7.64 |10.01 |9.00 |8.24|9.09
+  cent.|{days|     |     |     |     |      |      |     |      |     |    |
+  gain |{ 7  |0.206|0.251|  -- |0.253| 1.080|10.06 | --  |10.14 | --  | -- | --
+       |{days|     |     |     |     |      |      |     |      |     |    |
+       |{ 8  |0.212|0.253|  -- |0.280| 4.80 |10.38 |7.70 |10.22 |9.05 | -- | --
+       |{days|     |     |     |     |      |      |     |      |     |    |
+       |{ 9  |0.226|0.291|0.306|0.331| 7.36 |10.41 |7.73 |10.23 |9.07 | -- | --
+       |{days|     |     |     |     |      |      |     |      |     |    |
+       |{13  |0.327|0.428|0.510|0.674|11.01 |10.67 |7.91 |10.48 |9.29 |8.62| --
+       |{days|     |     |     |     |      |      |     |      |     |    |
+       |{15  |0.466|0.455|0.650|2.41 |11.05 |  --  |7.92 |10.50 |9.30 | -- | --
+       |{days|     |     |     |     |      |      |     |      |     |    |
+       |{20  |0.521|1.08 |1.78 |8.76 |11.25 |10.67 |7.98 |10.52 |9.36 | -- | --
+       |{days|     |     |     |     |      |      |     |      |     |    |
+  =====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+======+======+=====+======+=====+====+====
+
+TABLE IX--LINSEED OIL AND PbO (LEAD) AND MnO_{2} (MANGANESE)--COMBINATION
+DRIER
+
+  =================+========+=====+=====+======+======+====+=====+====
+  Per cent. PbO    |        | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.5  | 0.7  |0.9 | 1.1 |1.4
+  -----------------+--------+-----+-----+------+------+----+-----+----
+  Per cent. MnO_{2}|        |.005 |.015 | 0.025| 0.35 |0.45| 0.55|0.7
+  -----------------+--------+-----+-----+------+------+----+-----+----
+                   |{ 1 day |0.026|0.061| 0.055| 0.022|0.16| 0.11|3.06
+                   |{ 2 days|0.094|0.087| 0.143| 0.16 |5.21| 6.28|3.37
+                   |{ 3 days|0.118| --  | 0.17 | 4.23 |7.63| 8.31|3.74
+                   |{ 4 days| --  |0.11 | 0.23 | 7.36 |8.87| 9.20|4.02
+                   |{ 5 days|0.120|0.12 | 0.29 | 9.04 |9.13| 9.37|4.17
+  Per cent. gain   |{ 6 days|0.17 |0.13 | 1.44 | 9.88 |9.26| 9.51|4.34
+                   |{ 7 days|0.21 |0.18 | 4.65 |10.11 |9.28|  -- |4.45
+                   |{11 days|0.30 |0.26 |10.03 |10.35 |9.61| 9.85|5.11
+                   |{12 days| --  | --  |  --  |10.45 |9.66|  -- | --
+                   |{13 days|0.35 |0.54 |10.37 |10.51 |9.67|10.03|5.33
+                   |{18 days|0.49 |3.43 |10.38 |10.62 |9.68|  -- |5.73
+  =================+========+=====+=====+======+======+====+=====+====
+
+In the same way with lead driers, excessive amounts of lead oxide seem
+to have no beneficial effects on the drying of an oil, and when the
+percentage which seems to be the most beneficial, namely 0.5% lead
+oxide, is exceeded, the film is apt to become brittle.
+
+Oils containing lead oxide driers are less influenced in their drying
+tendencies by conditions of moisture in the atmosphere than oils
+containing manganese, but frequently, however, the former dry much
+better in a dry atmosphere. As a general rule, varnishes rich in
+manganese dry more quickly in a dry atmosphere, while those containing
+small quantities dry more quickly in a damp atmosphere.
+
+=Volatile Products Formed.= It was furthermore noticed in these tests
+that sulphuric acid, placed in dishes on the bottom of the large box in
+which the samples of oil were drying, was discolored and turned brown
+after several days, showing that the acid had taken up some material of
+a volatile nature that was a product of the oxidation.
+
+Another curious feature of these tests was the development of a peculiar
+aromatic odor which was given off by the oils upon drying in dry air.
+When the oils were dried in moist air, a rank odor resembling propionic
+acid was observed, and this led the observer to believe that a reaction
+was effected by the absorbed oxygen, that caused the glycerin combined
+with the linoleic acid as linolein to split up into evil-smelling
+compounds. It has been suggested that the oxygen first attacks the
+glycerin, transforming it into carbonic acid, water, and other volatile
+compounds, which are eliminated before the oil is dried to linoxyn.
+Toch,[3] however, has shown that the drying of linseed oil gives off
+only very small percentages of carbon dioxide. Mulder has observed that
+in the process of linseed oil being oxidized, glycerin is set free,
+which becomes oxidized to formic, acetic, and other acids, while the
+acid radicals are converted by oxygen into the anhydrides, from which
+they pass by further oxidation into linoxyn.
+
+  [3] Toch: The Chem. and Tech. of Mixed Paints, p. 89. D. Van Vostand
+      Co., N. Y.
+
+=Auto-Oxidation of Oil.= The theory of auto-oxidation of linseed oil has
+been very ably treated by Blackler, whose experiments indicated that
+during the drying process the slow absorption of oxygen was, at a
+critical period, followed by a rapid absorption, which he attributes to
+the presence of peroxides. The materials produced by this peroxide
+formation may act as catalyzers and accelerate the formation of more
+peroxide. Lead and manganese oxides may also be oxidized to peroxides by
+the action of oxygen, and in this event might act as very active
+catalyzing agents or carriers of oxygen. Blackler's statement, that the
+presence of driers do not increase, but have a tendency to decrease the
+initial velocity of oxygen absorption, has been confirmed by these
+experiments, but it has been noticed throughout the tests that the
+driers have an accelerative action at a later period.
+
+=Effect of Metals on Drying of Oils.= Some most interesting results were
+secured by dipping extremely fine copper gauze into linseed oil, and
+then suspending the gauze in the air. The adhesion of the oil to the
+copper caused the formation of films between the network, and remarkable
+drying action was observed. The copper or any superficial coating of
+copper oxide which may have been present on the metal, undoubtedly
+affected the result to some extent. It has been found that metallic lead
+is even more efficient than copper in this respect, but this may be due
+to the action of free acid in the linseed oil, forming lead linoleates,
+products that greatly accelerate drying. Another interesting experiment
+was made by immersing pieces of gauze cloth in linseed oil. After the
+excess oil had been removed, by pressing, the cloth was again weighed to
+determine the amount of oil used for the experiment. The increase in
+oxygen absorption in this case was very rapid, and the result obtained
+confirmed the results in the other experiments.
+
+In order to secure a more evenly distributed state of the oil, tests
+were conducted by saturating pieces of stiff blotting papers, and, after
+exposure, weighing as usual.
+
+=Influence of Light.= The influence of light on the drying of oils is
+unquestionably a potent one. The practical painter knows that a certain
+varnish will dry quicker when exposed to the light than when in the
+dark.
+
+Chevreul was one of the first pioneers in this field of research to
+observe the effects of colored lights on drying, and he claimed that oil
+exposed under white glass dried more rapidly than when exposed under red
+glass, which eliminates all light of short wave lengths.
+
+Genthe obtained interesting results in the drying of oil submitted to
+the effect of the mercury lamp. Oxidation without driers was effected
+probably through the formation of peroxides. In commenting on this
+subject, Blackler[4] gives a description of the use of the Uveol Lamp,
+which is similar to the mercury lamp, but has, instead of a glass casing
+which cuts off the valuable rays, a fused-quartz casing which allows
+their passage.
+
+  [4] M. B. Blackler: "The Use and Abuse of Driers," P. and V. Society,
+      London, Sept. 9, 1909.
+
+=Driers in Boiled Oil.= In the boiling of linseed oil, by certain
+processes the oil is heated to 250° F. and manganese resinate is
+incorporated therein. It goes into solution quite rapidly. In other
+processes the oil is heated to 400° F. or over, and manganese as an
+oxide is boiled into the oil. Although it is unsafe to say that a small
+percentage of rosin, such as would be introduced by the use of resinate
+driers, is not harmful, yet it appears that this process should give a
+good oil, inasmuch as it has been found that no matter whether the
+manganese is added to the oil, as a resinate, borate or oxide,
+practically the same drying effect is noticed in every case where the
+percentage of manganese is the same. It is the opinion of some, however,
+that the resinate driers are not as well suited for durability as oxide
+driers. However, if a boiled oil is found to contain on analysis a small
+percentage of rosin less than 0.5% or a percentage only sufficient to
+combine with the metal present, it should not be suspected of
+adulteration. Practical tests should be made with such oil along with an
+oil made with an oxide drier, before pronouncing on their relative
+values. Inasmuch as the addition of certain driers to linseed oil
+lessens the durability of the film, it is more practical to use the
+smallest amount of drier that will serve the purpose desired, that is,
+set the oil up to a hard condition which will not take dust and which
+will stand abrasion.
+
+The results of this investigation would indicate that when lead or
+manganese linoleates are used, the most efficient drying is shown with
+0.5% lead or with 0.02% manganese, or with a combination of 0.5% lead
+and 0.02% manganese.
+
+Until more definite results have been obtained with the _tungates_,
+which will probably prove of exceptional interest as driers, the above
+driers will probably be used to the greatest extent.
+
+=Co-operative Drying Tests.= A series of important drying tests made by
+members of a special committee[5] appointed by the American Society for
+Testing Materials, of which the writer was chairman, is herewith shown:
+
+  [5] Sub-Committee C of Committee D-1, on Testing Paint Vehicles. Proc.
+      Amer. Soc. for Test. Mater., 1911.
+
+"At the January meeting of Committee D-1, a sub-committee consisting of
+the following members was appointed to investigate paint vehicles:
+
+  G. B. Heckel,
+  Glenn H. Pickard,
+  Allen Rogers,
+  A. H. Sabin,
+  H. A. Gardner, _Chairman_.
+
+"At a subsequent meeting of the sub-committee it was determined to start
+the investigations with a series of tests on certain drying,
+semi-drying, and non-drying oils, determining their drying values, rate
+of oxygen absorption, etc., when spread out in thin films. A quantity of
+the following oils was selected for the tests and subsequently secured
+from sources known to be reliable:
+
+  Lead and manganese linoleate drier.[6]
+  Lithographic linseed oil.
+  Boiled linseed oil (resinate type).
+  Boiled linseed oil (linoleate type).
+  Blown linseed oil (containing drier while being blown).
+  Heavy mineral oil.
+  Rosin oil.
+  Soya bean oil.
+  Corn oil.
+  Cottonseed oil.
+  Sunflower oil.
+  Menhaden oil.
+  Chinese wood oil, raw.
+  Chinese wood oil, treated.
+  Perilla oil.[7]
+  Lumbang oil.[7]
+  Dry rosin 20%, boiled in 80% linseed oil.
+
+  [6] The drier used, upon analysis, showed the presence of 4.36% PbO
+      and 2.51% MnO_{2}.
+
+  [7] The lumbang and perilla oils were imported and arrived subsequent
+      to the starting of the tests. They were therefore not included in
+      the tests.
+
+"Four-ounce sample bottles of each oil were sent to the Committee
+members, with the request to proceed with the tests along the lines
+agreed upon at the Committee meeting. The instructions for making these
+tests are outlined as follows:
+
+(_a_) A series of small glass plates, approximately 5 by 7 ins., are to
+be prepared by each member of the Committee. These plates are to be
+thoroughly cleaned and carefully numbered and weighed upon a chemical
+balance. The oils to be used for the tests are to be numbered
+corresponding to the plates. A test of each oil is to be made by
+painting it upon the surface of a glass plate with a camel's-hair brush,
+subsequently weighing the plate and the oil. These tests are to be
+exposed under constant conditions of temperature, if possible, for three
+weeks' time, making weighings of each plate every day for six days and
+then every other day for twelve days.
+
+(_b_) Another series of tests shall be made, in which 80% of raw linseed
+oil is to be combined with each of the above oils named. Previous to
+making any of the tests, _there should be added to each oil, or to each
+combination, 5% of a drier containing lead and manganese_. The drier to
+be used is of the standard grade submitted, together with the oil
+samples. The results of the tests are to be charted and submitted at the
+end of the tests, so that they may be compared with the results obtained
+by each member of the Committee.
+
+(_c_) If possible, the oils and mixture of oils used in the above tests
+are to be ground with pure silica and painted out upon sized paper,
+three-coat work, the films to be stripped and tested for strength upon a
+paint filmometer, at two periods two months apart."
+
+The drying of oils to a firm surface when spread in a thin layer is
+accompanied by an increase in weight, due to the absorption of oxygen.
+The percentage of oxygen absorbed often affords a criterion of the
+drying of the oil under examination, and this factor, together with data
+regarding the appearance of the oil film, should be taken into
+consideration when judging the value of an oil or oil mixture.
+Conditions of light, air, temperature, etc., often cause great
+variations in the drying of oils and the percentage of oxygen absorbed,
+as shown by the results obtained in the following tests. Although it was
+impossible in these tests to have the conditions under which each
+experimenter worked parallel in nature, the tests afford nevertheless
+considerable information for guiding future work of a similar nature.
+
+An examination of the results obtained showed generally that the
+greatest increase in weight occurred during the period in which the oil
+dried up to a firm film. This occurred in most cases within 48 hours.
+After this period a slight increase in weight was often noticed, and
+then a more or less steady decline, varying with the oil examined. Had
+the oil tests been continued for a greater length of time, a much
+greater loss might have been observed.
+
+It was impossible to include in the tests the oil-silica film work, on
+account of lack of time. It is believed, however, that these tests
+should be conducted, as they would throw much light on the elasticity
+and strength given to paint films by various oils.
+
+  TABLE I.--(_a_) BOILED LINSEED OIL (RESINATE TYPE)    100 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.1997   |   0.6242  |   0.5027  |  0.6024
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |    11.9    |   14.42   |   10.21   |  13.69
+             |  2 |    12.5    |   13.37   |   10.00   |  13.01
+             |  3 |    12.7    |   12.53   |    9.57   |  12.50
+             |  4 |    13.1    |   11.7    |    9.65   |  12.29
+             |  5 |    12.8    |   11.03   |    8.99   |  12.00
+             |  6 |    12.7    |     --    |     --    |  12.25
+             |  7 |     --     |   10.17   |    8.57   |    --
+             |  8 |    12.7    |   10.34   |     --    |  11.64
+             |  9 |     --     |   10.12   |    8.93   |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |    12.6    |   10.00   |     --    |  10.73
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |    8.81   |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |    12.8    |    9.69   |     --    |  10.68
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |    9.31   |    --
+             | 14 |    12.8    |     --    |     --    |  11.18
+             | 15 |     --     |    9.04   |    9.43   |    --
+             | 16 |    12.7    |     --    |     --    |  10.68
+             | 17 |     --     |    8.68   |     --    |    --
+             | 18 |    12.9    |     --    |    9.11   |    --
+             | 19 |     --     |    8.13   |     --    |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Dried to    |           |           |Tacky at end
+                  |firm, smooth|           |           |of 1st day.
+                  |film in 2   |           |           |Nearly dry,
+                  |days        |           |           |end of 2d day.
+                  |            |           |           |Perfectly dry,
+                  |            |           |           |end of 10th
+                  |            |           |           |day.
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  (_b_) BOILED LINSEED OIL (RESINATE TYPE)    20 PER CENT.
+        RAW LINSEED OIL                       80 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.1933   |   0.3660  |   0.4640  |     --
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |    13.6    |    0.57   |   12.48   |     --
+             |  2 |    14.7    |    1.66   |   11.92   |     --
+             |  3 |    14.9    |   10.50   |   11.49   |     --
+             |  4 |    14.9    |   13.30   |   11.10   |     --
+             |  5 |    14.8    |     --    |   10.84   |     --
+             |  6 |    14.8    |     --    |     --    |     --
+             |  7 |     --     |   12.51   |    9.48   |     --
+             |  8 |    14.8    |     --    |     --    |     --
+             |  9 |     --     |   11.40   |    7.41   |     --
+  Percentage | 10 |    14.8    |     --    |     --    |     --
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |    7.56   |     --
+  in Weight, | 12 |    14.7    |   10.20   |     --    |     --
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |    8.36   |     --
+             | 14 |    14.5    |     --    |     --    |     --
+             | 15 |     --     |    9.84   |    8.54   |     --
+             | 16 |    14.7    |     --    |     --    |     --
+             | 17 |     --     |     --    |     --    |     --
+             | 18 |    14.7    |     --    |    8.51   |     --
+             | 19 |     --     |     --    |     --    |     --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Dried to    |           |           |
+                  |firm, smooth|           |           |
+                  |film in 2   |           |           |
+                  |days.       |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  TABLE II.--(_a_) BOILED LINSEED OIL (LINOLEATE TYPE)    100 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+---------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+---------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.1226   |   0.5384  |   0.5696  |  0.3306
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |    10.9    |   14.34   |   10.25   |  12.09
+             |  2 |    12.2    |   13.26   |   10.41   |  11.33
+             |  3 |    12.7    |   12.18   |   10.22   |  10.94
+             |  4 |    12.5    |   11.29   |   10.16   |  11.10
+             |  5 |    12.8    |   10.75   |    9.90   |  10.86
+             |  6 |    12.2    |     --    |     --    |  11.25
+             |  7 |     --     |    9.88   |    9.60   |    --
+             |  8 |    12.2    |   10.25   |     --    |  10.87
+             |  9 |     --     |   10.01   |    9.72   |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |    12.4    |    9.91   |     --    |   9.72
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |    9.48   |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |    12.1    |    9.60   |     --    |  10.02
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |    9.97   |    --
+             | 14 |    12.     |     --    |     --    |  10.62
+             | 15 |     --     |    9.12   |   10.36   |    --
+             | 16 |    12.1    |     --    |     --    |  10.46
+             | 17 |     --     |    8.37   |     --    |    --
+             | 18 |    12.1    |     --    |    9.59   |    --
+             | 19 |     --     |    8.30   |     --    |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Dried firmly|           |           |Tacky at end
+                  |with smooth,|           |           |of 1st day.
+                  |even film in|           |           |Slightly
+                  |2 days.     |           |           |tacky, end 2d
+                  |            |           |           |day. Dry, but
+                  |            |           |           |curled, end of
+                  |            |           |           |10th day.
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  (_b_) BOILED LINSEED OIL (LINOLEATE TYPE)    20 PER CENT.
+        RAW LINSEED OIL                        80 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.1843   |   0.5790  |  0.4653   |    --
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |    11.8    |   10.14   |  12.40    |    --
+             |  2 |    13.9    |   15.71   |  11.90    |    --
+             |  3 |    15.1    |   13.29   |  11.50    |    --
+             |  4 |    15.2    |   12.12   |  11.11    |    --
+             |  5 |    15.0    |   11.43   |  10.90    |    --
+             |  6 |    14.6    |     --    |    --     |    --
+             |  7 |     --     |   10.05   |   9.37    |    --
+             |  8 |    14.6    |   10.26   |    --     |    --
+             |  9 |     --     |    9.55   |   8.53    |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |    14.5    |    9.32   |    --     |    --
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |   7.48    |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |    14.4    |    8.84   |    --     |    --
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |   8.43    |    --
+             | 14 |    14.4    |     --    |    --     |    --
+             | 15 |     --     |    8.46   |   8.02    |    --
+             | 16 |    14.6    |     --    |    --     |    --
+             | 17 |     --     |    7.68   |    --     |    --
+             | 18 |    14.7    |     --    |   7.27    |    --
+             | 19 |     --     |    7.55   |    --     |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Dried with  |           |           |
+                  |smooth film |           |           |
+                  |in 2 days.  |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  TABLE III.--(_a_) LITHOGRAPHIC LINSEED OIL    100 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+---------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.4011   |   0.8733  |  0.8812   |  2.7318
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------
+             |  1 |     6.9    |    0.87   |   3.60    |   .051
+             |  2 |     8.5    |    3.85   |   5.10    |   .051
+             |  3 |     8.9    |    5.14   |   5.00    |   .051
+             |  4 |     8.9    |    6.07   |   6.78    |   .041
+             |  5 |     8.7    |    6.40   |   6.97    |   .081
+             |  6 |     8.0    |     --    |    --     |   .169
+             |  7 |      --    |    6.84   |   7.38    |    --
+             |  8 |     8.0    |    7.22   |    --     |   .19
+             |  9 |      --    |    7.36   |   7.42    |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |     8.0    |    7.57   |    --     |   .752
+  Increase   | 11 |      --    |     --    |   7.44    |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |     8.0    |    7.75   |    --     |  1.184
+  in Days.   | 13 |      --    |     --    |   8.01    |    --
+             | 14 |     8.4    |     --    |    --     |  1.641
+             | 15 |      --    |    7.98   |   8.03    |    --
+             | 16 |     8.4    |     --    |    --     |  2.00
+             | 17 |      --    |    7.83   |    --     |    --
+             | 18 |     8.3    |     --    |   7.99    |    --
+             | 19 |      --    |    7.80   |    --     |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Dried to    |           |           |Remained
+                  |glossy, firm|           |           |sticky to 10
+                  |film,       |           |           |days, and even
+                  |slightly    |           |           |at end of 38
+                  |crinkled in |           |           |days was
+                  |2 days. Oil |           |           |slightly
+                  |made very   |           |           |tacky.
+                  |thick film  |           |           |
+                  |on account  |           |           |
+                  |of heavy    |           |           |
+                  |body.       |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  (_b_) LITHOGRAPHIC LINSEED OIL    20 PER CENT.
+        RAW LINSEED OIL             80 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard
+                  |            |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.1300   |   0.7750  |  0.6538
+  Test, grams     |            |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------
+             |  1 |    10.2    |   11.35   |   9.94
+             |  2 |    11.3    |   11.48   |  10.41
+             |  3 |    11.9    |   10.93   |  10.39
+             |  4 |    12.0    |   10.77   |  10.35
+             |  5 |    11.8    |   10.25   |   9.93
+             |  6 |    11.8    |     --    |    --
+             |  7 |      --    |    9.51   |   9.54
+             |  8 |    11.8    |    9.93   |    --
+             |  9 |      --    |    9.80   |   9.36
+  Percentage | 10 |    11.8    |    9.68   |    --
+  Increase   | 11 |      --    |     --    |   8.99
+  in Weight, | 12 |    11.8    |    9.65   |    --
+  in Days.   | 13 |      --    |     --    |   9.61
+             | 14 |    11.8    |     --    |    --
+             | 15 |      --    |    9.51   |   9.70
+             | 16 |    11.9    |     --    |    --
+             | 17 |      --    |    9.07   |    --
+             | 18 |    11.9    |     --    |   9.13
+             | 19 |      --    |    8.67   |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------
+  Remarks.        |Dried to    |           |
+                  |firm, glossy|           |
+                  |film in 2   |           |
+                  |days.       |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------
+
+  TABLE IV.--(_A_) BLOWN LINSEED OIL    100 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.2105   |   0.8394  |  0.8457   |  1.0398
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |     8.5    |    9.30   |   5.07    |   4.41
+             |  2 |    10.2    |    8.97   |   6.16    |   4.91
+             |  3 |    10.2    |    5.30   |   6.48    |   5.22
+             |  4 |    10.2    |    9.30   |   6.94    |   5.62
+             |  5 |    10.0    |    8.99   |   6.73    |   5.73
+             |  6 |     9.9    |     --    |    --     |   6.06
+             |  7 |      --    |    8.49   |   6.99    |    --
+             |  8 |     9.8    |    8.89   |    --     |   6.43
+             |  9 |      --    |    8.73   |   6.89    |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |     9.8    |    8.89   |    --     |   6.18
+  Increase   | 11 |      --    |     --    |   7.11    |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |     9.7    |    8.73   |    --     |   6.51
+  in Days.   | 13 |      --    |     --    |   7.60    |    --
+             | 14 |     9.8    |     --    |    --     |   6.95
+             | 15 |      --    |    8.52   |   7.95    |    --
+             | 16 |     9.8    |     --    |    --     |   7.00
+             | 17 |      --    |    8.07   |    --     |    --
+             | 18 |     9.9    |     --    |   7.86    |    --
+             | 19 |      --    |    7.74   |    --     |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Ropiness of |           |           |Formed skin,
+                  |oil made    |           |           |end 1st day.
+                  |very thick  |           |           |Slightly
+                  |film, but   |           |           |tacky end 2nd;
+                  |dried in    |           |           |dry, but
+                  |less than 2 |           |           |curled, end of
+                  |days to     |           |           |10th day.
+                  |smooth film.|           |           |
+                  |Films       |           |           |
+                  |exhibited   |           |           |
+                  |ridges.     |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  (_b_)BLOWN LINSEED OIL         20 PER CENT.
+       RAW LINSEED OIL           80 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard
+                  |            |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.0774   |   0.5329  |   0.6218
+  Test, grams     |            |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------
+             |  1 |    10.4    |   11.82   |   10.71
+             |  2 |    12.8    |   12.76   |     --
+             |  3 |    13.1    |   10.98   |     --
+             |  4 |    12.9    |   10.39   |     --
+             |  5 |    12.1    |    9.81   |     --
+             |  6 |    11.9    |     --    |     --
+             |  7 |     --     |    8.69   |     --
+             |  8 |    12.0    |    9.15   |     --
+             |  9 |     --     |    8.91   |     --
+  Percentage | 10 |    11.8    |    8.97   |     --
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |     --
+  in Weight, | 12 |    11.8    |    8.67   |     --
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |     --
+             | 14 |    11.7    |     --    |     --
+             | 15 |     --     |    8.22   |     --
+             | 16 |    11.6    |     --    |     --
+             | 17 |     --     |    7.63   |     --
+             | 18 |    11.8    |     --    |     --
+             | 19 |     --     |    7.32   |     --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------
+  Remarks.        |Dried to    |           |Glass broke.
+                  |very glossy |           |
+                  |film in 2   |           |
+                  |days.       |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------
+
+  TABLE V.--(_a_) MINERAL OIL    100 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.1632   |    --     |    --     |  0.1975
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |  [8]12.5   |    --     |    --     | [8] 8.12
+             |  2 |  [8]14.2   |    --     |    --     | [8]16.22
+             |  3 |  [8]16.7   |    --     |    --     | [8]21.23
+             |  4 |  [8]19.4   |    --     |    --     | [8]25.58
+             |  5 |  [8]19.4   |    --     |    --     | [8]28.41
+             |  6 |  [8]19.5   |    --     |    --     | [8]28.92
+             |  7 |      --    |    --     |    --     |      --
+             |  8 |  [8]19.5   |    --     |    --     | [8]35.25
+             |  9 |      --    |    --     |    --     |      --
+  Percentage | 10 |  [8]19.5   |    --     |    --     | [8]35.76
+  Increase   | 11 |      --    |    --     |    --     |      --
+  in Weight, | 12 |  [8]19.3   |    --     |    --     | [8]43.86
+  in Days.   | 13 |      --    |    --     |    --     |      --
+             | 14 |  [8]19.4   |    --     |    --     | [8]45.28
+             | 15 |      --    |    --     |    --     |      --
+             | 16 |  [8]19.5   |    --     |    --     | [8]48.08
+             | 17 |      --    |    --     |    --     |      --
+             | 18 |  [8]19.5   |    --     |    --     |      --
+             | 19 |      --    |    --     |    --     |      --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Oil lost in |Broken be- |Broken be- |Remained oily
+                  |weight      |fore weigh-|fore weigh-|during entire
+                  |throughout  |ings were  |ings were  |test.
+                  |test on ac- |made.      |made.      |
+                  |count of    |           |           |
+                  |presence of |           |           |
+                  |volatiles.  |           |           |
+                  |No drying   |           |           |
+                  |action ob-  |           |           |
+                  |served. Film|           |           |
+                  |wet at end  |           |           |
+                  |of test.    |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  [8] Lost in weight throughout test.
+
+  (_b_) MINERAL OIL                 20 PER CENT.
+        RAW LINSEED OIL             80 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.1884   |   0.5663  |   0.405   |   0.2598
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |     6.4    |   11.51   | [9]9.66   | [9]6.69
+             |  2 |     6.8    |    8.21   | [9]8.92   | [9]5.06
+             |  3 |     7.2    |    6.51   | [9]6.82   | [9]2.88
+             |  4 |     7.8    |    5.19   | [9]6.03   | [9]1.52
+             |  5 |     8.1    |    4.36   | [9]4.68   | [9]1.29
+             |  6 |     7.9    |     --    |     --    | [9]1.68
+             |  7 |     --     |    2.72   | [9]2.64   |     --
+             |  8 |     7.9    |    3.12   |     --    |[10]2.07
+             |  9 |     --     |    2.82   |[10]0.30   |     --
+  Percentage | 10 |     8.1    |    2.59   |     --    |[10]0.08
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |[10]0.56   |     --
+  in Weight, | 12 |     7.8    |    2.35   |     --    |[10]0.93
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |[10]0.04   |     --
+             | 14 |     7.8    |     --    |     --    |[10]0.54
+             | 15 |      --    |    1.36   |[10]0.14   |     --
+             | 16 |     7.8    |     --    |     --    |     --
+             | 17 |     --     |    0.53   |     --    |     --
+             | 18 |     7.8    |     --    |[10]0.86   |     --
+             | 19 |     --     |[10]0.14   |     --    |     --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Fair drying |           |           |Sticky, end of
+                  |observed end|           |           |1st day;
+                  |of 2d day.  |           |           |tacky, end of
+                  |Film tacky  |           |           |2d day and end
+                  |until end   |           |           |of 38 days.
+                  |8th day;    |           |           |
+                  |after that, |           |           |
+                  |fairly firm |           |           |
+                  |film shown. |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+   [9] Gained in weight throughout test.
+
+  [10] Lost in weight throughout test.
+
+  TABLE VI.--(_a_) SOYA BEAN OIL    100 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.1377   |   0.3972  |  0.4366   |  0.3564
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |     7.5    |    9.79   |   9.87    |   8.25
+             |  2 |     8.4    |    9.69   |   9.87    |   7.58
+             |  3 |     9.5    |    8.56   |   9.35    |   7.02
+             |  4 |    12.8    |    7.60   |   8.66    |   6.74
+             |  5 |    12.9    |    7.09   |   8.13    |   6.46
+             |  6 |    12.7    |     --    |    --     |   6.74
+             |  7 |     --     |    6.00   |   6.44    |    --
+             |  8 |    12.6    |    6.22   |    --     |   6.46
+             |  9 |     --     |    6.00   |   4.88    |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |    12.5    |    5.54   |    --     |   5.40
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |   4.26    |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |    12.4    |    5.36   |    --     |   5.59
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |   4.99    |    --
+             | 14 |    12.3    |     --    |    --     |   5.80
+             | 15 |     --     |    4.73   |   4.94    |    --
+             | 16 |    12.3    |     --    |    --     |   5.67
+             | 17 |     --     |    4.23   |    --     |    --
+             | 18 |    12.3    |     --    |   4.94    |    --
+             | 19 |     --     |    3.70   |    --     |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Film tacky  |           |           |Sticky, end of
+                  |until 3d    |           |           |1st day;
+                  |day. Clear  |           |           |tacky, end of
+                  |and fairly  |           |           |2d day;
+                  |firm after  |           |           |slightly
+                  |4th day.    |           |           |tacky, end of
+                  |            |           |           |10th and 38th
+                  |            |           |           |days.
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  (_b_) SOYA BEAN OIL       20 PER CENT.
+        RAW LINSEED OIL     80 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.2218   |   0.2877  |  0.4581   |  0.2249
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |    11.5    |   12.78   |  13.16    |  11.74
+             |  2 |    11.8    |   12.78   |  12.64    |  12.27
+             |  3 |    12.5    |   11.74   |  11.84    |  10.38
+             |  4 |    13.9    |   12.23   |  11.50    |   9.43
+             |  5 |    14.0    |   10.60   |  11.01    |   9.66
+             |  6 |    14.0    |     --    |    --     |   9.75
+             |  7 |     --     |    9.35   |   9.15    |    --
+             |  8 |    14.1    |   10.08   |    --     |  10.29
+             |  9 |     --     |    9.76   |   7.29    |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |    14.1    |    9.59   |    --     |   9.08
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |   6.61    |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |    13.8    |    9.59   |    --     |   8.18
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |   7.43    |    --
+             | 14 |    13.6    |     --    |    --     |   8.95
+             | 15 |     --     |    9.00   |   6.96    |    --
+             | 16 |    13.6    |     --    |    --     |    --
+             | 17 |     --     |    8.09   |    --     |    --
+             | 18 |    13.6    |     --    |   6.66    |    --
+             | 19 |     --     |    8.00   |    --     |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Clear, firm |           |           |Tacky at end
+                  |film ob-    |           |           |of 1st and 2d
+                  |served at   |           |           |days. Dry, end
+                  |end of 2d   |           |           |10th day.
+                  |day.        |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  TABLE VII.--(_a_) ROSIN OIL    100 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.2590   |    --     |    --     |  0.4822
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |     1.5    |    --     |    --     |   2.24
+             |  2 |     1.5    |    --     |    --     |   2.53
+             |  3 |     1.8    |    --     |    --     |   2.32
+             |  4 |     3.0    |    --     |    --     |   1.27
+             |  5 |     5.2    |    --     |    --     |   1.06
+             |  6 |     4.9    |    --     |    --     |   0.66
+             |  7 |     --     |    --     |    --     |    --
+             |  8 |     4.8    |    --     |    --     |   0.24
+             |  9 |     --     |    --     |    --     |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |     4.8    |    --     |    --     |   0.78
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |    --     |    --     |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |     4.8    |    --     |    --     |   0.68
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |    --     |    --     |    --
+             | 14 |     4.8    |    --     |    --     |   0.41
+             | 15 |     --     |    --     |    --     |    --
+             | 16 |     4.8    |    --     |    --     |   0.39
+             | 17 |     --     |    --     |    --     |    --
+             | 18 |     4.8    |    --     |    --     |    --
+             | 19 |     --     |    --     |    --     |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Tacky       |           |Too much   |Oily on 1st
+                  |throughout  |           |on. Showed |and 2d days.
+                  |test.       |           |constantly |Tacky, end of
+                  |            |           |increasing |10 and 38
+                  |            |           |loss owing |days.
+                  |            |           |to the fact|
+                  |            |           | that it   |
+                  |            |           |did not dry|
+                  |            |           |and ran off|
+                  |            |           |glass.     |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  TABLE VII.--(_b_) ROSIN OIL          20 PER CENT.
+                  RAW LINSEED OIL    80 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.1636   |   0.7105  |  0.4016   |  0.3263
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |     7.4    |    6.64   |   12.21   |  11.48
+             |  2 |     7.8    |    6.40   |   11.45   |  12.02
+             |  3 |     8.5    |    6.05   |   11.13   |  10.60
+             |  4 |     8.5    |    5.63   |   10.53   |  10.26
+             |  5 |     8.4    |    5.23   |   10.13   |  10.42
+             |  6 |     8.1    |     --    |     --    |  10.42
+             |  7 |     --     |    4.42   |    8.8    |    --
+             |  8 |     8.0    |    4.92   |     --    |  10.95
+             |  9 |     --     |    4.83   |    8.12   |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |     8.0    |    4.57   |     --    |   9.96
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |    7.45   |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |     8.0    |    4.68   |     --    |   9.53
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |    8.27   |    --
+             | 14 |     7.9    |     --    |     --    |   9.96
+             | 15 |     --     |    4.13   |    8.52   |    --
+             | 16 |     7.9    |     --    |     --    |    --
+             | 17 |     --     |    3.81   |     --    |    --
+             | 18 |     8.2    |     --    |    8.62   |    --
+             | 19 |     --     |    3.43   |     --    |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Film dried  |           |           |Oily at end of
+                  |up nicely   |           |           |1st and 2d
+                  |during 3d   |           |           |days. Slightly
+                  |day, but re-|           |           |tacky, end of
+                  |mained      |           |           |10th day.
+                  |slightly    |           |           |
+                  |soft.       |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  TABLE VIII.--(_a_) CORN OIL    100 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.0574   |   0.5858  |  0.4981   |  0.3300
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |     1.9    |[11]0.22   |     1.22  |   4.63
+             |  2 |     4.2    |    7.03   |     5.86  |   7.27
+             |  3 |     4.6    |    8.79   |     7.27  |   7.14
+             |  4 |     4.8    |    7.43   |[12]11.35  |   6.99
+             |  5 |     7.5    |    7.17   |    11.35  |   6.69
+             |  6 |     7.1    |     --    |      --   |   6.93
+             |  7 |     --     |    5.85   |    11.37  |    --
+             |  8 |     7.1    |    6.02   |      --   |   6.84
+             |  9 |     --     |    5.84   |     6.26  |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |     7.1    |    5.58   |      --   |   5.11
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |     4.97  |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |     7.2    |    5.38   |      --   |   5.17
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |     5.62  |    --
+             | 14 |     7.1    |     --    |      --   |   5.38
+             | 15 |     --     |    4.78   |     5.34  |    --
+             | 16 |     7.0    |     --    |      --   |   5.17
+             | 17 |     --     |    4.15   |      --   |    --
+             | 18 |     6.9    |     --    |     5.34  |    --
+             | 19 |     --     |    3.63   |      --   |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Film soft   |           |           |
+                  |and sticky  |           |           |
+                  |throughout  |           |           |
+                  |test. Very  |           |           |
+                  |soapy in    |           |           |
+                  |appearance. |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  [11] Lost in weight throughout test.
+
+  [12] Moth got in.
+
+  (_b_) CORN OIL           20 PER CENT.
+        RAW LINSEED OIL    80 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |  0.1664    |   0.5469  |  0.3716   |  0.1711
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |    7.5     |   13.01   |  13.81    |  11.87
+             |  2 |    8.4     |   12.41   |  12.92    |  11.69
+             |  3 |    8.6     |     --    |  12.16    |   9.78
+             |  4 |   10.2     |   11.13   |  11.71    |   8.33
+             |  5 |   10.4     |   11.52   |  11.11    |   8.50
+             |  6 |   10.6     |     --    |    --     |   8.62
+             |  7 |    --      |   11.22   |   9.23    |    --
+             |  8 |   10.5     |   10.98   |    --     |   9.61
+             |  9 |    --      |   10.38   |   8.29    |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |   10.3     |    9.64   |    --     |   8.16
+  Increase   | 11 |    --      |     --    |   7.24    |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |   10.3     |    9.07   |    --     |   7.00
+  in Days.   | 13 |    --      |     --    |   8.42    |    --
+             | 14 |   10.3     |     --    |    --     |   8.28
+             | 15 |    --      |    8.38   |   8.26    |    --
+             | 16 |   10.2     |     --    |    --     |    --
+             | 17 |    --      |    8.77   |    --     |    --
+             | 18 |   10.0     |     --    |   7.94    |    --
+             | 19 |    --      |     --    |    --     |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Film tacky  |           |           |Tacky, end of
+                  |at end of   |           |           |1st and 2d
+                  |test.       |           |           |days. Dry, end
+                  |            |           |           |10th day.
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  TABLE IX.--(_a_) COTTON SEED OIL  100 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |  0.2026    |   0.7247  |  0.4135   |  0.3583
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |    4.5     |    8.03   |   7.04    |   6.67
+             |  2 |    4.8     |    7.48   |   7.16    |   5.61
+             |  3 |    4.8     |    6.68   |   6.62    |   4.85
+             |  4 |    5.1     |    6.00   |   6.24    |   4.65
+             |  5 |    8.6     |    5.65   |   5.78    |   4.37
+             |  6 |    8.7     |     --    |    --     |   4.71
+             |  7 |    --      |    4.85   |   3.72    |    --
+             |  8 |    8.1     |    5.09   |    --     |   4.57
+             |  9 |    --      |    4.95   |   2.08    |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |    7.9     |    4.80   |    --     |   2.97
+  Increase   | 11 |    --      |     --    |   1.72    |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |    8.0     |     --    |    --     |   3.11
+  in Days.   | 13 |    --      |     --    |   2.52    |    --
+             | 14 |    8.0     |     --    |    --     |   3.39
+             | 15 |    --      |     --    |   2.35    |    --
+             | 16 |    8.1     |     --    |    --     |   3.39
+             | 17 |    --      |     --    |    --     |    --
+             | 18 |    8.0     |     --    |   2.32    |    --
+             | 19 |    --      |     --    |    --     |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Film showed |           |           |Slightly
+                  |very little |           |           |tacky, end
+                  |hardening   |           |           |10th and 38th
+                  |and remained|           |           |days.
+                  |soft and    |           |           |
+                  |tacky.      |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  (_b_) COTTON SEED OIL    20 PER CENT.
+        RAW LINSEED OIL    80 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |  0.1516    |   0.9498  |  0.6160   |  0.2553
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |    8.5     |   11.00   |   10.94   |  11.83
+             |  2 |    8.7     |   11.15   |   10.81   |  11.83
+             |  3 |    9.1     |   10.58   |   10.51   |  10.15
+             |  4 |   10.8     |   10.17   |   10.37   |   9.29
+             |  5 |   11.9     |    9.82   |    9.87   |   9.29
+             |  6 |   11.8     |     --    |     --    |   9.45
+             |  7 |    --      |    9.02   |    8.93   |    --
+             |  8 |   11.9     |    9.42   |     --    |  10.00
+             |  9 |    --      |    9.35   |    8.90   |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |   11.9     |    9.27   |     --    |   8.95
+  Increase   | 11 |    --      |     --    |    8.70   |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |   11.8     |    9.32   |     --    |   8.06
+  in Days.   | 13 |    --      |     --    |    9.29   |    --
+             | 14 |   11.8     |     --    |     --    |   8.61
+             | 15 |    --      |    8.81   |    9.63   |    --
+             | 16 |   11.8     |     --    |     --    |    --
+             | 17 |    --      |    8.24   |     --    |    --
+             | 18 |   10.7     |     --    |    8.47   |    --
+             | 19 |    --      |    7.92   |     --    |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Fair drying |           |           |Tacky on 1st
+                  |observed at |           |           |and 2d days.
+                  |end of 4th  |           |           |Dry on 10th
+                  |day. Film   |           |           |day.
+                  |slightly    |           |           |
+                  |tacky at end|           |           |
+                  |of test.    |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  TABLE X.--(_a_) SUN FLOWER OIL    100 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.1414   |   0.6292  |  0.5837   |  0.2540
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |     6.3    |    9.69   |   7.85    |   8.39
+             |  2 |     8.2    |    9.42   |   7.73    |   6.94
+             |  3 |    11.5    |    7.99   |   7.45    |   6.21
+             |  4 |    11.6    |    7.43   |   7.02    |   6.13
+             |  5 |    11.5    |    7.04   |   6.36    |   5.81
+             |  6 |    11.5    |     --    |    --     |   6.01
+             |  7 |     --     |    6.12   |   5.16    |    --
+             |  8 |    11.3    |    6.45   |    --     |   6.09
+             |  9 |     --     |    6.12   |   4.57    |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |    11.3    |    5.92   |    --     |   4.81
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |   4.20    |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |    11.3    |    5.69   |    --     |   4.73
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |   4.54    |    --
+             | 14 |    11.3    |     --    |    --     |   4.81
+             | 15 |     --     |    5.24   |   4.61    |    --
+             | 16 |    11.2    |     --    |    --     |   5.01
+             | 17 |     --     |    4.57   |    --     |    --
+             | 18 |    11.0    |     --    |   4.30    |    --
+             | 19 |     --     |    4.26   |    --     |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Film fairly |           |           |Sticky, end
+                  |firm, end of|           |           |1st day;
+                  |3d day.     |           |           |tacky, end 2d
+                  |            |           |           |day; slightly
+                  |            |           |           |tacky, end
+                  |            |           |           |10th day.
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  TABLE X.--(_b_) SUN FLOWER OIL    20 PER CENT.
+                  RAW LINSEED OIL   80 PER CENT.
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.1600   |   0.5030  |  0.4470   |  0.2261
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |     9.5    |   14.21   |   12.62   |  11.54
+             |  2 |    11.0    |   14.21   |   12.02   |  11.85
+             |  3 |    11.1    |   12.66   |   11.48   |   9.92
+             |  4 |    11.3    |   14.01   |   11.65   |   9.13
+             |  5 |    11.4    |   11.59   |   10.25   |   8.95
+             |  6 |    10.9    |     --    |     --    |   9.04
+             |  7 |     --     |   10.24   |    8.14   |    --
+             |  8 |    10.8    |   10.63   |     --    |   9.52
+             |  9 |     --     |   10.34   |    6.26   |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |    10.8    |   10.34   |     --    |   8.55
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |    5.54   |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |    10.8    |   10.27   |     --    |   7.67
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |    6.22   |    --
+             | 14 |    10.6    |     --    |     --    |   8.20
+             | 15 |     --     |   11.33   |    5.82   |    --
+             | 16 |    10.6    |     --    |     --    |    --
+             | 17 |     --     |   10.73   |     --    |    --
+             | 18 |    10.9    |     --    |    5.35   |    --
+             | 19 |     --     |   10.30   |     --    |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Good firm,  |           |           |Dry on 1st, 2d
+                  |glossy film |           |           |and 10th days.
+                  |shown at end|           |           |
+                  |of 2d day.  |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  TABLE XI.--(_a_) MENHADEN OIL    100 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.1944   |   0.5282  |  0.7005   |  0.3150
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |     7.7    |   12.47   |  10.79    |  11.27
+             |  2 |     8.1    |   12.17   |  10.98    |  10.16
+             |  3 |     8.9    |   11.70   |  10.85    |   9.72
+             |  4 |    10.1    |   11.47   |  10.90    |   9.97
+             |  5 |     9.8    |   11.13   |  10.57    |   9.94
+             |  6 |     9.8    |     --    |    --     |  10.27
+             |  7 |     --     |   10.28   |   9.27    |    --
+             |  8 |     9.8    |   11.20   |    --     |  10.36
+             |  9 |     --     |   11.15   |   8.48    |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |     9.8    |   11.02   |    --     |   8.80
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |   8.27    |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |     9.8    |   11.37   |    --     |   9.22
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |   8.91    |    --
+             | 14 |     9.6    |     --    |    --     |   9.40
+             | 15 |     --     |   10.85   |   8.75    |    --
+             | 16 |     9.6    |     --    |    --     |   9.31
+             | 17 |     --     |   10.34   |    --     |    --
+             | 18 |     9.6    |     --    |   9.21    |    --
+             | 19 |     --     |    9.90   |    --     |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Good drying |           |           |Sticky, end
+                  |during 2d   |           |           |1st day.
+                  |day. Fairly |           |           |Slightly
+                  |firm film.  |           |           |sticky, end 2d
+                  |            |           |           |and 10th days.
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  (_b_) MENHADEN OIL    20 PER CENT.
+        RAW LINSEED OIL 80 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.2448   |   0.4959  |  0.4201   |  0.2456
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |     8.5    |   14.11   |  13.19    |  10.99
+             |  2 |    10.4    |   13.47   |  12.88    |  11.28
+             |  3 |    12.2    |   12.68   |  12.23    |   9.56
+             |  4 |    12.9    |   12.04   |  11.81    |   8.90
+             |  5 |    12.9    |   11.59   |  11.17    |   8.72
+             |  6 |    12.9    |     --    |    --     |   8.72
+             |  7 |     --     |   10.44   |   9.50    |    --
+             |  8 |    12.9    |   11.09   |    --     |   9.34
+             |  9 |     --     |   11.04   |   8.48    |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |    12.9    |   10.74   |    --     |   8.40
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |   7.77    |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |    12.9    |   10.90   |    --     |   7.37
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |   8.33    |    --
+             | 14 |    12.8    |     --    |    --     |   8.11
+             | 15 |     --     |   10.18   |   8.24    |    --
+             | 16 |    12.7    |     --    |    --     |    --
+             | 17 |     --     |    9.48   |    --     |    --
+             | 18 |    12.9    |     --    |   8.12    |    --
+             | 19 |     --     |    8.93   |    --     |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Good firm,  |           |           |Nearly dry on
+                  |elastic film|           |           |1st and 2d
+                  |shown after |           |           |days.
+                  |2d day.     |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  TABLE XII.--(_a_) RAW CHINESE WOOD OIL    100 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.2266   |   0.5545  |  0.4933   |  0.4036
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |     4.1    |     --    |   0.59    |   0.54
+             |  2 |    11.2    |     --    |   2.09    |   2.80
+             |  3 |    14.9    |   11.02   |   5.13    |   5.10
+             |  4 |    14.4    |   11.53   |   7.56    |   6.00
+             |  5 |    14.4    |   11.03   |   8.68    |   6.27
+             |  6 |    14.2    |     --    |    --     |   7.09
+             |  7 |     --     |   10.53   |  10.11    |    --
+             |  8 |    14.2    |   10.74   |    --     |   8.39
+             |  9 |     --     |   10.47   |   9.65    |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |    14.2    |   10.27   |    --     |   8.01
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |   9.43    |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |    14.2    |   10.22   |    --     |   8.55
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |   9.77    |    --
+             | 14 |    14.2    |     --    |    --     |   9.13
+             | 15 |     --     |    9.80   |   9.73    |    --
+             | 16 |    14.2    |     --    |    --     |   9.27
+             | 17 |     --     |    9.25   |    --     |    --
+             | 18 |    14.5    |     --    |   9.33    |    --
+             | 19 |     --     |    8.86   |    --     |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Film crys-  |           |           |Sticky, end of
+                  |tallized and|           |           |1st and 2d
+                  |remained    |           |           |days; dry but
+                  |soft until  |           |           |drawn, end of
+                  |3d day. Hard|           |           |10th day.
+                  |but opaque  |           |           |
+                  |film shown  |           |           |
+                  |after 4th   |           |           |
+                  |day.        |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  (_b_) RAW CHINESE WOOD OIL    20 PER CENT.
+        RAW LINSEED OIL         80 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.2087   |   0.2967  |  0.3683   |  0.2285
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |     9.0    |   14.46   |  14.37    |  11.99
+             |  2 |    12.1    |   13.11   |  13.66    |  11.90
+             |  3 |    12.9    |   11.72   |  13.11    |  10.14
+             |  4 |    12.8    |   10.68   |  12.41    |   9.30
+             |  5 |    12.8    |    9.77   |  11.78    |   9.08
+             |  6 |    12.8    |     --    |    --     |   9.30
+             |  7 |     --     |    8.66   |  10.51    |    --
+             |  8 |    12.7    |    8.86   |    --     |   9.70
+             |  9 |     --     |    8.80   |   8.72    |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |    12.6    |    8.49   |    --     |   8.90
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |   7.0     |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |    12.6    |    8.15   |    --     |   7.34
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |   8.82    |    --
+             | 14 |    12.5    |     --    |    --     |   7.78
+             | 15 |     --     |    8.05   |   8.39    |    --
+             | 16 |    12.5    |     --    |    --     |    --
+             | 17 |     --     |    7.41   |    --     |    --
+             | 18 |    12.7    |     --    |   7.98    |    --
+             | 19 |     --     |    7.04   |    --     |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Clear and   |           |           |Dry at end of
+                  |firm film   |           |           |1st day.
+                  |shown after |           |           |
+                  |3d day.     |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  TABLE XIII.--(_a_) CHINESE WOOD OIL (TREATED)    100 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.1678   |   0.4159  |  0.2934   |  0.3937
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |[13]38.0    |[13]19.06  |[13]0.92   |   3.53
+             |  2 |[13]30.0    |[13]20.16  |[13]0.41   |   3.58
+             |  3 |[13]28.0    |[13]20.47  |    0.72   |   3.25
+             |  4 |[13]28.0    |[13]20.47  |    0.79   |   3.25
+             |  5 |[13]28.0    |[13]20.80  |    0.13   |   3.33
+             |  6 |[13]28.0    |     --    |     --    |   2.93
+             |  7 |     --     |[13]21.09  |    0.22   |    --
+             |  8 |[13]28.0    |[13]20.87  |     --    |   2.55
+             |  9 |     --     |[13]20.98  |    0.46   |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |    27.5    |[13]20.78  |     --    |   3.40
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |    0.44   |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |[13]26.0    |[13]20.70  |     --    |   3.23
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |    0.43   |    --
+             | 14 |[13]26.0    |     --    |     --    |   2.61
+             | 15 |     --     |[13]20.97  |    0.42   |    --
+             | 16 |[13]26.0    |     --    |     --    |   2.48
+             | 17 |     --     |[13]21.22  |     --    |    --
+             | 18 |[13]26.2    |     --    |    0.43   |    --
+             | 19 |     --     |[13]21.11  |     --    |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Loss ob-    |           |           |Dry at end of
+                  |served due  |           |           |1st day.
+                  |to presence |           |           |
+                  |of vola-    |           |           |
+                  |tiles. Firm,|           |           |
+                  |clear film  |           |           |
+                  |shown at end|           |           |
+                  |of 1st day. |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  [13] Lost in weight throughout test.
+
+  TABLE XIII.--(_b_) CHINESE WOOD OIL (TREATED)    20 PER CENT.
+                     RAW LINSEED OIL               80 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.1638   |   0.6572  |  0.4892   |  0.2644
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |     8.4    |    9.25   |   8.93    |   3.21
+             |  2 |     9.4    |    8.07   |   8.71    |   3.48
+             |  3 |     9.8    |    7.36   |   8.44    |   2.15
+             |  4 |     9.7    |    6.75   |   8.16    |   1.58
+             |  5 |     9.9    |    6.25   |   7.95    |   1.56
+             |  6 |     9.9    |     --    |    --     |   1.77
+             |  7 |      --    |    5.49   |   6.75    |    --
+             |  8 |    10.0    |    5.87   |    --     |   2.30
+             |  9 |      --    |    5.70   |   5.99    |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |     9.6    |    5.67   |    --     |   1.62
+  Increase   | 11 |      --    |     --    |   5.50    |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |     9.5    |    4.37   |    --     |   0.86
+  in Days.   | 13 |      --    |     --    |   6.40    |    --
+             | 14 |     9.5    |     --    |    --     |   1.50
+             | 15 |      --    |    5.15   |   6.01    |    --
+             | 16 |     9.5    |     --    |    --     |    --
+             | 17 |      --    |    4.69   |    --     |    --
+             | 18 |     9.6    |     --    |   5.87    |    --
+             | 19 |      --    |    4.17   |    --     |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Clear and   |           |           |Dry at end of
+                  |hard film   |           |           |1st day.
+                  |shown during|           |           |
+                  |2d day.     |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+---------------
+
+  TABLE XIV.--(_a_) 20 PER CENT. DRY ROSIN IN 80 PER CENT. LINSEED OIL
+                    100 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.2030   |     --    |  0.5185   |  0.2554
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |    12.0    |     --    |   3.76    |   1.80
+             |  2 |    14.1    |     --    |   8.76    |  11.78
+             |  3 |    14.8    |     --    |   9.20    |  12.17
+             |  4 |    14.2    |     --    |   9.20    |  12.29
+             |  5 |    14.5    |     --    |   8.49    |  12.02
+             |  6 |    14.0    |     --    |    --     |  12.49
+             |  7 |     --     |     --    |   9.07    |    --
+             |  8 |    14.1    |     --    |    --     |  13.15
+             |  9 |     --     |     --    |   9.01    |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |    14.1    |     --    |    --     |  11.85
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |   9.09    |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |    14.0    |     --    |    --     |  11.78
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |  10.50    |    --
+             | 14 |    14.0    |     --    |    --     |  12.69
+             | 15 |     --     |     --    |  10.16    |    --
+             | 16 |    14.0    |     --    |    --     |  12.83
+             | 17 |     --     |     --    |    --     |    --
+             | 18 |    14.1    |     --    |  10.18    |    --
+             | 19 |     --     |     --    |    --     |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Rapid drying|           |           |Oily, end 1st
+                  |observed.   |           |           |and 2d days;
+                  |Hard film   |           |           |slightly
+                  |shown during|           |           |tacky, end
+                  |2d day.     |           |           |10th day.
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+---------------
+
+  (_b_) 20 PER CENT. DRY ROSIN IN 80 PER CENT. LINSEED OIL  20 PER CENT.
+        RAW LINSEED OIL                                     80 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.1500   |   0.7105  |  0.4568   |     --
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |    10.9    |   14.19   |  12.86    |     --
+             |  2 |    13.5    |   13.17   |  12.73    |     --
+             |  3 |    13.6    |   11.84   |  12.13    |     --
+             |  4 |    13.0    |   11.46   |  12.02    |     --
+             |  5 |    13.0    |   10.87   |  11.30    |     --
+             |  6 |    13.0    |     --    |    --     |     --
+             |  7 |     --     |    9.80   |  10.95    |     --
+             |  8 |    13.1    |   10.33   |    --     |     --
+             |  9 |     --     |   10.40   |  11.21    |     --
+  Percentage | 10 |    13.1    |   10.04   |    --     |     --
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |  10.53    |     --
+  in Weight, | 12 |    13.0    |   10.35   |    --     |     --
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |  11.21    |     --
+             | 14 |    12.9    |     --    |    --     |     --
+             | 15 |     --     |    9.64   |  10.88    |     --
+             | 16 |    13.0    |     --    |    --     |     --
+             | 17 |     --     |    8.98   |    --     |     --
+             | 18 |    13.2    |     --    |  11.43    |     --
+             | 19 |     --     |    8.62   |    --     |     --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Clear, hard |           |           |
+                  |film after  |           |           |
+                  |2d day.     |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  TABLE XV.--(_a_) RAW LINSEED OIL    100 PER CENT.[14]
+
+  ----------------+-----------+-----------
+   Observer.      |   Sabin   |  Pickard
+                  |           |
+  ----------------+-----------+-----------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.5274  |  0.5326
+  Test, grams     |           |
+  -----------+----+-----------+-----------
+             |  1 |    0.26   |  12.42
+             |  2 |    0.51   |  12.39
+             |  3 |    0.11   |  11.88
+             |  4 |    2.35   |  11.83
+             |  5 |    9.14   |  11.08
+             |  6 |     --    |    --
+             |  7 |   14.48   |  10.29
+             |  8 |   14.48   |    --
+             |  9 |   14.18   |   9.56
+  Percentage | 10 |   13.86   |    --
+  Increase   | 11 |     --    |   9.85
+  in Weight, | 12 |   13.00   |    --
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --    |  10.30
+             | 14 |     --    |    --
+             | 15 |   12.23   |  10.12
+             | 16 |     --    |    --
+             | 17 |   11.66   |    --
+             | 18 |     --    |  10.78
+             | 19 |   11.07   |    --
+  -----------+----+-----------+-----------
+  Remarks.        |           |
+  ----------------+-----------+-----------
+
+  [14] The test of this oil was made without the addition of 5 per cent.
+       of drier, the quantity used in all the other tests.
+
+  (_b_) DRIER    100 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+--------------
+   Observer.      | { Rogers }
+                  | { North  }
+  ----------------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |  0.3445
+  Test, grams     |
+  -----------+----+--------------
+             |  1 |  48.95
+             |  2 |  48.53
+             |  3 |  48.68
+             |  4 |  48.68
+             |  5 |  48.48
+             |  6 |  48.26
+             |  7 |    --
+             |  8 |  48.43
+             |  9 |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |  48.89
+  Increase   | 11 |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |  48.22
+  in Days.   | 13 |    --
+             | 14 |  48.22
+             | 15 |    --
+             | 16 |    --
+             | 17 |    --
+             | 18 |    --
+             | 19 |    --
+  -----------+----+--------------
+  Remarks.        | Dry at end of
+                  | 1st day.
+  ----------------+--------------
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+PAINT PIGMENTS AND THEIR PROPERTIES
+
+
+For the student of paint technology, who is not already acquainted with
+the chemistry and physics of the various raw pigments which are largely
+used in the manufacture of paints, the writer advises a careful reading
+of this chapter, in which the matter has been condensed as much as
+possible. In order to more thoroughly acquaint the reader with the
+physical constitution of the pigments under consideration, there has
+been included photomicrographs, which show to advantage the structure of
+each.[15]
+
+  [15] The author gratefully acknowledges the assistance of Dr. J. A.
+       Schaeffer in the preparation of the photomicrographs shown in
+       this chapter.
+
+[Illustration: By Polarized Light
+
+By Transmitted Light
+
+Basic Carbonate-White Lead]
+
+=Basic Carbonate-White Lead.= This pigment is made by stacking clay pots
+containing dilute acetic acid and lead buckles, in tiers, and covering
+them with tan bark. Fermentation of the tan bark, with subsequent
+formation of carbon dioxide acting on the acetate of lead formed within
+the pots, produces basic carbonate of lead. After complete corrosion,
+the white lead is ground, floated, and dried. Corroded white lead has a
+specific gravity of 6.8 and contains about 85% lead oxide and 15% of
+carbon dioxide and water. Its opaque nature and excellent body renders
+it extremely valuable as a constituent of paints. Checking and chalking
+progress rapidly when the pigment is used alone. The various sized
+particles, both large and small, resulting from the corrosion process,
+are prominently shown in the photomicrograph.
+
+[Illustration: Crystals of Cerussite in Old Dutch Process White Lead.
+(Greatly magnified)]
+
+[Illustration: White Lead (Quick Process)]
+
+On account of its alkaline nature, this pigment acts upon the
+saponifiable oil in which it is ground, forming lead soaps which
+accelerate chalking of white lead--the greatest evil attending its use.
+Solubility in carbonic acid of the atmosphere and decay in the presence
+of sodium chloride may be active causes of the rapid chalking of this
+pigment at the seashore. Checking in some climates appears to proceed
+rapidly on white lead paints, in a deep hexagonal form, leaving a series
+of rough crests and cracks. This checking is secondary to the chalking
+which takes place.
+
+[Illustration: Corrosion cylinders used for making Quick Process White
+Lead]
+
+[Illustration: Lead Melting Pots]
+
+=White Lead (Quick Process).= By acting on atomized metallic lead,
+contained within large revolving wooden cylinders, with dilute acetic
+acid and carbon dioxide, the quick-process white lead is produced. Its
+value is equal to the Dutch-process white lead, and it is considered by
+some as possessing greater spreading value.
+
+[Illustration: Sheet iron box luted at bottom with water. Atomized lead,
+blown into box with steam, falls to bottom and becomes hydrated (Mild
+Process)]
+
+[Illustration: _Photographs courtesy of Stowe Neal_
+
+View of agitation tanks for making Mild Process Lead]
+
+[Illustration: Steam Jected Pans for Drying White Lead]
+
+=White Lead (Mild Process).= The Mild Process of manufacturing white
+lead consists of first melting the pig lead and converting it into the
+finest kind of lead powder, then mixing thoroughly with air and water.
+The lead takes up water and oxygen and forms a basic hydroxide of lead.
+Carbon dioxide gas is next pumped slowly through the cylinders which
+contain the basic hydroxide of lead. The result is basic carbonate of
+lead--the dry white lead of commerce. The process is called "Mild"
+because it is the mildest process possible for the manufacture of white
+lead. It is the only method in practical operation which does not
+require the use of acids, alkalis or other chemicals, every trace of
+which should be removed from the finished product by expensive purifying
+processes. The failure of such washing and purifying means a product of
+inferior quality, which necessarily reduces the durability of any paint
+in which it is used.
+
+=Basic Sulphate-White Lead (Sublimed White Lead).= By the action of the
+oxygen of the air on the fume produced by the roasting and subsequent
+volatilization of galena, this fine, white, amorphous pigment is made.
+On analysis, its composition shows approximately 75% of lead sulphate,
+20% of lead oxide, and 5% of zinc oxide. It has a specific gravity of
+6.2. Possessed of extreme stability, it finds wide use as a constituent
+of paints and as a base for tinting colors. The photomicrograph of this
+pigment shows its extremely fine, amorphous nature with complete absence
+of crystals. In fineness it closely approaches zinc oxide. On account of
+its non-poisonous properties it is replacing corroded lead in many
+places. Unified paints containing sublimed white lead are of great
+value, showing upon long exposure very little decay.
+
+[Illustration: View of Furnace for Making Sublimed White Lead]
+
+[Illustration: View of Goosenecks Used for Collecting Sublimed White
+Lead Fume]
+
+[Illustration: Bag Room Where Sublimed White Lead is Deposited
+
+_Photographs courtesy of Picher Lead Co._]
+
+[Illustration: Sublimed White Lead]
+
+[Illustration: View of largest Zinc Oxide Works in America, at Hazards,
+Pa.]
+
+
+=Sublimed Blue Lead.= Sublimed blue lead is made by burning coarsely
+broken lumps of galena, admixed with bituminous coal, in a special form
+of furnace. The fumes which are volatilized from this mixture are very
+complex in their chemical make-up, and in color are white, blue, and
+black. After being drawn through the cooling pipes by the suction of
+huge fans, whereby the fumes are cooled, the pigment is deposited in
+bags. This pigment is bluish black in color, and has been highly
+recommended for use on iron and steel. Its composition runs
+approximately as follows:
+
+  Lead sulphate      50%
+  Lead oxide         35%
+  Lead sulphide       5%
+  Lead sulphite       5%
+  Zinc oxide          2%
+  Carbon              3%
+
+[Illustration: View of Zinc Oxide Furnaces]
+
+[Illustration: _Photographs courtesy Geo. B. Heckel and N. J. Zinc Co._
+
+View of Zinc Oxide Fume Pipes with electrically driven Suction Fans]
+
+The color of the pigment is largely due to the carbon and the lead
+sulphide. Its specific gravity is 6.4, and it grinds in 10% of oil to a
+stiff paste, 100 lbs. of which may be thinned with about 26 lbs. of oil
+to working consistency. Paint manufacturers use it in mixture with iron
+oxide and other pigments for the production of paints for metal
+surfaces. Wood and others have found it of great value for this purpose.
+It has a tendency to chalk, but this may be overcome by admixture with
+other pigments such as zinc oxide and iron oxide. Lane has found it to
+be very durable when admixed with lampblack.
+
+[Illustration: View of Bag Room receiving Zinc Oxide]
+
+=Zinc Oxide.= This extremely white and fine pigment is prepared by the
+roasting and sublimation of franklinite, zincite, and other zinc-bearing
+ores largely found in New Jersey. Its purity approaches in most
+instances 99.5 or more. It has a specific gravity of 5.2. On account of
+its stability, whiteness, and opacity, it is invaluable as a pigment
+when a constituent in a combination formula. Its extreme hardness
+renders it less resistant to temperature changes, when used alone. Under
+the microscope the fineness and structure of the particles are clearly
+evident. The French-process zinc oxide produced in America by the
+sublimation and oxidation of spelter is the purest made, and superior to
+imported grades which often contain ultramarine blue as a whitening
+agent.
+
+[Illustration: Zinc Oxide]
+
+[Illustration: Zinc Lead White]
+
+[Illustration: Zinc Lead. By transmitted light
+
+(_The Pigment shows black_)]
+
+[Illustration: Lithopone]
+
+[Illustration: Magnesium Silicate (Asbestine)]
+
+=Zinc Lead White.= This extremely fine pigment, consisting of about
+equal parts of zinc oxide and lead sulphate, results from the reduction,
+volatilization and subsequent oxidation of sulphur-bearing lead and zinc
+ores. It has a specific gravity of 4.4. Its slightly yellowish tint bars
+it from being used alone very extensively, but when mixed with white
+lead, zinc oxide and inert pigments, or used as a base for colored
+paints, it is of considerable value. The magnification of the particles
+shows the peculiar way in which the pigment agglomerates, and the
+characteristics of a fine, uniform pigment.
+
+[Illustration: Asbestine Mine at Easton, Pa.]
+
+[Illustration: American Barytes. Transmitted light
+
+(_The Pigment shows black_)]
+
+[Illustration: German Barytes. Mag. 250 Diam.
+
+(_The Pigment shows white_)]
+
+=Lithopone.= Lithopone, probably the whitest of pigments, results from
+the double decomposition of zinc sulphate and barium sulphide, thereby
+forming a molecular combination of zinc sulphide and barium sulphate.
+The peculiar property which it possesses, of darkening under the actinic
+rays of the sun, makes it essential that it be combined with other, more
+stable pigments to prolong its life when exposed to weather. Lithopone
+contains approximately 70% barium sulphate, 25 to 28% zinc sulphide, and
+as high as 5% of zinc oxide. Its specific gravity is about 4.25. It is
+excellently suited for interior use in the manufacture of enamels and
+wall finishes. When properly mixed with other pigments, such as zinc
+oxide and calcium carbonate, fair results are obtained as a pigment for
+outside work. Lead pigments are never used with lithopone, as lead
+sulphide results, giving a black appearance. Its characteristic
+flocculent, non-crystalline nature is plainly evident when examined
+under the microscope.
+
+[Illustration: By Polarized Light
+
+By Transmitted Light
+
+Barium Sulphate (Barytes)]
+
+=Magnesium Silicate (Asbestine and Talcose).= This pigment comes in two
+forms: as asbestine and as talcose (talc, etc.). The former is very
+fibrous in nature and is a very stable pigment to use in the manufacture
+of paint, on account of its inert nature and tendency to hold up heavier
+pigments, and prevent settling. It also has the property of
+strengthening a paint coat in which it is used. The talcose variety is
+very tabular in form. Both varieties are transparent in oil, and very
+inert. They have a gravity of about 2.7 and grind in about 32% of oil.
+
+[Illustration: Barium Carbonate. Mag. 250 Diam.
+
+(_The Pigment shows white_)]
+
+[Illustration: Barium Sulphate (Blanc Fixe)]
+
+[Illustration: Calcium Carbonate (Whiting)]
+
+[Illustration: Calcium Carbonate. By transmitted light
+
+(_The Pigment shows black_)]
+
+[Illustration: Calcium Sulphate. By transmitted light
+
+(_The Pigment shows black_)]
+
+[Illustration: Calcium Sulfate]
+
+[Illustration: Calcium Sulphate (Gypsum)]
+
+[Illustration: Silica (Silex)]
+
+[Illustration: Silex. Mag. 250 Diam.
+
+(_The Pigment shows white_)]
+
+[Illustration: China Clay. By transmitted light
+
+(_The Pigment shows black_)]
+
+=Barium Sulphate (Barytes).= By grinding the crude ore, treating with
+acid to remove the iron, and finally washing, floating, and drying,
+there is produced the commercial form of this valuable pigment. It is
+used in large quantity as a base upon which to precipitate colors, and
+also together with other white pigments in the manufacture of
+ready-mixed paints. It renders the paint coating more resistant to
+abrasion, and gives to the paint certain very important brushing
+qualities. It is a very stable pigment, not being materially affected by
+either acid or alkali, and can be used with the most delicate colors. In
+oil it is transparent and must be mixed with opaque pigments when used
+in ready-mixed paints. It is generally used with lighter pigments, such
+as asbestine, in order to prevent settling. Under the microscope, both
+by polarized and transmitted light, the sharp angles of the particles
+appear distinctly, with no tendency to mass into a compact form.
+Although transparent in oil, it is valuable in moderate percentage in a
+ready-mixed paint.
+
+=Barium Sulphate (Blanc Fixe).= Blanc fixe is the precipitated form of
+barium sulphate, resulting from the action of soluble barium salts on
+soluble sulphates. The specific gravity (4.2) of this compound is lower
+than that of barytes. Possessing greater opacity in oil, it is of more
+value as a paint pigment for some purposes. It comes in for its greatest
+use as a base on which to precipitate lake colors. The very fine
+particles show a slight tendency to agglomerate.
+
+=Calcium Carbonate (Whiting).= The natural form of calcium carbonate,
+prepared from chalk, has a much higher specific gravity (2.74) than that
+of the artificial form (2.5) prepared by the precipitation of calcium
+carbonate. The latter, however, possesses greater hiding properties.
+Both grades find a wide use in distemper work and in the manufacture of
+putty. It is often used in small percentage in many ready-mixed paints.
+The photomicrograph of the pigment shows the presence of many large
+particles.
+
+=Calcium Sulphate (Gypsum).= The mineral gypsum, consisting of calcium
+sulphate and about 21% of water of combination, is sometimes used as a
+paint pigment after grinding and dehydration. Being slightly soluble in
+water it has a tendency to pass into solution when exposed to
+atmospheric agencies. It lacks hiding power in oil. Its specific gravity
+is 2.3. As in the case of all pigments prepared directly from mineral
+substances, the many-sized and shaped particles appear clearly when
+enlarged. Partially and wholly dehydrated forms of gypsum are also used
+in paint.
+
+=Silica (Silex.)= This white pigment possesses great tooth and spreading
+properties. It is of use as a wood filler and as a constituent in
+combination paints. It wears especially well when used in combination
+with zinc oxide and white lead. Its purity often approaches 97%. The
+particles when enlarged are seen to have sharp angles and are not
+uniform in size, which accounts for its marked tooth and properties.
+
+[Illustration: Aluminum Silicate (China Clay)]
+
+[Illustration: Ochre]
+
+[Illustration: Raw
+
+Burnt
+
+Sienna]
+
+[Illustration: Raw
+
+Burnt
+
+Umber]
+
+=Aluminum Silicate (China Clay).= China clay, or aluminum silicate, is a
+permanent and valuable white pigment showing very little hiding power in
+oil. It is found widely distributed in granitic formations. It is very
+stable, with a gravity of 2.6. Particles are found in many shapes and
+sizes, showing sharp and definite angles.
+
+=Ochre.= Ochre is a hydrated ferric oxide permeating a clay base,
+largely used as a tinting material. It has a specific gravity of about
+3.5, and a decidedly golden yellow color. A good quality should contain
+20% or over of iron oxide. The particles of this pigment are flocculent
+and very uniform in appearance.
+
+=Sienna.= Sienna, like umber, is essentially a silicate of iron and
+alumina, containing manganic oxide. It contains, however, a lower
+percentage of the latter than in the case of umbers. The photomicrograph
+of the burnt variety shows clearly the fine condition of the pigment,
+while large particles are shown in the raw variety.
+
+=Umber.= Umber, another naturally occurring pigment, consists of iron
+and aluminum silicates, containing varying proportions of manganic
+oxide, its color and tone varying according to the percentage of the
+latter. The raw variety is drab in color, which in burning changes to
+reddish brown. A marked percentage of large-sized particles exist in
+this pigment.
+
+=Indian Red.= Indian red is the term applied to natural hematite ore
+pigments and to those produced by the roasting of copperas (iron
+sulphate). They generally contain 95% or more of iron oxide, with
+varying percentages of silica. The pigment is heavier (specific gravity
+5.2) than that of Metallic Brown. The crystalline, mineral-like
+structure of the particles differ greatly from the amorphous particles
+of Metallic Brown.
+
+=Metallic Brown.= The natural hydrated iron oxide or carbonate as mined
+largely in Pennsylvania, yields, when roasted, a sesquioxide of iron
+known as Metallic Brown. It contains a high percentage of alumina and
+silica, and has a characteristic brown color with a gravity of 3.1. It
+finds wide application as a pigment for protective purposes. The
+particles when enlarged show the usual appearance of a natural compound
+which has been roasted and ground.
+
+  ==========+=====+===========+==========+=============+=======+=========
+  No. Name  |Iron |   Calc.   | Alumina  |  Insoluble  | Color |
+            |Oxide|  Sulph.   |          |             |(Silica|
+            +-----+-----------+(CaSO_{4})|(Al_{2}O_{3})|  and  |
+            | FeO |Fe_{2}O_{3}|          |             | Sili- |
+            |     |           |          |             | cates)|
+  ----------+-----+-----------+----------+-------------+-------+---------
+            |   % |      %    |     %    |      %      |    %  |
+   0 Bright | 0.71|    96.52  |    --    |     --      |   .30 |Bright
+     Red    |     |           |          |             |       |Scarlet
+   1 Bright |  .71|    95.92  |    --    |     --      |   .30 |Scarlet
+     Red    |     |           |          |             |       |Tone
+   2 Indian |  .57|    96.00  |    .78   |    1.40     |   .90 |Indian
+     Red    |     |           |          |             |       |Red,
+            |     |           |          |             |       |Medium
+            |     |           |          |             |       |Shade
+   3 Indian | 0.29|    97.82  |    .85   |     --      |   .52 |Indian
+     Red    |     |           |          |             |       |Red,
+            |     |           |          |             |       |Dark
+            |     |           |          |             |       |Shade
+   4 Indian | 0.28|    95.72  |   1.21   |    1.26     |   .58 |Indian
+     Red    |     |           |          |             |       |Red,
+            |     |           |          |             |       |Light
+            |     |           |          |             |       |Shade
+   5 Persian| 4.53|    62.25  |   1.75   |     --      | 27.64 |Rich,
+     Gulf   |     |           |          |             |       |Medium
+     Mix    |     |           |          |             |       |Red
+   7 Native | 0.85|    89.00  |    --    |    0.91     |  6.09 |Medium
+     Red    |     |           |          |             |       |Red,
+     Oxide  |     |           |          |             |       |Brownish
+            |     |           |          |             |       |Tone
+   8 Special| 0.57|    43.87  |  50.88   |    2.03     |  1.30 |Scarlet
+     Red    |     |           |          |             |       |Tone
+  10 Red    | 1.44|    60.25  |    .78   |    5.41     | 15.78 |Brownish-
+     Oxide  |     |           |          |             |       |Red
+  11 Vene-  |  .30|    34.08  |  52.60   |    2.20     |  3.39 |Bright
+     tian   |     |           |          |             |       |Red-
+     Red    |     |           |          |             |       |Brown
+  12 B.     | 0.58|    67.68  |    --    |    2.48     |  1.97 |Dark Red
+     Oxide  |     |           |          |             |       |Brown
+  13 Vene-  | 0.29|    25.92  |  58.62   |    2.16     |  1.42 |Medium
+     tian   |     |           |          |             |       |Red
+     Red    |     |           |          |             |       |Tone
+  14 Vene-  | 0.57|    35.36  |    .99   |   12.06     | 47.97 |Brown
+     tian   |     |           |          |             |       |
+     Red    |     |           |          |             |       |
+  15 Metal- | 2.59|    64.00  |    .63   |    5.82     | 23.42 |Rich
+     lic    |     |           |          |             |       |Brown
+     Brown  |     |           |          |             |       |
+  16 Crimson| 0.57|    66.24  |   1.77   |    3.60     | 25.63 |Rich
+     Oxide  |     |           |          |             |       |Dark
+            |     |           |          |             |       |Red
+  17 Red    | 2.30|    80.39  |    .37   |     .03     |  9.63 |Medium
+     Oxide  |     |           |          |             |       |Brown
+  18 Red    | 0.57|    61.28  |    .97   |    2.68     | 15.94 |Light
+     Oxide  |     |           |          |             |       |Choco-
+            |     |           |          |             |       |late
+            |     |           |          |             |       |Brown
+  20 Red    | 7.78|    46.72  |   1.70   |    7.64     | 20.38 |Dark
+     Oxide  |     |           |          |             |       |Reddish
+            |     |           |          |             |       |Brown
+  23 Special| 0.58|    72.48  |    --    |    8.80     |  4.48 |Deep
+     French |     |           |          |             |       |Choco-
+     Oxide  |     |           |          |             |       |late
+            |     |           |          |             |       |Brown
+  24 Mica-  | 2.02|    86.27  |    --    |    2.04     |  9.50 |Dark
+     ceous  |     |           |          |             |       |Gray
+     Black  |     |           |          |             |       |Tone
+     Oxide  |     |           |          |             |       |
+  25 Black  |33.12|    57.12  |    --    |    1.44     |   --  |Jet
+     Oxide  |     |           |          |             |       |Black
+  26 Red    | 0.57|    84.16  |   5.00   |    2.00     |   .63 |Deep
+     Oxide  |     |           |          |             |       |Red
+  27 Special| 0.57|    38.40  |  55.62   |    2.12     |  1.53 |Medium
+     Red    |     |           |          |             |       |Red
+  28 Oxide C|  -- |    30.40  |    .94   |   13.60     | 42.30 |Brown
+  ==========+=====+===========+==========+=============+=======+=========
+
+=Analysis of Iron Oxide Pigments.= Because of the great consideration
+now being given to iron oxide paints, the writer secured a series of
+oxides widely used in this country, and has determined the most
+important constituents of each.
+
+=Basic Lead Chromate (American Vermilion).= By boiling white lead with
+chromate of soda and subsequently treating with small quantities of
+sulphuric acid, American vermilion, or basic lead chromate, is prepared.
+It contains 98% of lead compounds, frequently free chromates, and has a
+gravity of 6.8. The particles appear granular and large, frequently
+assuming a square structure.
+
+=Red Lead.= By the continued oxidation of litharge in reverberatory
+furnaces, red lead is produced as a brilliant red pigment with a
+specific gravity of 8.7. The pigment particles appear to be of many
+sizes, showing a slight tendency to form a compact mass.
+
+=Paranitraniline Red.= Paranitraniline red, a very bright red material
+largely used in tinting paints, is prepared by diazotizing
+paranitraniline in hydrochloric acid by means of sodium nitrite in the
+cold. This compound is rendered insoluble when precipitated directly on
+barytes, by acting on it with an alkaline solution of beta naphthol. It
+is the most stable and permanent bright red organic pigment which the
+paint manufacturer uses. The particles of this pigment appear in various
+sizes, due, no doubt, to a massing of the particles in the precipitation
+process.
+
+=Chrome Yellow.= The neutral chromate of lead, made from either the
+nitrate or acetate of lead and chromate of soda, finds wide use as a
+tinting pigment. When precipitated on a white pigment base, various
+trade names are given to it. The microscope shows clearly the physical
+character of this pigment.
+
+=Zinc Chromate.= This pigment is made either from zinc salts and
+bichromate of potash or zinc oxide heated with chrome salts, frequently
+in the presence of acid. Like the rest of the chromate pigments, it is a
+very slow-drying material, often requiring over a week to set up, unless
+considerable drier is added. In spite of the impurities which it
+carries, it has shown itself to be one of the most inhibitive pigments
+known and has demonstrated its value in even small percentages in paints
+for iron and steel. It dries to a hard adherent film that tends to
+protect metal from corrosion.
+
+[Illustration: Indian Red]
+
+[Illustration: Metallic Brown]
+
+[Illustration: Basic Lead Chromate (American Vermilion)]
+
+[Illustration: Red Lead]
+
+[Illustration: Paranitraniline]
+
+[Illustration: Chrome Yellow]
+
+=Prussian Blue.= On oxidizing the precipitate resulting from the
+interaction of solutions of prussiate of potash and copperas (iron
+sulphate), Prussian blue as used in the paint trade is prepared. It has
+a specific gravity of 1.9. The pigment shows an amorphous structure, the
+particles varying greatly in size.
+
+=Ultramarine Blue.= This bright blue pigment is prepared by burning
+silica, china clay, soda ash and sulphur in pots or furnaces. It has a
+specific gravity of 2.4. It is of little value as a paint pigment on
+account of its sulphur content, which causes darkening when mixed with
+lead pigments, and corrosion when applied to iron or steel. The darkness
+of the photograph is due to the massing of the pigment particles.
+
+=Chrome Green.= Chrome green is prepared as a paint pigment from nitrate
+of lead, Chinese blue, and bichromate of soda. It has a gravity of 4 and
+is liable to contain slight traces of lead salts. The particles when
+magnified appear very fine and flocculent. This color is often
+precipitated on pigments, such as barytes, which do not reduce its tone.
+
+=Bone Black.= By grinding the carbonaceous matter resulting from the
+charring of bones, in iron retorts, the pigment bone black is prepared.
+It contains about 15% of carbon and 85% of calcium phosphate. It has a
+gravity of 2.7. Comparatively large particles of charred bone can be
+seen scattered throughout the mass, resulting from the difficulty of
+grinding to a uniform size.
+
+=Carbon Black.= This form of very pure carbon results from the
+combustion of gas. Its gravity, 1.09, is lower than that of lampblack,
+which shows a gravity of 1.8. It is used in much the same way and for
+the same purposes as lampblack. In physical appearance it shows great
+similarity to the particles of lampblack.
+
+=Lampblack.= This pigment, made from the combustion of oils, consists
+very often of more than 99% carbon. It has wonderful tinting value. The
+particles show a fine, fibrous structure with a tendency toward
+agglomeration. They differ greatly in physical appearance from those of
+either graphite or bone black, being exceedingly more uniform than the
+latter.
+
+[Illustration: Zinc Chromate]
+
+[Illustration: Prussian Blue]
+
+[Illustration: Ultramarine Blue]
+
+[Illustration: Chrome Green]
+
+[Illustration: Bone Black]
+
+[Illustration: Carbon Black]
+
+=Graphite.= Graphite, both in the natural and artificial form, contains
+impurities such as silica, iron oxide and alumina, but the natural form
+has a much greater percentage of these foreign materials, in some cases
+as high as 40%. Graphite is usually mixed with other pigments, such as
+red lead and sublimed blue lead, thus serving better as a paint coating.
+The difference in physical appearance of the various carbon pigments is
+interesting, as each pigment has characteristics of its own. In graphite
+we find a great tendency toward agglomeration or massing of particles.
+
+=Mineral Black.= Mineral black is a pigment made by grinding a black
+form of slate. It contains a comparatively low percentage of carbon and
+consequently has low tinting value. It finds use as an inert pigment in
+compounded paints, especially for machine fillers. The pigment has a
+flocculent appearance, the particles showing a strong tendency to mass.
+
+Photomicrographs of two combination paint pigments are here given, to
+show the various pigments as they appear under the microscope, when in
+combination.
+
+PERCENTAGES OF OIL REQUIRED FOR GRINDING VARIOUS DRY PIGMENTS INTO
+AVERAGE PASTE FORM
+
+  White lead (corroded)                           9%
+  White lead (sublimed)                          10%
+  Zinc lead (American)                           12%
+  French process zinc oxide                      17%
+  American process zinc oxide                    16%
+  Blanc fixe                                     30%
+  Barytes (natural)                               9%
+  Paris white (whiting)                          20%
+  Terra alba (gypsum)                            22%
+  Floated silica or Silex                        26%
+  Kaolin (China clay)                            28%
+  Asbestine                                      32%
+  Blue, ultramarine                              27%
+  Blue, Chinese or Prussian                      50%
+  Black, gas carbon                              82%
+  Black, lamp                                    72%
+  Black, drop                                    60%
+  Black, bone                                    50%
+  Brown, mineral                                 24%
+  Brown, vandyke                                 50%
+  Chrome yellow, lemon                           23%
+  Chrome yellow, medium                          30%
+  Chrome yellow, orange                          20%
+  Chrome yellow, dark orange                     15%
+  Chrome green, Chem. pure light                 21%
+  Chrome green, Chem. pure extra dark            25%
+  Chrome green, 25%, color light                 13%
+  Chrome green, 25%, color extra dark            17%
+  Graphite (pure)                                40%
+  Indian red, (98%)                              20%
+  Ochre, yellow, American                        26%
+  Ochre, yellow, French                          28%
+  Ochre, golden                                  28%
+  Red, Venetian                                  23%
+  Red, Oxide                                     25%
+  Red, Tuscan                                    27%
+  Red, Turkey                                    28%
+  Red, lead                                      12%
+  Red, lake                                      55%
+  Sienna, Italian, raw                           52%
+  Sienna, Italian, burnt                         45%
+  Sienna, American, burnt                        38%
+  Sienna, American, raw                          40%
+  Ultramarine green                              28%
+  Umber, Turkey, raw                             48%
+  Umber, Turkey, burnt                           47%
+  Umber, American, burnt                         36%
+  Umber, American, raw                           38%
+  Verona green (terra verte or green earth)      32%
+  Vermilion, English (quicksilver)               14%
+  Vermilion, American (chrome red)               16%
+  Paris green, American                          23%
+  Zinc chromate (permanent yellow)               15%
+
+[Illustration: Lampblack]
+
+[Illustration: Graphite]
+
+[Illustration: Mineral Black]
+
+[Illustration: Asbestine and Whiting]
+
+[Illustration: Silica and Asbestine]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+PHYSICAL LABORATORY PAINT TESTS
+
+
+For the paint chemist who desires to familiarize himself with the more
+recent analytical methods worked out in American laboratories, reference
+may be had to treatises on the analysis of paints, by Gardner and
+Schaeffer,[16] and Holley and Ladd.[17] Analytical methods are not
+included in this chapter, the writer's desire being to treat the subject
+from the standpoint of the physical properties of painting materials.
+The work outlined herein is of a nature that affords a wide field of
+research, and a brief study will doubtless suggest similar work to the
+student of paint.
+
+  [16] The Analysis of Paints and Painting Materials. McGraw-Hill Book
+       Co., New York, 1910.
+
+  [17] Mixed Paints, Color Pigments and Varnishes. John Wiley & Sons,
+       New York, 1908.
+
+=Preparation of Paint Films.= The study of paint films is one that has
+become of vital importance, and is receiving at the present time great
+attention. Among the many methods which have been suggested and
+attempted for securing paint films, a few already well known may be
+mentioned.
+
+By painting upon zinc and eating away the zinc with acid: The objection
+to this method is very evident, namely, the action of the acid upon the
+paint coating, which is likely to be very severe. Another method has
+been to spread paraffin on a glass plate, and painting upon this
+surface. When the paint is dried, the paraffin is melted off and thus
+the film is obtained. This method is open to objections, in that the
+paraffin surface is not a comparable one upon which to paint, and also
+that the complete removal of the paraffin is not assured.
+
+Another method consists in covering a piece of glass with tin foil,
+painting out the film upon the foil, and after drying properly, to
+remove the sheet of foil with its coating of paint and immerse in a bath
+of mercury which, by amalgamation of the tin, leaves the paint film.
+
+We now come to a method worked out in our laboratories, which can be
+recommended as being not only simple but efficient and practical. It has
+been found that a size from noodle glue, when painted upon ordinary
+fair-quality paper, makes a surface from which the paint may be
+subsequently stripped. The paint is applied in the ordinary way to the
+paper, which is held during the operation by thumb tacks, and allowed to
+dry. The paint may be separated by immersion in water kept at about 50
+degrees Centigrade. By this method large films may be obtained, but it
+has been found very unhandy to work with films exceeding an area of
+eight inches square. When the film of paint has been detached from the
+sized paper through the dissolving of the noodle glue, the paint film is
+then immersed in a fresh solution of water, in order to remove whatever
+excess of noodle glue there may be remaining. A glass rod is then
+introduced into the bath, in which the paint film is floated upon the
+glass rod, which is then hung up to dry in a suitable container to
+prevent the accumulation of dust, etc.
+
+[Illustration: Bottles Showing Relative Permeability of Films by Amount
+of Whiting Formed Within]
+
+=The Permeability of Paint Films.= A series of tests were made to
+determine the water-excluding values of various combinations of painting
+pigments ground in pure linseed oil. White pine boards, six inches long,
+four inches wide, and one inch thick, were carefully prepared and
+numbered and given three coats of a white paint formula of the
+corresponding number. After drying, the boards were carefully weighed
+and immersed in a tub of water for three weeks. After removal, the
+surfaces of the boards were dried with blotting paper and the boards
+weighed. The gain in weight, corresponding to the amount of water
+penetrating through the pores of the wood, was observed. The boards were
+again immersed and at the end of two months the following results were
+obtained:
+
+                                  Grammes of water
+  Formula                            absorbed
+    No.                            through paint
+
+   1. Soya bean oil                    120
+   2. Linseed oil                      102
+   3. Calcium sulphate                  93
+   4. Barytes                           88
+   5. Asbestine                         74
+   6. Corroded white lead               59
+      { Basic carb.--White lead  25% }
+      { Basic sulph.--White lead 20% }
+   7. { Zinc oxide               25% }  58
+      { Calcium sulphate         25% }
+      { Calcium carbonate         5% }
+   8. Sublimed white lead               56
+   9. Zinc oxide                        56
+       { Zinc lead white         30%  }
+  10.  { Zinc oxide              40%  } 42
+       { Basic carb.--White lead 20%  }
+       { Calcium carbonate       10%  }
+  11. { Basic carb.--White lead  50% }  42
+      { Zinc oxide               50% }
+       { Basic carb.--White lead 38%  }
+  12.  { Zinc oxide              48%  } 38
+       { Silica                  14%  }
+
+The test boards were then exposed, with their content of water, to the
+action of the sun's rays. Blistering of the painted surfaces took place
+in many cases, caused by the rapid withdrawal of the water and its
+consequent action on the paint film. The tests seem to indicate that a
+mixture of white lead and zinc oxide, with or without a small percentage
+of the inert pigments, is not as subject to the action of the water as
+the single pigment paints. In order, however, to corroborate these
+tests, it occurred to the writer to develop a more visible means of
+demonstrating the passage of moisture through paint films.
+
+[Illustration: Bell Jar Apparatus for Testing Permeability of Paint
+Films
+
+Paint films sealed over mouths of Bottles containing Lime Water.
+Carbonic Acid Gas generated under Bell Jar passes through Plate Films
+and precipitates Calcium Carbonate]
+
+Another series of white pine boards were therefore soaked in a solution
+of iron sulphate for several hours. After removal, the surface of each
+board was dried and coated with one coat of the paints previously
+tested. After thorough drying for forty-eight hours, there was placed on
+the surface of each board a few drops of a solution of potassium
+ferrocyanide. This solution has the effect of producing a blue
+coloration with iron sulphate, and in every case when it was placed on a
+paint of considerable porosity, the solution penetrated through and
+formed a blue coloration beneath the paint. The results corroborated the
+original tests referred to above.
+
+A series of sheets or films of paints were then prepared according to
+the method referred to on page 71. These films were placed over glass
+dialyzing cups, allowing the inner surfaces to sag so as to hold a small
+amount of dilute ammonium chloride solution. Distilled water was placed
+on the reverse side of the dialyzing apparatus and the tests started. At
+the end of six days the distilled water in each test was examined and
+the following results obtained:
+
+     Test No. 1 (corroded white lead and asbestine film) allowed the
+     passage of 0.002 gm. ammonium chloride. Test No. 2 (corroded
+     white lead and zinc oxide film) allowed the passage of 0.0003 gm.
+     ammonium chloride.
+
+Tests were also made with dilute solutions of other salts such as ferric
+chloride, having a dilute solution of potassium sulpho-cyanide on the
+reverse side of the apparatus. In the latter case the formation of a
+pink color, characteristic upon the mingling of these solutions, was
+obtained in a few hours.
+
+=Film-Testing Machine.= A film-testing apparatus, termed a "filmometer"
+by its originator, Mr. R. S. Perry, was constructed, with the following
+features: A graduated upright tube is fixed by means of sealing wax to
+two metallic plates which carry an evenly bored hole, exactly under the
+hole in the upright tube. This hole measures exactly one square
+centimeter in area, and is circular. The upright tube is graduated into
+lineal centimeters and is called the pressure tube.
+
+[Illustration: Gardner Accelerated Test Box]
+
+[Illustration: Perry Film Testing Machine]
+
+Attached to the lower end of this pressure tube, close to the metallic
+plates which serve as carriers for the paint film to be tested, is a
+side-neck, which is inclined at an angle of 45 degrees to the pressure
+tube, and serves the purpose of introducing the mercury, as will be
+described later. Immediately under the openings in the metallic plates
+which carry the film are arranged two pieces of iron inclined at a
+90-degree angle, so arranged that when the pressure of mercury is
+applied and causes rupture of the film, the falling mercury shall be
+caught between these two insulated plates and cause contact. These two
+plates are connected up by wire with a pair of magnets, thence to an
+electric bell, and from there to storage batteries which supply the
+current.
+
+A film of paint is tested in the following manner: A piece of film one
+inch square is cut out and placed between the two metallic plates which
+hold the film immediately under the pressure tube. Mercury is run in
+from a burette through the side-neck and applies pressure upon the film
+by gravity. As the mercury is run in it rises of course in the tubes
+until this pressure becomes so great as to finally break the film. At
+this point the mercury will run out, and, falling upon the two insulated
+iron plates immediately below, will cause contact and close the circuit
+which rings an electric bell, which is a signal for the operator to shut
+off the inflow of mercury through the side-neck from the burette.
+
+The pressure tube is also supplied with a piston which is made of a
+piece of thin iron wire having a disc attached to its lower end. As the
+mercury rises in the pressure tube this iron wire is pushed up, being
+very delicately counterpoised over a wheel. Upon the breaking of the
+film the mercury runs out, but upon falling upon the two iron plates
+underneath causes contact to be made, which causes the current to run
+through the pair of magnets before mentioned, which, becoming
+electrified, attract the piston in the pressure tube, giving a reading
+for the maximum height of the column of mercury.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram of Perry Filmometer]
+
+The supply of mercury being shut off, the operator is now in a position
+to determine the total sum of both the elasticity and ductility of the
+paint film, and also the pressure at which the film broke. The breaking
+pressure of course is read directly upon the pressure column, which is
+divided into centimeters as has been described above, the piston
+indicating the maximum height of the mercury column. What may be termed
+the elasticity of the film can now be calculated. As is perfectly
+evident, the film in stretching does so by distending from a flat
+surface to a curved or cup-like surface. If the pressure tube is
+calibrated in cubic centimeters reckoned from a flat surface where the
+film was introduced, the stretch of the paint film in distending from a
+flat surface to a curved surface may be determined. The cubic contents
+of the pressure tube and side-arm become increased, owing to the
+cup-like shape the paint film takes on. By subtracting the amount of
+mercury indicated by the piston in the pressure tube from the amount of
+mercury delivered from the burette, the amount contained in the
+distended paint film is obtained, which serves as a measure of
+elasticity. The temperature is a most important point to consider in
+running daily tests upon the filmometer. The tests made by the writer
+were conducted at 70 degrees Fahrenheit throughout.
+
+[Illustration: Gardner-de Horvath film testing apparatus]
+
+=Gardner-de Horvath Filmometer.= Another type of filmometer which gives
+very concordant results was recently devised by the writer and de
+Horvath. This apparatus is shown above.
+
+It consists of a three-necked Wolff bottle having provision at one of
+its necks for exhausting the air from the bottle. The reverse neck is
+provided with a gauged glass tube dipping into a porcelain crucible
+containing mercury, thus acting as a manometer. The middle neck is
+fitted to accommodate two ground glass plates. Both these plates are
+provided with a central orifice one millimeter in diameter. Between the
+plates is placed a small section of paint film. The plates may be
+pressed together or clamped together and placed over the middle neck of
+the bottle, a close contact being made with Canada balsam. As the air is
+exhausted from the bottle, the mercury in the tube will rise and
+continue in its ascent until the film, which is exposed to atmospheric
+pressure, has offered it maximum resistance, which is shown by the
+breaking point. This point is observed on the manometer and the result
+expressed in centimeters of mercury.
+
+=Table of Film Testing Results.= By means of the Perry film-testing
+apparatus, described in the above, interesting results have been
+obtained, which are embodied in the following table:
+
+COMPARATIVE STRENGTHS OF FILMS AS OBTAINED BY THE BREAKING MACHINE
+
+  ============================+=========+==========+===========+========
+                              |No. Coats| Pressure | Thickness | Stretch
+  ----------------------------+---------+----------+-----------+--------
+   1. Zinc oxide              |    3    |   33.2   |    0028   |  .30
+   2. Zinc lead               |    3    |   32.7   |    0034   |  .35
+   3. Asbestine               |    3    |   28.0   |    0045   |  .15
+   4. Sublimed white lead     |    3    |   17.9   |    0024   |  .38
+   5. Barytes                 |    3    |   13.3   |    0042   |  .33
+   6. Lithopone               |    3    |   13.1   |    0024   |  .49
+   7. Whiting                 |    3    |   13.0   |    0033   |  .32
+   8. Quick process white lead|    3    |   11.3   |    0025   |  .38
+   9. Gypsum                  |    3    |   10.8   |    0039   |  .29
+  10. China clay              |    3    |   10.8   |    0035   |  .16
+  11. Silex                   |    3    |    9.6   |    0032   |  .32
+  12. Blanc fixe              |    3    |    8.5   |    0030   |  .28
+  13. Corroded white lead     |    3    |    7.3   |    0020   |  .33
+  14. Barium carbonate        |    3    |    7.2   |    0028   |  .16
+  ============================+=========+==========+===========+========
+
+By means of this machine it is possible to obtain very valuable
+information concerning the effect of age upon a paint as influencing its
+strength and elasticity. These are two vital qualities in a paint, as it
+is through its strength that a paint resists abrasion, cracking,
+peeling, and blistering. That elasticity is a vital qualification of a
+paint may easily be seen through the checking of oil paintings, which,
+as Ostwalt has pointed out, is due to the unequal coefficients of
+expansion between the ground and the paint. This is particularly
+noticeable in the alligatoring of many enamels which contain large
+percentages of zinc.
+
+Curves have been prepared having pressure as an abscissa and elasticity
+as ordinate. These curves show remarkable differences in different
+pigments. For instance, in the case of white lead, the curve takes a
+steep upward trend when it apparently reaches a maximum, the curve then
+flattening out and finally taking another steep upward trend just before
+breaking. This may be construed as follows: That under low pressures the
+white lead film is perfectly elastic, when a maximum is obtained, beyond
+which elasticity does not extend. This point is the maximum point of the
+upward trend. From here on pressure may be applied without any increase
+in stretch, this being represented by the flat part of the curve, while
+the steep upward trend just before breaking shows where the paint begins
+to tear, finally culminating in breaking. In the case of asbestine,
+however, the curve is more of a straight line up to the breaking point,
+which would go to prove that elasticity is proportionate to pressure in
+the case of this pigment.
+
+=Moisture Absorption.= The structure of certain pigments is such that
+when they are ground in linseed oil and painted out, films are produced
+which are very water-resistant. This action is possibly due to the
+filling of the voids in the oil, thus making a compact and
+water-resistant film. Pigments which are coarse and which present an
+angular crystalline structure, often produce films which contain a
+relatively large number of voids and are less waterproof. Certain
+pigments are chemically active and tend to produce, when ground in oil,
+metallic soaps which act for a time more or less as varnish gums, in
+keeping out moisture. Later on, however, such films are apt to break
+down and admit moisture in quantity. The tests herein described were
+designed by the author to determine the water-excluding value of a
+number of typical pigments when ground in linseed oil and painted out
+into films. Unfortunately, no method has been devised by which films of
+the same gauge could be prepared. The variations in the thickness of the
+films used in these experiments, however, are not very great.
+
+[Illustration: Apparatus for Determining Excluding Properties of Paint
+Films]
+
+A series of small glass bottles with wide mouths, holding about two
+ounces, were half filled with concentrated sulphuric acid, and paint
+films were tightly sealed over the mouths of the bottles with Canada
+balsam. The bottles were then carefully labeled, numbered, and
+accurately weighed upon chemical balances. Later they were exposed under
+a large glass bell jar containing air saturated with moisture and kept
+at a constant temperature. The bottles were removed from the receptacle
+every week and reweighed. The increase in weight, due to the amount of
+moisture which had penetrated through the films, and absorbed by the
+sulphuric acid, owing to its hygroscopic nature, was thus determined. In
+another series of bottles, lumps of calcium chloride were substituted
+for the sulphuric acid. The results obtained from these tests correspond
+to those of the former tests, and led to the conclusion that the
+porosity of linseed oil films varied when different pigments were used
+in the oil.
+
+MOISTURE EXPERIMENTS
+
+Figures Given Express Percentage Gain in Weight, e.g., Water Absorbed
+
+  ==========================+=========+=========+=========
+                            |  7 days | 21 days | 49 days
+  --------------------------+---------+---------+---------
+  White lead and zinc oxide |  0.043% |  0.115% |  0.266%
+  Zinc lead white           |  0.049  |  0.130  |  0.284
+  Red lead                  |  0.049  |  0.130  |  0.295
+  Sublimed white lead       |  0.049  |  0.128  |  0.292
+  Zinc chromate             |  0.064  |  0.176  |  0.417
+  Zinc oxide                |  0.065  |  0.172  |  0.391
+  Barytes                   |  0.074  |  0.202  |  0.466
+  Willow charcoal           |  0.077  |  0.236  |  0.694
+  Lithopone                 |  0.083  |  0.228  |  0.550
+  Chinese blue              |  0.092  |  0.276  |  0.671
+  Natural graphite          |  0.104  |  0.350  |  0.951
+  Ultramarine               |  0.119  |  0.336  |  0.814
+  ==========================+=========+=========+=========
+
+Another series of tests was started, in which were used films prepared
+from various oils and varnishes made especially for the test from
+different gums. The results of this series are very interesting, as they
+indicate that certain gums are more powerful than others in making oils
+resistant to moisture. The reader should study with care the data on
+treated Chinese wood oil, most excellent results having been obtained
+when it was used in the proper percentage.
+
+EXCLUDING TESTS ON OIL VEHICLES AND VARNISHES SHOWING PERCENTAGE OF
+MOISTURE ABSORBED AT VARIOUS PERIODS
+
+  ===================================+=========+=========+=========
+                                     |  6 days | 18 days | 24 days
+  -----------------------------------+---------+---------+---------
+  Linseed oil, 100%                  |  .233   |  .686   |  .895
+  Soya bean oil, 100%                |  .340   | 1.06    | 1.39
+  Linseed oil, 80%  }                |  .250   |  .755   |  .987
+  Soya bean oil, 20%}                |         |         |
+  Linseed oil, 60%   }               |  .289   |  .857   | 1.125
+  Soya bean oil, 40% }               |         |         |
+  Linseed oil, 40%  }                |  .355   | 1.05    | 1.39
+  Soya bean oil, 60%}                |         |         |
+  Linseed oil, 20%   }               |  .260   |  .789   | 1.03
+  Soya bean oil, 80% }               |         |         |
+  China wood oil treated, 100%       |  .130   |  .297   |  .375
+  Linseed oil, 80%           }       |  .182   |  .559   |  .728
+  China wood oil treated, 20%}       |         |         |
+  Linseed oil, 60%            }      |  .173   |  .540   |  .708
+  China wood oil treated, 40% }      |         |         |
+  Linseed oil, 40%           }       |  .119   |  .348   |  .450
+  China wood oil treated, 60%}       |         |         |
+  Linseed oil, 20%            }      |  .127   |  .375   |  .494
+  China wood oil treated, 80% }      |         |         |
+  Kauri gum, 33%  }                  |         |         |
+  Linseed oil, 33%}                  |  .061   |  .191   |  .302
+  Turpentine, 33% }                  |         |         |
+  Kauri gum, 25%   }                 |         |         |
+  Linseed oil, 50% }                 |  .096   |  .266   |  .346
+  Turpentine, 25%  }                 |         |         |
+  Kauri gum, 20%  }                  |         |         |
+  Linseed oil, 60%}                  |  .122   |  .367   |  .449
+  Turpentine, 20% }                  |         |         |
+  Kauri gum, 15%   }                 |         |         |
+  Linseed oil, 70% }                 |  .187   |  .421   |  .601
+  Turpentine, 15%  }                 |         |         |
+  Congo copal gum, 20% }             |         |         |
+  Linseed oil, 50%     }             |  .228   |   --    |   --
+  Turpentine, 30%      }             |         |         |
+  Sierra Leone copal, 20% }          |         |         |
+  Linseed oil, 50%        }          |  .099   |   --    |   --
+  Turpentine, 30%         }          |         |         |
+  Zanzibar gum, 20% }                |         |         |
+  Linseed oil, 50%  }                |  .082   |   --    |   --
+  Turpentine, 30%   }                |         |         |
+  Amimi gum, 20%   }                 |         |         |
+  Linseed oil, 50% }                 |  .080   |   --    |   --
+  Turpentine, 30%  }                 |         |         |
+  Boiled linseed oil (linoleate type)|  .210   |   --    |   --
+  Collodion solution (6 oz.), 80% }  |  .201   |   --    |   --
+  Boiled linseed oil, 20%         }  |         |         |
+  ===================================+=========+=========+=========
+
+[Illustration: Microscopic view of section of cedar]
+
+[Illustration: Microscopic view of section of maple]
+
+[Illustration: Microscopic view of section of white pine]
+
+[Illustration: Gardner photomicroscope in position against painted
+surface]
+
+[Illustration: Inside White on White Pine]
+
+=Use of the Microscope.= 4. The microscope is a necessary adjunct of
+every well-ordered paint laboratory, as has been recognized throughout
+the whole paint industry. The writer has attempted to collect certain
+data which may materially assist those manufacturers who employ this
+instrument to judge of the quality of their raw and finished products.
+The fineness of grinding considerably affects the quality of the paint,
+and this can be easily controlled through the intelligent use of the
+microscope. This instrument may also be used to detect certain
+adulterations. Appended is a table giving the fineness of grinding of
+the various pigments, together with their characteristics under the
+microscope. In this table measurements are given both in millimeters and
+in inches, in order to accommodate itself to the use of those chemists
+employing a millimeter stage micrometer, or those employing the English
+or inch system. Although it is not yet certain that any and all
+combinations of pigments may be detected under the microscope the writer
+is working toward a method which will allow a manipulator to judge of
+the composition of the paint under observation.
+
+In order to properly prepare a paint for microscopic examination, the
+following method is recommended: A microscopic turn-table is a
+convenient accessory of the microscope, and its use is to be
+recommended. A glass slide being placed in position upon the turn-table,
+a very small amount of either the pigment rubbed up in oil, or the
+paint, is applied to the slide; a small drop of Canada balsam is then
+applied by means of a glass rod dipped in a solution of balsam in xylol,
+and dropped upon the slide. The rod is then used to thoroughly
+incorporate the pigment with the balsam, and a cleaned cover glass is
+dropped over the whole and pressed down tightly, so that a small amount
+of balsam will exude from under the edges and thus firmly seal the
+glass. In order to make permanent slides it has been found advisable to
+rim the cover glass with balsam and even follow this up with some
+suitable black varnish, the slide being then carefully labeled and
+placed in the collection. Following is a table of the characteristics of
+the fourteen chief pigments:
+
+TABLE OF THE SIZE OF PARTICLES OF THE CHIEF PIGMENTS WITH THEIR
+CHARACTERISTICS UNDER THE MICROSCOPE
+
+  ===+===================+======================+=======================
+     |                   |      Diameter in     |      Diameter in
+     |                   |      Millimeters     |        Inches
+     |                   +-------+-------+------+-------+------+--------
+  No.|Name               | Small | Aver. |Large | Small | Aver.| Large
+  ---+-------------------+-------+-------+------+-------+------+--------
+    1|Asbestine          |.002   | --    |.12   |.00015 | --   |.049
+    2|China clay         |.003   | --    |.065  |.00009 | --   |.025
+    3|Barium carbonate   |.00076 |.0055  |.0172 |.00003 |.00024|.0011
+    4|Blanc fixe         |.00073 |.0037  |.0073 |.00003 |.00014|.0003
+    5|Silex              |.0037  |.0092  |.03   |.00014 |.00036|.0012
+    6|Gypsum             |.0037  |.011   |.05   |.00014 |.00044|.0022
+    7|Amer.-Paris white  |.0015  |.0050  |.04   |.00006 |.00022|.0018
+    8|Barytes            |.0015  |.0092  |.05   |.00006 |.00036|.0021
+    9|Zinc lead          |.00037 |.0018  |.0037 |.000014|.00007|.00014
+   10|Sublimed white lead|.00037 |.0018  |.0037 |.000014|.00007|.00014
+   11|Lithopone          |.00076 |.0018  | --   |.00003 |.00007| --
+   12|Zinc oxide         |.00046 |.0018  |.00037|.00002 |.00007|.00014
+   13|Quick Pro. lead    |.00061 |.0030  |.0048 |.00002 |.00012|.00018
+   14|Dutch Pro. lead    |.00061 |.0018  |.0066 |.00002 |.00007|.00026
+  ===+===================+=======+=======+======+=======+======+========
+
+=Film Sectioning and Deductions to be Drawn Therefrom.= 5.
+Investigations were undertaken into the innermost structure of paint
+films as revealed under the microscope. Up to the present time, work has
+been done upon barytes, asbestine, blanc fixe, and white lead, painted
+upon wood, and a combination paint upon wood. The films, the preparation
+of which has been described in the foregoing, were sectioned and
+prepared for microscopic examination in the following manner:
+
+A solidifying dish was partly filled with low melting-point paraffin
+which was allowed to harden, when a small piece of paint was thrown upon
+it and then more paraffin poured over it. After hardening, sections were
+obtained of the paint film by means of a microtome.
+
+[Illustration: Section Barytes Film]
+
+A view of these sections of paint films under the microscope gave to the
+operator a better idea of the structure of a paint than had ever been
+afforded heretofore. It was easy to perceive the relative position of
+the pigment particles and the three coats. The penetration of one coat
+into another was easily discernible, and measurements were made upon the
+sections in order to determine the average thickness of coat and its
+general appearance.
+
+Sections were also made of Inside and Outside White upon wood. These
+sections revealed under the microscope the thickness of the coats and
+also the penetration of the priming coat into the wood. Appended is a
+table giving microscopic measurements.
+
+PAINT SECTION MEASUREMENTS UNDER MICROSCOPE
+
+  ======================+=============+===========+======
+                        |             |Millimeters|Inches
+  ----------------------+-------------+-----------+------
+  Barytes               |3 coats (sum)|  .1068    |.00421
+                        |Single coat  |  .0356    |.00140
+                        |             |           |
+  Inside. White on wood |3 coats (sum)|  .1624    |.00639
+                        |Outside coat |  .0230    |.00091
+                        |Next coat    |  .0443    |.00175
+  Field in photographs  |Next coat    |  .0620    |.00245
+                        |Penetration  |  .0294    |.00116
+  White lead            |Inside       |  .0215    |.00085
+                        |Middle       |  .0405    |.00159
+                        |Outside      |  .0184    |.00073
+                        |3 coats (sum)|  .0811    |.00319
+  Asbestine             |3 coats (sum)|  .1840    |.00725
+                        |             |           |
+  Blanc fixe            |3 coats (sum)|  .1068    |.0042
+                        |Single coat  |  .0356    |.00014
+                        |             |           |
+  Outside. White on wood|Outside coat |  .1329    |.00523
+                        |Inside       |  .1845    |.00727
+                        |Penetration  |  .0737    |.00290
+  ======================+=============+===========+======
+
+=Polar Micro-Examinations and Photomicrographs.= By Polar
+Micro-Examination is meant the examination of pigments under polarized
+light. A polarizing apparatus, though not an essential in the hands of
+the paint chemist, is nevertheless much to be desired, for by its help
+deductions may be drawn as to the contents of a paint, which by other
+means might not be possible. The polarizing apparatus as marketed by
+most manufacturers of the microscope is attached in the following
+manner:
+
+The diaphragm immediately under the sub-stage container is swung out and
+opened to its widest limit, allowing the insertion of the polarizer.
+This polarizer carries one of the pair of Nicols prisms and is
+countersunk to allow of the introduction of gypsum or selenite plates.
+The analyzer fits over the eyepiece on the tube.
+
+The use of polarized light upon paint is valuable on account of its
+action upon crystalline substances. The re-enforcing pigments, such as
+Asbestine, China Clay, Gypsum, Silex, Barytes, etc., are crystalline and
+consequently act upon the polarized light. In most cases these pigments
+are used in ready-mixed paints in small amounts, varying between 5 and
+25%. When a slide containing a small amount--for example, less than
+3%--of these crystalline pigments is examined under the microscope by
+ordinary transmitted light, they will often escape observation, owing to
+the small amount in which they are present. However, in the case of
+polarized light, this could hardly happen.
+
+[Illustration: Microscopic View of Barytes under Polarized Light]
+
+A slide of paint containing these re-enforcing pigments is prepared in
+the usual manner. On examining this under the microscope and using the
+polarizing apparatus, the crystalline pigments are at once detected by
+revolving the analyzer. At one position of the analyzer, one sees an
+ordinary field, as with transmitted light, but if one revolves the
+analyzer, the field gradually becomes darker until total darkness is
+obtained throughout, except in such places where crystalline substances
+are present, when the crystal is shown up with beautiful distinctness.
+Photomicrographs of various single pigments and pigment combinations are
+shown under Chapter III.
+
+=Effect of Pigments on Oil.= Certain pigments have the property of
+acting upon the linseed oil in which they are ground, forming metallic
+linoleates which accelerate the drying of oil. This is especially true
+of lead and zinc pigments. The inert crystalline pigments, when ground
+in linseed oil and painted out, distribute the oil so as to allow a
+great surface to be exposed to the air. Thus by physical action, and
+possibly catalytic or contact action, these inert pigments stimulate the
+drying of oil paints in which they are ground. Lead and zinc paints, of
+course, have the greatest drying values on account of the added effect
+of the linoleates formed, as outlined above. The writer has made a
+series of tests in which the action of various pigments upon linseed oil
+is shown. The tests were made in the following manner:
+
+Five grams of each of a series of commonly used paint pigments,
+including those of inert crystalline nature as well as the more valuable
+amorphous pigments which are considered more or less chemically active,
+were ground separately in an agate mortar, with 5 grams of raw linseed
+oil. The ground paste in each case was placed in a marked glass beaker,
+and allowed to stand in a dustless section of the laboratory for one
+month. The oil-pigment paste from each beaker was then separately
+extracted with benzine to remove the linseed oil from the pigment. The
+benzine solutions of oil were then heated to remove the benzine and the
+residue of oil burned to ash in crucibles. The ash from each test was
+weighed, and if it ran above the percentage of ash determined on a blank
+sample of linseed oil (namely, .003%), the ash was analyzed
+qualitatively for metallic constituents. The following table of results
+shows the percentage increase in ash, as well as the constituents of ash
+on the various samples tested:
+
+TABLE OF RESULTS
+
+  ===============================+==============+========================
+                                 | Per cent. of |
+                                 |  Ash in Oil  |
+  Pigment in Oil                 |Extracted from|Analysis of Ash
+                                 | Oil-Pigment  |
+                                 |    Paste     |
+  -------------------------------+--------------+------------------------
+  Raw linseed oil without pigment|    0.003     |      --
+  Barytes                        |    0.003     |      --
+  Blanc fixe                     |    0.003     |      --
+  Silica                         |    0.003     |      --
+  Asbestine                      |    0.005     |      --
+  China clay                     |    0.007     |      --
+  Whiting                        |    0.008     |      --
+  Chrome yellow                  |    0.025     |Lead oxide (PbO)
+  Lithopone                      |    0.031     |Zinc oxide (ZnO)
+  Prussian blue                  |    0.032     |Iron oxide (Fe_{2}O_{3})
+  Sublimed white lead            |    0.033     |Lead oxide (PbO)
+  Zinc oxide                     |    0.105     |Zinc oxide (ZnO)
+  Corroded white lead            |    0.116     |Lead oxide (PbO)
+  Red lead                       |    0.2112    |Lead oxide (PbO)
+  ===============================+==============+========================
+
+Observation of these results shows that pigments such as Barytes, Blanc
+Fixe, and Silica have no chemical action on the linseed oil. The results
+on Asbestine and China Clay also are negative, the extremely slight
+increase in amount of ash from these samples probably being due to
+traces carried over mechanically into the oil mixture; the last named
+pigments being more fluffy and difficult to separate from oil. Slight
+action seemed to be apparent in the case of whiting, a pigment somewhat
+alkaline in nature. A longer test might have shown this pigment to have
+possessed still greater action. Corroded white lead showed considerable
+action, resulting in the formation of lead linoleate or some other
+organic compound. Zinc oxide and lithopone, the latter pigment
+containing 30% of zinc sulphide, both indicated action on the oil.
+Chrome yellow (chromate of lead) showed some action, as did also
+Prussian blue, the ash from the last named pigment showing a heavy
+percentage of iron oxide.
+
+Red Lead showed a most astounding gain in these tests, chemical action
+of the pigment on the oil being apparent soon after the tests were
+started, as shown by the formation of a hard cake with the linseed oil.
+
+The Raw Linseed Oil which was used in these tests had an acid value of
+1.84%, which is very low. The neutralization of this free fatty acid by
+some of the alkaline pigments used, may account for part of the
+increased percentage of ash, but in most cases the pigments, and more
+especially the basic pigments, had a direct saponifying action upon the
+glycerides of the oil.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF SCIENTIFIC PAINT MAKING
+
+
+=Laws of Paint Making.= To secure a proper comprehension of the
+composition of paints, and to be able to interpret the functions of
+their various constituents, requires an understanding of the general
+physical principles involved. The modern grinder has accepted the Law of
+Minimum Voids, and upon this law he bases the design of paint formulæ,
+aiming toward the production of what have been properly termed
+Scientifically Prepared Paints. Perry's formulation of the Law of
+Minimum Voids in a paint coating, and the analogy which he has drawn
+between a scientifically prepared paint and a well-proportioned
+concrete, was the result of genuine scientific thought following
+observation and experimentation. It must be admitted that analogies are
+not always safe to draw conclusions from, but it surely is no fallacy in
+reasoning to draw analogies between these two materials, when they
+resemble each other in so many ways. To carry out processes of
+reasoning, and to formulate laws from such close analogies, is certainly
+a step in the right direction.
+
+A graphic summary of the analogies between a properly proportioned
+concrete and a paint, are shown on next page.
+
+Although this table graphically summarizes the principles involved, the
+matter is presented with greater clearness in the following:
+
+Law No. 1--The law of minimum voids to be observed in constructing a
+paint formula--this law having already been accepted as mathematically
+correct and technically proved in the technology of concrete and cement.
+
+Corollary--The requisite thickness of a paint film together with the
+utmost attainable strength and impermeability can best be obtained by a
+properly proportioned blend of pigments of three or more determinate
+sizes.
+
+
+AN EXHIBITION OF CERTAIN ANALOGIES GOVERNING THE MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE
+AND OF PAINT
+
+  1 Concrete aggregate = solids + vehicle|Paint aggregate = solids + vehicle
+                                         |
+  2 Solids = coarse + medium + fine      |Solids = coarse +     medium  + fine
+             (stone) (gravel) (sand)     |        {pulverized }{precipi-}
+                                         |(pig-   {cryst'lline}{tated   }(fume)
+                                         |(ments  {(etc.)     }
+                                         |
+  3 Vehicle =                            |Vehicle =
+    = reactive binder + evapor'g thinner |= reactive binder+evaporating thinner
+     { cement and com- } (excess water)  |     (linseed oil)    (volatiles)
+     { bining water    }                 |
+                                         |
+  4 Solids + compacting =                |Solids + compacting =
+             (tamping)                   |         (brushing)
+    = elimination of accidental voids +  | = elimination of accidental voids +
+    + proper adhesive contact            | + proper adhesive contact
+                                         |
+  5 Vehicle + reaction = hydrosilicates, |Vehicle + reaction = linoxyn
+    etc.                                 |
+              (setting)                  |          (drying)
+                                         |
+  6 Solids + vehicle +                   |Solids + vehicle +
+    + lubrication + chemical reaction =  | + lubrication + chemical reaction =
+    = final product { solidified binder+}| = final product {solidified binder+}
+                    { + solids          }|                 {+ solids          }
+                                         |
+  7 Final product = concrete             |Final product = paint coating
+                       { shearing       }|              { strength       }
+    (of max. strength  { tensile        }| (of maximum  { impermeability }
+                       { crushing, etc. }|              { durability     }
+
+                         *       *       *       *       *
+
+  If we assume for both paint and concrete
+        proper lubrication
+        proper proportion of vehicle and solids
+  Then the _essential difference_ between a thin film of
+
+                        Concrete        and             Paint
+                                        is
+
+                      Cement Binder                     Linoxyn Binder
+
+                                  _Disadvantages_
+
+  Non-elastic and hence an impracticable |Slowly perishable from oxidation by
+  binder for a film to protect non-      |the air.
+  similar structural surfaces.           |
+
+                                    _Advantages_
+
+  Durable and with the qualities of a    |Semi-elastic and therefore a practic-
+  natural mineral.                       |able binder for a film to protect
+                                         |structural surfaces.
+
+  Postulate (def. Webster's Dictionary--A self-evident problem)
+
+     Postulate No. 1--The organic linoxyn or semi-elastic binder of the
+     paint vehicle (unlike the cement binder) is perishable and its purity,
+     strength and protection from attack means life to the paint coating,
+     and hence the _life_ of the oil is the _life_ of the paint.
+
+     Postulate No. 2--The inorganic or powdered mineral solids of a paint
+     coating will crumble unless held together by the binder, but the
+     imperishable pigments must be so ground and blended in the binder that
+     they will protect the binder and present the greatest possible solid
+     front to the atmospheric attack.
+
+                         *       *       *       *       *
+
+  A paint, to secure the greatest protection and life for the linoxyn,
+  together with the durable qualities of cement,
+
+                                    _Therefore_
+
+                            Should expose to air decay
+
+  within limits of physical strength     |within limits required for elasticity,
+  The greatest amount of pigm't material |etc. The least amount of exposed
+                                         |linoxyn
+              (which is)                 |                or
+  Durable and with the inert qualities of|Considering the linoxyn present be-
+  natural mineral                        |tween pigment particles as the void
+                                         |or point of attack,
+                                         |               Then
+                                         |the minimum exposure of linoxyn
+  or minimum voids obtainable by proportioned pigments of different particle
+  sizes.
+
+Law No. 2--The law of the flat arch in paint coatings--i.e., the fact
+that in studying the fundamental physical principles governing the
+strength and durability of a paint coating it is necessary to regard the
+coating as consisting of a series of flat arches, in which the pigment
+particles of largest characteristic size serve as the piers or supports
+for the flat arches of which the continuous film is composed.
+
+Corollary A--The strength and durability of a paint coating is
+determined by the strength and durability of the piers or supports
+(which consist of the characteristic pigment particles of the largest
+size).
+
+Corollary B--Owing to their inherent strength and durability the pigment
+particles of largest characteristic size which serve as supports for the
+paint coating should consist, in part at least, of chemically inert
+pigments, such as natural crystalline barium sulphate, calcium
+carbonate, magnesium silicate, etc.
+
+Corollary C--It follows directly that the thickness of a paint coating
+is determined by the particles of pigments having the largest
+characteristic size, even if that pigment be present only in moderate
+percentage. Upon this principle depends the comparatively great
+thickness of film and moderate spreading rate of paints composed of such
+pigments as basic carbonate--white lead, red lead, barytes, etc., and
+the strongly contrasted thinness of film and high spreading rate of
+paints composed of the sublimated pigments such as lamp black, zinc
+oxide, basic sulphate--white lead, zinc-lead white, leaded zinc, etc.
+
+In commenting upon the announced laws set forth above, Heckel says: "The
+recognition of these laws was an exercise of pure deduction. Paint
+manufacturers before Mr. Perry's announcement were producing paints
+containing three or more pigments with particles of varying
+characteristic sizes; but their procedure was based largely on empirical
+knowledge, the result of accumulated experience, due to a conscientious
+endeavor to produce the highest type of paints for economic service. In
+the absence of any law to govern or to limit the use of the reinforcing
+pigments, inexperienced manufacturers had brought upon the market paints
+which were badly proportioned as to the several pigments, or burdened
+beyond the limits of effectiveness with reinforcing pigments. To all
+paint manufacturers Perry rendered a substantial service in deducing for
+them the laws set forth in his address. In the results following a
+recognition of these laws there was nothing new or startling, but Perry
+was the first to give the principles from which it can be determined in
+advance whether a paint formula will prove to be physically good or bad
+in practice.
+
+[Illustration: Series of Paint Chasers, Mixers, and Grinders]
+
+[Illustration: Overhead Churn Mixer]
+
+[Illustration: Battery of Paint Mixers and Grinders of Modern
+Underdriven Type]
+
+[Illustration: _Photographs courtesy of Ernest Heath_
+
+View showing Shrinkage in Bulk of Paint Pigment after being ground in
+Oil. Filled Barrel on Right with the Oil forms one-third Barrel Paste as
+shown in Barrel on Left]
+
+[Illustration: View showing careful Dressing of Bull Stone Mill from
+Grinder]
+
+"As has been before stated, he was not the first to recognize the law
+governing minimum voids, but by that scientific use of the imagination
+which Tyndall so highly commends, he recognized, as by inspiration, the
+fundamental similarity existing between a film composed of solid
+particles cemented together by a semi-solid homogeneous menstruum and a
+layer of concrete composed of solid particles cemented together by a
+solid homogeneous medium. His application of the law permits the paint
+manufacturers to design a paint formula with full knowledge of the
+controlling conditions, so that it shall produce a coating neither too
+thick, and therefore uneconomical and subject to excessive internal
+strains, nor too thin, and thus weak and inefficient for protection.
+That Mr. Perry's contention was well-founded, other paint technologists
+have since demonstrated; notably Mr. Wirt Tassin, in his microscopic
+studies of paint films in situ, and Prof. G. W. Thompson who, in his
+address to the Penna. Association of Master Painters at Reading,
+said:--"I want to agree with Mr. Perry * * * where he says that a
+pigment should be made up of particles of different sizes. Mr. Perry
+also draws a further parallel between paint and concrete where he refers
+to the form of the reinforcing pigment particles and suggests that in
+paint coatings as in concrete a field can be found for the chemically
+inert pigments with rod-like or hair-like structure, to strengthen the
+film, just as the steel rods and iron mesh are used to reinforce
+concrete in structural work--a suggestion which, since the first
+publication of the address, has been widely accepted as a practical aid
+in the manufacture of good paints.""
+
+=Use of Inert Pigments.= There seems to be no reasonable doubt as to the
+efficiency of a small amount of inert pigments in paint, and the writer
+has often compared the manufacture of paint of the above type to the
+making of various alloys wherein zinc, copper, and other metals are
+added to gold in order to make a product possessed of greater
+durability, etc.
+
+[Illustration: Batteries of Color Grinding Mills]
+
+There has been considerable inquiry as to just what is meant by the
+statement that "a moderate percentage of inert pigments, combined with
+properly adjusted mixtures of white lead and zinc oxide, have given
+wonderful service in all the tests." The writer has been asked to define
+what "moderate" means. A "moderate percentage of inert pigments" should
+be defined as that amount of natural crystalline pigments that will,
+when mixed with white lead and zinc oxide, not materially detract from
+the hiding power of white lead and zinc oxide. It is possible to mix a
+certain percentage of these crystalline pigments with white lead and
+zinc oxide, and, by thorough grinding, incorporate them in such a manner
+that the mixture will show nearly as good a hiding power as the straight
+white lead and zinc oxide. When certain limits have been reached,
+however, and these limits must be determined by the manufacturer and
+painter in making practical tests, the further addition of inert
+pigments lowers the hiding power of the paint and therefore lowers the
+value of the paint. These remarks do not apply to artificial crystalline
+pigments, such as precipitated whiting, which possess greater hiding
+values than the natural pigments.
+
+=Perry's Principles of Paint Making.= Parts of the original paper[18] in
+which Perry so clearly set forth the principles from which the preceding
+laws were formed, follow:
+
+  [18] Physical Characteristics of a Paint Coating. R. S. Perry.
+       Michigan Chapter, Amer. Institute of Architects, 1907.
+
+=Sealing Quality or Imperviousness of the Coating.= "It has been
+emphasized that for durability and protection, the strength and
+imperviousness of a paint coating are vital factors. The protective
+value of the paint coating of course ceases with its chalking or
+disintegration, but, while it is true that the protecting or final life
+of the coating ceases with this disintegration, it is also true that a
+paint coating has always during its true life more or less porosity from
+the nature of the linoxin or oxidized linseed oil. Therefore during its
+protecting life the degree of its imperviousness influences its
+resistance to attack upon its own life and its protection of the
+underlying materials. The more impervious the paint coating without loss
+of strength, the slower the oxidation or disintegration of the paint
+coating itself and the greater protection to the underlying material.
+
+"A coating of linseed oil alone is not only weak, but the simplest and
+crudest experiments will show its porosity and this porosity increases
+rapidly with progressive oxidation, the porosity of course definitely
+hastening the over-oxidation or chalking. In proportion, therefore, to
+our success in filling the voids in the linseed oil film with proper
+pigment materials, we will in that degree succeed in excluding agencies
+of decay, not only from the mass of the paint coating itself, but also
+from the surface to be protected. These conditions are exactly parallel
+in the requirements and performance of the best-made concrete, and
+Taylor & Thompson in their work on concrete have clearly stated that to
+obtain imperviousness there must be freedom from voids, and that to
+obtain these conditions, the materials used must have at least three
+determining sizes.
+
+[Illustration: Equal Volume (One Cubic Centimetre) of Each Size of Shot
+Taken. Note that the Smaller Shot Cover more than Half as much again as
+the Larger Shot and the Voids are Smaller.]
+
+[Illustration: Diagram Illustrating Two Determining Sizes of Solid
+Particles in Concrete]
+
+[Illustration: Diagram Illustrating Three Determining Sizes of Solid
+Particles in Concrete]
+
+"'It is a fact that with particles of different sizes as against uniform
+size the densest mixture can be obtained. This is so evident as to
+require no proof.' It follows that the least density and hence the
+largest percentage of voids occur when the grains are all of the same
+size, and it is shown that the most voids occur in a mass of large
+particles. The least voids occur when the voids between the large
+particles are filled with smaller particles and when these smaller voids
+between the smaller particles are in turn filled with still finer
+particles. In other words--particles with three determining sizes will
+fill up a given space more completely than particles of two determining
+sizes and very much more completely than particles of one size.
+
+=Elasticity and Strength.= "The paint coating here again is governed by
+many of the laws which govern the similar material, i.e., concrete. We
+find, by again referring to Taylor & Thompson, on Concrete, page 275,
+that tests at the Watertown Arsenal on concrete convinced the
+investigators that the ultimate strength of a concrete is identical with
+the shearing strength of particles of stone making up the aggregate.
+
+"This means that in its ultimate form the good concrete will crack or
+shear through the broken rock contained therein, and resistance to
+shearing is directly proportionate to the strength of the broken rock
+chosen for the mixture. The film of semi-liquid linseed oil when fresh
+is extremely weak, but as it hardens, its characteristics and physical
+properties will obviously be those qualities which are a composite of
+the qualities of the solid particles and of the semi-solid linolein
+incorporated together in the paint coating. These physical properties of
+the suspended and incorporated pigments profoundly modify the film in
+this respect.
+
+"The dried vehicle, linoxin, is notable for its elasticity, and it is
+weak in crushing and tensile strength, and in hardness or resistance to
+surface wear. The fact that it is a semi-solid furnishes an opportunity
+to modify and improve those characteristics of a solid in which it is
+deficient. The semi-solid, rubber-like linoxin between the coarser
+particles of the pigment obviously uses these coarser particles as
+supporting points. The medium sized particles of the second group of
+alteration products serve the same purpose as the broken rock in
+concrete. The coarser particles absolutely do not, and can not, serve
+the purpose of stiffening or of reinforcing or modifying the consistency
+and qualities of the semi-solid linoxin, for a number of reasons, one
+of which may be mentioned, namely, that particles of the first, or
+coarse, class have a determining size which is a large fraction--a heavy
+percentage--of the total thickness of coating, and are in some instances
+thicker in diameter than the thickness of an oil coating not reinforced
+with the fine or fire group.
+
+"We must think of the coarser particles as piers. The mixture of linoxin
+with the other two groups of particles in the spaces between these
+coarser particles, or piers, is the true paint body and consists of flat
+reinforced arches which have the extra support of falsework, in the
+shape of the structural material on which the coating rests. Asbestine
+pulp, a natural product and one of our most important natural
+reinforcing pigments, serves not only in the coarse group as supporting
+particles for the linoxin arch, but also because of its peculiar
+properties serves the more important purposes of reinforcement. It
+retains, no matter how finely ground, its peculiar needle-like, or
+rod-like, form of particles, and obviously serves the purpose of
+reinforcing the flat arch of linoxin, exactly as iron bars or iron
+netting serve in reinforced concrete arches. The medium sized particles
+of the second group of pigments produced by chemical alteration or
+precipitation, serve the purpose of the broken rock in concrete, and
+together with the coarser supporting particles and the finest
+reinforcing particles, give minimum voids and a maximum imperviousness
+to agencies of internal decay.
+
+"It goes without saying that the pigments of any one group contain
+particles of dimensions which fall into the other two groups, but no one
+pigment supplies the correct proportion of each of the three required
+dimensions, and each pigment has so large a percentage of approximate
+dimensions as to bar it from exclusive use in the other two groups.
+Given similar homogeneous coatings under identical conditions, we
+recognize the law that elasticity will vary directly with thickness.
+Direct deduction from this law teaches us that of two paint coatings
+equal in wear, in strength, opaqueness, and in all other qualities
+except thickness, we should choose the thinner coating. Therefore if we
+have two paint coatings fulfilling every requirement, the first
+compounded with pigments giving a thicker coating and the second with
+pigments yielding a thinner coating, we must choose the second formula
+and obtain the thinner coating.
+
+=Adhesive Power.= "The adhesion of the linoxin to the coarse group of
+particles and to the underlying material is vital to the life of the
+paint coating. If the coating parts from the surface beneath, we have
+scaling or peeling. It is universally admitted that this will result
+from use of zinc oxide as the sole pigment. We have only to conceive of
+our flat arch of reinforced linoxin and leave out our points of support,
+to realize that this is the inevitable result if the coating be subject
+to extreme exposure, although good results may be obtained from zinc
+oxide used alone, as, for instance, in interior house painting where
+extreme changes of temperature and exposure are avoided.
+
+"Three major lines of force hold our linoxin in place--adhesion toward
+the underneath surface, adhesion to the coarse particles, and cohesion
+within the linoxin itself. These lines must be represented by a flat
+arch of linoxin with a downward pointing magnet therefrom, to represent
+adhesion to the surface. Magnets on each side of the arch pointing
+toward the supporting coarse particles, and two magnets within the arch
+and pointing toward each other, or to the centre of the arch, these
+latter to represent the force of cohesion."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE SCOPE OF PRACTICAL PAINT TESTS
+
+
+=The Pigment Contention.= During the year 1906 officials of the North
+Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station examined a number of paints on
+sale in the northwestern States. The presence of large quantities of
+inert pigments as well as water, in some of these paints, prompted
+agitation for State laws requiring the formula-labeling of paints.
+Certain paints made of white opaque pigments such as white lead and zinc
+oxide were exempted from the statute. The white opaque pigments used in
+these paints were believed by certain manufacturers as well as by many
+prominent paint authorities of high standing to be benefited in their
+wearing value by the addition of small percentages of inert crystalline
+pigments, such as barytes, silica, China clay, etc. Laboratory
+experiments had already determined that these inert crystalline pigments
+had a certain definite action in increasing the life of paints, but it
+had become evident that they should be used with discretion, in
+moderation, and with a proper understanding of their limitations, if the
+best results were to be obtained. The addition of very large quantities
+of such pigments was not indulged in by discriminating manufacturers,
+but the exact percentage to use was a matter of great doubt, even to the
+most experienced. In order to determine just what percentage of
+crystalline pigments, admixed with white opaque paint pigments, would
+give the best service and results, it seemed imperative that practical
+paint tests should be made. A series of paint tests on commercial brands
+of paint had already been started at the Fargo Agricultural College,
+and, at the suggestion of the Paint Manufacturers' Association of the
+United States, another series of practical paint tests were instituted,
+and carried out under the supervision of Dr. E. F. Ladd, Director of the
+North Dakota Experiment Station.
+
+=Test Fences to Solve the Problem.= It was apparent that the pigment
+question could be solved only through field tests made on a
+comprehensive basis and placed under the control of scientific and
+technical societies of renown, so that they might be fair and unbiased
+from every standpoint. In order to secure a comparison of the wearing of
+different paint formulas in various sections of the country and under
+differing climatic conditions, another series of tests was started in
+the East soon after the North Dakota tests had been started.
+Simultaneously fences were erected at Atlantic City, N. J., and
+Pittsburg, Pa. The site of the Atlantic City fence is a strip of land
+running due north from Atlantic and Savannah Avenues and within a short
+distance from the Atlantic Ocean, the exposure being a severe one. The
+site of the Pittsburg fence is back of the athletic field of the
+Carnegie Technical Schools, the fence running east and west and being
+exposed to the heavily charged sooty atmosphere coming from the many
+industrial plants near by.
+
+=Construction of Framework of Fences.= At these two locations framework
+fences were built, upon which were placed a series of painted panels.
+Heavy yellow pine posts six inches square were set in the ground about
+six feet apart and to the depth of about four feet, upon a concrete
+base. The posts were solidly tamped and then braced at the top with
+supplementary studding braces two inches thick. Connecting the posts was
+a line of studding six inches by two inches, forming a solid framework,
+the bottom of which was approximately fifteen inches from the ground.
+The bottoms and tops of the fences were protected by heavy boards two
+inches thick, so that the moisture and rain might be prevented from
+working itself up into the wood. The whole fence was sheathed with
+twelve-inch planed white pine, thus forming a solid background for the
+test panels.
+
+=Lumber for Panels.= The lumber for the test panels was most carefully
+selected, being of three grades--white pine, yellow pine, and cypress. A
+large amount of each grade of lumber was secured, and after the best
+portion had been made up into panels, the panels were inspected by an
+expert lumber classer; nearly 40% being rejected on account of the
+presence of knots or sappy places which appeared upon the surface. Each
+of the panels finally passed upon as suitable for the test was branded
+with a hot iron with consecutive numbers running from 1 to 186. The
+grade of wood used for each panel was indicated by an abbreviated
+mark--W for white pine, C for cypress, and Y for yellow pine. In order
+that a record of each panel might be kept on file, previous to the
+application of paint to the panels, a complete series of photographs was
+taken of the panels in sets of four. This work seemed advisable so that
+the future failure of paint on any one panel, which might be thought due
+to faulty wood, could be either verified or refuted by a reference to
+the series of photographs made of the bare panels.
+
+[Illustration: View of Atlantic City Test Fence]
+
+=Construction of Panels.= The panels were constructed of Dutch weather
+boarding, tongued and grooved together in strips of three pieces and
+capped at the top with a weather strip, forming a finished surface three
+feet long and fifteen and a half inches high. They were firmly braced
+together at their backs and nailed in such a manner that no portion of
+the nails would appear on the surface of the panel, thus preventing the
+staining of the panel from rust. The construction of the framework of
+the fences at Atlantic City and Pittsburg was of such a nature that they
+would each accommodate 560 panels of this type.
+
+=Starting of Tests.= On account of the lateness of the season, it was
+found necessary to do the painting of the tests within a building, so
+that each formula might be subjected to fair and equal conditions of
+application, thus excluding the blowing of dust or rain upon the painted
+surfaces, which would have taken place had the panels been painted upon
+the fence. The painting of the panels began in January, 1908, the
+temperature within the buildings in which the work was done averaging 50
+degrees Fahrenheit throughout the work.
+
+It was decided to test each formula in three colors, in duplicate, and
+on each grade of wood, exposing the duplicates on either side of the
+fence. Thus for one paint formula there were required 18 panels, or 6
+painted in each color and on 3 grades of wood.
+
+=Paints for Tests.= The mixed paints received for the tests were in
+quart cans, having been especially prepared from the formulas submitted
+to manufacturers by the technical committee in charge of the work. They
+were properly labeled with their number and color, in each case. The
+formulas decided upon for the test are described later. The various
+white leads and other single pigment paints which were used were
+received in kegs weighing 12-1/2 pounds each, having been bought in the
+open market and then given a formula number. The formulas of the paints
+designed for both the Atlantic City and Pittsburg tests, as well as the
+numbers of the panels upon which the paints were applied, are shown on
+pages 131-133-145. The analysis of one of the combination paints applied
+is herewith given, to show the correct method of stating the composition
+of a paint.
+
+FORMULA NO. 20, ATLANTIC CITY TEST FENCE
+
+Percentage Composition
+
+  ===================+=======+=======+=======+=======
+                     |Pigment|Vehicle| Total |
+  -------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------
+  Corroded white lead| 67.01 |   --  | 42.84 |
+  Zinc oxide         | 19.89 |   --  | 12.71 |
+  Asbestine          |  3.86 |   --  |  2.47 |
+  Calcium carbonate  |  9.24 |   --  |  5.91 |
+  Raw oil            |   --  | 94.30 | 34.02 |
+  Japan drier        |   --  |  3.89 |  1.40 |
+  Turpentine         |   --  |  1.81 |  0.65 |
+  -------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------
+                     |100.00 |100.00 |100.00 |
+  ===================+=======+=======+=======+=======
+
+=Brushes.= Heavy 7-O round bristle brushes were used for the priming
+coat so that the paint might be well worked into the wood, while for the
+second and third coats three-inch chisel edge brushes were used. These
+brushes were, of course, washed several times with turpentine after
+painting each panel, so that pigments from one paint could not be
+carried over into a paint containing other pigments.
+
+[Illustration: Cypress Panels]
+
+=Shellacking Panels.= The shellacking of any bad places of minor nature
+which may have been present on the surfaces of some of the panels, was
+done with the highest grade orange shellac. It was thought advisable to
+determine whether shellacking over the priming coat of paint or on the
+bare wood previous to the application of the priming coat, was the
+better method. Panels Nos. 1 to 8 in each test were therefore shellacked
+over the priming coat, while on all other panels the shellacking was
+done directly on the bare wood previous to the application of the
+priming coat of paint.
+
+=Application of Paints.= In order to determine just how much paint was
+applied to each panel and to reckon the spreading rate therefrom,
+careful weighings were made during the application of every paint. This
+was carried out by placing a quart can of paint as received, upon a
+laboratory balance, the gross weight being taken and recorded. The can
+was shaken and its contents transferred to a quart-size enameled cup
+where with the aid of a paddle it was broken up into a mixture of even
+consistency. A portion of this paint was then transferred to two small
+sample cans carefully numbered with the formula number, for future
+reference and analysis. The reduction of the paint was then made. The
+brush used on the priming coat was placed with the pot and the paint on
+the balance and the weight taken by the official weigher. The pot was
+then given to the painter who applied the priming coat to one panel. The
+brush, pot, and paint were then handed back to the official weigher and
+the difference in weight recorded. From these data could be reckoned the
+spreading rate of the formula applied.
+
+The drying of the panels was noted every few hours and observations made
+to determine whether the paints were penetrating properly into the
+surface of the wood. A period of eight days was allowed between each
+coat in order that thoroughly hard setting might take place.
+
+During the application of the second coat of paint to the panels, fresh
+cans of paint were used in every case so that fresh reductions could be
+made of the proper consistency. Full data were also recorded on the ease
+of application, working, and nature of drying shown, as well as
+appearance presented by each paint after each coat had been applied. New
+packages of paint were also used for the third coat, and, as a rule, the
+paint was applied without reduction or with full oil reduction,
+turpentine being eliminated in nearly every case for the third coat
+work.
+
+=Reductions.= The single pigment paints, such as white leads, were
+reduced by the so-called ounce system, each ounce of oil added to 12-1/2
+ounces of paste pigment representing one gallon of vehicle to one
+hundred pounds of lead. A complete report of the reductions, spreading
+rates, etc., used in the tests would take up three or four hundred pages
+of printed matter. The reductions shown on the following formulas are,
+however, fairly representative of the reductions used on the combination
+and single pigment paints.
+
+REDUCTIONS ON FORMULA NO. 2
+
+_White and Yellow_
+
+     1st Coat Condition when opened--good. Consistency when broken
+     up--heavy. Reduction recommended by manufacturer--none. Reduction
+     used--3 pints raw oil, 1 pint turps, 1 gallon paint. Consistency after
+     reducing--good, stiff. Working--fair. Drying--fair on pines;
+     cypress--poor. Penetration, pines--good; cypress--poor.
+
+     2nd Coat Consistency when broken up--heavy. Reduction used--1-1/2
+     pints turpentine, 1 pint boiled oil. Consistency after reducing--good.
+     Working--good. Hiding--medium. Drying on pines--good; cypress--poor.
+     One-half pint japan added to gallon of paint. Penetration--fair.
+
+     3rd Coat Reduction used--1-1/2 pints oil, 1/2 pint turpentine.
+
+     _Reductions for Lead Pastes_ Calculated on 100 lb. keg.
+
+     Formulas Nos. 37-38. (Corroded White Lead.)
+
+     1st Coat 6-1/2 gallons oil, 1/2 gallon turpentine, 1 pint turpentine
+     japan.
+
+     2nd Coat 3-1/2 gallons oil, 1 gallon turpentine, 1 pint japan.
+
+     3rd Coat 3 gallons oil, 1 pint turpentine, 1/2 pint japan.
+
+=Hiding Power of Paints.= When the priming coat had thoroughly dried on
+each panel, the painter carefully stencilled a black Geneva cross over
+the priming coat with lampblack in oil. The object of this black cross
+was to make a determination of the comparative opacity or hiding power
+of the different paints applied. It is well known that various pigments
+when ground in oil differ in their hiding power in direct proportion to
+the difference in the refractive indices of the pigments and oils used,
+those containing high percentages of pigments such as white lead and
+zinc oxide being superior in hiding power. After the second and third
+coat of paint had been applied to each panel, there was evident a
+remarkable difference in the hiding power, as the black cross showed
+through in some cases quite clearly, while in other cases it was almost
+completely hidden. The hiding power of a paint is one of the properties
+which the master painter looks upon as most essential, but it should, of
+course, be accompanied in a satisfactory paint by good spreading power
+and longevity.
+
+=Actinic Light Tests.= After the drying of all the paints, it was
+decided that it would be of extreme interest to conduct a test on the
+resistance of certain paints to actinic light. It is well known that the
+ultraviolet or chemical rays of the sun are most energetic in causing
+chemical reactions that result in the early decay of certain types of
+paint. It was thought that the disintegrating effect of these rays, as
+well as their effect in the bleaching out of colors, might be prevented
+by placing upon certain panels small orange colored glass slides which
+would prevent the passing of these rays to the painted surface. The
+slides used were five inches long and three inches wide and were placed
+upon the middle board of certain panels, with picture framing, putty,
+and galvanized iron tacks. The preservation of the underlying surface
+from the sun's rays would, it was thought, prevent the deterioration of
+the paint, and at the same time preserve its original color so that it
+might be compared to the color of the exposed portion at the time of
+inspection.
+
+=Supervision of Tests.= The Atlantic City tests were under the constant
+supervision of Committee E of the American Society for Testing
+Materials, this committee having accepted the inspection of the fence. A
+representative was constantly present throughout the work in order to
+see that each formula received fair treatment. The actual painting work
+was under the supervision of the writer, together with a master painter
+representing George Butler who was chosen by the Master Painters'
+Association of Philadelphia as the official painter of the Atlantic
+City test fence. Mr. J. B. Campbell of Chicago also acted as an official
+of the Paint Manufacturers' Association in the application of the
+formulas to both the Atlantic City and Pittsburg fences.
+
+At Pittsburg the fence was placed directly under the supervision and
+control of the Carnegie Technical Schools, who chose for the fence work
+a committee of their technical force. Drs. James and Schaeffer of this
+institution were present throughout most of the work and were constantly
+represented during the test. The Pittsburg Master Painters' Association
+appointed a committee consisting of Messrs. Dewar, Rapp, and Cluley, for
+the actual painting work, and they were represented with the writer
+throughout the tests.
+
+Great interest was exhibited in the work by the committees in charge,
+and the skill of the practical painters, combined with the care of the
+inspectors, made the treatment of each formula fair and satisfactory.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+CONDITIONS NOTED AT INSPECTION OF TESTS
+
+
+=Inspection of Atlantic City Tests.= During the month of March, just one
+year after the placing of the painted panels on the Atlantic City fence,
+an inspection was made jointly by a committee representing the Master
+Painters' Association of Pennsylvania, the Scientific Section of the
+Paint Manufacturers' Association of the United States, and certain
+members of sub-Committee E of the American Society for Testing
+Materials.
+
+=Methods Used at Inspection.= One of the most important tests made when
+inspecting paint is the determination of the chalking taking place.[19]
+There was developed during the inspection of the Atlantic City panels a
+new method for determining the comparative chalking of the various
+paints. It was thought desirable to secure a method, if possible, that
+would show results which might be photographed and even tabulated in
+percentage form, if desired. The apparatus for the new test consisted of
+a small strip of black felt three inches wide by five inches long,
+placed across a small block of wood which would fit in the palm of the
+inspector's hand. This outfit resembled a blackboard eraser and was used
+in a similar way. By holding the apparatus firmly against the panel and
+drawing it half-way across the panel in a straight line toward the
+operator, there was obtained on the black cloth a white mark
+proportional in intensity to the amount of chalking which had taken
+place on the given area. When a series of these cloths were made, they
+were assembled and photographed for comparison. It should be noted that
+the above chalking test is useful only where the painted panels under
+examination have been exposed over a period of one to two years, during
+which period the chalking of paints has been shown to be greatest and
+the chalked surface of a fairly adherent nature. Where longer exposures
+have been made and where rains have removed from the painted panels a
+considerable amount of the chalked pigment which has formed, such a test
+would not be fairly representative of the amount of chalking which had
+taken place.
+
+  [19] Mr. Macgregor of the Picher Lead Co. has just developed a new
+       test to determine the relative imperviousness of paints which
+       have begun to chalk. He draws a mark about two inches long upon
+       the painted surface with a fountain pen. The ink mark will spread
+       rapidly to a wide area if the chalking is of a bad order. If the
+       chalking is slight and the film in good condition, the ink mark
+       will not spread.
+
+[Illustration: Series of Black Felt Cloths used in making the Chalk
+Tests on the Various Formulas. Numbers over Cloths represent Panels]
+
+[Illustration: CHALKING.--Type of Decay Exhibited by Improperly Made
+Paint (magnified view)]
+
+[Illustration: CHECKING.--Type of Decay Exhibited by Improperly Made
+Paint (magnified view)]
+
+[Illustration: BLISTERING.--Type of Decay Exhibited by Improperly Made
+Paint (magnified view)]
+
+[Illustration: CRACKING.--Type of Decay Exhibited by Improperly Made
+Paint (magnified view)]
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL DISINTEGRATION.--Type of Decay Exhibited by
+Improperly Made Paint (magnified view)]
+
+[Illustration: SCALING.--Type of Decay Exhibited by Improperly Made
+Paint (magnified view)]
+
+=Gloss.= The gloss of the various panels was a condition which was also
+reported upon, the middle board of each panel being washed with a wet
+sponge one day before the inspection so that any surface dirt might be
+removed. By looking at a panel from the side, a day after the washing,
+the inspector was enabled to get a fair idea of the degree of gloss
+exhibited by each formula.
+
+=Hiding Power.= The hiding power of each paint was determined, as before
+described, by observing the degree to which the stencilled lampblack
+cross on the priming coat was visible through the second and third
+coats. Single pigment paints such as white lead possessed very great
+hiding power and obscured the black cross almost completely, while the
+cross was quite visible through paints containing high percentages of
+crystalline pigments.
+
+=Checking.= The checking of each panel was determined by examining with
+a small high-power hand glass magnifying fifteen diameters. It is well
+known that examinations with such a hand glass will not determine
+whether so-called fine matt checking is taking place, but it will
+determine whether checking has appeared to any marked extent. Fine matt
+checking is the first sign of the decomposition of a paint, and is
+preliminary to the visible checking seen by the naked eye, which is
+often followed by alligatoring. Examination of some formulas disclosed
+this so-called alligatoring and even the exposed wood between the
+fissured surface which had developed from what were at first fine hair
+checks. It is, in the opinion of the writer, possible to predict with a
+fair degree of accuracy by examination of a painted surface, one year
+after exposure, how the paint will wear in the future and what its
+appearance will be at the end of another year.
+
+=Hardness.= The hardness of each panel could not be determined with any
+degree of accuracy, but the inspectors were able to roughly determine
+this condition by very close inspection. From practical experience of
+the wearing of white lead and zinc oxide, and the comparative hardness
+of these two pigments, zinc oxide was selected as the maximum for
+hardness and termed number 10, while white lead was selected as the
+minimum and termed number 1. The varying degrees of hardness exhibited
+by the formulas were recorded in terms from one to ten. This comparison
+of course was only an approximate one.
+
+=General Condition.= The so-called general conditions of the panels was,
+as a rule, the consensus of the judgment held by the various inspectors,
+with due regard to such properties as chalking, checking, gloss, hiding
+power, color maintenance, condition of surface, etc.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+RESULTS OF ATLANTIC CITY TESTS
+
+
+=Results on Various Woods.= On the Atlantic City Fence all the tests
+made on yellow pine and cypress were found to be in an unsatisfactory
+condition for a report, for in every case the sap and small knots
+contained in such wood had a very bad effect upon the paint, causing
+peeling and scaling. The white pine panels were in very much better
+condition, and it was therefore decided to make the inspection entirely
+from the white pine panels and in the future to remove the yellow pine
+and the cypress panels from the fence and from the test. The Committee
+advised that all future tests be made on white pine, as it is obviously
+unfair to use anything but the highest grade wood for a paint test in
+which the desire is to determine the comparative wearing value of
+pigments.
+
+     NOTE.--Recent tests have shown that Cypress may be successfully
+     painted when the priming coat of paint is thinned with Benzol
+     (Solvent Naphtha).
+
+[Illustration: Panels on Atlantic City Fence Two Lower Sets of Panels
+are painted with Lithopone Paints. Rapid Failure shown]
+
+[Illustration: Panels on Atlantic City Fence]
+
+[Illustration: Panels on Atlantic City Fence
+
+Two Lower Sets of Panels are Painted with Combination Pigment Paints.
+Excellent Results shown]
+
+=Paints Containing Lithopone.= One of the most striking exhibitions of
+paint disintegration in the whole test was the failure of nearly all the
+lithopone formulas tested. At the time these formulas were suggested for
+the test, various European technical journals had advocated the use of
+lithopone in large percentage for paints to be used on exterior
+surfaces. Good results had been obtained in the northwestern section of
+Europe, with this pigment in certain mixtures, and the object of these
+lithopone tests at Atlantic City and Pittsburg was to determine whether
+satisfactory paints could be made of this pigment for exposure in this
+country. Failure of the tests, however, in nearly every case except
+where zinc oxide and whiting were mixed with the lithopone, indicated
+that pigments such as zinc and whiting are necessary in order to prevent
+the decomposition of lithopone pigment paints. The decay of lithopone
+paints after they are applied seems to start with rapid oxidation of the
+linseed oil, and this oxidation seems to continue in a progressive and
+even accelerated way; after six months' exposure the surface of the
+paint being chalked to a great extent and showing rapid decomposition of
+the binder or vehicle. Inasmuch as lithopone is really an inert pigment,
+this rapid decomposition of its vehicle cannot be explained in the same
+way as the decomposition of the vehicle of pure white lead paints, where
+the alkaline nature of the lead is probably responsible for the
+formation of easily destroyed compounds. As complete failure had taken
+place in nearly every case where lithopone had been used, it was decided
+to condemn the lithopone panels on the fence, consisting of formulas 21
+to 27, including panels 151 to 164 in white, panels 131 to 144 in
+yellow, and 109 to 122 in gray. These lithopone tests were later on
+replaced by new tests in 1909, which will be reported upon later in this
+book.
+
+=General Results.= From these tests, the inspectors reached the
+unanimous conclusion that a paint made from any mixture of more than one
+white opaque pigment, either when used alone or in combination with
+small percentages of inert pigments, is far superior to any one single
+pigment paint. It was found that the straight white lead paints failed
+in every case, and this failure was so marked as to make it a conclusive
+demonstration of the unfitness of white lead along the Atlantic coast,
+when used without other pigments. Paints made with large percentages of
+white lead, however, gave excellent results.
+
+Gypsum was found unsafe to use in any large proportion in a paint,
+because of its solubility and liability to percolate through the coating
+of linoxyn or dried film, thus destroying the surface of the paint.
+Whiting, or calcium carbonate, demonstrated that it could be used in
+moderate percentage with some efficiency, but it was evident that any
+great excess of this pigment must also be avoided on account of its
+tendency towards rapid chalking. Magnesium silicate, aluminum silicate,
+and silica are three inert pigments which proved to be of great value in
+strengthening and reinforcing paints, especially when they were used in
+small percentage. In the same way, black fixe and barytes, or barium
+sulphate, also appeared to be useful in strengthening a paint. As these
+two last named pigments are chemically the same but physically
+different, the use of both in a paint formula is considered
+advantageous, because of the differences in size and form of their
+particles.
+
+=Color Tests.= It was the unanimous conclusion of all the inspectors
+that panels of all formulas which were tinted either gray or yellow were
+showing far superior wear and less chalking and checking than those
+which were painted in plain white. The reinforcing action of the tinting
+materials must be credited for this lengthening of the wear of such
+paints. Formulas 5, 6, 9, and 16, for instance, in the gray, were in
+most excellent condition, and in these formulas were used ochre, umber,
+bone-black, carbon-black, Venetian red and other inert bases. On the
+yellow panels, formulas 5, 6, 9, and 16 were also in very superior
+condition, and in these formulas chrome yellow and inert pigments were
+also used.
+
+Some of the color tests included the priming of boards with white lead,
+zinc oxide, sublimed white lead, lithopone, and other single pigment
+paints. Over these priming coats was placed a high grade brilliant
+paranitraniline red. Fairly good results were obtained in every case,
+but especially when lithopone or zinc oxide was used as a priming base.
+These pigments seemed to have no effect upon the constitution of the
+para red.
+
+Prussian blue, a colored pigment largely used, but one liable to react
+with certain paint pigments, was admixed with various paints applied to
+certain panels. This color was found in some cases to have faded
+materially, especially when mixed with alkaline pigments such as white
+lead. Sublimed white lead and zinc oxide, which are more inert in
+nature, did not have such action on Prussian blue, and the tinted bases
+of these pigments stood up in a remarkable manner. The greens which were
+tested were all in very good condition, with absence of fading, and
+showing only slight mildew.
+
+=Condensed Results of Inspection.= The results of inspection as obtained
+by the fence committee[20] having in charge the inspection of the test,
+have been condensed into table form, and are presented on pages 130-131.
+
+  [20] R. S. Perry, Director Scientific Section, Paint Manufacturers'
+       Association of the U. S.; George Butler, Official Painter,
+       representing Master House Painters' & Decorators' Association, H.
+       A. Gardner, Asst. Director.
+
+=Second Annual Inspection of the Atlantic City Test Fence.= After the
+original paints which had been applied to the Atlantic City Fence had
+been exposed for over two years, another inspection was made by a
+committee representing the Master Painters' Association of Philadelphia
+and the Scientific Section of the Paint Manufacturers' Association of
+the United States. A digest of the report of this committee[21] follows:
+
+  [21] George Butler, Official Painter Atlantic City Test Fence,
+       representing Philadelphia Master Painters' Association; Charles
+       Macnichol, Master Painter; Henry A. Gardner, Director Scientific
+       Section, Paint Manufacturers' Association of the U. S.
+
+"The painted panels were all carefully inspected by the inspectors in
+the usual manner. With the aid of high-power magnifying glasses,
+checking was determined. The degree of chalking exhibited by the various
+paints was ascertained by rubbing a piece of black cloth across the
+surface of each paint. Close observance was made to determine scaling,
+peeling, cracking, gloss, color, and the other factors to be considered
+when examining a painted surface. From these observations it was
+possible for the inspectors to state whether a panel exhibited general
+good condition, general fair condition, or general poor condition.
+
+CHART OF RESULTS--FIRST INSPECTION--ATLANTIC CITY TEST FENCE
+
+  ==============================+=================================+
+  Formula                       |         INERT PIGMENTS          |
+  No.                           |---------------------------------|
+    |Carbonate                  |Calcium                          |
+    |Lead                       |Carbonate                        |
+    |      |Zinc                |     |Calcium                    |
+    |      |Oxide               |     |Sulphate                   |
+    |      |      |Sublimed     |     |     |Magnesium            |
+    |      |      |White        |     |     |Silicate             |
+    |      |      |Lead         |     |     |     |Barium         |
+    |      |      |      |Zinc  |     |     |     |Sulphate       |
+    |      |      |      |Lead  |     |     |     |    |Silica    |
+    |      |      |      |White |     |     |     |    |    |Blanc|
+    |      |      |      |      |     |     |     |    |    |Fixe |
+  --+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+----+----+-----+
+    |   %  |   %  |   %  |   %  |  %  |  %  |  %  |  % |  % |  %  |
+   1| 30.0 | 70.0 |      |      |     |     |     |    |    |     |
+   2| 50.0 | 50.0 |      |      |     |     |     |    |    |     |
+   3| 20.0 | 50.0 | 20.0 |      |10.0 |     |     |    |    |     |
+   4| 48.5 | 48.5 |      |      | 3.0 |     |     |    |    |     |
+   5| 22.0 | 50.0 |      |      | 2.0 |     |26.0 |    |    |     |
+   6|      | 64.0 |      |      |     |     |     |36.0|    |     |
+   7| 37.0 | 63.0 |      |      |     |     |     |    |    |     |
+   8| 38.0 | 48.0 |      |      |     |     |     |    |14.0|     |
+   9|      | 73.0 |      |      |     |     | 2.0 |    |25.0|     |
+  10| 44.0 | 46.0 |      |      | 5.0 |     | 5.0 |    |    |     |
+  11| 50.0 | 50.0 |      |      |     |     |     |    |    |     |
+  12| 60.0 | 34.0 |      |      |       6% Inert  Pigments        |
+  13|      | 27.0 | 60.0 |      | 3.0 |     |10.0 |    |    |     |
+  14| 25.0 | 25.0 | 20.0 |      | 5.0 |25.0 |     |    |    |     |
+  15| 20.0 | 40.0 |      | 30.0 |10.0 |     |     |    |    |     |
+  16| 33.0 | 33.0 |      |      |     |     |     |34.0|    |     |
+  17| 40.0 | 40.0 |      |      |     |     | 3.0 |13.0|    | 4.0 |
+  18| 75.0 | 25.0 |      |      |     |     |     |    |    |     |
+  19|      | 25.0 | 75.0 |      |     |     |     |    |    |     |
+  20| 67.0 | 19.5 |      |      |10.0 |     | 3.5 |    |    |     |
+  33| 15.0 | 30.0 | 25.0 |      |     |     |     |    |30.0|     |
+  34| 38.95| 33.58|  4.81|      |19.48|     | 3.18|    |    |     |
+  35| 37.51| 25.87|  7.84|      |20.36|     | 8.42|    |    |     |
+  36|100.0 |      |      |      |     |     |     |    |    |     |
+  37|100.0 |      |      |      |     |     |     |    |    |     |
+  38|100.0 |      |      |      |     |     |     |    |    |     |
+  39|      |      |      |100.0 |     |     |     |    |    |     |
+  40|      |      |100.0 |      |     |     |     |    |    |     |
+  45|      |100.0 |      |      |     |     |     |    |    |     |
+  46|      | 61.0 |      |      |     |     |     |39.0|    |     |
+  47|      |100.0 |      |      |     |     |     |    |    |     |
+  ==+======+======+======+======+=====+=====+=====+====+====+=====+
+
+  ======================+==========+======+=========+======+
+  Formula               |Panel     |Hiding|Color    |Hard- |
+  No.                   |No.       |Power |         | ness |
+    |First              |   |Condi-|      |         |      |
+    |Coat               |   | tion |      |         |      |
+    |   |Second         |   |      |      |         |      |
+    |   |Coat           |   |      |      |         |      |
+    |   |    |Third     |   |      |      |         |      |
+    |   |    |Coat      |   |      |      |         |      |
+    |   |    |    |Aver-|   |      |      |         |      |
+    |   |    |    | age |   |      |      |         |      |
+  --+---+----+----+-----+---+------+------+---------+------+
+    |   |    |    |     |   |      |      |         |      |
+   1|610| 987| 664|  754|  1|Good  |Good  |Excellent| 8    |
+   2|913|1066| 948|  976|  3|Good  |Good  |Good     | 5    |
+   3|912| 914| 786|  871|  5|Good  |Fair  |Good     | 4    |
+   4|759| 939|1047|  915|  7|Good  |Good  |Good     | 5    |
+   5|714|1000| 709|  808|  9|Good  |Weak  |Good     | 8-1/2|
+   6|928|1189| 863|  993| 11|Fairly|Weak  |Good     | 8    |
+    |   |    |    |     |   |Good  |      |         |      |
+   7|763| 972| 891|  875| 13|Good  |Good  |Off Color| 7    |
+   8|786| 910| 767|  821| 15|Good  |Good  |Good     | 8-1/2|
+   9|716|1081| 812|  870| 17|Fair  |Poor  |Good     | 9    |
+  10|861|1014| 862|  912| 19|Good  |Fair  |Good     | 5    |
+  11|822| 959| 918|  900| 21|Good  |Good  |Excellent| 7-1/2|
+  12|862| 965| 734|  854| 23|Good  |Medium|Good     | 4    |
+  13|916|1031|1121| 1073| 25|Good  |Good  |Good     | 4    |
+  14|564| 806| 785|  718| 27|Bad   |Medium|Good     | 5    |
+  15|935|1044|1359| 1113| 29|Good  |Medium|Good     | 8-1/2|
+  16|799| 903| 994|  899| 31|Fair  |Fair  |Good     | 7-1/2|
+  17|806|1016| 884|  902| 33|Good  |Fair  |Good     | 4    |
+  18|788|1257| 973| 1006|145|Good  |Good  |Excellent| 3    |
+  19|700|1183|1400| 1094|147|Good  |Good  |Excellent| 2    |
+  20|776|1063| 877|  905|149|Good  |Good  |Good     | 5    |
+  33|512| 836| 689|  679|176|      |Fair  |         |      |
+  34|523| 800| 810|  711|175|Good  |Medium|Good     | 4    |
+  35|450| 893| 724|  689|180|Good  |Good  |Good     | 4    |
+  36|408| 711| 861|  660|181|Bad   |Good  |Good     | 1    |
+  37|524|1065| 828|  806|182|Bad   |Good  |Good     | 1    |
+  38|555| 888| 794|  746|177|Bad   |Good  |Good     | 1    |
+  39|550| 941| 916|  802|178|Good  |Fair  |Good     | 6    |
+  40|643| 810| 998|  817|168|Good  |Good  |Good     | 2    |
+  45|850|    |    |     |170|Fair  |Fair  |Good     | 9    |
+  46|783|    |    |     |169|Fair  |Good  |Good     | 9    |
+  47|730|    |    |     |172|      |Good  |Good     |10    |
+  ==+===+====+====+=====+===+======+======+=========+======+
+
+  ==============+===========+===========+===============================
+  Formula       |           |           |
+  No.           |           |           |
+    |Checking   |Chalking   |Gloss      |Remarks
+  --+-----------+-----------+-----------+-------------------------------
+    |           |           |           |
+   1|           |Very Slight|High       |Like rubbed varnish work.
+   2|Hard Matt  |Moderate   |Med. High  |
+   3|           |Medium     |Slight     |
+   4|           |Very Slight|Med. High  |
+   5|           |Slight     |High       |Hard surface.
+   6|Matt       |           |Good       |Surface rough.
+   7|           |Slight     |High       |
+   8|           |Slight     |High       |
+   9|Heavy Matt |Medium     |High       |Peeling started.
+  10|           |Some       | Med. High |
+  11|Med. Matt  |Some       |Med. High  |Some washing and discoloration.
+  12|Heavy Matt |Bad        |Medium     |
+  13|           |Medium     |Fair       |
+  14|Evident    |Some       |Medium     |Dead, spongy, surface. White
+    |           |           |           |incrustations.
+  15|Coarse Matt|Slight     |High       |
+  16|Bad        |Slight     |Good       |White incrustations.
+  17|           |Some       |Fair       |
+  18|Hard Matt  |Moderate   |Medium     |
+  19|Hard Matt  |Slight     |Very Little|
+  20|           |Very Little|Medium     |
+  33|           |           |Good       |Rough surface.
+  34|Evident    |Slight     |Egg Shell  |
+  35|Matt       |           |Egg Shell  |
+  36|Very       |Bad        |Egg Shell  |Same as 177, but
+    |Apparent   |           |           |checking not so bad.
+  37|Very       |Bad        |Egg Shell  |Same as 177 but wood
+    |Apparent   |           |           |shows more plainly.
+  38|Bad        |Bad        |Egg Shell  |Cracking and perishing evident.
+  39|           |Some       |Good       |
+  40|           |Consider-  |Egg Shell  |
+    |           |able       |           |
+  45|Very Evi-  |           |High       |
+    |dent       |           |           |
+  46|Some       |           |Good       |
+  47|Apparent   |           |Good       |Indication of scaling.
+  ==+===========+===========+===========+===============================
+
+"An inspection of the white lead paints on the fence indicated in every
+instance a rough, chalked, and disintegrated surface that seemed to be
+well worn, in some cases nearly to the wood. The strongly oxidizing air
+of the seacoast is probably responsible for the early decay of this
+pigment.
+
+"It was observed that the combination type of paint showed better hiding
+power than white lead, over the black crosses placed on the priming coat
+of each panel, as a hiding power test.
+
+[Illustration: Front of Fence showing Present Rearrangement of Panels]
+
+TESTS INAUGURATED IN 1907
+
+CHART OF RESULTS OF SECOND ANNUAL INSPECTION OF ATLANTIC CITY TEST
+FENCE, MAY, 1910
+
+  =========================================================+
+                           FORMULAS                        |
+  --+------------------------+-----------------------------+
+  F |                        |        INERT PIGMENTS       |
+  o |                        +-----------------------------+
+  r |Basic Carbonate         |Calcium                      |
+  m |White Lead              |Carbonate                    |
+  u |      |Zinc Oxide       |     |Calcium                |
+  l |      |      |Basic     |     |Sulphate               |
+  a |      |      |Sulphate  |     |  |Magnesium           |
+    |      |      |White Lead|     |  |Silicate            |
+  N |      |      |    |Zinc |     |  |    |Barium         |
+  u |      |      |    |Lead |     |  |    |Sulphate       |
+  m |      |      |    |White|     |  |    |     |Silica   |
+  b |      |      |    --+   |     |  |    |     |   |Blanc|
+  e |      |      |      |   |     |  |    |     |   | Fixe|
+  r |      |      |      |   |     |  |    |     |   --+   |
+  --+------+------+------+---+-----+--+----+-----+-----+---+
+    |  %   |  %   |  %   |  %|  %  | %| %  | %   | %   |  %|
+   1| 30   | 70   | --   | --| --  |--|--  |--   |--   | --|
+   2| 50   | 50   | --   | --| --  |--|--  |--   |--   | --|
+   3| 20   | 50   | 20   | --|10   |--|--  |--   |--   | --|
+   4| 48.5 | 48.5 | --   | --| 3.0 |--|--  |--   |--   | --|
+   5| 22   | 50   | --   | --| 2   |--|26  |--   |--   | --|
+   6| --   | 64   | --   | --| --  |--|--  |36   |--   | --|
+   7| 37   | 63   | --   | --| --  |--|--  |--   |--   | --|
+   8| 38   | 48   | --   | --| --  |--|--  |--   |14   | --|
+   9| --   | 73   | --   | --| 2   |--|--  |--   |25   | --|
+  10| 44   | 46   | --   | --| 5   |--| 5  |--   |--   | --|
+  11| 50   | 50   | --   | --| --  |--|--  |--   |--   | --|
+  12| 60   | 34   | --   | --| --  |  6% Inert Pigment | --|
+  13| --   | 27   | 60   | --| 3   |--|10  |--   |--   | --|
+  14| 25   | 25   | 20   | --| 5   |25|--  |--   |--   | --|
+  15| 20   | 40   | --   | 30|10   |--|--  |--   |--   | --|
+  16| 33   | 33   | --   | --| --  |--|--  |34   |--   | --|
+  17| 40   | 40   | --   | --| --  |--| 3  |13   |--   |  4|
+  18| 75   | 25   | --   | --| --  |--|--  |--   |--   | --|
+  19| --   | 25   | 75   | --| --  |--|--  |--   |--   | --|
+  20| 67.0 | 19.5 | --   | --|10.0 |--| 3.5|--   |--   | --|
+  33| 15   | 30   | 25   | --| --  |--|--  |--   |30   | --|
+  34| 38.95| 33.58|  4.81| --|19.48|--|--  | 1.59| 1.59| --|
+  35| 37.51| 25.87|  7.84| --|20.36|--|--  | 4.21| 4.21| --|
+  36|100   | --   | --   | --|--   |--|--  |--   |--   | --|
+  37|100   | --   | --   | --|--   |--|--  |--   |--   | --|
+  38|100   | --   | --   | --| --  |--|--  |--   |--   | --|
+  39| --   | --   | --   |100| --  |--|--  |--   |--   | --|
+  40| --   | --   |100   | --| --  |--|--  |--   |--   | --|
+  45| --   | 90   | --   | --|10   |--|--  |--   |--   | --|
+  46| --   | 61   | --   | --| --  |--|--  |39   |--   | --|
+  47| --   |100   | --   | --| --  |--|--  |--   |--   | --|
+  ==+======+======+======+===+=====+==+====+=====+=====+===+
+
+  ==+========================================+===
+  F |                                        |
+  o |                                        |
+  r |                                        | P
+  m |                                        | a
+  u |                                        | n
+  l |                                        | e
+  a |                                        | l
+    |          REPORT OF INSPECTION          |
+  N +-----------+------------+------+--------+ N
+  u |           |            |GENE- |        | u
+  m |           |            |RAL   |        | m
+  b |           |            |CON-  |        | b
+  e |           |            |DI-   |        | e
+  r |CHALKING   |CHECKING    |TION  |REMARKS | r
+  --+-----------+------------+------+--------+---
+   1|Very slight|Very slight |Good  |--      |  1
+   2|Medium     |Slight      |Very  |--      |  3
+    |           |            |good  |        |
+   3|Medium     |Slight      |Good  |--      |  5
+   4|Very slight|Slight      |Good  |--      |  7
+   5|Slight     |Slight      |Good  |--      |  9
+   6|Very slight|Slight      |Good  |--      | 11
+   7|Medium     |Slight      |Good  |--      | 13
+   8|Slight     |Very slight |Good  |--      | 15
+   9|Very bad   |Deep, with  |Poor  |--      | 17
+    |           |scaling     |      |        |
+  10|Heavy      |Deep        |Medium|--      | 19
+  11|Medium     |Medium      |Fair  |--      | 21
+  12|Medium     |Deep        |Fair  |--      | 23
+  13|Medium     |Slight      |Very  |--      | 25
+    |           |            |good  |        |
+  14|Medium     |Lateral     |Fair  |--      | 27
+  15|Slight     |Visible with|Poor  |--      | 29
+    |           |naked eye   |      |        |
+  16|Slight     |Slight      |Good  |--      | 31
+  17|Medium     |Slight      |Good  |--      | 33
+  18|Medium     |Slight      |Very  |--      |145
+    |           |            |good  |        |
+  19|Consider-  |Deep        |Good  |--      |147
+    |able       |            |      |        |
+  20|Medium     |Slight      |Good  |--      |149
+  33|Medium     |Slight      |Very  |--      |176
+    |           |            |good  |        |
+  34|Slight     |Slight      |Good  |--      |175
+    |           |lateral     |      |        |
+  35|Slight     |Lateral     |Good  |--      |180
+  36|Consider-  |Heavy       |Fair  |Rough   |181
+    |able       |            |      |surface |
+  37|Consider-  |Heavy and   |Poor  |Rough   |182
+    |able       |deep        |      |surface |
+  38|More than  |Very deep   |Poor  |--      |177
+    |Panel no.  |            |      |        |
+    |182        |            |      |        |
+  39|Consider-  |Very slight |Good  |--      |178
+    |able       |            |      |        |
+  40|Heavy      |Slight      |Good  |--      |168
+  45|Slight     |Slight      |Good  |--      |170
+  46|Slight     |Medium      |Fair  |--      |169
+  47|None       |Very deep   |Poor  |--      |172
+  ==+===========+============+======+========+===
+
+"There are no pigments possessing greater hiding properties when first
+used than white leads, but the lack of hiding power on the white lead
+panels after two years' exposure was caused by the chalking away of the
+lead. The superior hiding power of the composite paints was due to the
+action of the other pigments in these combination paints in preventing
+the lead from chalking away.
+
+"The Committee finds that the addition of a reasonable percentage of
+zinc oxide to white lead increases its durability and retards its
+chalking, renders it whiter, and forms a surface that presents a much
+better repainting condition. The combinations of white lead and zinc
+oxide on the Atlantic City Test Fence were in general good condition
+throughout.
+
+"Corroded white lead, sublimed white lead, zinc oxide, and zinc lead are
+the standard white opaque pigments. They were all tested on the Atlantic
+City Fence and it was found that to use any one alone results in
+inferior protection to the wood. Barium sulphate, silica, asbestine,
+china clay, and calcium carbonate are the standard crystalline pigments.
+In the past, the overloading of paints with these crystalline or inert
+pigments has been the cause of the prejudice that painters have had
+against their use. It has been established beyond controversy, however,
+that the use of these pigments, in moderate percentage, combined with
+any of the standard opaque white pigments, such as white leads, zinc
+oxide, etc., undoubtedly results in better service from every standpoint
+and forms the most satisfactory white paint for general outside use.
+Some of the most perfect painted surfaces on the fence were those made
+on the above basis as reference to the charted report will show."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+RESULTS OF PITTSBURG TESTS
+
+
+The First Annual Inspection of the Pittsburg Test Fence took place
+during May, 1909, a little over one year after the painted panels had
+been placed in position. The inspectors found that in Pittsburg a heavy
+deposit of soot had formed on the panels, and they considered it
+therefore inadvisable to make a detailed report of the inspection until
+the second year of the exposure. The general results of the Pittsburg
+inspection as reported by the three committees[22] having supervision
+over the work, is, however, given herewith.
+
+  [22] J. H. James, Chairman Test Fence Committee, Carnegie Technical
+       Schools.
+       A. C. Rapp, Chairman Fence Committee, Pittsburg Branch
+       Pennsylvania State Association of Master Painters.
+       R. S. Perry, Director Scientific Section, Paint Manufacturers'
+       Association of the U. S.; H. A. Gardner, Asst. Director.
+
+[Illustration: Pittsburg Test Fence]
+
+During the inspection of the Pittsburg tests it was decided to condemn
+the lithopone panels on the fence, which consisted of formulas 21 to 27,
+including panels 151 to 164 in white, 131 to 144 in yellow, 109 to 122
+in gray. Almost complete failure had taken place in every case where
+lithopone had been used. These lithopone tests were later on replaced by
+new tests which are described later in this book.
+
+"=Wood Most Valuable for Test.= As on the Atlantic City Fence, the white
+pine panels afforded the best results and gives the best indication of
+the comparative wearing of the paints and affords no unfair condition,
+such as other woods might offer, to interfere with the test.
+
+"=Condition of Cypress.= Cypress showed inferior conditions, except that
+it was more pronounced and more discoloration of the panels was noticed
+on this grade of wood, which seems to be extremely greasy in nature and
+difficult to properly prime, even when the paint used upon this wood
+contains a large percentage of volatile diluent.
+
+"=Removal of Lithopone Panels.= The Joint Committees confirmed the
+previous recommendation to remove all the lithopone formulas, and they
+decided to remove the cypress and the yellow pine panels in every
+formula except in the white paints.
+
+"It was decided to reassemble all the white pine panels and group them
+together for purposes of comparison, and in place of the panels
+condemned and removed, to substitute a series of new formulas, to
+further widen the scope of the tests.
+
+"=Ultimate Value of Mixed Paints.= The results of the inspection
+conclusively show that a mixture of more than one prime white pigment,
+whether this mixture be alone or in combination with a small percentage
+of inert pigment, produces a paint far superior to a paint manufactured
+from one pigment alone.
+
+"As a general statement of the comparative wearing of the paints, it
+might be said that the composite formulas are less advanced toward
+destruction than the paints made from single pigments such as
+lithopones, white leads and zinc oxides. It is not to be understood from
+this statement that it is the opinion of the committee that all of the
+composite formulas are of equal value or that all of them are to be
+recommended, but it is meant that the higher types, as evidenced by the
+appearance of the panels, are in the above relation to the single
+pigment paints.
+
+[Illustration: Panels on Pittsburg Test Fence]
+
+"=Lithopone Destroyed Rapidly at Pittsburg.= It was evident some time
+ago that the formulas containing large percentages of lithopone were
+rapidly failing, and their appearance was very much the same as those
+formulas of a similar type at Atlantic City. There seems, however, to be
+some difference in the way these formulas broke down; those on the
+Pittsburg Fence having shown the quicker destruction, possibly due to
+the action of the acid gases in the air upon the paint coating. This
+further confirms the statement that paint compositions containing such
+heavy percentages of lithopone and intended for outside use must be
+designed with relation to the particular uses of the product and to the
+climate in which they are to be used. It will also be necessary to
+consider more carefully the vehicle of the paints which are to be made
+of this pigment.
+
+"=Possible Value of Excluding Vehicle for Lithopone.= It was the belief
+of the committee that much better paints containing lithopone could be
+designed by varying the percentages of the materials contained in the
+formulas, and it was suggested that a less penetrable vehicle, made more
+on the line of a varnish, and not as easily affected as straight
+linoxyn, should be experimented with in connection with these lithopone
+formulas.
+
+"The success of certain European countries in using lithopone as a
+pigment, even in a very high percentage, may be due to the use of a
+special vehicle, and, if it is found in future tests that this material,
+which has been reported as well suited in Northern European climates,
+may be benefited and made of service by the addition of special oils and
+special vehicles, then this test would be of great value to the whole
+paint trade at large.
+
+"Preliminary inspections were made on October 6th and later on December
+12th, 1908, and a marked difference was observed at the two inspections
+in the wearing of the various formulas.
+
+"The lapse of the two months between these inspections gave opportunity
+during which cold weather caused contraction of the paint film which had
+been previously subjected to the hot summer sun, and caused marked
+chalking of the white lead formulas. On October 6th this chalking was
+just commencing, while in the December inspection it was well advanced,
+and at the annual inspection, had proceeded to such an extent that the
+pigment had been washed from the panels representing those paints which
+had started early chalking.
+
+"Panel 177, representing Zinc Lead, was found to be extremely dark in
+color throughout the coating and was more on the order of a grayish
+tint. It resisted all attempts to wash it down to a white surface. The
+panel, however, in other respects, was in fairly good condition.
+
+"=Condition of Corroded White Lead Panels.= Panel 174, representing Type
+B Pure Basic Carbonate-White Lead, was very badly perished and
+discolored, and an examination of the surface showed very bad checking.
+Long continued washing with a sponge removed a discolored surface and
+showed but a rather thin coating. Panel 175, representing Type C Pure
+Basic Carbonate-White Lead, showed most marked checking and was in very
+much the same condition as 174 and 176. Panel 176, representing Type A
+Pure Basic Carbonate-White Lead, was in the same condition as the Type B
+and C Basic Carbonate-White Leads.
+
+"=Condition of Sublimed White Lead.= Panel 178, representing Sublimed
+White Lead (Basic Sulphate-White Lead,) was chalking, and the paint coat
+was somewhat disintegrated. The chalking present on this formula,
+however, showed that the disintegration of the paint coat had not taken
+place for several months after the Basic Carbonate-White Leads. This
+panel maintained good color, not being acted upon by sulphur gases.
+
+"=Blackening of Corroded White Lead.= The black and gray formation on
+all the Basic Carbonate-White Lead panels was probably due to the action
+of sulphur gases which are present in the district immediate to
+Pittsburg, and which may cause the formation of black sulphide of lead.
+
+"Possibly a general conclusion from all these panels might be described
+as a perishing of the paint coating, with the formation of sulphide of
+lead which to a certain extent protects the coating beneath it, but the
+perishing has proceeded to such an extent that the unaltered paint
+coating left is but a slight protection to the wood, being extremely
+thin.
+
+"The committee resolved that the detailed observations of the panels
+could not be made and that they would not be justified in making
+detailed comparisons between the various formulas, giving the gloss,
+hardness, general condition, checking, etc. Precision in this work at
+such a time was impossible, and it was decided that a further period
+would have to elapse before such a detailed comparison could be made
+between the various blended or composite formulas on the fence.
+
+"=Report on Colors.= It was resolved that at the next inspection of the
+Pittsburg Fence, portions of the original samples of the original paints
+used for the yellows and grays should be on hand, previously painted out
+on small panels for comparison for the deterioration of the colors on
+these same panels on the fence.
+
+"An examination of the combination formula grays by the committee led to
+the general conclusion that those grays which did not contain a very
+large percentage of white lead were superior in their maintenance of
+tone and tint and general condition to any of the other grays upon the
+fence. However, the presence of umber, ochre, and red oxide in some of
+the grays which showed to the best advantage may account for their
+permanence of tone. Some of these grays were the so-called warm grays
+and were much darker in tone and tint than the ordinary drab which is
+generally applied.
+
+"The straight pure Basic Carbonate-White Lead paints were not painted
+out in grays or yellow, the test upon this material being only in white.
+
+"On Panels 120 and 126, which represent formulas 6 and 9 respectively,
+the grays are in most excellent condition, and it will be found, by
+reference to formulas 6 and 9, that there is an absence of white lead in
+their composition. These formulas, however, contained a small percentage
+of umber and ochre. Formulas 5 and 16 contained over 20% White Lead and
+the gray of these formulas maintained their blue tone very well. These
+formulas were tinted solely with lampblack.
+
+"An inspection of Panel 138, which represents Formula 15, showed good
+maintenance of color in the gray, and was in much better condition as
+regards permanence of color than the other grays containing white lead.
+
+"A study of the yellow panels on the fence led to the unanimous
+conclusion that a liberal amount of Basic Carbonate-White Lead seemed to
+have a beneficial result in preserving the bright tone of the chrome
+yellow in tints so strong as those used on the fence. It was noted that
+Panel 108, which represents Formula 28, and in which zinc yellow was
+used, showed great permanence of tone and tint. Unfortunately this zinc
+chromate was added to a formula containing a large percentage of
+lithopone, and the destruction of the lithopone to a great extent
+affected the value of this test.
+
+[Illustration: Whiteness of Sublimed White Lead
+
+Darkness of Corroded White Lead
+
+On Pittsburg Test Fence]
+
+"=Maintenance of Para Reds.= A study of the paranitraniline or azo reds
+painted over the various pigments as priming coats demonstrated that the
+reds on this fence are in better condition than the reds at Atlantic
+City. As is well known, para red is manufactured by precipitation in an
+acid solution and is best maintained under acid conditions. The acidity
+of the Pittsburg atmosphere, caused by the large amount of acid gases
+which are being poured into the air, day in and day out, and which are
+constantly condensing on the surface of structures, may account for the
+better preservation of these reds.
+
+"It was noted that the para reds which were applied to panels prime
+coated with white lead seemed to be brightening in color and seemed to
+be gradually working over toward a lightening which may in the future
+show a pinkish tint.
+
+"=Report on Greens.= The bronze green is in most excellent condition and
+shows an absence of the mildew appearance which was observed at Atlantic
+City.
+
+"The chrome green is standing up exceedingly well, there being
+practically no change whatsoever in the color since it was exposed.
+
+"=Best Base for Blues.= An inspection of the blues showed that those
+which gave the greatest permanence and the least amount of fading were
+applied in combination with either Sublimed White Lead (Basic
+Sulphate-White Lead), or zinc oxide, while those blues which were
+applied in combination with Basic Carbonate-White Lead showed marked
+failure and were completely bleached out, due, of course, to the
+alkaline nature of the corroded white lead; Prussian blues being
+transformed by alkalies to a white compound.
+
+"=Superior Value of Composite Formulas.= Some of the mixed leads, or
+so-called graded leads, which are combinations of white leads with other
+high-grade pigments and containing some inert pigments, were not
+deteriorated so far as the white lead formulas, and the general
+conclusion was that they were upward of six months behind the
+deterioration of the straight white leads, and this was confirmed by the
+presence of moderate chalking, showing an excellent repainting surface
+and a better thickness and condition of the paint coating.
+
+"The same conclusions which were reached at Atlantic City, as to the
+best method of shellacking, obtained also on the Pittsburg Fence,
+namely, that application of the shellac to the wood previous to the
+first coat is the better method.
+
+"=Analysis of Paints.= At the time of the painting of the fence a sample
+of each paint was placed in small friction top cans, carefully labeled,
+and sent to the Carnegie Technical Schools' laboratory for analysis.
+The analyses of these paints were made by members of the Test Fence
+Committee, representing the schools, and appear in this bulletin. The
+results obtained conform very closely to the formulas which were applied
+to the fence, a variance of only one or two per cent. being shown in the
+amount of the different pigments."
+
+=Second Annual Inspection of Pittsburg Test Fence.= The second annual
+inspection of the Pittsburg Test Fence was made on Thursday, May 7th,
+1910. The panels in Pittsburg after having weathered for over two years
+presented an appearance which allowed the making of a detailed
+inspection, this having been found impossible during the first annual
+inspection. The inspection party[23] included those master painters who
+represented the Pittsburg Master Painters' Association, who were in
+charge of the application of the paints in 1907, 1908, and 1909,
+together with the test fence committee from the faculty of the Carnegie
+Technical Schools, and representatives of the Scientific Section. A
+summary of the report issued by this committee follows:
+
+  [23] A. C. Rapp, Chairman, Test Fence Committee, Pittsburg Branch,
+       Master Painters' Association; John Dewar, member Fence Committee,
+       Pittsburg Branch, Pennsylvania State Association of Master
+       Painters; J. H. James, Chairman, Carnegie Technical Schools' Test
+       Fence Committee; John A. Schaeffer, member Test Fence Committee,
+       Carnegie Technical Schools; Henry A. Gardner, Director Scientific
+       Section, Paint Manufacturers' Association of the U. S.
+
+"Two of the members of the inspection party have been impressed with the
+lumber lottery existing in some field tests, which have been conducted,
+and feel that when the object of a test is to determine the relative
+value of paints, such tests should be conducted on a standard grade of
+wood, such as white pine. The use of cypress, pitch pine, and other
+faulty woods, is often the cause of the failure of a paint, which on
+good wood would show up well. For this reason, only the white pine
+panels painted with white paints were considered in the inspection, the
+yellow pine panels and cypress panels having been thrown out of the test
+at last year's inspection.
+
+"Checking, cracking, and alligatoring on the painted surfaces were
+determined by using a magnifying glass. The degree of chalking existing
+was decided upon by using small pieces of black felt cloth, rubbing
+them against the surface of the panel; the degree of whiteness removed
+upon the cloth being indicative of the amount of chalking taking place.
+General condition was decided upon after carefully weighing the opinion
+of each member of the inspection party, as regards the general
+characteristics shown by each paint, such as checking, chalking,
+scaling, condition for repainting, hiding power, etc. The results have
+been charted and presented in this manner:[24]
+
+  [24] An endeavor was made to use uniform terms in reporting on each
+       formula. In some cases it was necessary to bring out more
+       forcibly the condition by the insertion of qualifying remarks.
+
+[Illustration: Panel on Left Painted with Single Pigment Paint; Panel on
+Right Painted with Combination Pigment Paint. Photograph taken after Two
+Years' Exposure on Pittsburg Test Fence]
+
+"=Conclusions Reached from the Test.= The primary object of the test
+made at Pittsburg was to determine whether a combination paint, made of
+two or more pigments, would be equal or superior to single pigment
+paints. After one year's exposure, the combination type of paint proved
+more durable than the single pigment paints.
+
+"It was early apparent that the combination type of paints, that is,
+those paints made of more than one pigment, indicated in most cases very
+excellent wear, with a minimum of blackness and a general good condition
+of surface.
+
+TESTS INAUGURATED IN 1907
+
+CHART OF RESULTS OF SECOND ANNUAL INSPECTION OF PITTSBURG TEST FENCE,
+MAY, 1910
+
+  =========================================================+
+                            FORMULAS                       |
+  --+------------------------+-----------------------------+
+  F |                        |        INERT PIGMENTS       |
+  o |                        +-----------------------------+
+  r |Basic Carbonate         |Calcium                      |
+  m |Wh. L'd                 |Carbonate                    |
+  u |      |Zinc Oxide       |     |Calcium                |
+  l |      |      |Basic     |     |Sulphate               |
+  a |      |      |Sulphate  |     |  |Magnesium           |
+    |      |      |Wh. L'd   |     |  |Silicate            |
+  N |      |      |    |Zinc |     |  |    |Barium         |
+  u |      |      |    |Lead |     |  |    |Sulphate       |
+  m |      |      |    |White|     |  |    |     |Silica   |
+  b |      |      |    --+   |     |  |    |     |   |Blanc|
+  e |      |      |      |   |     |  |    |     |   | Fixe|
+  r |      |      |      |   |     |  |    |     |   --+   |
+  --+------+------+------+---+-----+--+----+-----+-----+---+
+    |  %   |  %   |  %   |  %| %   | %| %  | %   | %   | % |
+   1| 30   | 70   | --   | --|--   |--|--  |--   |--   |-- |
+   2| 50   | 50   | --   | --|--   |--|--  |--   |--   |-- |
+   3| 20   | 50   | 20   | --|10   |--|--  |--   |--   |-- |
+   4| 48.5 | 48.5 | --   | --| 3.0 |--|--  |--   |--   |-- |
+   5| 22   | 50   | --   | --| 2   |--|26  |--   |--   |-- |
+   6| --   | 64   | --   | --|--   |--|--  |36   |--   |-- |
+   7| 37   | 63   | --   | --|--   |--|--  |--   |--   |-- |
+   8| 38   | 48   | --   | --|--   |--|--  |--   |14   |-- |
+   9| --   | 73   | --   | --| 2   |--|--  |--   |25   |-- |
+  10| 44   | 46   | --   | --| 5   |--| 5  |--   |--   |-- |
+  11| 50   | 50   | --   | --|--   |--|--  |--   |--   |-- |
+  12| 60   | 34   | --   | --|--   |   6% Inert Pigment    |
+  13| --   | 27   | 60   | --| 3   |--|10  |--   |--   |-- |
+  14| 25   | 25   | 20   | --| 5   |25|--  |--   |--   |-- |
+  15| 20   | 40   | --   | 30|10   |--|--  |--   |--   |-- |
+  16| 33   | 33   | --   | --|--   |--|--  |34   |--   |-- |
+  17| 40   | 40   | --   | --|--   |--| 3  |13   |--   | 4 |
+  18| 75   | 25   | --   | --|--   |--|--  |--   |--   |-- |
+  19| --   | 25   | 75   | --|--   |--|--  |--   |--   |-- |
+  20| 67.0 | 19.5 | --   | --|10.0 |--| 3.5|--   |--   |-- |
+  33| 15   | 30   | 25   | --|--   |--|--  |--   |30   |-- |
+  34| 38.95| 33.58|  4.81| --|19.48|--|--  | 1.59| 1.59|-- |
+  35| 37.51| 25.87|  7.84| --|20.36|--|--  | 4.21| 4.21|-- |
+  36|100   | --   | --   | --|--   |--|--  |--   |--   |-- |
+  37|100   | --   | --   | --|--   |--|--  |--   |--   |-- |
+  38|100   | --   | --   | --|--   |--|--  |--   |--   |-- |
+  39| --   | --   | --   |100|--   |--|--  |--   |--   |-- |
+  40| --   | --   |100   | --|--   |--|--  |--   |--   |-- |
+  45| --   | 90   |--    | --|10   |--|--  |--   |--   |-- |
+  46| --   | 61   |--    | --|--   |--|--  |--   |39   |-- |
+  47| --   |100   |--    | --|--   |--|--  |--   |--   |-- |
+  ==+======+======+======+===+=====+==+====+=====+=====+===+
+
+  ==+========================================+===
+  F |                                        |
+  o |                                        |
+  r |                                        | P
+  m |                                        | a
+  u |                                        | n
+  l |                                        | e
+  a |                                        | l
+    |          REPORT OF INSPECTION          |
+  N +-----------+------------+------+--------+ N
+  u |           |            |GENE- |        | u
+  m |           |            |RAL   |        | m
+  b |           |            |CON-  |        | b
+  e |           |            |DI-   |        | e
+  r |CHALKING   |CHECKING    |TION  |REMARKS | r
+  --+-----------+------------+------+--------+---
+   1|Slight     |None        |Good  |Slight  |  2
+    |           |            |      |scaling;|
+    |           |            |      |fairly  |
+    |           |            |      |white   |
+    |           |            |      |surface |
+   2|Medium     |Very slight |Fair  |Panels  |  4
+    |           |            |      |quite   |
+    |           |            |      |dark and|
+    |           |            |      |some    |
+    |           |            |      |scaling |
+   3|Consider-  |None        |Good  |Fairly  |  6
+    |able       |            |      |white   |
+   4|Consider-  |Lateral and |Fair  |White   |  8
+    |able       |irregular   |      |surface |
+   5|Medium     |Very        |Very  |Extreme-| 10
+    |           |slight      |good  |ly white|
+    |           |            |      |surface |
+   6|Very slight|Very bad;   |Poor  |Black   | 12
+    |           |rough sur-  |      |surface |
+    |           |face        |      |        |
+   7|Slight     |Slight      |Good  |Medium  | 14
+    |           |            |      |white   |
+    |           |            |      |surface |
+   8|Slight     |Slight      |Good  |White   | 16
+    |           |            |      |surface;|
+    |           |            |      |slight  |
+    |           |            |      |scaling |
+   9|None       |Deep;       |Very  |Film    | 18
+    |           |peeling in  |poor  |brittle |
+    |           |places      |      |and sur-|
+    |           |            |      |face    |
+    |           |            |      |dark    |
+  10|Medium     |Slight la-  |Good  |Surface | 20
+    |           |teral in    |      |very    |
+    |           |places      |      |white   |
+  11|Consider-  |Deep matt   |Fair  |Consi-  | 22
+    |able       |checking    |      |derable |
+    |           |            |      |scaling;|
+    |           |            |      |forma-  |
+    |           |            |      |tion of |
+    |           |            |      |black   |
+    |           |            |      |coating |
+    |           |            |      |shat-   |
+    |           |            |      |tered   |
+    |           |            |      |off     |
+  12|Medium     |Slight      |Fairly|Surface | 24
+    |           |            |good  |white   |
+  13| Medium    |None        |Excel-|Very    | 26
+    |           |            |lent  |white   |
+  14|Consider-  |Medium      |Fair  |Panel   | 28
+    |able       |            |      |fairly  |
+    |           |            |      |white   |
+  15|Slight     |Medium      |Good  |Surface | 30
+    |           |            |      |quite   |
+    |           |            |      |dark    |
+  16|Medium     |Very slight |Good  |Quite   | 32
+    |           |            |      |white   |
+  17|Consider-  |Slight,     |Fair  |Surface | 34
+    |able       |along       |      |fairly  |
+    |           |lateral     |      |white   |
+    |           |lines       |      |        |
+  18|Medium     |Slight, with|Good  |Surface | 36
+    |           |some scaling|      |has be- |
+    |           |            |      |come    |
+    |           |            |      |quite   |
+    |           |            |      |dark    |
+  19|Consider-  |None        |Excel-|No black| 38
+    |able       |            |lent  |coating;|
+    |           |            |      |surface |
+    |           |            |      |very    |
+    |           |            |      |white,  |
+    |           |            |      |due to  |
+    |           |            |      |inert-  |
+    |           |            |      |ness of |
+    |           |            |      |pigment |
+    |           |            |      |or pro- |
+    |           |            |      |gressive|
+    |           |            |      |chalking|
+  20|Medium     |Medium      |Good  |        | 40
+  33|Heavy      |None        |Fair  |White   |168
+    |           |            |      |surface |
+  34|Consider-  |Very slight |Good  |Surface |172
+    |able       |            |      |is very |
+    |           |            |      |white;  |
+    |           |            |      |progres-|
+    |           |            |      |sive    |
+    |           |            |      |chalking|
+    |           |            |      |may have|
+    |           |            |      |prevent-|
+    |           |            |      |ed for- |
+    |           |            |      |mation  |
+    |           |            |      |of black|
+    |           |            |      |coating |
+  35|Bad        |None        |Good  |Very    |173
+    |           |            |      |white;  |
+    |           |            |      |no black|
+    |           |            |      |coating |
+    |           |            |      |evident |
+  36|Bad        |Bad         |Fair  |Surface |174
+    |           |            |      |is dead |
+    |           |            |      |black;  |
+    |           |            |      |shatter-|
+    |           |            |      |ed in   |
+    |           |            |      |places  |
+  37|Extremely  |Medium      |Fair  |Very    |175
+    |bad        |            |      |black   |
+    |           |            |      |surface |
+    |           |            |      |and     |
+    |           |            |      |mottled |
+    |           |            |      |in      |
+    |           |            |      |places  |
+  38|Very bad   |Very bad,   |Poor  |Black   |176
+    |and quite  |with scaling|      |surface |
+    |dusty      |            |      |is loose|
+    |           |            |      |and     |
+    |           |            |      |shatter-|
+    |           |            |      |ed      |
+  39|Consider-  |Slight      |Good  |Panel   |177
+    |able       |            |      |surface |
+    |           |            |      |quite   |
+    |           |            |      |white   |
+  40|Very bad   |Slight      |Good  |Surface |178
+    |           |            |      |very    |
+    |           |            |      |white,  |
+    |           |            |      |possibly|
+    |           |            |      |due to  |
+    |           |            |      |progres-|
+    |           |            |      |sive    |
+    |           |            |      |chalking|
+    |           |            |      |or in-  |
+    |           |            |      |ertness |
+    |           |            |      |of pig- |
+    |           |            |      |ment    |
+  45|Slight     |Considerable|Fair  |White   |169
+    |           |            |      |surface |
+  46|Slight     |Slight      |Fair  |Consi-  |170
+    |           |            |      |derable |
+    |           |            |      |scaling |
+    |           |            |      |present;|
+    |           |            |      |surface |
+    |           |            |      |fairly  |
+    |           |            |      |white   |
+  47|Bad        |Bad         |Bad   |Bad con-|171
+    |           |            |      |dition  |
+    |           |            |      |through-|
+    |           |            |      |out     |
+  ==+===========+============+======+========+===
+
+[Illustration: Middle white panel is painted with a combination pigment
+formula
+
+Middle white panel is painted with pure Corroded White Lead
+
+Notice Difference in Color after Two Years' Wear]
+
+"=Recommendation.= On account of the peculiar conditions which obtain in
+and around Pittsburg, as exemplified by these tests, the committee
+finds, as a result thereof, that the best white paint for general
+exterior use is made of white lead combined with zinc oxide and a
+moderate percentage of inert pigments, such as silica, asbestine, or
+barytes.
+
+"=Some Peculiar Conditions Affecting the Tests.= The inspectors were
+most impressed during the inspection by the blackness exhibited to such
+a high degree by certain panels, and the fair degree of whiteness by
+others. It is well known that in Pittsburg nearly all paints become
+darkened by the deposition on their surface of carbon particles
+emanating from the combustion of soft coal. Certain of the paints,
+however, presented fairly white surfaces, and it would thus appear that
+the extreme darkness shown by other paints was due to their composition.
+Corroded white lead when used alone was uniformly covered by black
+particles, and the higher the percentage of corroded white lead in a
+paint the darker was the surface. It was at first thought that this
+darkness was due to the softness of the white lead pigment or to its
+roughened surface, in causing adherence of soot particles. Sublimed
+white lead, however, which is also a soft pigment, chalked even more
+progressively than corroded white lead, but its surface was not rough,
+and presented a very white appearance. Scrapings from the different
+panels are being taken, and after a careful analysis the findings from
+the investigations will be reported by a member of the Inspection
+Committee."
+
+  A. C. RAPP.        _Chairman Test Fence Committee, Pittsburg Branch,
+                     Master Painters' Association_
+
+  JOHN DEWAR.        _Member Fence Committee, Pittsburg Branch, Penna. State
+                     Association of Master Painters_
+
+  J. H. JAMES.       _Chairman Carnegie Technical Schools' Fence Committee_
+
+  J. A. SCHAEFFER.   _Instructor in Chemical Practice, Carnegie Technical
+                     Schools Pittsburg, Pa._
+
+  H. A. GARDNER.     _Director Scientific Section, Paint Mfrs. Asso. of U. S._
+
+_May 31, 1910_
+
+
+PITTSBURG TEST FENCE
+
+COMPARATIVE SPREADING RATES OF WHITE PAINT ON WHITE PINE PANELS
+
+_Average Spreading Rate 266 Square Feet_
+
+  =======+===========+===========+===========+==========+==============
+  Formula|First Coat |Second Coat|Third Coat | Average  |Spreading Rate
+  Number | (sq. ft.) |(sq. feet) | (sq. ft.) |Spreading |    Rate
+         |           |           |           |  Rate    | 3-Coat Work
+         |           |           |           |(sq. feet)| (sq. feet)
+  -------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+--------------
+    1    |   759     |  1020     |    768    |   849    |   283
+    2    |   694     |   975     |   1229    |   966    |   322
+    3    |   743     |   873     |    770    |   795    |   265
+    4    |   537     |   987     |   1019    |   848    |   283
+    5    |   509     |   896     |    886    |   764    |   255
+    6    |   765     |  1045     |    994    |   935    |   312
+    7    |   734     |   922     |    996    |   884    |   295
+    8    |   565     |   862     |    854    |   760    |   253
+    9    |   622     |   926     |   1160    |   903    |   301
+   10    |   610     |  1013     |   1070    |   900    |   300
+   11    |   651     |   933     |   1010    |   865    |   288
+   12    |   675     |  1027     |    623    |   775    |   258
+   13    |   663     |   892     |    981    |   845    |   282
+   14    |   498     |   785     |    807    |   697    |   232
+   15    |   688     |  1000     |    984    |   891    |   297
+   16    |   669     |   880     |    860    |   803    |   268
+   17    |   635     |   982     |   1077    |   900    |   300
+   18    |   636     |   959     |   1031    |   875    |   292
+   19    |   626     |  1076     |   1037    |   913    |   304
+   20    |   591     |  1015     |    929    |   845    |   282
+   21    |   595     |   948     |    910    |   818    |   273
+   22    |   617     |   868     |    810    |   765    |   255
+   23    |   549     |  1002     |    986    |   846    |   282
+   24    |   539     |   918     |    783    |   747    |   249
+   25    |   530     |   929     |    850    |   770    |   257
+   26    |   532     |   916     |   1011    |   820    |   273
+   27    |   520     |   850     |    656    |   675    |   225
+   33    |   600     |  1340     |    810    |   917    |   306
+   34    |   471     |   743     |    690    |   635    |   212
+   35    |   402     |   598     |    645    |   548    |   183
+   36    |   398     |   668     |    838    |   635    |   212
+   37    |   579     |   653     |    838    |   690    |   230
+   38    |   463     |   615     |    704    |   594    |   198
+   39    |   474     |   954     |    849    |   759    |   253
+   40    |   446     |   815     |    871    |   711    |   237
+   45    |   527     |   841     |    916    |   761    |   254
+   46    |   605     |   740     |    818    |   721    |   240
+   47    |   735     |   961     |    993    |   896    |   299
+  =======+===========+===========+===========+==========+==============
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+A LABORATORY STUDY OF TEST PANELS
+
+
+=Panel Sections for Laboratory Test.= In order to make a laboratory
+study of the painted panels on the Atlantic City and Pittsburg fences,
+it was thought advisable to remove small sections from representative
+areas and transfer them to the laboratory for such work. The fences were
+visited by the official inspection committees soon after the first
+annual inspection, and the panels were carefully looked over. Upon each
+was marked out a representative portion, care being exercised to select
+areas where previous inspections had not disturbed the surface of the
+film in any manner. The inspectors then placed the number of the panel
+upon the areas which had been marked off, as well as their initials. The
+marked sections were sawed out, wrapped in tissue paper, and then
+transferred to the laboratory where they were placed upon models of the
+respective fences from which they had been removed. The illustration
+shows the model test fences set up together. It is very apparent that
+the Pittsburg panels are much the darker in color, due to the soot, and
+in some cases lead sulphide formed upon their surfaces. This difference
+was undoubtedly due to the atmospheric conditions prevailing where the
+tests were made. One would be led to suppose that a paint film exposed
+to an atmosphere such as is found in Pittsburg would show deterioration
+more rapidly than one exposed in Atlantic City. In all the tests and
+experiments, however, the Atlantic City panels appeared broken down to a
+much greater extent; though it is true that the Pittsburg panels had
+darkened considerably and presented a rather mottled appearance. The
+deposit of soot on the Pittsburg panel seemed to act as a preservative
+coating for the film beneath, and prevented marked disintegration.
+
+[Illustration: Sections of Atlantic City and Pittsburg Fences Arranged
+for Laboratory Examination]
+
+[Illustration: Sections of Atlantic City and Pittsburg Fences]
+
+[Illustration: Upper set of tests made on Panels from Atlantic City
+Fence
+
+Lower set of tests made on Panels from Pittsburg Fence
+
+Figures at left indicate Formula Number
+
+Figures at right indicate Degree of Chalking]
+
+[Illustration: Color Standard used in Comparison of Panel Section]
+
+=Chalking Test.= Small strips of black felt, about one inch square, were
+firmly attached to a block of wood, and by a clamp having the same
+pressure in each case, the wood with its surface of black felt was fixed
+to the panel. This apparatus, which resembles a blackboard eraser, is
+firmly drawn across the panel in one direction for a certain definite
+distance, during which time it gathers all the chalked surface presented
+by the painted wood. Upon detaching the apparatus from the panel it is
+observed that the black cloth becomes whitened to an extent
+proportionate to the chalking that has taken place on the given area.
+
+After each one of the panels had been treated in the same manner by the
+same operator, the black cloths were assembled on one large board and
+photographed. A definite standard of chalking was made up, and the
+operator was enabled to put down opposite the report on each panel the
+degree of chalking which had taken place, No. 1 representing the least
+amount and No. 10 the greatest amount of chalking.
+
+=Degree of Whiteness Shown by Panels.= It was a very simple matter to
+gauge the whiteness of the various panels, by comparing them with a
+series of standard boards painted with three coats of white paint.
+Florence Brand, New Jersey zinc oxide, was used as the standard for
+whiteness and termed "No. 1." In making "No. 2" standard, to the zinc
+oxide was added .01% of lampblack. By adding .02% of lampblack to the
+zinc, standard "No. 3" was obtained, and so on, increasing the amount of
+lampblack in each case by .01%. These standards were run up to "No. 30,"
+and the various panels on the different fences compared with them. The
+degrees of whiteness are recorded in progressive numbers, No. 1 being
+the standard for whiteness and No. 30 the darkest. The Atlantic City
+panels ranged from 3 to 8 in the scale of whiteness, while the Pittsburg
+panels required the use of the entire range of standards.
+
+=Resistance to Abrasion.= The apparatus used for determining the
+abrasion resistance of a paint was made of a glass tube about six feet
+long, having an internal bore of 7/8 inch. This was supported in an
+upright position over a dish which held the panel under test at an angle
+of 45 degrees. The abrasive material consisted of No. 00 emery, which
+was dropped into the tube through a funnel having a bore of 5 mm. When
+the emery reached the bottom of the long tube it scattered itself so as
+to strike a surface on the panel about an inch in diameter. The emery
+was constantly poured in until the paint coating had worn away, showing
+the bare wood. The weight in pounds of emery powder required to show the
+disruption of the coating is recorded and reported as the measure of the
+"abrasion resist." The panel requiring the greatest weight of emery to
+cause abrasion is evidently the most resistant to abrasion. Paint is
+often subjected to serious abrasion, through the blowing of sand,
+especially at the seashore, and to withstand such action should contain
+a proportion of pigments especially resistant to abrasion, such as
+silica, zinc oxide, asbestine, and barytes.
+
+[Illustration: Apparatus for Determining the Abrasion Resistance of
+Paints]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 1, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 2, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 3, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 4, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 5, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 6, A. C.]
+
+     NOTE: The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance of Dr. J.
+     A. Schaeffer in the preparation of the photomicrographs herewith
+     shown.
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 7, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 8, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 9, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 10, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 11, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 12, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 13, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 14, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 15, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 16, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 17, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 18, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 19, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 20, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 33, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 34, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 35, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 36, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 37, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 38, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 39, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 40, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 45, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 46, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 47, A. C.]
+
+=Making Photomicrographs.= The photomicrographs which are herewith shown
+were made in the following manner: A part of a panel was placed upon the
+stage of the microscope and held firmly in place with clips. By varying
+the adjustment and carefully running over the field the condition of the
+surface was readily given, using the same eye-piece and objective
+throughout the tests, and obtaining a magnification of thirty-three.
+Great care was exercised to secure an average field showing the general
+and typical appearance of every panel. Little difficulty was experienced
+in so doing, as the laboratory panels gave very representative surfaces
+of the large panels on the fence. The instrument was then inclined
+horizontally and the eye-piece was fitted into the camera nose. In the
+back of the bellows of the camera was placed the ground glass for
+focusing. To secure illumination the light from an electric arc lamp
+was reflected from a mirror directly upon the painted surface of the
+panel, which in turn was reflected through the camera on to the ground
+glass. The plate-holder was then put in position and six-second
+exposures were made, afterward developing and printing.
+
+=Checking and Cracking.= What was termed "fine matt checking" at the
+First Annual Inspection was not visible at the time to certain members
+of the Inspection Committee, but it is an established fact that the
+checking was an existing condition, as the photomicrographs have shown.
+This checking has a very peculiar characteristic in that the lines are
+very narrow and hair-like, being somewhat interlaced and peculiarly
+forked. That this hair matt checking is a preliminary condition which
+afterwards develops into matt checking and into marked or heavy checking
+seems to be indicated.
+
+It appears from an examination of the photomicrographs of the paint
+films that a paint coating closely resembles the surface of the earth,
+and is subject to the same basic laws that have caused the various
+geodetic changes in the earth's crust. Observation of a dried pond or
+lake bed will disclose types of fissuring and cracking similar to those
+shown by dried paint coatings in which the oil has been fully oxidized,
+and especially in the case of paints containing pigments which act upon
+the oil to produce compounds brittle in nature.
+
+At Atlantic City the panels were all clean and free from dirt,
+presenting continuous exposure of the films, and thus maintaining
+conditions for active checking. At Pittsburg, soon after the panels
+began to chalk, the large amount of dust and black soot in the
+atmosphere completely covered the panels with a very thick, resistant
+coating of carbon, which acted as a seal or protector, preventing
+disintegration to a great extent. This coating was extremely hard to
+remove, and photomicrographs, before and after removal of this coating
+by rubbing with a damp cloth, failed to reveal marked checking on any of
+the formulas except those made of strictly pure basic carbonate-white
+lead. The checking, even on these, was not as marked as at Atlantic
+City. It is presumed that after the chalking had taken place and the
+chalked pigment had been washed from the panels, the gradually
+increasing coat of carbon and lead sulphide had protected the panels
+from checking, or possibly the atmosphere of Pittsburg, which in other
+respects had deteriorated the panels to a greater extent than at
+Atlantic City, did not have the extreme action in causing checking that
+the Atlantic City atmosphere seemed to have effected.
+
+[Illustration: Combination Formula No. 1, Pittsburg
+
+BEFORE WASHING
+
+Mottled surface due to external coating of impurities.]
+
+[Illustration: AFTER WASHING]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 4, Pittsburg
+
+BEFORE WASHING]
+
+[Illustration: AFTER WASHING]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 38, Pittsburg
+
+Basic Carbonate--White Lead Panels on Fence
+
+BEFORE WASHING
+
+Checking evident even through the outer covering of foreign matter.]
+
+[Illustration: AFTER WASHING]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 36, Pittsburg
+
+Basic Carbonate--White Lead Panels on Fence
+
+BEFORE WASHING
+
+Peculiar network-like checking appearing through outer coat of
+impurities.]
+
+[Illustration: AFTER WASHING]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 40, Pittsburg]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 45, Pittsburg]
+
+=Results on Combination Pigment Paints.= It will be noticed that the
+checking on most of the combination pigment paints made of lead, zinc,
+and inert pigments, was moderate, and in many cases of a fine order. It
+has been observed that the percentage of zinc oxide in a paint is not
+always a criterion upon which future checking may be judged. Nor could
+it be said that the checking is dependent upon the percentage of basic
+carbonate-white lead added to the paint. However, it appears that
+scientific blending of the various pigments, with regard to their
+physical properties in oil, such as their strength and elastic limit,
+develops the greatest resistance to both cracking and checking.
+Elasticity is vital, but strength must be combined therewith in order to
+prevent disruptions of the paint coating. Paint films made of certain
+inert pigments, when tested on the filmometer, were relatively high in
+strength, but relatively low in elasticity. Such pigments, when used in
+large percentage, form coatings which are hard and apt to crack. The
+use, however, of these pigments in moderate percentages seems very
+beneficial in overcoming the effect of using an excessive percentage of
+white lead, or of zinc oxide.
+
+=Results on White Lead Paints.= The maximum checking was observed on the
+basic carbonate-white lead panels, the size of the checks in some cases
+being several times larger than those on the other panels.
+
+On some of the basic carbonate-white leads the checking was of a very
+peculiar nature, consisting of very broad fissures in the paint coating,
+disclosing the wood surfaces beneath. The type of checking existing was
+also distinct in its structure, being hexagonal in shape. One of the
+most marked features shown by the basic carbonate-white lead films was
+the extreme roughness of their surfaces. This roughness is most likely
+due to the excessive chalking which had taken place.
+
+=Results on Silica and Barytes Paints.= The checking of paints very high
+in silica resolved itself into fine hair-like lines which are generally
+lateral to each other, and indicate a cracked appearance. The checking
+of paints containing very high percentages of barytes was also of a
+distinct nature, being generally forked in appearance and of no definite
+striation.
+
+=Surface Condition of Fume Pigment Paints.= The panels painted with
+basic sulphate-white lead (sublimed white lead) showed complete absence
+of checking. This was also true of the panels painted with zinc lead.
+These are both fume products and are extremely fine in their physical
+size, which may account for this condition. Although zinc oxide is made
+in a similar manner, it gives a much harder paint coating than either of
+the afore-mentioned pigments, and presents a surface which develops
+considerable checking, generally of a medium order. The past theories
+regarding zinc oxide, in which it has been maintained that zinc oxide
+gives the maximum checking, are evidently incorrect, as the checking
+found on the zinc oxide panels was not as marked or deep as the checking
+on the basic carbonate-white lead panels; in fact, the checking might be
+more in the line of a cracking, possibly due to the brittle nature of
+the coating composed of straight zinc. This is especially true of zinc
+paints containing insufficient oil.
+
+=The Importance of the Physical Nature of Pigments.= It appears that
+very fine grinding of materials, chosen for their characteristic
+fineness, with the absence of any unfavorable physical condition or
+chemical sensitiveness, are important factors in the making of a paint
+to resist cracking or checking. The purity of the essential materials,
+as well as the scientific compounding of these materials, with due
+regard to the law of minimum voids, are great factors which enhance the
+qualities of paints, greater, perhaps, than the variation of percentages
+of the various pigments which go to make up a paint.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+ADDITIONAL TESTS AT ATLANTIC CITY AND PITTSBURG
+
+
+A series of new test panels to take the place of those panels which were
+condemned and subsequently removed from the Atlantic City and Pittsburg
+fences, were painted and exposed during June, 1909. These new test
+panels are of white pine, this wood having been selected by the joint
+inspection committee as offering the best condition for future tests.
+The method used in painting these panels was the same as in the previous
+tests, together with the adoption of certain refinements in the
+reductions, application, etc. Thirty-six formulas were selected with
+careful regard to the percentage of components, including several paints
+containing lithopone combined with whiting and zinc oxide,[25] two
+pigments which gave promise of supporting the lithopone for outside use.
+Some of these lithopone paints contained special vehicles which it was
+thought would prevent the destructive action which lithopone seems to
+have upon linseed oil. In order to obtain a criterion of the value of
+the new formulas applied, as against the wearing of straight white
+leads, the original white leads used in the previous tests were
+included, and other brands were added. Each formula was painted out in
+white, yellow, and gray, upon panels of white pine wood arranged in
+sequence upon the fence, and properly identified. The customary opacity
+test, in the form of a small black square, was stencilled over the
+priming coat of each panel, as in the former tests. The composition of
+the vehicle in all the new tests was standard, using pure linseed oil
+with a small percentage of turpentine drier. The tints used in each
+formula were secured at the time of application by the use of standard
+colors, lampblack, and medium chrome yellow, using an approximate amount
+for each formula.
+
+  [25] A brief study of the theory of solutions (See Cushman and Gardner
+       on "Corrosion and Preservation of Iron and Steel"), involving the
+       modes of iron formation, will be invaluable to the student who is
+       inquiring into the cause of the peculiar fogging of lithopone,
+       with the idea in view of correcting this evil by physical or
+       chemical treatment. Inasmuch as our observations thus far have
+       led us to believe that the fogging of lithopone takes place in
+       the presence of moisture, with the contributory and necessary
+       action of chemically active rays from the sun or other source, it
+       is fair to assume that under these conditions the insoluble
+       molecule of zinc sulphide and barium sulphate reverts by
+       intricate molecular disturbance and ionization back to the
+       soluble barium sulphide and zinc sulphate from which the
+       lithopone is formed by metathesis. If this be true, then the acid
+       nature of these soluble salts is no doubt combated and overcome
+       at the moment of formation by the basic nature of zinc oxide and
+       calcium carbonate, which tend to ionize to an alkaline reaction.
+       The value of zinc oxide and calcium carbonate in lithopone paints
+       as detergents of blackness, has been demonstrated at both
+       Atlantic City and Pittsburg." H. A. G.
+
+[Illustration: Section of Fence Showing New Panels Recently Placed]
+
+[Illustration: Appearance of 1909 Tests]
+
+An inspection of these new tests was made during June, 1910, and the
+results of the inspection are shown on pages 178 to 181. The results of
+the inspection prove that it is unsafe to use lithopone in a paint
+containing white lead of any type, early darkening and failure being
+shown in every case where such a combination existed. The formulas in
+the new test, which were properly balanced and which had a low
+percentage of lithopone combined with zinc oxide and whiting, presented
+in some cases very good surfaces. A rough, sandy surface, however, was
+shown where lithopone was used in any great quantity.
+
+TESTS INAUGURATED IN 1909
+
+RESULTS OF INSPECTION OF ATLANTIC CITY TEST FENCE, MAY, 1910
+
+  ===============================================+
+                    FORMULAS                     |
+  --+-----------------------+--------------------+
+  F |                       |                    |
+  o |                       |                    |
+  r |Basic Carbonate        |                    |
+  m |White Lead             |                    |
+  u |    |Zinc Oxide        |                    |
+  l |    |  |Basic Sulphate |                    |
+  a |    |  |White Lead     |  INERT PIGMENTS    |
+    |    |  |   |Precipi-   +--------------------+
+  N |    |  |   |tated      |Calcium Carbonate   |
+  u |    |  |   |White Lead |  |Silica           |
+  m |    |  |   |   |Zinc   |  |   |Asbestine    |
+  b |    |  |   |   |Lead   |  |   |  |China Clay|
+  e |    |  |   |   |  |Li- |  |   |  |  |Barytes|
+  r |    |  |   |   |  |tho-|  |   |  |  | |Blanc|
+    |    |  |   |   |  -pone|  |   |  |  | +-Fixe|
+  --+----+--+---+---+---+---+--+---+--+--+--+----+
+    |  % | %|  %|  %|  %|  %| %|  %| %| %| %|  % |
+   1| -- |--| 45| --| --| 40|15| --|--|--|--| -- |
+   2| -- |--| 45| --| --| 40|--| 15|--|--|--| -- |
+   3| -- |45| --| --| --| 45|10| --|--|--|--| -- |
+   4| -- |--| 45| --| --| 45|10| --|--|--|--| -- |
+   5| -- |40| --| --| --| 40|20| --|--|--|--| -- |
+   6| -- |--| 45| --| --| 35|--| --|20|--|--| -- |
+   7| 50 |--| --| --| 36| --|--| --| 2| 8| 4| -- |
+   8| -- |--| 50| --| --| 36|--| --| 2| 8| 4| -- |
+   9| -- |--| 50| --| --| 36|--| --| 2|--|12| -- |
+  10| -- |36| 50| --| --| --|--| --| 2| 8| 4| -- |
+  11| 28 |55| --| --| --| --|--| --| 3|--| 7|  7 |
+  12| -- |55| 28| --| --| --|--| --| 3|--| 7|  7 |
+  13| -- |60| --| --| --| 30|10| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  14| -- |30| 30| --| --| 30|10| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  15| -- |--| 60| --| --| 30|--| --|10|--|--| -- |
+  16| -- |--| --| --| --|100|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  17| -- |--| --| --| --|100|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  18| 33 |33| --| --| --| --|--| 17|--|17|--| -- |
+  19| 34 |33| --| --| --| --|--| 33|--|--|--| -- |
+  20| 34 |33| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|33|--| -- |
+  21|100 |--| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+    |[26]|  |   |   |   |   |  |   |  |  |  |    |
+  22|100 |--| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  23|100 |--| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  24| -- |--|100| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  25| -- |--| --| --|100| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  26| -- |--| --|100| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  27|100 |--| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  28|100 |--| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  29| 24 |45| 13| --| --| --|--| --|18|--|--| -- |
+  30| 45 |--| --| --| --| 40|15| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  31| 45 |--| --| --| --| 40|--| 15|--|--|--| -- |
+  32| 45 |--| --| --| --| 35|--| --|20|--|--| -- |
+  33| 50 |--| --| --| --| 36|--| --| 2|--|12| -- |
+  34| 75 |--| 25| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  35| 50 |--| 50| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  36| -- |--| --| --| --| --|--|100|--|--|--| -- |
+  ==+====+==+===+===+===+===+==+===+==+==+==+====+
+
+  [26] This pigment on analysis proved to be zinc lead.
+
+  ==+===============================================+==
+  F |                                               |
+  o |                                               |
+  r |                                               | P
+  m |                                               | a
+  u |                                               | n
+  l |                                               | e
+  a |                                               | l
+    |                                               |
+  N |                                               | N
+  u |                                               | u
+  m |              REPORT OF INSPECTION             | m
+  b |---------+---------+----------------+----------+ b
+  e |CHALKING |CHECKING |GENERAL         |REMARKS   | e
+  r |         |         |CONDITION       |          | r
+  --+---------+---------+----------------+----------+--
+   1|None     |None     |Rough surface,  |          | 1
+    |         |         |but fair for re-|          |
+    |         |         |painting        |          |
+   2|None     |None     |Fair; rough sur-|          | 2
+    |         |         |face and slight-|          |
+    |         |         |ly dark         |          |
+   3|Very     |Very     |Good; very white|          | 3
+    |slight   |slight   |surface         |          |
+   4|None     |None     |Rough surface   |          | 4
+    |         |         |and slightly    |          |
+    |         |         |dark            |          |
+   5|Very     |Very     |Good; very white|          | 5
+    |slight   |slight   |surface         |          |
+   6|None     |None     |Rough surface;  |          | 6
+    |         |         |dark            |          |
+   7|None     |Very     |Good            |          | 7
+    |         |slight   |                |          |
+    |         |lateral  |                |          |
+    |         |checking |                |          |
+   8|Heavy    |Slight   |Excellent; very |          | 8
+    |         |         |white           |          |
+   9|Heavy    |Some     |Excellent; very |          | 9
+    |         |         |white           |          |
+  10|None     |Slight   |Good            |          |10
+  11|None     |Slight   |Good; slightly  |          |11
+    |         |         |dark            |          |
+  12|None     |Slight   |Good            |          |12
+    |         |lateral  |                |          |
+  13|Very     |Consider-|Fair            |          |13
+    |slight   |able     |                |          |
+    |         |lateral  |                |          |
+    |         |running  |                |          |
+    |         |along    |                |          |
+    |         |grain of |                |          |
+    |         |wood     |                |          |
+  14|Very     |Consider-|Fair            |          |14
+    |slight   |able     |                |          |
+    |         |lateral  |                |          |
+    |         |running  |                |          |
+    |         |along    |                |          |
+    |         |grain of |                |          |
+    |         |wood     |                |          |
+  15|Heavy    |Slight   |Fair            |          |15
+    |         |lateral  |                |          |
+    |         |checking |                |          |
+  16|Heavy    |Consider-|Dark color;     |          |16
+    |         |able     |rough surface   |          |
+  17|Consider-|Medium   |Better than No. |          |17
+    |able     |         |16; not as rough|          |
+    |         |         |or dark         |          |
+  18|Very     |None     |Good            |          |18
+    |slight   |         |                |          |
+  19|Very     |Slight   |Good            |          |19
+    |slight   |         |                |          |
+  20|Very     |None     |Good            |          |20
+    |slight   |         |                |          |
+  21|Slight   |Slight   |Fair; rough     |          |21
+    |         |         |surface         |          |
+  22|Very     |Lateral  |Fairly good     |          |22
+    |slight   |cracking |                |          |
+  23|Medium   |Lateral  |Fair            |          |23
+    |         |cracking |                |          |
+  24|Slight   |Slight   |Good for        |          |24
+    |         |cracking |repainting      |          |
+  25|Medium   |None     |Good surface    |          |25
+  26|Heavy    |Slight   |Fair; surface   |          |26
+    |         |cracking |rough & dark    |          |
+  27|Heavy    |Lateral  |Fair            |          |27
+    |         |cracking |                |          |
+  28|Medium   |Consider-|Poor; very      |          |28
+    |         |able     |rough, dark     |          |
+    |         |         |surface         |          |
+  29|Slight   |None     |Good            |          |29
+  30|Heavy    |Heavy    |Poor            |          |30
+    |         |checking |                |          |
+    |         |and alli-|                |          |
+    |         |gatoring |                |          |
+  31|None     |Alliga-  |Rough surface;  |          |31
+    |         |toring   |dark            |          |
+  32|Slight   |Medium   |Dark and rough  |          |32
+    |         |         |surface         |          |
+  33|Consider-|Slight   |Poor; dark      |          |33
+    |able     |         |surface         |          |
+  34|None     |None     |Fair; dark      |          |34
+    |         |         |surface         |          |
+  35|None     |Slight   |Fair; rough     |          |35
+    |         |         |surface         |          |
+  36|Extremely|Medium   |Fair            |Vehicle   |36
+    |bad      |         |                |disinte-  |
+    |         |         |                |grated;   |
+    |         |         |                |spotted in|
+    |         |         |                |places    |
+  ==+=========+=========+================+==========+==
+
+TESTS INAUGURATED IN 1909
+
+RESULTS OF INSPECTION OF PITTSBURG TEST FENCE, MAY, 1910
+
+  ===============================================+
+                    FORMULAS                     |
+  --+-----------------------+--------------------+
+  F |                       |                    |
+  o |                       |                    |
+  r |Basic Carbonate        |                    |
+  m |White Lead             |                    |
+  u |    |Zinc Oxide        |                    |
+  l |    |  |Basic Sulphate |                    |
+  a |    |  |White Lead     |   INERT PIGMENT    |
+    |    |  |   |Precipi-   +--------------------+
+  N |    |  |   |tated      |Calcium Carbonate   |
+  u |    |  |   |White Lead |  |Silica           |
+  m |    |  |   |   |Zinc   |  |   |Asbestine    |
+  b |    |  |   |   |Lead   |  |   |  |China Clay|
+  e |    |  |   |   |  |Li- |  |   |  |  |Barytes|
+  r |    |  |   |   |  |tho-|  |   |  |  | |Blanc|
+    |    |  |   |   |  -pone|  |   |  |  | --Fixe|
+  --+----+--+---+---+---+---+--+---+--+--+--+----+
+    |  % | %|  %|  %|  %|  %| %|  %| %| %| %|  % |
+   1| -- |--| 45| --| --| 40|15| --|--|--|--| -- |
+   2| -- |--| 45| --| --| 40|--| 15|--|--|--| -- |
+   3| -- |45| --| --| --| 45|10| --|--|--|--| -- |
+   4| -- |--| 45| --| --| 45|10| --|--|--|--| -- |
+   5| -- |40| --| --| --| 40|20| --|--|--|--| -- |
+   6| -- |--| 45| --| --| 35|--| --|20|--|--| -- |
+   7| 50 |--| --| --| 36| --|--| --| 2| 8| 4| -- |
+   8| -- |--| 50| --| --| 36|--| --| 2| 8| 4| -- |
+   9| -- |--| 50| --| --| 36|--| --| 2|--|12| -- |
+  10| -- |36| 50| --| --| --|--| --| 2| 8| 4| -- |
+  11| 28 |55| --| --| --| --|--| --| 3|--| 7|  7 |
+  12| -- |55| 28| --| --| --|--| --| 3|--| 7|  7 |
+  13| -- |60| --| --| --| 30|10| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  14| -- |30| 30| --| --| 30|10| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  15| -- |--| 60| --| --| 30|--| --|10|--|--| -- |
+  16| -- |--| --| --| --|100|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  17| -- |--| --| --| --|100|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  18| 33 |33| --| --| --| --|--| 17|--|17|--| -- |
+  19| 34 |33| --| --| --| --|--| 33|--|--|--| -- |
+  20| 34 |33| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|33|--| -- |
+  21|100 |--| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  22|100 |--| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+    |[27]|  |   |   |   |   |  |   |  |  |  |    |
+  23|100 |--| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  24| -- |--|100| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  25| -- |--| --| --|100| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  26| -- |--| --|100| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  27|100 |--| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  28|100 |--| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  29| 24 |45| 13| --| --| --|--| --|18|--|--| -- |
+  30| 45 |--| --| --| --| 40|15| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  31| 45 |--| --| --| --| 40|--| 15|--|--|--| -- |
+  32| 45 |--| --| --| --| 35|--| --|20|--|--| -- |
+  33| 50 |--| --| --| --| 36|--| --| 2|--|12| -- |
+  34| 75 |--| 25| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  35| 50 |--| 50| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  36| -- |--| --| --| --| --|--|100|--|--|--| -- |
+  ==+====+==+===+===+===+===+==+===+==+==+==+====+
+
+  [27] This pigment on analysis proved to be zinc lead.
+
+  ==+===============================================+==
+  F |                                               |
+  o |                                               |
+  r |                                               | P
+  m |                                               | a
+  u |                                               | n
+  l |                                               | e
+  a |                                               | l
+    |                                               |
+  N |                                               | n
+  u |                                               | u
+  m |              REPORT OF INSPECTION             | m
+  b +---------+---------+----------------+----------+ b
+  e |CHALKING |CHECKING |GENERAL         |REMARKS   | e
+  r |         |         |CONDITION       |          | r
+  --+---------+---------+----------------+----------+--
+    |         |         |                |          |
+   1|Consider-|Slight   |Fair            |Dark in   | 1
+    |able     |         |                |places.   |
+    |         |         |                |Diffused  |
+   2|Slight   |Bad      |Fair            |Dark in   | 2
+    |         |         |                |places    |
+   3|Medium   |None     |Good            |Darkening | 3
+    |         |         |                |shown in  |
+    |         |         |                |places    |
+   4|Consider-|None     |Good            |Medium    | 4
+    |able     |         |                |dark      |
+   5|Slight   |None     |Good            |No exces- | 5
+    |         |         |                |sive dark-|
+    |         |         |                |ness      |
+   6|Medium   |Slight   |Good            |Surface   | 6
+    |         |         |                |fairly    |
+    |         |         |                |white     |
+   7|Medium   |None     |Excellent       |Whitest   | 7
+    |         |         |                |surface of|
+    |         |         |                |new tests |
+   8|Extremely|Slight   |Fair            |Surface   | 8
+    |bad      |         |                |darkening |
+   9|Extremely|Slight   |Fair            |Not as bad| 9
+    |bad      |         |                |as No. 8  |
+  10|Slight   |None     |Good            |Excellent |10
+    |         |         |                |surface;  |
+    |         |         |                |very white|
+  11|Slight   |None     |Excellent       |Surface   |11
+    |         |         |                |fairly    |
+    |         |         |                |white;    |
+    |         |         |                |thin soot |
+  12|Medium   |None     |Good            |Surface   |12
+    |         |         |                |white     |
+  13|Medium   |Very bad |Fair            |Slight    |13
+    |         |in spots |                |darkening |
+  14|Heavy    |Consider-|Fair            |Slight    |14
+    |         |able     |                |darkening |
+  15|Extremely|Slight   |Fair            |Fairly    |15
+    |bad      |         |                |white     |
+  16|Extremely|Advanced |Bad             |Surface   |16
+    |bad      |and deep |                |rough with|
+    |         |         |                |consider- |
+    |         |         |                |able dis- |
+    |         |         |                |integra-  |
+    |         |         |                |tion and  |
+    |         |         |                |much dark-|
+    |         |         |                |ness      |
+  17|Not as   |Less ad- |Fair            |Not as    |17
+    |bad as   |vanced   |                |dark as   |
+    |No. 16   |than No. |                |No. 16;   |
+    |         |16       |                |slightly  |
+    |         |         |                |mottled in|
+    |         |         |                |places;   |
+    |         |         |                |buff color|
+  18|Very     |Practi-  |Fair            |Surface   |18
+    |slight   |cally    |                |white     |
+    |         |none     |                |          |
+  19|Very     |None     |Good            |Surface   |19
+    |slight   |         |                |fairly    |
+    |         |         |                |white     |
+  20|None     |None     |Good            |Surface   |20
+    |         |         |                |fairly    |
+    |         |         |                |white     |
+  21|Slight   |Slight   |Fair            |Surface   |21
+    |         |         |                |very rough|
+    |         |         |                |and dark  |
+  22|Medium   |Slight   |Fair            |Surface   |22
+    |         |         |                |fairly    |
+    |         |         |                |white     |
+  23|Slight   |Bad      |Fair            |Surface   |23
+    |         |         |                |rough and |
+    |         |         |                |darkest on|
+    |         |         |                |fence     |
+  24|Bad      |None     |Good            |Surface   |24
+    |         |         |                |white     |
+  25|Slight   |None     |Good            |Fairly    |25
+    |         |         |                |white     |
+    |         |         |                |surface   |
+  26|Medium   |Slight   |Fair            |Rough and |26
+    |         |         |                |very dark;|
+    |         |         |                |chalking  |
+    |         |         |                |is dis-   |
+    |         |         |                |rupting   |
+    |         |         |                |black     |
+    |         |         |                |coating   |
+  27|Medium   |Slight   |Good            |Surface   |27
+    |         |         |                |fairly    |
+    |         |         |                |white     |
+  28|Medium   |Deep;    |Poor            |Surface   |28
+    |         |evident  |                |rough and |
+    |         |without  |                |very dark |
+    |         |glass    |                |          |
+  29|Slight   |Slight   |Good            |Very white|29
+    |         |         |                |surface   |
+  30|None     |Slight   |Fair            |Color dark|30
+  31|Very     |Advanced |Fair            |Color very|31
+    |slight   |         |                |dark      |
+  32|Extremely|Consider-|Fair            |Color very|32
+    |slight   |able     |                |dark;     |
+    |         |         |                |rough     |
+    |         |         |                |surface   |
+  33|Extremely|Slight   |Fair            |Surface   |33
+    |slight   |         |                |dark and  |
+    |         |         |                |rough     |
+  34|Slight   |Deep     |Fair            |Surface   |34
+    |         |         |                |medium    |
+    |         |         |                |dark      |
+  35|Consider-|Slight   |Fair            |Surface   |35
+    |able     |         |                |medium    |
+    |         |         |                |dark      |
+  36|Extremely|None     |Fair            |Vehicle   |36
+    |bad      |         |                |disinte-  |
+    |         |         |                |grated,   |
+    |         |         |                |leaving   |
+    |         |         |                |very      |
+    |         |         |                |white,    |
+    |         |         |                |chalked   |
+    |         |         |                |surface of|
+    |         |         |                |pigment   |
+  ==+=========+=========+================+==========+==
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+NORTH DAKOTA PAINT TESTS
+
+
+An inspection of the original test fence, erected and painted by the
+North Dakota Agricultural College, on the grounds of the agricultural
+Experiment Station at Fargo, was made by the inspection committee[28]
+representing the Paint Manufacturers' Association of the United
+States, on the 19th and 20th of November, 1909. The fence was erected
+in 1906 and painted with commercial paints, procured in the open
+market. The east side of the fence was built of soft pine and cedar
+weather-boarding, such as is almost universally used on houses in that
+locality, presenting a very good surface for test purposes, while the
+west side was built largely of flat trimmed boards of hard pitch pine
+which, unfortunately, contained knots, pitch pockets, and uneven
+surfaces, causing to a greater or lesser extent cracking, scaling, and
+bad general results on all paints applied thereto.
+
+  [28] Henry A. Gardner, Director Scientific Section, Educational
+       Bureau, Paint Manufacturers' Association of U. S.; George Butler,
+       Master Painter; Charles Macnichol, Master Painter.
+
+The fences built in 1907 and 1908 at the suggestion of the Paint
+Manufacturers' Association, were inspected on the 20th, 21st, and 22nd
+of November, 1909, and the detailed results of the inspection of all
+these fences follow in this report. The same general conclusions as to
+the woods represented in the 1906 fence also apply to the 1907 and 1908
+fences, and because of the general bad quality of wood used on the
+western exposure of all fences, the detailed reports were made only from
+an examination of the eastern side of the fences, both on cedar and soft
+pine.
+
+The following general summary of the inspection and its results applies
+to all the test fences on the grounds of the college and is the
+unanimous conclusion drawn by the inspectors from this work:
+
+[Illustration: North Dakota Test Fences]
+
+[Illustration: Typical Sample of Hard Pine Trim Board Showing Knot and
+Sappy Grain]
+
+[Illustration: Test No. 13--1906 Fence
+
+Complete Disintegration and Failure of Cheap Paint]
+
+"Non-absorbent woods, difficult to penetrate, such as those on the west
+side of the fences, would undoubtedly have given much better results had
+they been painted with paints properly reduced to suit the nature of the
+wood. This treatment seems to have been overlooked in the North Dakota
+tests, and the painting of the hard pine boards was done with the same
+consistency of mixtures and the same reductions as upon soft pine.
+Scaling of course resulted. One of the chief purposes of the fences,
+however, was to study the different types of wood, and compliance with
+this desire resulted in the bad conditions herein noted. It has been
+shown in many other field tests that adherence of paints to hard wood
+surfaces can be obtained only by causing the priming coat to become
+amalgamated with the woody fibre, by the use of a large percentage of
+volatile diluent turpentine, benzole, asphaltum spirits, etc., to secure
+penetration. If such treatment is omitted, failure soon results, as was
+evidenced by the uniformly bad conditions presented by the paints on the
+hard pine panels.
+
+[Illustration: Pine Weatherboarding Showing Knots and Grain]
+
+[Illustration: Condition of Lumber Affecting Paint, West Side 1906
+Fence]
+
+[Illustration: Hail-stone Abrasions on House Repainting Tests]
+
+[Illustration: Hail-stone Effect, West Side of 1907 Test Fence]
+
+"During July, 1908, a violent hailstorm occurred in Fargo, and left its
+impression on nearly every wooden structure; in many cases deep dents
+being made into the wood. The west side of the test fences, which
+received the most injury from this storm, was covered with these dents
+over almost its entire surface, causing cracks in the form of concentric
+rings to appear on the abraded paint coatings. The bad condition of the
+wood, improper method of applying priming coat, combined with the
+hailstorm effect on the painted surfaces on the west side of the fences,
+were undoubtedly responsible for the universal failure of the paints
+thereon, and, for these reasons, the west side was eliminated from the
+detailed inspection, only general observations of these tests being
+made. These general observations, however, showed that paints Nos. 6 and
+8 on the 1906 fence, and paints Nos. 8, 10, and 13 on the 1907 fence,
+proved the most satisfactory on the western exposure.[29]
+
+  [29] These formulas were the same as those respectively numbered on
+       the Atlantic City and Pittsburg fences.
+
+[Illustration: Peculiar Crystallization Effect on Section 41. New
+Special Fence Paint Applied During Cold Weather]
+
+"Ochre was tried out as a priming coat on several formulas, but it was
+found to be most unsatisfactory, affecting the subsequent coats of paint
+and causing early failure, as evidenced by broad checking,
+discoloration, and general bad condition. These conditions also apply
+to those panels on the 1908 fence coated with shellac as a primer.
+
+"The colored formulas in every case showed a great superiority over the
+same paints in white untinted, and demonstrated that a percentage of
+color has a wonderful influence on the preservation of the paint
+coating, reducing chalking, checking, and general disintegration. This
+condition is probably due to the reinforcing value of the color pigments
+used.
+
+"It is safe to state that the combination formulas tinted yellow were of
+better appearance than the corroded white leads tinted yellow, the
+latter appearing quite dark in many cases.
+
+"The wearing of the paints made solely from white lead and zinc oxide
+seemed to indicate that a percentage of a third pigment, of an inert
+nature, would have been beneficial.
+
+"The high-type mixtures of pigments containing lead and zinc, with
+moderate percentages of inert pigments, on good wood, were in most
+excellent general condition; in fact, much superior to the single
+pigment paints. Their surface exhibited only minor checking and moderate
+chalking with good maintenance of color, and presenting surfaces well
+adapted to repainting.
+
+"The sublimed white lead was in fair condition, with very little
+checking, and offering a fair repainting surface. The corroded white
+lead was somewhat whiter than the sublimed white lead, but a careful
+observation of the surface of the corroded lead revealed deep checking.
+
+"It was clearly demonstrated, however, that in climates of the North
+Dakota type, white lead alone is not entirely satisfactory. The addition
+of zinc oxide to white lead forms paint that has proved much superior to
+the white lead alone.
+
+"It was conclusively demonstrated that mixtures of white lead and zinc
+oxide, properly blended with moderate percentages of reinforcing
+pigments, such as asbestine, barytes, silica and calcium carbonate, are
+most satisfactory from every standpoint, and are superior to mixtures of
+prime white pigments not reinforced with inert pigments.
+
+"The white leads painted out on the 1908 fence exhibited different
+degrees of checking, the mild-process lead and sublimed white lead which
+presented the best surfaces, being free from checking, while the
+old-process leads seemed to show very deep and marked checking, even
+after one year's wear.
+
+[Illustration: Corroded White Lead
+
+Sublimed White Lead
+
+Condition of Two White Leads on Two Grades of Wood]
+
+[Illustration: Photomicrographic Apparatus and Method of Use]
+
+CONDENSED REPORT OF INSPECTION OF "1906" TEST FENCE
+
+FARGO, N. D., NOV. 19-23, 1909
+
+_No gloss shown by any of the paints. Formulas in white on white pine
+only included here, on east side of fence_
+
+  ==+=========================================================================++
+   T|                                     FORMULAS                            ||
+   e+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------++
+   s|                   PIGMENT                  |          VEHICLE           ||
+   t+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------++
+    |Corroded                                    |Linseed Oil                 ||
+   N|White Lead                                  |    |Turp. and Drier        ||
+   o|     |Sublimed                              |    |    |Japan Drier       ||
+   .|     |White Lead                            |    |    |  |Water          ||
+    |     |     |Zinc Oxide                      |    |    |  |    |Benzine   ||
+    |     |     |    |Calcium                    |    |    |  |    |Drier     ||
+    |     |     |    |Carbonate                  |    |    |  |    |    |Vola-||
+    |     |     |    |    |Silica and            |    |    |  |    |    |tile ||
+    |     |     |    |    |Silicates             |    |    |  |    |    |Oil  ||
+    |     |     |    |    |   |Barium Sulphate   |    |    |  |    |    |     ||
+    |     |     |    |    |   |    |Magnesium    |    |    |  |    |    |     ||
+    |     |     |    |    |   |    |Silicate     |    |    |  |    |    |     ||
+    |     |     |    |    |   |    |   |Clay and |    |    |  |    |    |     ||
+    |     |     |    |    |   |    |   |Silica   |    |    |  |    |    |     ||
+    |     |     |    |    |   |    |   |   |Bary-|    |    |  |    |    |     ||
+    |     |     |    |    |   |    |   |   |tes  |    |    |  |    |    |     ||
+    |     |     |    |    |   |    |   |   |and  |    |    |  |    |    |     ||
+    |     |     |    |    |   |    |   |   |Sili-|    |    |  |    |    |     ||
+    |     |     |    |    |   |    |   |   |cate |    |    |  |    |    |     ||
+  --+-----+-----+----+----+---+----+---+---+-----+----+----+--+----+----+-----++
+    |  %  |  %  |  % |  % |  %|  % |  %|  %|  %  |  % |  % | %|  % |  % |  %  ||
+   1|100  | --  | -- | -- | --| -- | --| --|  -- | -- | -- |--| -- | -- | --  ||
+   2| --  |100  | -- | -- | --| -- | --| --|  -- | -- | -- |--| -- | -- | --  ||
+   3| 50  | --  |50  | -- | --| -- | --| --|  -- |90  |10  |--| -- | -- | --  ||
+   4| --  | 60  |40  | -- | --| -- | --| --|  -- |90  | -- |10| -- | -- | --  ||
+   5| 28.7| --  |71.3| -- | --| -- | --| --|  -- |93  | 7  |--| -- | -- | --  ||
+   6| 40.2| --  |50.3| 4.1|5.4| -- | --| --|  -- |90.7| 9.3|--| -- | -- | --  ||
+   7| 21.9| 21.9|45.8|10.4| --| -- | --| --|  -- |89.6| 9.7|--| 0.7| -- | --  ||
+   8| 44.1| --  |46.0| 4.6| --| -- |5.3| --|  -- |86.0|12.6|--| 1.4| -- | --  ||
+   9|                     In gray only   No report.                           ||
+  10| 13.9| --  |34.9|26.8| --| -- | --| --| 24.4|72.2| -- |--|24.0| 3.8| --  ||
+  11| 55.0| --  |15.2| -- | --| -- | --| --| 29.8|     Test not finished      ||
+  12| --  |  5.1|25.0| -- | --| -- | --| --| 69.9| -- | -- |--| -- | -- | --  ||
+  13| --  | --  |31.3|45.4| --|22.8| --|0.5|  -- |57.2| -- |--|16.1|26.7| --  ||
+  14| 34.8|  5.4|59.2| -- | --| -- | --| --|  -- |86.0|13.7|--| 0.3| -- | --  ||
+  15| --  | --  |64  | -- | --|36  | --| --|  -- |98  | -- |--| -- | -- |  2  ||
+  ==+=====+=====+====+====+===+====+===+===+=====+====+====+==+====+====+=====++
+
+  ==+==============================================
+    |              REPORT OF CONDITION
+    +--------+-----------+-------+-------+---------
+   T|        |           |       |       |
+   e|        |           |       |       |
+   s|        |           |       |       |
+   t|        |           |       |       |
+    |        |           |       |       |
+   N|        |           |       |       |CONDITION
+   o|CHALKING|CHECKING   |HIDING |COLOR  |FOR RE-
+   .|        |           |POWER  |       |PAINTING
+  --+--------+-----------+-------+-------+---------
+   1|Very bad|Extremely  |Good   |Good   |Only fair
+    |        |deep       |       |       |
+   2|Bad     |Very slight|Good   |Light  |Fair
+    |        |           |       |yellow-|
+    |        |           |       |ish    |
+    |        |           |       |tint   |
+   3|Medium  |Fine matt--|Good   |Fair   |Fair to
+    |        |deep in    |       |       |good
+    |        |places     |       |       |
+   4|Medium  |Surface    |Good   |Good   |Fair
+    |        |checking,  |       |       |
+    |        |very slight|       |       |
+   5|Slight  |Quite deep |Medium |Good   |Poor.
+    |        |           |       |       |Coating
+    |        |           |       |       |wrinkled
+    |        |           |       |       |and hard
+   6|Medium  |Slight     |Good   |Good   |Good
+    |        |surface    |       |       |
+    |        |checking   |       |       |
+   7|Medium  |Surface    |Fair   |Good   |Slight
+    |        |checking   |       |       |shelling
+    |        |with slight|       |       |from wood
+    |        |cracking   |       |       |
+   8|Medium  |Very slight|  Good |Good   |Good
+   9|        |           |       |       |
+  10|Slight  |Very bad   | Bad condition throughout.
+  11|        |           |       |       |
+  12|Medium  |Medium     |Defici-|Good   |Shelling
+    |        |           |ent    |       |from wood
+  13|  Worst looking surface in North Dakota tests.
+  14|Medium  |Slight     |Fair   |Good   |Good
+    |        |surface    |       |       |
+    |        |checking   |       |       |
+    |        |and peeling|       |       |
+  15|Slight  |Lateral    |Good   |Good   |Hard film
+    |        |cracking   |       |       |
+    |        |quite deep |       |       |
+  ==+========+===========+=======+=======+=========
+
+CONDENSED REPORT OF INSPECTION OF "1907" TEST FENCE
+
+FARGO, NORTH DAKOTA, NOV. 19-23, 1909
+
+  ===+==========================================================================
+   T |                                  FORMULAS
+   e +-------------------------------------------+------------------------------
+   s |                  PIGMENT                  |           VEHICLE
+   t +-------------------------------------------+------------------------------
+     |Corroded White Lead                        |Linseed Oil
+   N |    |Sublimed White Lead                   |    |Turpentine
+   o |    |   |Zinc Oxide                        |    |Drier
+   . |    |   |    |Calcium Carbonate            |    |    |Turpentine
+     |    |   |    |   |Aluminum and             |    |    |and
+     |    |   |    |   |Magnesium Silicate       |    |    |Japan
+     |    |   |    |   |  |Barytes               |    |    |  |Water
+     |    |   |    |   |  |  |Silica             |    |    |  |    |Turpentine
+     |    |   |    |   |  |  |    |Inert         |    |    |  |    |and Benzine
+     |    |   |    |   |  |  |    |  |Magnesium  |    |    |  |    |Japan Drier
+     |    |   |    |   |  |  |    |  |Silicate   |    |    |  |    |  |Drier
+     |    |   |    |   |  |  |    |  |   |Calcium|    |    |  |    |  |  |Vola-
+     |    |   |    |   |  |  |    |  |   |Sul-   |    |    |  |    |  |  |tile
+     |    |   |    |   |  |  |    |  |   |phate  |    |    |  |    |  |  |Oil
+     |    |   |    |   |  |  |    |  |   |  |Zinc|    |    |  |    |  |  |  |[B]
+     |    |   |    |   |  |  |    |  |   |  |Lead|    |    |  |    |  |  |  |
+  ---+----+---+----+---+--+--+----+--+---+--+----+----+----+--+----+--+--+--+---
+    1| 30 | --|70  |-- |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- |93  | 7  |--| -- |--|--|--|--
+    2| 50 | --|50  |-- |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- |86  | -- |10| 4  |--|--|--|--
+    3| 20 | 20|50  |10 |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- |90  | -- |--| -- |10|--|--|--
+    4|48.5| --|48.5| 3 |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- |83  | -- |--| -- |17|--|--|--
+    5| 22 | --|50  | 2 |26|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- |90  | -- |--| -- |--|10|--|--
+    6| -- | --|64  |-- |--|36| -- |--|-- |--| -- |98  | -- |--| -- |--|--| 2|--
+    7| 37 | --|63  |-- |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- |85  |13  |--| 2  |--|--|--|--
+    8| 38 | --|48  |-- |--|--|14  |--|-- |--| -- |91  | 9  |--| -- |--|--|--|--
+    9| -- | --|73  | 2 |--|--|25  |--|-- |--| -- |66  |--  |--|12  |22|--|--|--
+   10| 44 | --|46  | 5 |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- |86.0|12.5|--| 1.5|--|--|--|--
+   11| 50 | --|50  |-- |--|--| -- |--| 5 |--| -- |78  |22  |--| -- |--|--|--|--
+   12| 60 | --|34  |-- |--|--| -- | 6|-- |--| -- |91  | 7  |--| 2  |--|--|--|--
+   13| -- | 60|27  | 3 |--|--| -- |--|10 |--| -- |90  | -- |--| -- |--|10|--|--
+   14| 25 | 20|25  | 5 |--|--| -- |--|-- |25| -- |90  | -- | 6| -- |--|--|--| 4
+   15| -- | 20|40  |10 |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| 30 |90  | -- | 8| 2  |--|--|--|--
+   16| 33 | --|33  |-- |--|34| -- |--|-- |--| -- |90  | -- |10| -- |--|--|--|--
+   17|100 |(Type A)|-- |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- | -- | -- |--| -- |--|--|--|--
+   18|100 |(  "  B)|-- |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- | -- | -- |--| -- |--|--|--|--
+   19|100 |(  "  C)|-- |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- |   10 gal. oil   |--|--|--|--
+     |    |        |   |  |  |    |  |   |  |    |    reduction    |  |  |  |
+   20| -- |100| -- |-- |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- | -- | -- |--| -- |--|--|--|--
+   21| -- | --|100 |-- |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- | -- | -- |--| -- |--|--|--|--
+   22| -- | --| -- |-- |--|--| -- |--|-- |--|100 | -- | -- |--| -- |--|--|--|--
+   23|100 |(Type C)|-- |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- | 5-1/2 gal. oil reduction for
+     |    |   |    |   |  |  |    |  |   |  |    |           priming
+   24| 37.|7. |25. |20.|--|--|8.42|  (Michigan Seal   | -- |--| -- |--|--|--|--
+     | 51 |84 |87  |36 |  |  |    |   White Lead)     |    |  |    |  |  |  |
+   25| 38.|4. |33. |19.|--|--|3.18|(Railway White| -- | -- |--| -- |--|--|--|--
+     | 95 |81 |58  |48 |  |  |    |     Lead)    |    |    |  |    |  |  |  |
+  200|15. | --|--  | 1.|--|--| -- |--| 1.|--|43. |32. | 4. |--| 1. |--|--|--|--
+     |625 |   |    |875|  |  |    |  |250|  |750 |250 |000 |  |250 |  |  |  |
+  ===+====+===+====+===+==+==+====+==+===+==+===+====+=====+==+====+==+==+==+===
+
+  [B] = Benzine
+
+  ===+=========+=========================================
+   T |         |           REPORT OF CONDITION
+   e |         +------------+------+------+--------------
+   s |         |            |      |      |
+   t |         |            |      |      |
+     |         |            |      |      |
+   N |         |            |      |      |
+   o |         |            |      |      |
+   . |         |            |      |      |
+     |CHALKING |CHECKING    |HIDING|COLOR |CONDITION FOR
+     |         |            |POWER |      |REPAINTING
+  ---+---------+------------+------+------+--------------
+    1|Medium   |Considerable|Fair  |Fair  |Poor surface;
+     |         |with lateral|      |      |too hard
+     |         |cracking    |      |      |
+    2|Medium   |Considerable|Good  |Fair  |Rather poor
+     |         |with lateral|      |      |
+     |         |cracking    |      |      |
+    3|Bad      |Medium--    |Good  |Good  |Fair
+     |         |scaling some|      |      |
+    4|Medium   |Considerable|Good  |Good  |Medium
+     |         |with lateral|      |      |
+     |         |cracking    |      |      |
+    5|Slight   |Slight      |Good  |Good  |Good
+    6|Medium   |Considerable|Medium|Medium|Fair
+    7|Consider-|Present;    |Fair  |Fair  |Poor
+     |able     |long cracks |      |      |
+    8|Slight   |Surface     |Good  |Good  |Fair
+     |         |checking    |      |      |
+    9|Not      |Considerable|Medium|Good  |Medium
+     |evident  |with lateral|      |      |
+     |         |cracking    |      |      |
+   10|Medium   |Very slight |Good  |Good  |Good
+   11|Slight   |Lateral     |Fair  |Fair  |Fair
+     |         |cracking    |      |      |
+   12|Consider-|Present with|Fair  |Fair  |Not very good
+     |able     |slight      |      |      |
+     |         |cracking and|      |      |
+     |         |scaling     |      |      |
+   13|Medium   |Surface     |Good  |Good  |Good
+     |         |checking    |      |      |
+     |         |only        |      |      |
+   14|Consider-|Considerable|Medium|Fair  |Medium; some
+     |able     |with lateral|      |      |washing shown
+     |         |cracking    |      |      |
+   15|Medium   |Medium      |Good  |Good  |Medium
+   16|Medium   |Slight; some|Fair  |Good  |Medium
+     |         |shelling    |      |      |
+   17|Bad      |Alligator-  |Good  |Fair  |Poor
+     |         |ing; deep   |      |      |
+     |         |checking    |      |      |
+   18|Bad      |Alligator-  |Fair  |Fair  |Poor
+     |         |ing; deep   |      |      |
+     |         |checking    |      |      |
+   19|Bad      |Deep        |Good  |Fair  |Poor
+   20|Consider-|Slight      |Good  |Fair  |Fair
+     |able     |            |      |      |
+   21|Not      |Consider-   |Fair  |Good  |Poor
+     |evident  |able; slight|      |      |
+     |         |cracking;   |      |      |
+     |         |scaling     |      |      |
+   22|Medium   |Lateral     |Good  |Good  |Fair
+     |         |cracking;   |      |      |
+     |         |split       |      |      |
+   23|Bad      |Medium deep |Good  |Good  |Fair
+   24|Consider-|Slight;     |Fair  |Good  |Good
+     |able     |lateral     |      |      |
+     |         |cracking    |      |      |
+   25|Consider-|Some;       |Fair  |Good  |Excellent
+     |able     |lateral     |      |      |
+     |         |cracking    |      |      |
+  200|Medium   |Bad cracking|Good  |Good  |Fair
+  ===+=========+============+======+======+==============
+
+"As before stated, the committee believes that a serious mistake was
+made on the test fence in painting out the leads and other formulas on
+the various woods without any special attention to reduction to suit the
+nature of the wood, thus accounting largely for the difference of the
+wearing of the paints on the different woods.
+
+"The reduction of the white leads especially was to be criticised in
+these tests, in many cases too much oil and not sufficient turpentine
+being present to cause penetration.
+
+"The application of paint to cedar was satisfactory in most all cases,
+and this wood showed much better results than the other woods upon the
+fences. The exudation of resinous pitch on the hard pine was extremely
+serious, in some cases coming through the paint in large streaks,
+causing bad results.
+
+"It is to be regretted that the house repainting tests which were
+conducted are of no special value, inasmuch as no information is on file
+as to the composition of the old paints originally on the houses before
+the application of the test paints. Imperfections in the old coating,
+such as excessive chalking, deep checking, scaling, rosin exudations,
+etc., affected the subsequent coats in such a manner as to prevent any
+knowledge of where the new and old paint troubles began. The committee,
+therefore, omitted a detailed inspection of such tests.
+
+"Examination of the three houses which were painted over new wood showed
+results which correspond with the results obtained from the fence tests.
+That is, they showed the ultimate value of high type mixtures of several
+pigments over one pigment alone. These tests seem to indicate that very
+good results can be secured from most of the paints sold in North
+Dakota. If the consumer or householder would exercise more care in the
+selection of wood and preparation of surfaces, with due regard to the
+proper reduction for various coats, more satisfactory results would be
+obtained.
+
+"From an examination of certain paints on the 1908 fence containing
+petroleum spirits, it would appear that this paint thinner is of value,
+and in the face of conditions such as are presented by the present
+scarcity of turpentine, the use of petroleum spirits in moderate
+quantity would be justified."
+
+NORTH DAKOTA TESTS
+
+[Illustration: 1. Formula No. 21, Section 31, on 1907 Fence]
+
+[Illustration: 2. Section 80, on 1908 Fence]
+
+[Illustration: 3. Formula No. 6, Section 9, on 1907 Fence]
+
+[Illustration: 4. Formula No. 2, Section 3, on 1907 Fence]
+
+[Illustration: 5. Formula No. 1, Section 1, on 1907 Fence]
+
+[Illustration: 6. Formula No. 14, Section 21, on 1907 Fence]
+
+[Illustration: 7. Formula No. 13, Panel 19, on 1907 Fence]
+
+[Illustration: 8. Formula No. 19, Panel 28. Broad, Deep Checking on
+Corroded White Lead on 1907 Fence]
+
+[Illustration: 9. Formula No. 24, Panel 36, on 1907 Fence. Good
+Condition. Surface Checking Only]
+
+[Illustration: 10. Formula No. 25, Section 37, on 1907 Fence. Good
+Condition. Surface Checking Only]
+
+[Illustration: 11. Formula No. 8, Panel 12, on 1907 Fence]
+
+[Illustration: 12. Formula No. 10, Panel 15, on 1907 Fence]
+
+[Illustration: 13. Panel No. 34, Formula 23, on 1907 Fence. Deep
+Checking on Corroded White Lead]
+
+[Illustration: 14. Test No. 13 on 1906 Fence. White Spots Show Paint
+Left on Wood. Balance of Paint Split and Disintegrated from Surface]
+
+[Illustration: 15. Test No. 6 on 1906 Fence. Surface Checking Only]
+
+[Illustration: 16. Test No. 2, 1906 Fence. Sublimed White Lead]
+
+[Illustration: 17. Cracks in Test No. 15 on 1906 Fence]
+
+[Illustration: 18. Effect of Cracking on Hard Pine, Causing Splitting of
+Painting Coating]
+
+[Illustration: 19. Formula No. 22, Section 23, 1907 Fence. Cracks in
+Paint Coating, Caused by Cracks in Wood; Coating Otherwise in Good
+Condition]
+
+[Illustration: 20. Test No. 8, on 1906 Fence. Surface Checking Only]
+
+[Illustration: 21. Combination Cracking and Checking on Section 69, on
+1908 Fence]
+
+[Illustration: 22. Cracks in Paint Coating, Caused by Cracking of Hard
+Pine Wood]
+
+[Illustration: 23. Section 65 on 1908 Fence. Showing Early Breakdown of
+Corroded White Lead]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+TENNESSEE PAINT TESTS
+
+
+=Location and Object of Tests.= On September 15, 1910, the erection of a
+wooden test fence was completed on the State Fair Grounds at Nashville,
+Tenn. Upon this fence were exposed forty-two samples of white paint, the
+object of the test being to determine whether the combination type of
+formula is superior to the single pigment type in the southern plateau,
+of which Nashville is the centre.
+
+=Construction of Tests.= The construction and outline of these tests
+differ somewhat from those conducted at Atlantic City and elsewhere by
+the Scientific Section. The fence frame is 150 feet long, being made of
+6-inch bevelled girders supported three feet from the ground by 4-inch
+posts set six feet apart. Upon this girder were placed a series of
+forty-two test panels supported at top and bottom with weather strips
+and braces. The test panels used were 40 inches high, 30 inches wide,
+and one inch thick, being made of the highest grade white pine, tongued
+and grooved together, and protected on the edges by weather strips
+projecting from the surface of the panels. Each panel was painted on
+both sides with the same paint, thus giving an eastern and western
+exposure, the fence running north and south. The formulas used in the
+test vary in their percentage composition, being made up in some cases
+of single pigments, and again with combinations of the opaque white
+pigments, with and without certain percentages of the crystalline or
+inert pigments. The paints were applied under the supervision of
+prominent master painters and a committee representing the Scientific
+Section and other technical organizations.
+
+Other field tests have shown that the sap and knots in hard-grained
+woods, such as yellow pine, cypress, etc., have been the cause of the
+failure of even the best paints, and that all tests should be conducted
+upon soft woods, such as white pine and poplar, if definite results are
+to be obtained. Paints tinted with ochre, chrome yellow, lampblack,
+iron oxide, etc., have shown on the other field tests which have been
+conducted at Atlantic City, Pittsburg, and Fargo the value of these
+pigments in giving to the paints increased wearing properties. On the
+Southern Test Fence, therefore, all the formulas were ground in white
+only and placed upon white pine so as to make the test primarily one to
+determine the value of the various white pigments upon good wood.
+
+[Illustration: Tennessee Test Fences]
+
+=Oil and Thinner Tests.= Upon one series of panels on the fence was
+placed one of the formulas which had given universal satisfaction on the
+various test fences in the past, and this formula was made up with
+various oils other than linseed oil, in order to determine the value of
+these oils as painting materials. For instance, the vehicle part of the
+one formula referred to is made up of 50% linseed oil and 50% soya bean
+oil, and again 50% linseed oil and 50% rosin oil, etc., an effort being
+made to test out a few of the available semi-drying oils.
+
+The same formula referred to was ground in pure linseed oil and
+subjected to a series of tests where it has been thinned for application
+as priming and second coats with a series of wood turpentines obtained
+from the United States Forest Products Laboratory at Madison, Wis. These
+turpentines were made from southern pine stumps and sawdust, and they
+vary greatly in their properties. Some were objectionable in odor, while
+others were of excellent quality, having an odor almost equal to that of
+pure gum spirits.
+
+[Illustration: Views of Fence]
+
+One product under test on the Southern Test Fence is pine oil, a high
+boiling point product obtained from the manufacture of wood turpentine
+from sawdust. This oil has a boiling point of over 210 degrees
+Centigrade as against the 150 degrees of ordinary gum spirits. It is
+almost water white and has the same penetrating qualities as the pure
+gum spirits; when mixed with 50% linseed oil forming a paint oil of
+extremely light color, that produces a semi-flat paint of great
+whiteness.
+
+=Reductions and Application.= Formulas No. 1 to No. 37 were all ground
+in pure refined linseed oil. They were made in the form of semi-paste
+and then thinned down with sufficient refined linseed oil so that each
+would have a relative viscosity. To each formula was then added a
+sufficient amount of pure lead and manganese linoleate drier to give
+proper drying qualities. On thinning for the priming coat, one pint of
+turpentine was added to each gallon of paint. For the second coat,
+one-half pint turpentine and one-half pint refined linseed oil were
+added to each gallon. For the third coat work, reduction was made with
+one pint of refined linseed oil.
+
+In the case of formulas 31 to 37, reductions were the same, except that
+a series of specially prepared wood turpentines were used in place of
+the pure gum spirits used in formulas 1 to 31.
+
+Formulas 38 to 41, as will be shown, were ground in equal parts of the
+oils tested. These formulas, however, were all thinned for application
+with pure gum spirits of turpentine, and the respective vehicle in which
+they were ground.
+
+No inspection of the Tennessee Test Fence has yet been made. The
+formulas tested are as follows:
+
+FORMULAS FOR SOUTHERN TEST FENCE
+
+VEHICLE: _Bleached Linseed Oil with Lead and Manganese Linoleate Drier_.
+
+  Formula
+  No.
+
+  1 [30]Corroded white lead                100%
+  2 [30]Sublimed white lead                100%
+  3 Zinc oxide XX                          100%
+  4 Zinc lead white                        100%
+  5 Leaded zinc 65%, corroded white lead   35%
+  6 [30]Corroded white lead                100%
+  7 [30]Corroded white lead                100%
+
+  [30] Corroded White Lead is the Basic Carbonate of Lead. Sublimed
+       White Lead is the Basic Sulphate of Lead.
+
+No. 8
+
+  Corroded white lead   85%
+  Zinc oxide            15%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 9
+
+  Corroded white lead   65%
+  Zinc oxide            35%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 10
+
+  Corroded white lead   50%
+  Zinc oxide            50%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 11
+
+  Corroded white lead   40%
+  Zinc oxide            60%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 12
+
+  Corroded white lead   30%
+  Zinc oxide            70%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 13
+
+  Corroded white lead   45%
+  Zinc oxide            45%
+  Silica                10%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 14
+
+  Corroded white lead   45%
+  Zinc oxide            45%
+  Asbestine             10%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 15
+
+  Corroded white lead   45%
+  Zinc oxide            45%
+  China clay            10%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 16
+
+  Corroded white lead   45%
+  Zinc oxide            45%
+  Barytes               10%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 17
+
+  Corroded white lead   45%
+  Zinc oxide            40%
+  Silica                15%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 18
+
+  Corroded white lead   45%
+  Zinc oxide            40%
+  Asbestine             15%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 19
+
+  Corroded white lead   45%
+  Zinc oxide            40%
+  Barytes               15%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 20
+
+  Sublimed white lead   45%
+  Zinc oxide            40%
+  Silica                15%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 21
+
+  Sublimed white lead   45%
+  Zinc oxide            40%
+  Asbestine             15%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 22
+
+  Sublimed white lead   45%
+  Zinc oxide            40%
+  Barytes               15%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 23
+
+  Zinc oxide            90%
+  Calcium carbonate     10%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 24
+
+  Sublimed white lead   40%
+  Zinc oxide            45%
+  Calcium carbonate     15%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 25
+
+  Corroded white lead   35%
+  Zinc oxide            50%
+  Silica                15%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 26
+
+  Corroded white lead   20%
+  Sublimed white lead   30%
+  Zinc oxide            40%
+  Asbestine             10%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 27
+
+  Corroded white lead   20%
+  Sublimed white lead   20%
+  Zinc oxide            40%
+  Barytes               10%
+  Asbestine             10%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 28
+
+  Corroded white lead   20%
+  Sublimed white lead   20%
+  Zinc oxide            40%
+  Calcium carbonate     10%
+  Silica                10%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 29
+
+  Sublimed white lead   20%
+  Corroded white lead   20%
+  Zinc oxide            30%
+  Barytes               10%
+  Asbestine             10%
+  Calcium carbonate     10%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 30
+
+  Corroded white lead   33%
+  Zinc oxide            33%
+  Barytes               33%
+                       ----
+                        99%
+
+No. 31
+
+  Corroded white lead   45%
+  Zinc oxide            45%
+  Asbestine              5%
+  Calcium carbonate      5%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+Formula No.
+
+32. Same as No. 31 but thinned with wood turpentine No. 1.
+
+33. Same as No. 31 but thinned with wood turpentine No. 2.
+
+34. Same as No. 31 but thinned with wood turpentine No. 3.
+
+35. Same as No. 31 but thinned with wood turpentine No. 4.
+
+36. Same as No. 31 but thinned with wood turpentine No. 5.
+
+37. Same as No. 31 but thinned with high-boiling-point petroleum spirits
+(turpentine substitute).
+
+38. Same as No. 31 but ground in 50% raw linseed oil, 50% soya bean oil.
+
+39. Same as No. 31 but ground in 50% raw linseed oil, 50% corn oil.
+
+40. Same as No. 31 but ground in 50% raw linseed oil, 50% cotton seed
+oil.
+
+41. Same as No. 31 but ground in 50% raw linseed oil, 50% rosin oil.
+
+42. Same as No. 31 but ground in 50% raw linseed oil, 50% pine oil.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+WASHINGTON PAINT TESTS
+
+
+The new vehicle test fence at Washington is fully described in the
+writer's paper[31] as presented before the American Society for Testing
+Materials, as follows:
+
+  [31] The Practical Testing of Drying and Semi-Drying Paint Oils, by
+       Henry A. Gardner. Paper presented at Fourteenth Annual Meeting,
+       Amer. Soc. for Test. Mater., Atlantic City, N.J., June, 1911.
+
+"The high price attained by linseed oil during the past two years of
+over a dollar a gallon, together with the unusual scarcity of this
+valuable oil, has led many investigators into the field of research,
+with a view of discovering some mixture of other oils to partly replace
+linseed oil. Many valuable contributions to oil technology have
+resulted, but the makers and users of paints have wisely demanded
+specific and authoritative information as to the practical value of
+proposed mixtures before adopting them. The Institute of Industrial
+Research, at the request of the Paint Manufacturers' Association of the
+United States, has recently started a series of practical paint vehicle
+tests designed to decide the question at issue.
+
+"Forty-eight white-pine panels have been placed upon a test frame on the
+grounds of the new laboratory building of the Institute, at Washington,
+D. C. They are painted with a standard white pigment formula reduced
+with a different oil formula for every panel. White-pine panels were
+selected for the test on account of the good painting surface which this
+type of lumber presents; the grade selected was free from knots or pitch
+pockets--defects which often ruin a paint test. Each panel was
+constructed of four tongued-and-grooved planed boards, 22 inches long, 1
+inch thick, and 9 inches wide. The boards were leaded together and
+capped at the sides with weather strips, making the finished panels
+about 2 feet wide and 3 feet high. The fence upon which the panels were
+placed was constructed of 4-inch squared yellow pine with open
+framework, allowing the panels a resting place upon which they were
+finally secured with sherardized screws.
+
+"Before erecting the panels, they were carefully painted in a paint
+laboratory especially fitted out for the tests. The work was done during
+the months of April and May, the temperature averaging from 60 degrees
+to 90 degrees Fahrenheit. This precaution was taken in order that the
+paint in each case might become thoroughly dry and hard before exposure,
+so that there would be no accumulation of dust or effect from exposure
+during the drying period. The actual painting of each panel was done
+personally by Mr. Charles Macnichol, master painter, of Washington, D.
+C., who has had a wide experience in the practical application and
+testing of paints.
+
+[Illustration: View of Panels on Washington Test Fence]
+
+"The viscous nature of several of the oils tested precluded the
+possibility of grinding each oil formula with the white pigment base
+selected; great heating of the paint mills and a paste of insufficient
+fineness was the result of an early attempt at this method. It was
+decided, therefore, to grind the standard pigment formula to a thick
+paste in the minimum amount of raw linseed oil. Subsequently a weighed
+amount of the white pigment base was thinned with the oil formula to be
+tested, to a standard viscosity, judged by the experienced master
+painter in charge of the practical application of the formulas as
+sufficiently heavy for third-coat work. When making the reductions with
+oil mixtures, an allowance was made for the amount of linseed oil
+already contained in the ground white pigment base.
+
+"During the application of the first coat an equal amount of turpentine
+was added to each formula, in the proportion of one-half pint to a
+gallon of paint; in the application of the second coat there was added
+to each formula a like amount of an equal mixture of turpentine and the
+oil formula under test. The third coat was applied without the addition
+of thinners of any kind.
+
+"It is well known that the time of drying and the condition of the dried
+film of any oil or mixture of drying or semi-drying oils will vary
+widely. It is for the purpose of causing oils to set up to a hard film
+in a short time that metallic driers in the form of salts of manganese
+and lead, soluble in oil, are added to a paint. Some oils require a
+large amount of drier, while others require only a very small amount.
+Those which require a large amount are apt, upon exposure, to be burned
+up by the drier, resulting in the formation of a powdered and
+disintegrated film. To add various types of drier or even differing
+amounts of a drier to the oils under test, seemed very unfair from every
+standpoint, and it was therefore decided to eliminate the drier question
+entirely, so as not to vitiate the results by bringing in a factor of
+this nature. The plan of omitting driers proved successful in the
+Atlantic City steel-panel paint tests, erected three years ago by the
+writer under the supervision of Committee A-5 of this Society.
+
+"The systematic methods which are necessary when making paint tests were
+carefully followed. A standard weighed amount of white pigment paste was
+placed in a clean paint cup and thinned to the proper consistency with a
+weighed amount of the oil under test. Proper reductions were made, as
+before stated. Weighings of the paint, cup, and brush were made before
+and after application to the panel, in order to determine the quantity
+of paint used and the spreading power. A period of fifteen days was
+allowed between the application of successive coats, in order to give
+each formula sufficient time to dry thoroughly. Although several of the
+formulas remained tacky for over a week, all dried thoroughly in the
+time allotted. (Oils which when used alone have slow drying properties,
+have been found to yield good firm films when used with drying pigments
+such as lead and zinc.) The backs and edges of each panel were painted
+with two coats of the paint used on the face of the panel, so as to
+prevent the admission of moisture. After erection, the panels were
+numbered with aluminum figures pressed into the surface. Frequent
+inspections will be made, and at the proper time reports will be issued
+giving the results of the tests.
+
+"During the painting of the panels considerable interesting data were
+collected, of which the following is a brief résumé:
+
+"The hiding power of a paint is one of its most important requisites. It
+was found in the tests that some oils had the effect of lessening, while
+others had the effect of increasing the hiding power of the standard
+pigment formula. This may be due in part to the varying refractive
+indices of the oils used, as well as to the difference in the quantity
+of oil required in each test. Some oils were very viscous, while others
+were very light.
+
+"The stiff working of heavy-bodied, blown, or heat-oxidized oils,
+produced films which in some cases gave a very glossy surface, even on
+the priming coat. Some of these resembled varnished work when finished.
+It will be of importance to watch these tests carefully for any signs of
+early breakdown, which might come from too thick a film. The treated
+Chinese wood oil paints worked rather stiff but produced very smooth
+films. The rosin oil paints became slightly lumpy on standing, but
+worked out to a smooth finish somewhat yellowish in color. The marine
+animal oils, especially the menhaden oil mixtures, dried to a film
+slightly flatter than straight linseed oil. Any odor which was present
+in the paints made from the animal oils seemed to disappear a few hours
+after application. The cotton seed and corn oil mixtures made the
+slowest drying paints, but at the end of the second week of the drying
+period they set up rapidly to firm films. Soya bean and perilla oils
+behaved like straight linseed oil, the former being a little slower and
+the latter slightly more rapid in drying properties. The perilla oil was
+made from one of the first importations into this country, and was dark
+in appearance. It made, however, a very easy-working and hard-drying
+paint.
+
+"The oils used in the tests were obtained from reliable sources. After
+they were received, they were carefully analyzed. The results of the
+analyses appear in Table 1.
+
+TABLE 1. ANALYSES OF OILS USED IN THE VEHICLE TESTS
+
+  ===================================+=========+=========+========+========
+                                     |Specific |Saponifi-|Iodine  | Acid
+                                     |Gravity  | cation  |Number  |Number
+                                     |         | Number  |        |
+  -----------------------------------+---------+---------+--------+--------
+  Raw linseed oil                    |0.931    |  188    | 186    | 2.0
+  Boiled linseed oil (linoleate type)|0.941    |  187    | 172    | 2.7
+  Boiled linseed oil (resinate type) |0.930    |  186    | 176    | 2.2
+  Blown linseed oil                  |0.968    |  189    | 133    | 2.8
+  Lithographic linseed oil           |0.970    |  199    | 102    | 2.7
+  Soya bean oil                      |0.924    |  189    | 129    | 2.3
+  Menhaden oil                       |0.932    |  187    | 158    | 3.9
+  Perilla oil                        |0.94     |  188    | 180    | 2.0
+  Chinese wood oil (raw)             |0.944    |  183    | 166    | 3.8
+  Chinese wood oil (treated)[32]     |0.898[32]|  128[32]| 104[32]| 6.8[32]
+  Corn oil                           |0.925    |  191    | 118    | 9.5
+  Cottonseed oil                     |0.921    |  193    | 105    | 3.6
+  Rosin oil                          |0.966    |   27    |  41    |16.7
+  Whale oil                          |0.924    |  191    | 148    | --
+  Neutral petroleum oil[33]          |0.916    |    6    |  12    | --
+  ===================================+=========+=========+========+========
+
+  [32] Low constants due to presence of over 40% of volatile matter,
+       largely petroleum spirits.
+
+  [33] This oil contained over 20% of petroleum spirits.
+
+"The pigment formula selected for the tests had the following
+composition:
+
+  Basic carbonate-white lead    20%
+  Sublimed white lead           30%
+  Zinc oxide                    35%
+  Magnesium silicate            10%
+  Barytes                        5%
+
+100 lbs. of pigment base ground to a stiff paste in 16 lbs. of linseed
+oil.
+
+"While this pigment formula was not selected as being superior to
+certain other formulas, it is of a type that has given very fair service
+in paint tests throughout the country, and will no doubt serve admirably
+for the purpose designed in these tests.
+
+"The vehicle formulas in the finished paints are as follows:
+
+  No. 1
+  Raw linseed oil                 100%
+
+  No. 2[34]
+  Soya bean oil                   100%
+
+  [34] Dry pigment formula in soya bean oil.
+
+  No. 3[35]
+  Menhaden oil                    100%
+
+  [35] Dry pigment formula in menhaden oil.
+
+  No. 4
+  Raw linseed oil                  25%
+  Boiled linseed oil (resinate)    75%
+
+  No. 5
+  Raw linseed oil                  25%
+  Boiled linseed oil (linoleate)   75%
+
+  No. 6
+  Raw linseed oil                  50%
+  Boiled linseed oil (resinate)    50%
+
+  No. 7
+  Raw linseed oil                  50%
+  Boiled linseed oil (linoleate)   50%
+
+  No. 8
+  Raw linseed oil                  50%
+  Blown linseed oil                50%
+
+  No. 9
+  Raw linseed oil                  50%
+  Litho. linseed oil               50%
+
+  No. 10
+  Raw linseed oil                  50%
+  Soya bean oil                    50%
+
+  No. 11
+  Raw linseed oil                  50%
+  Menhaden oil                     50%
+
+  No. 12
+  Raw linseed oil                  50%
+  Perilla oil                      50%
+
+  No. 13
+  Raw linseed oil                  50%
+  Treated wood oil                 50%
+
+  No. 14
+  Raw linseed oil                  50%
+  Corn oil                         50%
+
+  No. 15
+  Raw linseed oil                  50%
+  Cottonseed oil                   50%
+
+  No. 16
+  Raw linseed oil                  50%
+  Rosin oil                        50%
+
+  No. 17
+  Raw linseed oil                  50%
+  Whale oil                        50%
+
+  No. 18
+  Raw linseed oil                  75%
+  Soya bean oil                    25%
+
+  No. 19
+  Raw linseed oil                  75%
+  Menhaden oil                     25%
+
+  No. 20
+  Raw linseed oil                  75%
+  Perilla oil                      25%
+
+  No. 21
+  Raw linseed oil                  75%
+  Treated wood oil                 25%
+
+  No. 22
+  Raw linseed oil                  75%
+  Corn oil                         25%
+
+  No. 23
+  Raw linseed oil                  75%
+  Cottonseed oil                   25%
+
+  No. 24
+  Raw linseed oil                  75%
+  Rosin oil                        25%
+
+  No. 25
+  Raw linseed oil                  50%
+  Soya bean oil                    25%
+  Menhaden oil                     25%
+
+  No. 26
+  Raw linseed oil                  50%
+  Soya bean oil                    25%
+  Treated wood oil                 25%
+
+  No. 27
+  Blown linseed oil                50%
+  Soya bean oil                    50%
+
+  No. 28
+  Raw linseed oil                  25%
+  Soya bean oil                    25%
+  Menhaden oil                     25%
+  Treated wood oil                 25%
+
+  No. 29
+  Raw linseed oil                  25%
+  Soya bean oil                    25%
+  Menhaden oil                     25%
+  Corn oil                         25%
+
+  No. 30
+  Raw linseed oil                  25%
+  Soya bean oil                    25%
+  Menhaden oil                     25%
+  Cottonseed oil                   25%
+
+  No. 31
+  Raw linseed oil                  25%
+  Soya bean oil                    25%
+  Menhaden oil                     25%
+  Rosin oil                        25%
+
+  No. 32
+  Raw linseed oil                  25%
+  Soya bean oil                    25%
+  Treated wood oil                 25%
+  Rosin oil                        25%
+
+  No. 33
+  Raw linseed oil                  20%
+  Soya bean oil                    20%
+  Treated wood oil                 20%
+  Menhaden oil                     20%
+  Cottonseed oil                   20%
+
+  No. 34
+  Raw linseed oil                  20%
+  Soya bean oil                    20%
+  Treated wood oil                 20%
+  Menhaden oil                     20%
+  Rosin oil                        20%
+
+  No. 35
+  Raw linseed oil                  40%
+  Soya bean oil                    20%
+  Corn oil                         20%
+  Cottonseed oil                   20%
+
+  No. 36
+  Whale oil                        33%
+  Treated wood oil                 33%
+  Raw linseed oil                  33%
+
+  No. 37
+  Raw linseed oil                  25%
+  L. O.[36]                        75%
+
+  No. 38
+  Raw linseed oil                  50%
+  Raw Chinese wood oil             50%
+
+  No. 39
+  Raw linseed oil                  75%
+  Reducing oil[37]                 25%
+
+  No. 40
+  Raw linseed oil                  50%
+  Soya bean oil                    35%
+  Neutral petroleum oil            15%
+
+  No. 41
+  Raw linseed oil                  50%
+  Soya bean oil                    25%
+  Neutral petroleum oil            15%
+  Tungate drier                    10%
+
+  No. 42
+  Linseed oil                      25%
+  Soya bean oil                    37%
+  Neutral petroleum oil            23%
+  Tungate drier                    15%
+
+  No. 43
+  Raw linseed oil                  25%
+  Soya bean oil                    37%
+  Whale oil                        19%
+  Tungate drier                    19%
+
+  [36] Mixture of boiled tung and soya bean oil, thinned with petroleum
+       and turpentine.
+
+  [37] 25% raw linseed oil. 73% petroleum oil. 2% drier--lead and
+       manganese linoleate."
+
+No. 44
+
+Special test on white base of the following composition, in pure linseed
+oil:
+
+  Asbestine                        10%
+  Corroded white lead              20%
+  Sublimed white lead              30%
+  Zinc oxide                       40%
+
+Upper board of panel reduced with straight turpentine on priming coat.
+Second board of panel reduced with wood turpentine on priming coat.
+Third board of panel reduced with pine oil on priming coat. Bottom board
+of panel reduced with petroleum spirits on priming coat.
+
+No. 45
+
+Same pigment formula as No. 44, reduced with:
+
+  Pine oil                         50%
+  Linseed oil                      50%
+
+No. 46
+
+Special test of white base of the following composition, in pure linseed
+oil:
+
+  Corroded white lead              20%
+  Sublimed white lead              30%
+  Zinc oxide                       35%
+  Asbestine                        15%
+
+No. 47
+
+Cypress panel unpainted.
+
+No. 48
+
+Cypress panel painted with formula No. 1, thinned with benzol on the
+priming coat.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+CEMENT AND CONCRETE PAINT TESTS
+
+
+=Damp-proofing and Waterproofing.= The decoration and preservation of
+cement and concrete is a subject which is being given the careful
+consideration of many technologists on account of the wide usage of
+cement for structural purposes, and the necessity of properly guarding
+it against the destructive effects of moisture.
+
+To obtain with various paints decorative effects, and, at the same time,
+provide a high degree of damp-proofing, is a process quite distinct from
+that of water-proofing cement and concrete superstructures. The use, in
+small percentage, of stearic acid solutions, aluminum stearate, marine
+animal soaps, and other lime-reacting materials, as a component of
+concrete while it is being mixed, has been in practice for some time,
+the resulting mixture being used largely upon base-work subjected to
+water under high pressure. Although some of the materials used for such
+purposes actually do give to the concrete a high power of water
+resistance, the degree of waterproofing to be obtained through the use
+of many such compounds varies to a wide extent, often interfering with
+the lime-silica reactions, and ultimately affecting the strength of the
+finished concrete.
+
+=Decorative and Preservative Coatings.= The necessity of obtaining
+suitable paint coatings for cement and concrete surfaces suggested to
+the writer a series of tests on paints designed to prevent the
+destructive action of the lime which, by seepage and other physical
+action, is brought to the surface, causing saponification of some oil
+coatings, as well as destruction of color. The tests referred to were
+carried out during 1908, and although great advances have been made
+since that time in the preparation of concrete paints, the tests have,
+nevertheless, afforded information of a valuable nature as indicating
+the proper methods to follow in the painting of cement, as well as
+suitable materials to use in the manufacture of cement paints. The
+tests, moreover, show the comparative durability of a number of paints
+typical of those prominent in the market at the time the tests were
+started.
+
+[Illustration: View of Concrete Paint Test Panels]
+
+=Acid Reacting Compounds.= A series of acid reacting washes were
+included in the tests, having been designed as prime coaters for use
+previous to the application of oil paints. The application of many of
+these washes has the effect of neutralizing the lime within cement and
+concrete surfaces, and often precipitate insoluble lime compounds which
+aid in filling up the outer voids, thus presenting a surface more
+suitable to receive oil coatings. To the writer who has since made a
+careful study of the painting of concrete, it would seem advisable for
+painters to avoid, when possible, the use of these lime neutralizing
+washes, as some of them have more or less disintegrating and weakening
+influences upon concrete. Recent laboratory experiments, however, have
+indicated that zinc sulphate, an acid reacting material used for many
+years as a wash for concrete surfaces by Macnichol, actually has a
+strengthening effect upon cement and concrete surfaces. The more
+successful coatings of to-day, however, are those which may be placed
+directly upon the cement and concrete surfaces without the aid of such
+washes. Several fairly successful paints of this type have recently
+appeared in the market; some of them being made of acid rosins
+compounded with vegetable oils. Probably one of the first mixtures of
+this sort was the so-called suction varnish which the master painter has
+for years used as a prime coating on plastered walls previous to
+painting. These suction varnishes generally contain a high percentage of
+rosin, a material having an exceptionally high acid value and thus
+lending itself successfully to the neutralization of free lime. It has
+been claimed, however, by certain practical painters that the lime-rosin
+compounds formed when such paints are applied to the exterior of
+buildings, are of a brittle nature and subject to early failure. If this
+is true, it would seem advisable to use in a concrete paint an oil of a
+relatively unsaponifiable nature, which would withstand successfully the
+action of the lime, and, at the same time, prevent disruption of the
+coating and failure of the color used in the paint.
+
+=Outline of Tests.= The tests referred to as carried out by the writer
+were made on a brick wall forty feet long, surface-coated with a
+four-inch coating of Portland cement mortar made of one part of Portland
+cement and three parts of sharp, clean sand. After the cement had
+hardened for three days, the solutions under test were applied.
+
+In many of the tests outlined above, one-coat, as well as two-coat work,
+was used on different sections of the test surfaces. It was shown that
+the two-coat work gave far better results than with the one-coat work,
+and the writer would recommend for the painting of concrete at least
+two-coat work. Whenever paints containing Prussian blue or chrome green
+are applied to concrete surfaces, immediate whitening in the case of the
+blue, and yellowing in the case of the green, will take place, if any
+degree of action has been exerted by the lime within the concrete. For
+this reason, green is an especially delicate color to test and should be
+utilized for this purpose.
+
+The materials used, and the results shown at an inspection made after
+two years' exposure, are given herewith.
+
+=Test No. 1.= Concrete primed with a 25% solution of zinc sulphate
+crystals dissolved in water. A wide brush was used for the application,
+and the spreading rate was approximately 200 square feet per gallon.
+Second and third coated on the second day with No. 119 blue paint of the
+following composition:
+
+NO. 119 BLUE PAINT
+
+  Sublimed white lead      50%
+  Zinc oxide               35%
+  Silica and barytes       12%
+  Prussian blue             3%
+
+Ground in linseed oil, turpentine and drier.
+
+This panel, after three years' exposure, is in good condition. Slight
+checking observed.
+
+=Test No. 2.= Concrete primed with a 20% solution of (alum) (aluminum
+sulphate). Second and third coated with No. 119 blue.
+
+In similar condition to Test No. 1.
+
+=Test No. 3.= Concrete primed with zinc sulphate followed by two coats
+of para red.
+
+PARA RED FORMULA
+
+  Blanc fixe               60%
+  Whiting                  25%
+  Zinc oxide                3%
+  Paranitraniline lake     12%
+
+Ground in linseed oil, turpentine and drier.
+
+Panel in fair condition with exception of slight crazing. Characteristic
+dullness of color after exposure shown. Bright red color restored upon
+washing.
+
+=Test No. 4.= Concrete primed with an 8% solution of stearic acid and
+rosin dissolved in benzine. Second and third coated with No. 119 blue.
+
+This panel is not in as good condition as Tests Nos. 1 and 2, and would
+indicate the inferiority of the priming liquid used. Color failing in
+spots and checking observed.
+
+=Test No. 5.= Concrete primed with mixture used in Test No. 4, and then
+given two coats of para red.
+
+Test is in about the same condition as No. 4.
+
+=Test No. 6.= Concrete primed with a 10% mixture of acid calcium
+phosphate, followed with two coats of No. 119 blue.
+
+The acid phosphate solution evidently had a neutralizing effect upon the
+lime in the concrete, as the paint is in fair condition.
+
+=Test No. 7.= Concrete primed with one coat of a soap emulsion of the
+following composition, then painted with two coats of No. 119 blue.
+
+  Water                    85%
+  Linseed oil              12%
+  Alkali                    3%
+
+Very poor results obtained. Destruction of color and peeling resulted.
+
+=Test No. 8.= Concrete primed with one coat of white paint of the
+following composition:
+
+PRIMER
+
+  Zinc oxide               25%
+  Silica                   35%
+  Corroded white lead      20%
+  Gypsum                   15%
+  Whiting, etc.             5%
+
+Ground in a vehicle of linseed oil and containing 35% of volatile
+hydrocarbon spirits and drier.
+
+This coat was followed by one of the following composition, tinted blue:
+
+  Zinc oxide               60%
+  Gypsum                   20%
+  Silica                   20%
+
+Ground in linseed oil with 12% of turpentine and drier.
+
+Fair results shown during first year, but a breakdown occurred during
+the second year, and cracking and scaling resulted.
+
+=Test No. 9.= This test was a duplicate of No. 8 with the addition of 5%
+of zinc sulphate solution emulsified into the primer.
+
+Slightly superior to Test No. 8.
+
+=Test No. 10.= Primed with a white paste paint thinned with turpentine.
+Second coated with same paint tinted blue.
+
+FORMULA OF PASTE
+
+  Zinc oxide              40%
+  Whiting                 30%
+  Silica                  20%
+  Alumina and gypsum      10%
+
+Ground in 16% of linseed oil vehicle.
+
+Scaling and peeling due to lack of binder and use of saponifiable oil
+resulted during the first six months' exposure. Entire destruction of
+coating at end of two years.
+
+=Test No. 11.= Primed with a white mixture, and second coated with the
+same mixture tinted blue.
+
+FORMULA OF MIXTURE
+
+  Whiting                  30%
+  Silica                   30%
+  Zinc oxide               40%
+
+Stirred into a 5% solution of glue in water, until a fairly thick paste
+was obtained.
+
+Much chalking was shown, and a bleaching of color. It is evident that
+this mixture would not serve to keep moisture out.
+
+=Test No. 12 A.= Primed with a 5% solution of soluble nitrated cotton
+and paraffin dissolved in equal parts of amyl acetate and benzine.
+Second coated with No. 119 blue.
+
+Not very good results were obtained, chalking and slight scaling
+resulting.
+
+=Test No. 12 B.= Primed with a heavy varnish containing Chinese wood oil
+and kauri gum. Second coated with No. 119 blue.
+
+Fair results obtained.
+
+=Tests Nos. 13, 14, 15, and 16.= Primed with a solution made by
+dissolving 10 parts of sodium oxalate in 100 parts of water. Second and
+third coated with linseed oil paints in red, brown, blue, and green.
+
+Very good results shown at end of test.
+
+=Test No. 20, Special.= Primed and second coated with a green paint
+containing zinc oxide and barytes, ground in an oil having a low
+saponification value. Very slow drying was shown. Excellent results. No
+failure of color. Extremely glossy, waterproof surface presented.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+STRUCTURAL STEEL PAINT TESTS
+
+
+=The Necessity of Protective Coatings.= Most painters have in the past
+considered of minor importance the painting of iron and steel; any paint
+that would properly hide the surface of the metal being accepted without
+much question. The demand, however, for structural steel for office
+buildings, factories, steel cars, railroad equipment, etc., has doubled
+the output of structural paints, and created a demand for painters
+having a knowledge of the proper materials to use in the painting of
+steel, so that its life may be preserved, and its strength maintained.
+Such knowledge is as important to the painter as a knowledge of how to
+properly select materials for the painting of wood, and how to temper
+these materials to suit the various conditions met with.
+
+=The Cause of Rust.= Everyone is familiar with the appearance of rust,
+but few actually understand what causes rust. No attempt will be made
+here to present even an outline of the many theories advanced to explain
+the phenomenon of the rusting of iron, for the subject is as diverse as
+it is interesting. A brief résumé, however, will be given of the now
+generally accepted theory that explains the subject. This theory is
+called the electrolytic theory. "Auto-electrolysis" is the term used to
+define the peculiar tendency of iron to be transformed from a metal
+possessing a hard lustrous surface, high tensile strength, and other
+useful properties, to a crumbling oxide that falls to the ground and
+again becomes part of the earth from which it was originally taken by
+man.
+
+[Illustration: A Side View of Steel Test Fences]
+
+This "going back to nature" is more readily accomplished by most of the
+steel produced to-day than by the old hand-made irons produced many
+years ago. It seems to be a curious fact that the more quickly a product
+or an article is fashioned by man, the more quickly it tends to return
+again to its original oxidized condition. Some manufacturers of steel,
+however, through an understanding of the causes of rust, have progressed
+in the manufacture of slow rusting materials, either by the elimination,
+or by the proper distribution of impurities.
+
+When iron is brought into contact with moisture, currents of electricity
+flow over the surface of the iron between points that are relatively
+pure and points that contain impurities. These currents stimulate the
+natural tendency of the iron to go into solution, and the solution
+proceeds with vigor at the positive points. The air which the water
+contains oxidizes the iron which has gone into solution, and
+precipitates the familiar brown iron rust. Thus water, which acts as an
+acid, and air, which acts as an oxidizer, have combined together to
+accomplish the downfall of the metal.
+
+[Illustration: Three Photomicrographs of Corroding Steel]
+
+=Inhibition and Stimulation of Rust.= It is obvious that if means could
+be devised to stop the solution pressure of iron and make it resistant
+to the flow of surface electric currents, rust could be prevented. Such
+methods have been devised, and to better illustrate how they operate, an
+analogy may be drawn between iron in water and shellac in alcohol.
+
+It is common knowledge that when shellac is placed in alcohol, the
+shellac will force itself into solution in the alcohol, and form a
+clear, transparent lacquer. If, however, there should be mixed with the
+alcohol a quantity of water, it would be found that the shellac could no
+longer go into solution, and it would remain in its original condition.
+In the same way, if there be placed in water a small quantity of
+material, such as soluble chromates, or an alkaline substance like
+caustic soda or lime, it will be found that iron will no longer have a
+tendency to go into solution in this treated water, but will stay bright
+and clean. These materials which prevent the rusting of iron have been
+called by Cushman, who first advanced these explanations, "rust
+inhibitors," or materials which inhibit rusting. The paint maker,
+realizing the importance of these rust inhibitors, is incorporating them
+into paints designed for the protection of iron and steel, and the
+success which paints of this type have met with from a practical
+standpoint is a justification of what was first called the "electrolytic
+theory," which suggested their use.
+
+By placing small, brightly polished steel plates into a mush of paint
+pigment and water, a determination may be made of the pigment's effect
+upon the metal. Some pigments, under such conditions, cause rapid
+corrosion of the steel plates. Such pigments are stimulators of
+corrosion, on account of acid impurities which they contain, or because
+of their effect in stimulating galvanic currents. Many carbonaceous
+pigments are of this type. Other pigments have the effect of keeping
+bright the steel plates and preventing rust. Such pigments are of the
+inhibitive type, and their action is to check or retard the solution
+pressure of the iron.
+
+=The Effects of Moisture.= It might occur to the reader that although
+paint pigments, when mixed up with water and brought into contact with
+the surface of steel, might show either an inhibitive or stimulative
+action, that it is by no means certain that the same tendency will be
+exhibited by pigments when they are properly mixed with linseed oil and
+laid out as a film upon the surface of steel. In answer to this, it may
+be well to state that almost no material used by mankind is absolutely
+dry. Linseed oil, as it is pressed from the seed, comes from the cells,
+carrying with it a certain small definite percentage of water, and it is
+quite certain that even the best linseed oil that goes into use is not
+theoretically dry. Everyone knows, of course, that oil and water do not
+readily mix and are, in fact, more or less repellent to each other. It
+is, however, true that, in spite of this, oils can carry quite a
+percentage of water, without the admixture being apparent to the eye. In
+addition to this, careful experiments have proved very conclusively that
+linseed oil films, even after they have oxidized and hardened, have the
+power to a certain extent of absorbing water from the atmosphere. It is,
+therefore, safe to say that no linseed oil film in a paint coating is
+dry all the time. As a matter of fact, there is abundant evidence to
+show that in rainy weather, and, in fact, when the humidity in the air
+is high, paint films have absorbed water. As the sun comes out and warms
+the paint coating, and the humidity content of the atmosphere falls,
+this water to a large extent evaporates out of the film, only to be
+taken up again when the weather conditions change. This action may be
+likened to a breathing of the paint film, that is to say, an indrawing
+of water under humid conditions, followed by an exhaling of water under
+dry conditions. With these facts in mind, it must be apparent that
+pigments laid out in intimate contact with the surface of steel are
+subjected at all times either more or less to the reactions produced by
+water contact. Furthermore, as it is a property of water to become
+saturated with the gases of the atmosphere, such as oxygen, carbonic and
+sulphurous acids, and other impurities, there is present in a protective
+paint film at all times the elements necessary to carry on the corrosive
+process and reactions.
+
+An outline of Cushman's original research work, upon which has been
+based the classification of pigments as inhibitors, stimulators, and
+inerts, is clearly presented in his report[38] as Chairman of Committee
+U of the American Society for Testing Materials, of which the following
+is an excerpt:
+
+  [38] Page 73, 1910 Proceedings of the American Society for Testing
+       Materials.
+
+[Illustration: Ferroxyl Tests on Painted Steel Surfaces. Upper Row
+Painted with Stimulative Paints--Lower Row with Inhibitive Paints.]
+
+[Illustration: Water Test on Plates Painted--Except in Center Spot. Left
+Hand Plates Painted with Stimulative Paints, Right Hand Plates Painted
+with Inhibitive Paints.]
+
+[Illustration: View of Steel Plates Painted with Stimulative Paints,
+after Immersion in Ferroxyl Jelly.]
+
+"Three years ago the suggestion was made in a paper presented before the
+Tenth Annual Meeting of this Society that the various types of
+substances used as pigments in protective coatings might exert a
+stimulative or an inhibitive action on the rate and tendency to
+corrosion of the underlying metal. It was further suggested on a
+theoretical ground that slightly soluble chromates should exert a
+protective action when employed as pigments by maintaining the surface
+of the iron in a passive condition in case water and oxygen penetrated
+the paint film. In view also of the well-known fact that alkalies
+inhibit while acids stimulate the corrosion of iron, it was suggested
+that the action of more or less pure pigments on iron in the presence of
+water should be thoroughly investigated. Two years ago this Committee
+invited the co-operation of Committee D-1 (then known as Committee E) in
+the investigation, and a special sub-committee representing the two main
+committees was appointed.
+
+"The methods and results of the water-pigment tests have previously been
+reported and published, and need not be given in detail. Briefly, the
+method consisted in immersing samples of steel in water suspensions of
+the various pigments and blowing air through the containers for definite
+periods of time, the corrosion being measured by the loss in weight
+sustained by the test pieces. About fifty pigments which are in more or
+less common use for painting steel were purchased in the open market and
+distributed among a number of the members of the Committee, who agreed
+to carry out the work. Each investigator worked independently of the
+others, except that the same general method was followed; the time of
+exposure to the corroding action, however, varied in the different
+experiments. When the results were compared and analyzed by the
+sub-committee, it was felt that the general agreement of the results
+obtained by the several investigators was striking and merited further
+and more systematic work. As a result of these tests the sub-committee
+tentatively divided the pigments into inhibitors, stimulators, and
+indeterminates. The word 'indeterminate' was selected after considerable
+discussion, because the words 'neutral' or 'inert' already possess a
+special meaning as applied to paint technology. The Committee takes this
+occasion to emphatically state that in adopting this tentative
+classification, the words 'inhibitive' and 'stimulative' as used by them
+up to the present time apply only to the results obtained in the water
+tests, and the inference that the results obtained have decided which
+class the pigment will fall into when made into a paint with the usual
+vehicles and used as a protective coating on iron and steel, is not
+justified. In order to make this point quite clear, it has been agreed
+by the Committee to qualify the classification so as to speak of the
+various materials tested as 'water stimulative' or 'water inhibitive.'"
+
+[Illustration: Apparatus for Testing the Inhibitive Value of Pigments]
+
+=Importance of Field Tests.= Although the laboratory accelerated tests
+for the determination of the relative value of structural steel paints
+afford information of some import, there seems to be a general opinion
+that the best method to follow, if information of a reliable character
+is to be obtained, is to make actual field exposure tests upon large
+surfaces. The results of the above described water-pigment tests
+suggested the erection of a series of steel panels on which to test out
+the same pigments under practical service conditions. The Paint
+Manufacturers' Association of the United States erected and painted the
+panels, the work being under the constant supervision of the writer, and
+the inspection of the work under Committee U of the American Society for
+Testing Materials. A brief résumé of the work[39] is herewith presented.
+
+  [39] Page 181, "Corrosion and Preservation of Iron and Steel"--Cushman
+       and Gardner--McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York City.
+
+=Pickling and Preparation of Plates.= The three types of metal[40]
+selected for the test were rolled to billets, the middle of which were
+selected, and worked up into plates 24 inches wide, 36 inches high, and
+1/8 inch in diameter--approximately 11 gauge. A number of plates of each
+of the metals selected, in all 450, were pickled in 10% sulphuric acid,
+kept at 180 to 200 degrees Fahrenheit, in order to remove the
+mill-scale. The plates were then washed in water, and later in 10%
+solution of caustic soda. Finally the plates were again washed in water
+and wiped dry. They were then packed in boxes containing dry lime, in
+order to prevent superficial corrosion. By this method the plates were
+secured in perfect condition, the surfaces being smooth and free from
+scale. Upon these pickled plates paints were applied with a definite
+spreading rate of 900 square feet per gallon. The unpickled plates,
+coated with mill-scale, were painted with the same paints, but without
+adopting any special spreading rate, thus following more closely the
+ordinary method of painting structural steel. A few extra plates of
+special Bessemer steel and Swedish charcoal iron were also included in
+the test, some of which were painted, while others were exposed without
+any protective coating. Plates of the three types of metal already
+mentioned were also exposed unpainted, both in the black and pickled
+condition.
+
+  [40] Bessemer Steel, Open Hearth Steel, and Pure Iron.
+
+[Illustration: Front View of Steel Test Fences]
+
+=Fence Erection and Preparation for Work.= The fences which were erected
+for the holding of the plates were constructed of yellow pine, the posts
+being set deeply in the ground and properly braced. The framework of the
+fence was open, with a ledge upon the lateral girders, upon which the
+plates might rest, and to which the plates were secured by the use of
+steel buttons. After the framework had been erected, painted, and made
+ready for the placement of the panels, a small shed was built upon the
+ground, and the materials for the field test placed therein. The steel
+plates were unpacked from the boxes in which they were shipped, brushed
+off, and stacked up ready for painting. Small benches were erected, and
+the accessories of the work, such as cans, brushes, pots, balances,
+etc., were placed in position.
+
+=Methods Followed in Painting Plates.= A frame resting upon the
+workbench served to hold the plates in a lateral position while being
+painted, room being allowed beneath the plate for the operator to place
+his hands in order to lift the plates from the under surface after the
+painting had been finished.
+
+A pickled plate having been placed upon the framework everything was in
+readiness for the work. The specific gravity and weight per gallon of
+the paint to be applied was determined, and the amount, in grams, to be
+applied to each individual panel was calculated according to the
+following formula:
+
+  Spreading rate       Sq. ft. in plate      Grams paint in gal.
+   900 sq. ft.     :          6          ::         5400           :  x
+
+The reciprocal of _x_ being the number of grams of paint to be applied
+to the panels.
+
+An enamel cup was then filled with the paint and a brush well stirred
+within. The cup, paint, and brush were placed upon the balances and
+accurately weighed in grams. After most of the paint had been applied to
+the panel, cross-brushing of the panel was continued until the pot with
+brush and paint exactly counterbalanced the deducted weight. The painted
+panel was then set in a rack, in a horizontal position to dry.
+
+A period of eight days elapsed between the drying of each coat. The
+greatest care was taken in the painting of the edges of the plates, and
+the racks for containing the plates after they were painted were so
+constructed that the paint would not be abraded while sliding the plates
+back and forth. The working properties of each paint, and the appearance
+of the surface of each plate after painting, were carefully noted and
+included in the report. No reductions were made to any of the paints
+applied except in three cases, where the viscosity was so great that it
+was necessary to add a small amount of pure spirits of turpentine. The
+amount of paint was proportionately increased in such cases, so that the
+evaporation of the turpentine would leave upon the plate the amount of
+paint originally intended.
+
+The appearance of the completed series of test panels is shown on page
+221.
+
+=Vehicles Used and Reasons for Avoidance of Japan Driers.= The pigments
+used were selected with the view to securing as nearly as possible
+purity and strength, and as already noted, were out of the same lots
+used in making the preliminary laboratory tests on inhibitives. They
+were ground in a vehicle composed of two parts of raw linseed oil and
+one part of pure boiled oil. Paint is generally caused to dry rapidly by
+the use of japan or driers. These materials contain a large amount of
+metallic oxides which might have some effect in either exciting or
+retarding corrosion. To prevent the introduction of such a factor, these
+materials were not used in the test. The boiled oil, with its small
+percentages of metallic oxides, was sufficient, however, to cause the
+paints to dry in a short time after they were spread.
+
+=Testing Effect of Various Prime Coats.= Some of the special tests made
+included a series of plates prime-coated with different inhibitive
+pigments, and these tests were designed to determine which pigments
+offer the best results for such work. These plates were all
+second-coated with the same paint. It is the opinion of the authors that
+any good excluding paint may be used whether it be inhibitive in action
+or not, provided the contact coat is inhibitive. If, however, both coats
+can be designed so as to have the maximum possible value from both these
+points of view, the best results would, of course, accrue. The only way
+such data can be obtained is by careful observation of the results of
+exposure tests.
+
+=Combination Formulas Tested.= By selecting a series of pigments which
+in the water tests showed inhibitive tendencies, and properly combining
+these pigments into a paint, it was thought possible that a more or less
+inhibitive paint would be produced. If this proved to be the case, it
+would follow that the selection and introduction into a paint of the
+stimulative pigments would inevitably produce a paint unfit for use on
+iron or steel.
+
+=Data on Application of Paints.= The recorded data on the application of
+the paint to the panels is voluminous. There is presented herewith,
+however, the data on two of the paints.
+
+  NO. 2, QUICK PROCESS WHITE LEAD:
+
+  Sp. Gr. of pigment                        6.78
+  Lbs. to gallon oil                       20.34
+  Sp. Gr. of paint as received              2.47
+  Wt. of paint per gallon                  20.56
+  Grams to panel                              62
+  Condition of paint                        Good
+  Working properties                  Works easy
+  Drying                       24 hrs. all coats
+
+  1 coat   Oct. 26   T 60   B 29.94   W. fair
+  2 coat   Nov.  3   T 54   B 30.23   W. clear
+  3 coat   Nov.  7   T 52   B 29.66   W. cloudy
+
+  NO. 9, ORANGE MINERAL (AMERICAN):
+
+  Sp. Gr. of pigment                        8.97
+  Lbs. to gallon oil                       26.91
+  Sp. Gr. of paint as received              2.97
+  Wt. of paint per gallon                  24.74
+  Grams to panel                            74.7
+  Condition of paint                        Good
+  Working properties      Smooth--no brush marks
+  Drying                                    Good
+
+  1 coat   Oct. 28   T 58   B 30.01   W. cloudy
+  2 coat   Nov.  4   T 65   B 29.61   W. cloudy
+  3 coat   Nov.  9   T 58   B 29.91   W. clear
+
+=Composition of Paints.= The following table gives data regarding the
+composition, etc., of paints applied to the steel panels.
+
+=Results of Inspection.= The results of an inspection of the steel test
+plates, made by Sub-committee D representing Committee D-1 of the
+American Society for Testing Materials, is herewith presented:
+
+"On Wednesday, June 28, 1911, the second inspection of the Atlantic City
+Steel Test Panels, erected in October, 1908, was made by Sub-committee D
+of Committee D-1, this Committee having agreed to report upon the
+condition of the painted surfaces, leaving any report on the comparative
+corrosion of the various types of metal used in the test to Committee
+A-5 on the corrosion of iron.
+
+  ===+=========================+=======+=======+======+=======+=========
+     |                         |       |       |      |       |Grams
+     |                         |       |       |      |       |Paint
+     |                         |       |Wt. of | Sp.  |Wt. of |to Panel
+     |           Name          |  Sp.  |Pigment| Gr.  | Paint |at 900
+     |                         |  Gr.  |to Gal.| of   |  per  |Sq. ft.
+  Pigment                      |of Pig-|of oil |Paint |  Gal. |spreading
+  No.|                         | ment  | Lbs.  |Rec'd |  Lbs. |rate
+  ---+-------------------------+-------+-------+------+-------+---------
+    1|Dutch process white lead | 6.83  | 20.49 | 2.45 | 20.49 |  61.0
+    2|Quick process white lead | 6.78  | 20.34 | 2.47 | 20.34 |  62.0
+    3|Zinc oxide               | 5.56  | 16.68 | 2.12 | 16.68 |  59.0
+    4|Sublimed white lead      | 6.45  | 19.17 | 2.36 | 19.17 |  59.0
+    5|Sublimed blue lead       | 6.39  | 19.17 | 2.42 | 19.17 |  61.0
+    6|Lithopone                | 4.26  | 12.78 | 1.80 | 12.78 |  45.3
+    7|Zinc lead white          | 4.42  | 13.26 | 1.96 | 13.26 |  49.4
+    9|American orange mineral  | 8.97  | 26.91 | 2.97 | 26.91 |  74.7
+   10|Red lead                 | 8.70  | 26.10 | 2.93 | 26.10 |  73.6
+   12|Bright red oxide         | 5.26  | 15.78 | 2.05 | 15.78 |  60.0
+   14|Venetian red             | 3.1   |  9.30 | 1.52 |  9.30 |  38.0
+   15|Prince's metallic brown  | 3.17  |  9.51 | 1.50 |  9.51 |  37.7
+   16|Natural graphite         | 2.60  |  7.80 | 1.37 |  7.80 |  34.4
+   17|Acheson graphite         | 2.21  |  6.63 | 1.22 |  6.63 |  30.8
+   19| {Lampblack              |       |  1.82}|      |  1.82 |
+     | {Barytes                | 1.82  |  8.92}| 1.60 |  8.92 |  40.2
+   20|Willow charcoal          | 1.49  |  4.47 | 1.08 |  4.47 |  27.0
+   21| {Gas carbon black       | 1.85  |  1.39}| 1.67 |  1.39 |
+     | {Natural barytes        |       | 10.03}|      | 10.03 |  50.7
+   24|French yellow ochre      | 2.94  |  8.82 | 1.46 |  8.82 |  37.0
+   27|Natural barytes          | 4.46  | 13.38 | 1.83 | 13.38 |  46.0
+   28|Precipitated barytes     | 4.23  | 12.69 | 1.84 | 12.69 |  46.0
+     |(blanc fixe)             |       |       |      |       |
+   29|Calcium carbonate        | 5.48  |  8.22 | 1.37 |  8.22 |  34.5
+     |(whiting)                |       |       |      |       |
+   30|Calcium carbonate        | 2.56  |  7.68 | 1.35 |  7.68 |  34.0
+     |precipitated             |       |       |      |       |
+   31|Calcium sulphate (gypsum)| 2.33  |  6.99 | 1.25 |  6.99 |  31.4
+   32|China clay (kaolin)      | 2.67  |  8.01 | 1.34 |  8.01 |  34.0
+   33|Asbestine (silicate of   | 2.75  |  8.25 | 1.38 |  8.25 |  34.7
+     |magnesium)               |       |       |      |       |
+   34|American vermilion       | 6.83  | 20.49 |      | 20.49 |  64.5
+     |(chrome scarlet)         |       |       |      |       |
+   36|Medium chrome yellow     | 5.88  | 17.64 |      | 17.64 |  67.1
+   39|Zinc chromate            | 3.57  | 10.71 | 1.57 | 10.71 |  39.2
+   40|Zinc and barium chromate | 3.45  | 10.35 | 1.58 | 10.35 |  40.0
+   41|Chrome green (blue tone) | 4.44  | 13.32 | 1.94 | 13.32 |  49.0
+   44|Prussian blue            | 1.96  |  5.88 |      |  5.88 |  30.0
+   45|Prussian blue            | 1.93  |  5.79 |      |  5.79 |  34.5
+   48|Ultramarine blue         | 2.40  |  7.20 | 1.29 |  7.20 |  32.5
+   49|Zinc and lead chromate   | 4.76  | 14.28 | 1.92 | 14.28 |  48.3
+   51|Magnetic black oxide     |       | 15.00 | 1.92 | 15    |  48.3
+     |                         |       |       |      |       |
+     |   _Composite Paints_    |       |       |      |       |
+     |                         |       |       |      |       |
+  111|Brown } Made from pig-   |       | 10.82 | 1.30 | 10.82 |  32.7
+  222|Black } ments that were  |       | 10.86 | 1.30 | 10.86 |  32.8
+  333|White } inhibitive in the|       | 14.52 | 1.74 | 14.52 |  43.8
+  444|Green } water test       |       | 12.77 | 1.53 | 12.77 |  38.6
+     |                         |       |       |      |       |
+  555|Black } Made from pig-   |       |  9.37 | 1.125|  9.37 |  28.
+  666|Brown } ments that were  |       | 11.74 | 1.41 | 11.74 |  35.5
+  777|White } stimulative in   |       | 14.55 | 1.75 | 14.55 |  44.
+  888|Green } the water test   |       | 14.57 | 1.75 | 14.57 |  14.57
+  ===+=========================+=======+=======+======+=======+=========
+
+"According to the amount of rust apparent on the painted surfaces of the
+panels, as well as the degree of checking, chalking, scaling, cracking,
+peeling, loss of color, and other signs of paint failure shown, ratings
+were given each panel. The system of rating which took into
+consideration all the above conditions, was similar to the system used
+at the first inspection during 1910, when 0 (zero) recorded the worst
+results and 10 (ten) the best results.
+
+"In Table No. 1 there is shown the rating accorded by each inspector to
+each panel, as well as an average for each panel.
+
+TABLE NO. 1.--SECOND INSPECTION OF STEEL PAINT TEST PANELS AT ATLANTIC
+CITY, N. J., BY SUB-COMMITTEE D OF COMMITTEE D-1
+
+  =======+========================+======+======+=======+=======+=======
+         |                        |      |      | H. A. |       |
+   Panel |                        |W. H. |P. H. |Gardner|  C.   |
+    No.  |         Pigment        |Walker|Walker|Chair- |Chapman|Average
+         |                        |      |      |  man  |       |
+  -------+------------------------+------+------+-------+-------+-------
+       1 |Dutch process white lead| 2    | 3    |  3    |  5    |  3.7
+       2 |Quick process white lead| 4    | 4    |  3    |  6    |  4.2
+       3 |Zinc oxide (XX)         | 1    | 1-1/2|  1    |  2-1/2|  1.5
+       4 |Sublimed white lead     | 9    | 9-1/2|  9    |  8-1/2|  9.0
+       5 |Sublimed blue lead      | 9    | 9-1/2|  9-1/2|  7-1/2|  8.8
+       6 |Lithopone               | 2    | 1-1/2|  2    |  3-1/2|  2.2
+       7 |Zinc lead white         | 3    | 4    |  5    |  7    |  4.7
+       9 |Orange mineral          | 9    | 9    |  9    |  6-1/2|  8.3
+      10 |Red lead                | 9    | 9    |  9    |  6-1/2|  8.3
+      12 |Bright red oxide        | 8-1/2| 9    |  8    |  7    |  8.1
+      14 |Venetian red            | 7    | 9    |  7    |  9    |  8.0
+      15 |Prince's metallic brown | 5    | 7-1/2|  6    |  8    |  6.3
+      16 |Natural graphite        | 6    | 8    |  4    |  9-1/2|  6.8
+      17 |Artificial graphite     | 5    | 7-1/2|  4    |  7    |  5.9
+      19 |Lampblack               | 5    | 7-1/2|  5    |  8    |  6.3
+      20 |Willow charcoal         | 9    | 8-1/2|  9    |  9    |  8.8
+      21 |Carbon black            | 7    | 8-1/2|  5    |  8-1/2|  7.2
+      24 |Yellow ochre (French)   | 5    | 7    |  2    |  8    |  5.5
+      27 |Barytes (natural)       | 1    | 1    |  1    |  0    |  0.7
+      28 |Barytes (precipitated)  | 2    | 1-1/2|  2    |  2    |  1.8
+      29 |Calcium carbonate       | 0    | 0    |  0    |  0    |  0.0
+         |(whiting)               |      |      |       |       |
+      30 |Calcium carbonate (pre- | 0    | 0    |  0    |  0    |  0.0
+         |cipitated)              |      |      |       |       |
+      31 |Calcium sulphate        | 1    | 1    |  1    |  3    |  1.7
+         |(gypsum)                |      |      |       |       |
+      32 |China clay (kaolin)     | 6    | 6    |  7    |  6-1/2|  6.3
+      33 |Asbestine (magnes. sili-| 5    | 4-1/2|  6    |  5    |  5.1
+         |cate)                   |      |      |       |       |
+      34 |American vermilion      |10    |10    | 10    | 10    | 10.0
+      36 |Lead chromate           | 7    | 7-1/2|  8-1/2|  8    |  7.7
+      39 |Zinc chromate           | 9    | 9    | 10    |  9-1/2|  9.5
+      40 |Zinc and barium chromate| 9    | 9-1/2| 10    |  9-1/2|  9.5
+      41 |Chrome green (blue tone)|10    |10    | 10    |  9-1/2|  9.8
+      44 |Prussian blue, W. S     | 9    | 9-1/2|  9-1/2|  9    |  9.0
+      45 |Prussian blue, W. I     | 8    | 9-1/2|  8-1/2|  8-1/2|  8.5
+      48 |Ultramarine blue        | 0    | 0    |  0    |  0    |  0.0
+      49 |Zinc and lead chromate  |10    | 9-1/2| 10    |  9-1/2|  9.7
+      51 |Magnetic black oxide    | 9    | 9-1/2| 10    |  9-1/2|  9.5
+     111 |Brown composite paint   | 7    | 9    |  9    |  9    |  8.5
+     222 |Black composite paint   | 9    | 9    |  9    |  8-1/2|  8.8
+    3333 |White composite paint   | 4    | 4    |  7    |  3    |  4.5
+     444 |Green composite paint   | 5    | 7    |  7    |  8    |  6.7
+     555 |Black composite paint   | 9    | 9    |  6    |  9    |  8.2
+     666 |Brown composite paint   | 8    | 8    |  6    |  9    |  7.7
+     777 |White composite paint   | 7    |10    |  5    |  7    |  7.2
+     888 |Green composite paint   | 7    | 8    |  8    |  9    |  8.0
+    2000 |1 coat zinc chromate   }| 8    | 8-1/2|  8    |  8    |  8.1
+         |1 coat iron oxide ex-  }|      |      |       |       |
+         |cluder                 }|      |      |       |       |
+    3000 |1 coat lead chromate    | 7    | 8    |  7    |  7-1/2|  7.3
+    4000 |1 coat red lead        }| 7    | 8-1/2|  8    |  7-1/2|  7.7
+         |1 coat iron oxide ex-  }|      |      |       |       |
+         |cluder                 }|      |      |       |       |
+     100 |Straight carbon black   | 5    | 8-1/2|  4    |  8-1/2|  6.5
+         |paint with turps and    |      |      |       |       |
+         |drier                   |      |      |       |       |
+      90 |Straight lampblack paint| 5    | 7    |  3    |  8    |  5.7
+         |with turps and drier    |      |      |       |       |
+    5555 |Coal tar paint over red | 4    | 8    |  2    |  7    |  5.2
+         |lead                    |      |      |       |       |
+    1000 |Chrome resinate in oil  | 1    | 0    |  0    |  2    |  0.7
+         |(1 coat)                |      |      |       |       |
+  1 plate|3 coats boiled linseed  | 1    | 0    |  1    |  4    |  1.5
+         |oil                     |      |      |       |       |
+  =======+========================+======+======+=======+=======+=======
+
+"In Table No. 2 there is shown the rating obtained by those panels which
+were considered by the committee as meriting from 8 to 10, and having
+given the best all-round service.
+
+TABLE NO. 2.--ANALYSIS OF AVERAGES. GRADE OF EXCELLENCE FROM 8 TO 10
+
+  =====+=============================================+=======
+  Plate| Pigment                                     |Average
+  -----+---------------------------------------------+-------
+    34 | American vermilion (basic chromate of lead) |  10.0
+    41 | Chrome green                                |   9.8
+    49 | Lead and zinc chromate                      |   9.7
+    39 | Zinc chromate                               |   9.5
+    40 | Zinc and barium chromate                    |   9.5
+    51 | Black oxide of iron                         |   9.5
+     4 | Sublimed white lead                         |   9.0
+    44 | Prussian blue                               |   9.0
+     5 | Sublimed blue lead                          |   8.8
+    20 | Willow charcoal                             |   8.8
+   222 | Composite paint                             |   8.8
+    45 |  Prussian blue                              |   8.5
+   111 | Composite formula                           |   8.5
+     9 | Orange mineral                              |   8.3
+    10 | Red lead                                    |   8.3
+   555 | Composite paint                             |   8.2
+    12 | Bright red oxide of iron                    |   8.1
+  2000 | 1 coat zinc chromate; 1 coat iron oxide     |   8.1
+    14 | Venetian red                                |   8.0
+   888 | Composite paint                             |   8.0
+  =====+=============================================+=======
+
+=Comparison of Results.= It is of interest to compare with Table 2 of
+the above report, Table 2 of the 1910 report of Committee U of the
+American Society for Testing Materials. Both charts show the highly
+inhibitive pigments to be in the lead.
+
+
+COMMITTEE U REPORT 1910
+
+TABLE II.--ANALYSIS OF AVERAGES. GRADE OF EXCELLENCE FROM 8 TO 10
+
+(_Only resistance to corrosion was considered, and only pigments which
+were common to both tests are included_)
+
+  ===+====================================+=======
+  No.| Pigment                            |Average
+  ---+------------------------------------+-------
+  34 | American vermilion (chrome scarlet)|  9.8
+  41 | Chrome green (blue tone)           |  9.7
+  40 | Zinc and barium chromate           |  9.7
+   5 | Sublimed blue lead                 |  9.6
+   4 | Sublimed white lead                |  9.5
+  49 | Zinc and lead chromate             |  9.5
+  39 | Zinc chromate                      |  9.4
+  12 | Bright red oxide                   |  9.3
+  44 | Prussian blue (water stimulative)  |  9.2
+  16 | Natural graphite                   |  9.1
+   9 | Orange mineral (American)          |  9.0
+  36 | Medium chrome yellow               |  9.0
+   2 | White lead (quick process)         |  8.9
+  20 | Willow charcoal                    |  8.8
+  45 | Prussian blue (water inhibitive)   |  8.8
+   1 | White lead (Dutch process)         |  8.7
+  10 | Red lead                           |  8.7
+  7  | Zinc lead white                    |  8.0
+  ===+====================================+=======
+
+The writer has recently made a careful inspection of the panels painted
+with single pigment paints, and has made the following brief summary of
+the characteristic appearance of each.
+
+=Panel No. 1--Dutch Process White Lead.= The excessive chalking which
+took place began to disappear at the end of a year, being washed away by
+the rains and carried away by the winds, so that there was left upon the
+surface but a thin coating of pigment, insufficient to give good
+protection. Slight corrosion was apparent beneath the film.
+
+=Panel No. 2--Quick Process White Lead.= In the same condition as Panel
+No. 1.
+
+=Panel No. 3--Zinc Oxide.= Panel covered with thin lateral streaks of
+rust, due to the admittance of moisture in cracks caused by brittleness
+of film. Result doubtless due to insufficient amount of oil used with
+pigment. Removal of film shows steel very bright except where cracks
+have formed.
+
+=Panel No. 4--Sublimed White Lead.= Although sublimed white lead chalked
+very heavily, the chalked pigment seemed to be tenacious and adhered to
+the plate, presenting an excellent surface with absence of rust. Film of
+good color and quite elastic.
+
+=Panel No. 5--Sublimed Blue Lead.= In same condition as Panel No. 4, but
+color has slightly faded.
+
+=Panel No. 6--Lithopones.= Lithopone was early destroyed, as is usual
+with this pigment when used alone on exterior surfaces. It became rough
+and discolored, presenting a very blotchy appearance and disclosed the
+formation of rust working through the film.
+
+=Panel No. 7--Zinc Lead White.= In general good condition with the
+exception of the color, which is slightly dark. Medium chalking was
+apparent but only very slight corrosion appeared.
+
+=Panel No. 9--Orange Mineral.= In excellent condition, showing a good
+firm surface with no checking or corrosion apparent. Shortly after
+exposure the film became covered with a white coating of carbonate of
+lead, which indicates action of the red lead with the carbonic acid of
+the atmosphere. Removal of this white coating with water discloses the
+brilliant color of the unaffected portion of the red lead.
+
+=Panel No. 10--Red Lead.= In same condition as Panel No. 9.
+
+=Panel No. 12--Bright Red Iron Oxide.= In general good condition. Film
+intact and unfading in color.
+
+=Panel No. 14--Venetian Red.= Similar to Panel No. 12, but slight
+corrosion apparent beneath, in localized spots, and film showing slight
+wart-like formations.
+
+=Panel No. 15--Prince's Metallic Brown.= Similar to Panel No. 14.
+
+=Panel No. 16--Natural Graphite.= Deeply pitted in spots, showing
+bulbous eruptions, indicating the stimulative nature of this pigment.
+
+=Panel No. 17--Artificial Graphite.= In same condition as Panel No. 16.
+
+=Panel No. 19--Lampblack and Barytes.= Although the film seems to be
+intact, there are apparent abrasions of the surface showing stimulative
+corrosion effects of a pronounced nature.
+
+=Panel No. 21--Carbon Black and Barytes.= In same condition as Panel No.
+19.
+
+[Illustration: Corrosion Pits on Graphite Panel]
+
+[Illustration: Rust on Stripped Graphite Film]
+
+[Illustration: Section of Wire Painted with a Stimulative Carbonaceous
+Paint]
+
+[Illustration: Corroded and Pitted Surface of Plate Painted with
+Stimulative Paint]
+
+The longevity of lampblack and carbon black paint films when applied to
+wood has been attributed to the slow drying nature of these pigments
+when mixed with oil. It is assumed that they have the property of
+keeping the oil in a semi-drying condition, which will not disintegrate
+as early as when the oil is thoroughly dried to linoxyn. If this is
+true, it would seem advisable to use with hard-drying pigments, a
+proportion of some oil that is semi-drying in nature or one which will
+leave a film not too hard. Soya bean oil, wood oil, and fish oil present
+themselves as candidates for such use. How they will work in practice,
+however, is a question not yet determined. On the other hand, it is well
+known that these pigments require enormous quantities of oil in order to
+grind to a working consistency, and it is possible that the life of
+such coatings is due rather to the property of these pigments, of taking
+up large quantities of oil, than to their effect upon the slow drying of
+oil. Excessive oil carrying, however, should be avoided, as shown by the
+early failure and pitting of those carbon black and lampblack paints
+ground with very large quantities of oil, as is the usual practice. When
+these carbon and lampblack pigments were ground with barytes (which is a
+heavy pigment and requires only about 9 pounds of oil to 100 pounds of
+pigment, as against 175 pounds of oil to 100 pounds of lampblack), it
+was found that the lampblack and carbon black paints were reinforced and
+made more suitable for actual practice. The stimulative nature of these
+black pigments, however, asserted itself in both cases, and large
+pittings and eruptions were evident at the end of a year. Carbon black,
+lampblack, graphite, or any other good conductor of electricity should
+never be placed next to the surface of iron. They are good as
+top-coatings, but not as prime-coaters. Some pigments are stimulators of
+corrosion, because they contain water-soluble impurities that hasten the
+rusting, while others, like graphite, hasten it simply because, being
+good conductors, they stimulate surface electrolysis.
+
+=Panel No. 20--Willow Charcoal.= In excellent condition throughout.
+Presence of small quantities of potash may be responsible for the
+inhibitive nature of this black pigment.
+
+=Panel No. 24--Ochre.= While the film seems intact, it has a very
+mottled appearance and examination shows eruptions of rust through the
+film, in several places.
+
+=Panel No. 27--Natural Barytes.= Within a year the film became
+pin-holed, and corrosion was apparent. At the end of three years very
+little of the pigment was left upon the plate, having chalked and scaled
+off. Barytes has proved its usefulness as a constituent of a combination
+type of paint, but it should not be used alone.
+
+=Panel No. 28--Blanc Fixe.= In the same condition as Panel No. 27, but
+slightly more chalking and disintegration was shown.
+
+[Illustration: Panel Painted with Blanc Fixe. Right Side Stripped of
+Paint to Show Corrosion]
+
+[Illustration: Scaled Whiting Films
+
+Chemically Active Pigments and Their Effect After Eighteen Months'
+Wear]
+
+[Illustration: Plate Showing Effect of Chemically Active Pigments on Oil
+after One Year's Wear]
+
+=Panel No. 29--Whiting.= Plates coated with calcium carbonate or whiting
+in oil presented a very fair appearance at the start of the test, but
+they soon began to chalk and disintegrate. It is well known that
+whiting, being alkaline, has the property of acting on oil and causing
+its early disintegration by saponification. As a matter of fact, six
+months after the whiting plates were exposed, crumbling of the surface
+appeared, and twelve months was sufficient for the total destruction of
+the paint. At this time the rusted surface of the plates which had been
+painted with calcium carbonate, seemed not to rust as fast as those
+plates which were exposed without paint coatings, and the rust which had
+formed appeared to be of an even, fine texture. On the lower left-hand
+corner of these plates had been lettered the figures "29" and "30,"
+using lampblack in oil. One of the most remarkable things which appears
+on the fence to-day is the perfect condition of these lampblack letters
+over their priming coat of calcium carbonate, standing out in clear
+relief against the rusted metal. This test would suggest, therefore,
+that if the surface of metal is properly protected with a pigment which
+is slightly alkaline or inhibitive in nature, and then topped with a
+good weather-resisting material, such as lampblack, graphite or carbon
+black, good results would be obtained. Further tests will be made to
+determine the value of this suggestion.
+
+=Panel No. 30--Precipitated Calcium Carbonate.= Showed more rapid
+destruction than Panel No. 29.
+
+[Illustration: Corrosion Adhering to Film Stripped from Panel Painted
+with Gypsum (Calcium Sulphate)]
+
+=Panel No. 31--Calcium Sulphate.= Under the paint film of gypsum, rust
+soon appeared, showing that the film was not a good excluder of
+moisture. Although the film remained intact, rusting progressed
+throughout the test and considerably darkened the color of the paint.
+
+=Panel No. 32--China Clay.= This pigment gave excellent service for
+eighteen months. Afterwards indications of corrosion were shown, and
+apparent breakdown of the film was indicated.
+
+[Illustration: China Clay
+
+Asbestine
+
+Gypsum]
+
+=Panel No. 33--Asbestine.= In the same condition as Panel No. 32.
+
+[Illustration: Excellent Surface shown by American Vermilion after
+nearly Four Years' Exposure]
+
+=Panel No. 34--American Vermilion.= This pigment has given perfect
+protection to the plates. The film is strong and elastic, and upon
+removal reveals the bright steel. No chalking, checking, discoloration,
+or other signs of paint failure are shown. It would appear that the
+inhibitive characteristics of this pigment are pronounced, and it
+promises to give efficient service for several years more.
+
+=Panel No. 36--Lead Chromate.= This panel is in generally fair
+condition, but slight checking is shown.
+
+[Illustration: Perfect Condition of Plate Painted with Zinc Chromate;
+One Half Stripped. (_Negative cracked_)]
+
+=Panel No. 39--Zinc Chromate.= This panel is in condition similar to
+Panel No. 34, presenting a perfect appearance, with decided maintenance
+of color, elasticity of film, and freedom from any bad characteristics.
+It has proved to be one of the highest type rust inhibitive pigments.
+
+=Panel No. 40--Zinc-and-Barium-Chromate.= Although the color of this
+pigment is not very pleasing, it has proved itself to be the equal of
+zinc chromate in its protective value.
+
+=Panel No. 41--Chrome Green.= In excellent condition. Presents an
+appearance similar to Panels Nos. 34 and 39. Its surface is perfect and
+will doubtless give service for many years.
+
+=Panel No. 44--Prussian Blue.= This panel stands forth as the most
+wonderful moisture-excluder in the whole test, its surface presenting an
+appearance similar to a varnished plate, even after three years'
+exposure. Action between the pigment and the oil, resulting in the
+formation of iron linoleate, may account for this property.
+
+=Panel No. 45--Prussian Blue.= In same condition as Panel No. 44.
+
+=Panel No. 48--Ultramarine Blue.= Soon after this test was exposed,
+early vehicle decay and excessive chalking were observed. The admittance
+of moisture may have caused the formation of acid with the sulphur
+content of the pigment, which would account for the rapid corrosion
+which followed. It is of a pronounced stimulative type. The effect of
+stimulative under-coatings is well shown on some special plates on the
+fence, which when received were not pickled before painting, but had
+upon their surfaces the ordinary coating of mill scale. Over this had
+been stencilled in a triangular form the trade mark of the manufacturer.
+The stencilling material was made of ultramarine blue. When these plates
+were painted with some of the special paints, and exposed, the
+stimulative nature of the ultramarine blue began to assert itself, and
+within a short time, wherever the stencil marks were located, signs of
+rust began to appear through the coatings of top paint which had been
+applied. Corrosion under these stencil marks became so great that the
+trade mark was plainly outlined in letters of rust. This would seem to
+be final proof that pigments of a stimulative nature should never be
+used for the priming of iron and steel.
+
+=Panel No. 49--Zinc-Lead Chromate.= In excellent condition throughout,
+with a smooth surface and showing no corrosion. Stands in the same class
+as Panels Nos. 34 and 39.
+
+[Illustration: Effect of Stimulative Paint. Manufacturer's Trade Mark
+Stencilled on Bare Metal in Triangular Form, showing Through Subsequent
+Paint Coating]
+
+=Panel No. 51--Black Magnetic Oxide of Iron.= In excellent condition.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+THE SANITARY VALUE OF WALL PAINTS
+
+
+=Decoration and Sanitation.= The proper decoration of the interior of
+dwellings and public buildings has become of even greater importance
+than the protection and decoration of exteriors. There is, moreover, an
+increasing demand for harmonious effects and the production of more
+sanitary conditions than have prevailed in the past. Up until a few
+years ago a great variety of wall papers of more or less pleasing
+appearance were almost exclusively used for the decoration of walls in
+the interior of buildings, and their application was commonly considered
+the most effective means of wall decoration. There seems to be no
+question, however, that the use of wall paper is steadily decreasing,
+and that the art of interior decoration is undergoing a transition to
+the almost universal use of paint.
+
+Modern progress demands the maintenance of sanitary conditions for the
+benefit of the public welfare, and there is no doubt that from the
+standpoint of sanitation and hygiene, properly painted wall surfaces are
+far superior to papered walls. There is an abundance of evidence which
+shows that dust germs may easily be harbored, and thus disease
+transmitted from wall paper. In the tenement houses, which are common to
+the larger cities, and to a lesser extent in the dwellings found in
+smaller communities, where tenants are more or less transient, the
+continued maintenance of sanitary conditions presents a difficult
+problem. Infectious and epidemic illnesses generally leave behind
+bacilli of different types, which may find a culture medium in the
+fibrous and porous surfaces presented by wall paper, backed up as they
+invariably must be by starch, casein, or other organic pastes.
+Occasionally the restrictions of local boards of health provide in such
+events for proper fumigation, but too often no precautions are taken to
+destroy the disease germs which are caught in the dust which collects on
+wall paper. As a rule, both tenant and landlord are oblivious to all
+conditions which cannot be readily seen or detected. Burning sulphur,
+one of the most effective means of fumigation, will generally cause
+bleaching and consequent fading of the delicate colors used in printing
+the designs upon wall paper. Washing of the paper with antiseptic
+solutions will destroy its adhesiveness to the plaster and often cause
+bulging and general destruction.
+
+[Illustration: Heavy Colonies of Bacteria Developing in Agar Jelly
+Treated with Washings from Wall Paper
+
+Practically no Development of Bacterial Colonies in Agar Jelly Treated
+with Washings from Sanitary Wall Paint]
+
+=Hospital Practice.= In hospitals, where it is necessary to maintain
+sanitary conditions, the walls are invariably painted, and requirements
+should demand the use of paints which can be washed frequently, so that
+there will be no possibility of uncleanliness. Inquiry made of a
+prominent surgeon[41] connected with one of the large metropolitan
+hospitals substantiated the writer's findings regarding the greater
+sanitary value of wall paints, and brought forth the information that in
+hospitals under construction provision had been made for the finishing
+of walls so that a hard, non-absorbent, and washable surface might be
+obtained. The same authority stated that the common practice, in
+apartments and tenements, of covering the old wall paper over with a
+layer of new each time a tenant moved in, should be condemned, and that
+from a hygienic standpoint the use of sanitary wall paints should be
+advocated in all dwellings as well as public buildings.
+
+  [41] Dr. F. F. Gwyer, Cornell Uni. Med. Col., New York City.
+
+If such conditions are maintained in hospitals, where special attention
+is paid to sanitation, it would appear that similar precautions should
+be equally as necessary in public buildings and in dwellings--wherever,
+in fact, people congregate or live.
+
+=Sanitary Wall Paints.= There have recently appeared in trade a number
+of wall paints composed of non-poisonous pigments ground in paint
+vehicles having valuable waterproofing and binding properties, and of a
+nature to produce the flat or semi-flat finish that has become so
+popular. Such paints produce a sanitary, waterproof surface, which
+permits of frequent washing. By their use it is possible to secure a
+more permanent and a wider range of tints than can be obtained with wall
+paper, as they are produced in a myriad of shades, tints and solid
+colors, from which any desired combination may be selected. On the
+border or on the body of walls decorated with such paints, attractive
+stencil designs, which bring out in relief the color combinations, may
+be applied.
+
+For the decoration of chambers and living rooms, delicate French grays,
+light buffs, cream tints and ivory whites may be used, while in the
+library and other rooms richer and more solid colors, such as greens,
+reds, and blues, may be harmoniously combined.
+
+=Defects of Wall Paper.= It recently occurred to the writer to
+investigate the conditions which obtain in many apartment houses in the
+larger cities. Inspection of a number of such places, in which wall
+paper had been exclusively used on the walls, showed generally bad
+conditions; bulging of the surfaces, caused by dampness in the walls,
+which had loosened up the binder, as well as peeling and dropping of the
+paper from the ceilings, were frequently observed. In many cases a
+shabby appearance was shown, accompanied by an odor which suggested
+decomposition of the paste binder used on the paper. The writer was
+impressed with the fact that such conditions could easily be avoided by
+the very simple expedient of using properly manufactured wall paints,
+which are so easily made dustproof and waterproof.
+
+Samples of wall paper, which had been applied to plastered walls for a
+year or more, were obtained, and examination under the microscope showed
+a most uncleanly surface. Cultures were made of these samples, and
+bacilli of different types were developed in the culture medium in a
+short time.
+
+=Experimental Evidence.= That the above conditions could not have
+existed, had proper wall paints been used, seemed doubtless, and
+suggested a carefully conducted experiment to prove the relative
+sanitary values of wall paper and wall paints. A large sheet of fibre
+board, such as is occasionally used to replace plastered walls, was
+painted on one side with a high-grade wall paint, three-coat work. A
+similar sheet was papered on one side with a clean, new wall paper.
+These test panels were placed where unsanitary conditions, such as
+dampness, foul odors, and a scarcity of air were present. After a short
+period of exposure, the panels were taken to the bacteriological
+laboratory and a small section of the painted surface, about two inches
+square, as well as a small section of the papered surface of similar
+size, were removed and used for making cultures. In each case the
+surface of the section under test was washed with 100 c.c. of distilled,
+sterilized water. The washings which dripped from the surface were
+collected in a graduated flask. One c.c. of the washings was used in
+each case, admixed with bouillon and again with agar-agar. The enormous
+development of bacteria in the bouillon, treated with the washings from
+the wall-papered surface, was sufficient evidence to convince one of the
+greater sanitary value of the wall paint, the washings from which gave a
+culture practically free from bacteria. The colonies of bacteria shown
+in the petri-dish test made of the washings from wall paper further
+supports these findings. It will be noticed that the tests made from the
+washings of the wall paint show practical absence of bacteria, and was
+clear, as was the bouillon-solution test of the paint. The washings from
+the wall paper showed active development of bacteria, both in the
+bouillon and agar tests.
+
+[Illustration: DEVELOPMENT OF BACTERIA IN BOUILLON SOLUTIONS
+
+Note Practical Freedom of Bacteria in Clear Bouillon Solution Treated
+with Washings from Sanitary Wall Paint
+
+Note Milky Appearance of Solution Due to Heavy Development of Bacteria
+in Bouillon Treated with Washings from Wall Paper]
+
+_From the Conservation Standpoint_: It would be of interest to sum up in
+figures the acreage and cordage of wood that annually is transformed
+into pulp for the manufacture of wall paper. Unfortunately, there are no
+available statistics on this subject. It is clear, however, that from
+the standpoint of conservation the use of wall paints should take
+precedence over the use of wall paper.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+                                                               PAGE
+
+  Abrasion, apparatus for determining resistance to,            153
+  Acid reacting compounds,                                      215
+  Actinic light tests,                                          112
+  Adhesive power of Paint Coating,                              104
+  Aluminum Silicate,                                             62
+  American Vermilion,                                            64
+  Analogies of Paint and Concrete manufacture,                   94
+  Analyses of Averages in Atlantic City steel paint test,  235, 236
+    Corn Oil,                                                    16
+    Cottonseed Oil,                                              15
+    Debloomed Mineral Paint Oil,                                 18
+    Iron Oxide Pigments, table,                                  63
+    Linseed Oil,                                                  7
+    Menhaden Oil,                                                14
+    Oils used in Washington tests,                              211
+    Petroleum Spirits,                                           20
+    Rosin Oil,                                                   16
+    Soya Bean Oil,                                                8
+    Sunflower Oil,                                               15
+    Tung Oil,                                                    12
+    Whale Oil,                                                   14
+    Wood Turpentine,                                             19
+  Asbestine,                                                     55
+  Atlantic City fence tests,                                    107
+    steel paint tests,                                      228-235
+    Checking,                                                   122
+    Gloss,                                                      122
+    Hiding power,                                               122
+    inspection of,                                              114
+    Methods used,                                               114
+    Results,                                                    124
+  Auto-electrolysis,                                            220
+
+  Bacteria in wall paper,                                       256
+  Barium Sulphate,                                               55
+  Barytes,                                                       55
+    and Silica Paints in Pittsburg tests,                       172
+  Basic Carbonate-White Lead,                                    42
+  Benzine,                                                       20
+  Benzol,                                                        20
+  Blanc Fixe,                                                    60
+  Blue Lead, Sublimed,                                           47
+  Blue Paint for concrete wall, formula,                        215
+  Blue paints in Pittsburg tests,                               142
+  Boiled Linseed Oil,                                             2
+    Driers in,                                                   28
+  Bone Black,                                                    66
+
+  Calcium Carbonate,                                             60
+  Calcium Sulphate,                                              60
+  Carbon Black,                                                  66
+  Cause of rust in steel work,                                  220
+  Chalking test for laboratory,                                 149
+  Checking and cracking in Pittsburg tests,                     166
+  Checking, in Atlantic City tests,                             122
+  China Clay,                                                    62
+  Chrome Green,                                                  66
+  Chrome Yellow,                                                 64
+  Coatings for cement and concrete,                             214
+  Colored formulas in North Dakota tests,                       190
+  Colors, report of, in Pittsburg tests,                        139
+  Combination formulas in inhibitive paints,                    231
+  Composite formulas in North Dakota tests,                     190
+    in Pittsburg tests,                                         142
+  Composition of paints, in steel test,                         232
+  Conclusion from Pittsburg tests,                              144
+  Concrete primer formula,                                      218
+  Constants of Pine Oil,                                         18
+    Pure Gum Turpentine,                                         19
+  Co-operative tests of Driers,                               29-41
+  Corn Oil,                                                      16
+  Cottonseed Oil,                                                15
+
+  Damp-proofing and Waterproofing,                              214
+  Decay of Lithopone paints,                                    124
+  Decomposition of Paint,                                       122
+  Driers, Co-operative tests of,                              29-41
+    in Boiled Oil,                                               28
+    Tests of Manganese, Lead and Combination, tables,         24-25
+  Drying Properties of Oil,                               1, 26, 27
+
+  Elasticity and Strength of Paint Coating,                     102
+
+  Fence tests of paints,                                        105
+    Supervision of,                                             112
+  Film sectioning,                                               87
+  Film testing results, table,                                   80
+  Filmometers,                                                74-79
+  Formula for Blue Paint for concrete wall,                     215
+    Concrete primer,                                            218
+    Para Red Paint for concrete wall,                           217
+  Formulas of Atlantic City fence test,                         108
+    Tennessee tests,                                       202, 204
+    Washington tests,                                      208, 211
+  Fume Pigments Paints in Pittsburg tests,                      173
+
+  General results of Atlantic City tests,                       128
+  Gloss, in Atlantic City tests,                                122
+  Graphite,                                                      66
+  Green paints in Pittsburg tests,                              142
+  Grinding Pigments,                                             87
+  Gums as moisture resisters,                                    84
+  Gypsum,                                                        60
+
+  Hailstorm, effects of in North Dakota tests,                  185
+  Hospital, painting practice,                                  254
+  House paint tests in North Dakota,                            196
+  Hydrocarbon Oils,                                              16
+
+  Imperviousness of paint coating,                              100
+  Indian Red,                                                    62
+  Inert Pigments, use of,                                        99
+  Inhibition of rust,                                           222
+  Iodine Values of Linseed and Mixed Oils, table,                 8
+  Iron Oxide Paints,                                             64
+
+  Japan driers in tests on steel,                               231
+
+  Laboratory tests, panels for,                                 149
+  Lampblack,                                                     66
+  Laws of Paint Making,                                          93
+  Lime action on paint,                                         214
+  Linoxyn,                                                       21
+  Linseed Oil, boiled,                                            2
+    Chemical action of pigments upon,                            91
+    Table of Analyses of Various Types of,                        7
+    tests of Driers with,                                    24, 25
+  Lithopone,                                                     53
+    paint in Pittsburg tests,                                   136
+    tests at Atlantic City,                                     124
+  Lumbang Oil,                                                   12
+
+  Magnesium Silicate,                                            55
+  Manufacturing Barytes,                                         55
+    Blue Lead,                                                   47
+    Bone Black,                                                  66
+    Paint Pigments,                                           42-68
+    White Lead,                                                  42
+  Menhaden Oil,                                                  12
+    Constants of, table,                                         14
+  Metallic Brown,                                                62
+  Microscope, use of in paint laboratory,                        86
+  Microscopic examination of paint, preparation for,             86
+    measurements of paint sections,                              89
+  Mineral Black,                                                 68
+    Oils,                                                        17
+  Moisture Absorption, tests in,                                 84
+    experiments with various Pigments,                           83
+
+  North Dakota Paints tests,                                    182
+    test fence,                                                 105
+    report of, table,                                       193-195
+
+  Ochre,                                                         62
+  Oil and Thinner tests,                                        202
+  Oil, Corn,                                                     16
+    Cottonseed,                                                  15
+    Effects of Pigments on,                                      90
+    Linseed,                                                      1
+    Linseed, Analyses of Various Types of, table,                 7
+    Linseed, Iodine Values of, table,                             8
+    Linseed, Tests of Driers with,                           24, 25
+    Lumbang,                                                     12
+    Menhaden,                                                    12
+    Menhaden, Constants of, table,                               14
+    Perilla,                                                     21
+    Pine,                                                        18
+    Rosin,                                                       16
+    Soya Bean, and Driers, table,                                 9
+    Soya Bean,                                                    7
+    Chemical Characteristics of, table,                           8
+    Sunflower,                                                   14
+    Tung,                                                         9
+    Whale,                                                       14
+  Oils, Constants and Characteristics of,                         1
+    Drying properties of,                                     1, 26
+    Hydrocarbon,                                                 16
+    In Washington paint tests,                                  210
+    Iodine Value of Linseed and Mixed, table,                     8
+    Mineral,                                                     17
+    Moisture resistance of,                                      84
+    Oxygen Absorbing qualities,                                  21
+    Outline of tests of paints on concrete walls,               216
+  Oxygen Absorption in Oils,                                     21
+
+  Paint Coating, Adhesive power of,                             104
+    Elasticity and Strength of,                                 102
+    imperviousness of,                                          100
+    decomposition of,                                           122
+    films, action of water upon,                                223
+    permeability of,                                             71
+    Testing machine,                                             74
+    preparation of,                                              70
+    in Hospitals,                                               254
+    making, Laws of,                                             93
+    Perry's Principles of,                                      100
+    pigments,                                                 42-69
+    pigments, properties of,                                     42
+    preparation for microscopic examination of,                  86
+    tests at North Dakota Experiment Station,                   105
+    at Washington,                                          207-213
+    supervisors of,                                             113
+    woods used on,                                         124, 135
+  Painting steel plates for tests,                              230
+  Paints for cement and concrete surfaces,                      214
+    composition of in steel test,                               233
+    hiding power of,                                            111
+    sanitary value of,                                          252
+  Panels for laboratory tests,                                  149
+  Para Red formula for concrete wall,                           217
+  Paranitraniline paints in Pittsburg tests,                    140
+  Paranitraniline Red,                                           64
+  Perilla Oil,                                                   21
+  Perry's analogies of paint and concrete manufacture,           99
+    principles of Paint Making,                                 100
+  Petroleum Spirits,                                             20
+  Photomicrographs,                                         89, 165
+  Pigment contention, the,                                      105
+    grinding,                                                    87
+  Pigments,                                                   42-69
+    as stimulators of rust,                                     223
+    Chemical action of upon Linseed Oil, table,                  91
+    Effects of on Oil,                                           90
+    inert, use of,                                               99
+    moisture experiments with, table,                            83
+    percentages of Oil required for grinding,                    68
+    re-enforcing,                                                89
+    report of results of steel paint tests,                 236-251
+    Water resistance of,                                         81
+  Pine Oil,                                                      18
+  Pittsburg fence tests,                                        107
+  Polar Micro-Examinations and Photomicrographs,                 89
+  Primer for concrete,                                          218
+  Properties of Paint Pigments,                                  42
+  Prussian Blue,                                                 66
+
+  Red Lead,                                                      64
+  Reductions used in fence tests,                               111
+  Re-enforcing Pigments,                                         89
+  Results of new test at Atlantic City test fence in 1910,
+    table,                                                  178-181
+    Pittsburg tests,                                            135
+    steel test plates,                                          232
+  Rosin Oil,                                                     16
+  Rust, cause of in steel work,                                 220
+    inhibition of,                                              222
+    stimulation of,                                             223
+
+  Sanitary value of paints,                                     252
+    wall paints,                                                254
+  Sienna,                                                        62
+  Silex,                                                         60
+  Silica,                                                        60
+  Silica and Barytes Paints in Pittsburg tests,                 172
+  Solvent Naphtha,                                               20
+  Soya Bean Oil and Driers, table,                                9
+    Chemical Characteristics of, table,                           8
+  Steel Paint test, rating report,                              234
+    reports on pigments used,                               236-251
+  Steel paint, result of tests at Atlantic City,           234, 235
+  Steel, preparation of for paint tests,                        228
+    water contact and paint,                                    224
+  Structural steel paint tests,                                 220
+  Sublimed Blue Lead,                                            47
+  Sublimated White Lead,                                         46
+  Suction varnish,                                              215
+  Sunflower Oil,                                                 14
+    Constants of, table,                                         15
+  Supervisors of paint tests,                                   113
+
+  Table Analysis of Averages in Atlantic City Steel Paint
+    test,                                                  235, 236
+    Analyses of Corn Oil,                                        16
+    Analyses of Debloomed Mineral Paint Oil,                     18
+    Analysis of Iron Oxide Pigments,                             63
+    Analyses of Oils used in Washington tests,                  211
+    Analyses of Petroleum Spirits,                               20
+    Analyses of Rosin Oil,                                       16
+    Analyses of various types of Linseed Oil,                     7
+    Analyses of wood Turpentine,                                 19
+    Atlantic City test fence formula,                           108
+    Chemical Characteristics of Soya Bean Oil,                    8
+    Comparative spreading rates of White Paint in Pittsburg
+      tests,                                                    148
+    Composition of Blue Lead,                                    49
+    Composition of paints in Atlantic City Steel test,          233
+    Constants of Cottonseed Oil, table,                          15
+    Constants of Menhaden Oil,                                   14
+    Constants of Pine Oil,                                       18
+    Constants of Sunflower Oil,                                  15
+    Constants of Whale Oil,                                      14
+    Co-operative drying tests,                                32-41
+    Excluding tests for moisture absorbed,                       84
+    Fineness for grinding pigments,                              87
+    Formulas in Tennessee tests,                                204
+    Iodine Value of Linseed Oil and Mixed Oils,                  84
+    Moisture experiments with various pigments,                  83
+    Paint section measurements under microscope,                 89
+    Percentages of Oil required for grinding various dry
+      pigments,                                                  68
+    Permeability of Paints,                                      72
+    Ratings of Atlantic City Steel Paint test,                  234
+    Report of North Dakota test fence,                      193-195
+    Results of Atlantic City test fence,                   130, 131
+    Results of new tests at Atlantic City test fence in
+      1910,                                                 178-181
+    Results of second annual inspection Atlantic City test
+      fence,                                                    133
+    Results of second annual inspection in Pittsburg tests,     145
+    Showing action of various pigments upon Linseed Oil,         91
+    Soya Bean Oil and Driers,                                     9
+    Tests of Linseed Oil and Manganese, Lead and Combination
+      Driers,                                                24, 25
+  Talcose,                                                       55
+  Tennessee Paint tests,                                    201-206
+  Test Fences in Paint Experiments,                             105
+    at Atlantic City,                                       114-134
+    at Pittsburg,                                           135-148
+    at Washington,                                          207-213
+    Cement and concrete,                                        214
+    in Tennessee,                                           201-206
+    laboratory, chalking,                                       149
+    North Dakota,                                               182
+    of Oil and Thinners,                                        202
+    of various pigments in steel paint,                     236-251
+    panel sections for,                                         149
+    Structural steel paints,                                    220
+    Water pigment,                                              226
+  Thinner, Wood Turpentine as a,                                202
+  Tung Oil,                                                       9
+  Tung Varnishes,                                                11
+  Turpentine,                                                    18
+
+  Ultramarine Blue,                                              66
+  Umber,                                                         62
+
+  Varnishes from Tung Oil,                                       11
+  Vermilion, American,                                           64
+
+  Wall paints,                                                  252
+  Wall paper, defects of,                                       255
+  Washington Paint tests,                                   207-213
+  Water, action of upon paint films,                            223
+    contact with steel and paint,                               224
+    resistance of Pigments,                                      81
+    tests,                                                      226
+  Water-pigment tests,                                          226
+  Waterproofing and damp-proofing,                              214
+  Whale Oil,                                                     14
+  White Lead, Basic Carbonate,                                   42
+    Basic Sulphate,                                              46
+    Mild Process,                                                46
+    Quick Process,                                               45
+    in Pittsburg tests,                                         139
+    in North Dakota tests,                                      190
+    Paints, checking in Pittsburg tests,                        172
+    processes of manufacture of,                              43-46
+  Whiting,                                                       60
+  Wood Turpentine,                                               19
+    experiments with as a thinner,                              202
+  Woods used in paint tests,                               124, 135
+
+  Zinc Chromate,                                                 64
+  Zinc Lead White,                                               51
+  Zinc Oxide,                                                    51
+
+
+
+
+  +------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                     TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:                         |
+  |                                                                  |
+  | * Page 25, Table VIII: the table header row contains duplicate   |
+  |   values which may be a typographical error.                     |
+  | * Pages 86 and 87: two section titles are followed by numbers    |
+  |   without any obvious reason. These have not been deleted.       |
+  | * The original spelling (including hyphenation) has been         |
+  |   preserved, except as indicated below. Some minor inconsisten-  |
+  |   cies and typographical errors have been corrected silently.    |
+  | * Changes made to the text:                                      |
+  |   * Page 26: 'as discolored and turned brown' changed to 'was    |
+  |     discolored and turned brown'.                                |
+  |   * Page 87, table 3rd row: '0.00067--' changed to '0.00067'.    |
+  |   * Page 94, exposition: some elements re-arranged for better    |
+  |     readability.                                                 |
+  |   * Page 124: the note at the bottom of the page has been moved  |
+  |     to directly underneath the first paragraph.                  |
+  |   * Page 130: 'MacNichol' changed to 'Macnichol' as elsewhere.   |
+  |   * Page 137 (caption): 'Pittsburgh' changed to 'Pittsburg' as   |
+  |     elsewhere in text (and in illustration itself).              |
+  |   * Page 142: 'prussian blues' changed to 'Prussian blues'.      |
+  |   * Page 177: 'pages 174 to 177' changed to 'pages 178 to 181'.  |
+  |   * Page 211: one footnote anchor changed from '*' to '[32]' as  |
+  |     others in row.                                               |
+  |   * Page 230, formula: '4500' changed to '5400'.                 |
+  |   * Page 234, table: row for Panel No. 2000: '}' inserted for    |
+  |     combined rows.                                               |
+  |   * Index: changed to agree with text: 'determinating' to        |
+  |     'determining', 'Derbloomed' to 'Debloomed', 'Filometers' to  |
+  |     'Filmometers', 'Parilla Oil' to 'Perilla Oil'. 'Grinding     |
+  |     Pigments' moved to proper alphabetic location.               |
+  |                                                                  |
+  +------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Paint Technology and Tests, by Henry A. Gardner
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+Project Gutenberg's Paint Technology and Tests, by Henry A. Gardner
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
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+Title: Paint Technology and Tests
+
+Author: Henry A. Gardner
+
+Release Date: September 13, 2011 [EBook #37420]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PAINT TECHNOLOGY AND TESTS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Harry Lamé and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
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+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="bbox">
+<p class="center">Please see <a href="#TN">Transcriber's Notes</a> at the end of this document</p>
+</div>
+
+<h1>PAINT TECHNOLOGY AND TESTS</h1>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo003.png" alt="McGraw-Hill advertisement" width="500" height="300" /></div>
+
+
+<h2 style="font-size: 2em;">PAINT TECHNOLOGY<br />AND TESTS.</h2>
+
+<p class="center" style="line-height: 2em;"><b>BY</b></p>
+
+<p class="center fsize150"><b>HENRY A. GARDNER</b></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Assistant Director, The Institute of Industrial Research,
+Washington, D. C.</i><br />
+<i>Director, Scientific Section, Paint Manufacturers&#8217; Association
+of the United States, etc.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center">McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY<br />
+239 WEST 39TH STREET, NEW YORK<br />
+6 BOUVERIE STREET, LONDON, E.C.<br />
+1911</p>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<p class="center"><i>Copyright, 1911, by the</i> <span class="smcap">McGraw-Hill Book Company</span></p>
+
+<p class="center gesp">THE&middot;PLIMPTON&middot;PRESS&middot;NORWOOD&middot;MASS&middot;U&middot;S&middot;A</p>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<p class="center">TO<br /><span class="fsize150">MY MOTHER</span></p>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></p>
+
+<h2><a name="Ch0" id="Ch0"></a>PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p>A few years ago the producer and consumer of paints possessed
+comparatively little knowledge of the relative durability
+of various pigments and oils. There existed in some cases a
+prejudice for a few standard products, that often held the user
+in bondage, discouraging investigation and exciting suspicion
+whenever discoveries were made, that brought forth new materials.
+Such conditions indicated to the more progressive, the
+need of positive information regarding the value of various
+painting materials, and the advisability of having the questions
+at issue determined in a practical manner.</p>
+
+<p>The desire that such work should be instituted, resulted in
+the creation of a Scientific Section, the scope of which was to
+make investigations to determine the relative merits of different
+types of paint, and to enlighten the industry on various technical
+problems. Paint exposure tests of an extensive nature were
+started in various sections of the country where climatic conditions
+vary. This field work was supplemented in the laboratory
+by a series of important researches into the properties of pigments,
+oils, and other raw products entering into the manufacture
+of protective coatings. The results of the work were
+published in bulletin form and given wide distribution. The
+demand for these bulletins early exhausted the original impress,
+and a general summary therefore forms a part of this volume.</p>
+
+<p>The purpose of the book is primarily to serve as a reference
+work for grinders, painters, engineers, and students; matter of
+an important nature to each being presented. Without repetition
+of the matter found in other books, two chapters on raw
+products have been included, and they present in condensed
+form a summary of information that will prove of aid to one
+who desires to become conversant with painting materials with
+a view to continuing tests such as are outlined herein. In
+other chapters there has been compiled considerable matter from
+lectures and technical articles presented by the writer before
+various colleges, engineering societies, and painters&#8217; associations.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span>The writer wishes to gratefully acknowledge the untiring
+efforts of the members of the Educational Bureau of the Paint
+Manufacturers&#8217; Association, whose early endeavors made possible
+many of the tests described in this volume. Kind acknowledgment
+is also made to members of the International Association
+of Master House Painters and Decorators of the United States
+and Canada, who stood always ready to aid in investigations
+which promised to bring new light into their art and craft.</p>
+
+<p class="right">HENRY A. GARDNER.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Washington</span>, October, 1911.</p>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></p>
+<h2><a name="ToC" id="ToC"></a>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<table class="tab500" style="line-height: 1.5em;" summary="ToC">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">CHAPTER</td>
+<td class="right">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top">I</td>
+<td class="left"><span class="smcap">&nbsp;Paint Oils and Thinners</span></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top">II</td>
+<td class="left"><span class="smcap">&nbsp;A Study of Driers and Their Effect</span></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top">III</td>
+<td class="left"><span class="smcap">&nbsp;Paint Pigments and Their Properties</span></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top">IV</td>
+<td class="left"><span class="smcap">&nbsp;Physical Laboratory Paint Tests</span></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top">V</td>
+<td class="left"><span class="smcap">&nbsp;The Theory and Practice of Scientific Paint Making</span></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top">VI</td>
+<td class="left"><span class="smcap">&nbsp;The Scope of Practical Paint Tests</span></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top">VII</td>
+<td class="left"><span class="smcap">&nbsp;Conditions Noted at Inspection of Tests</span></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top">VIII</td>
+<td class="left"><span class="smcap">&nbsp;Results of Atlantic City Tests</span></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top">IX</td>
+<td class="left"><span class="smcap">&nbsp;Results of Pittsburg Tests</span></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top">X</td>
+<td class="left"><span class="smcap">&nbsp;A Laboratory Study of Test Panels</span></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top">XI</td>
+<td class="left"><span class="smcap">&nbsp;Additional Tests at Atlantic City and Pittsburg</span></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top">XII</td>
+<td class="left"><span class="smcap">&nbsp;North Dakota Paint Tests</span></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top">XIII</td>
+<td class="left"><span class="smcap">&nbsp;Tennessee Paint Tests</span></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_201">201</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top">XIV</td>
+<td class="left"><span class="smcap">&nbsp;Washington Paint Tests</span></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_207">207</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top">XV</td>
+<td class="left"><span class="smcap">&nbsp;Cement and Concrete Paint Tests</span></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top">XVI</td>
+<td class="left"><span class="smcap">&nbsp;Structural Steel Paint Tests</span></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top">XVII</td>
+<td class="left"><span class="smcap">&nbsp;The Sanitary Value of Wall Paints</span></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_252">252</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></p>
+<h1>PAINT TECHNOLOGY</h1>
+
+<h2><a name="Ch1" id="Ch1"></a>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+<h3>PAINT OILS AND THINNERS</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>Constants and Characteristics of Oils and Their Effect upon
+Drying.</b> An attempt has been made to give in this chapter a brief
+summary of the most important characteristics of those oils
+finding application in the paint and varnish industry. For
+methods of oil analysis, the reader is referred to standard works
+on this subject; the analytical constants herein being given only
+for comparative purposes.</p>
+
+<p>It is well known that one of the most desirable features of a
+paint oil is the ability to set up in a short period to a hard
+surface that will not take dust. This drying property is dependent
+upon the chemical nature of the oil. If it is an unsaturated
+compound, like linseed oil, rapid absorption of oxygen will cause
+the film to dry rapidly and become hard. If the oil be of a
+fully satisfied nature, like mineral oil, oxygen cannot be taken
+up to any great extent and drying will not take place. The
+various animal and vegetable oils differ in their power of oxygen
+absorption to a lesser or greater extent. This difference is referred
+to by the chemist in terms of the iodine value. The iodine value
+of linseed oil is approximately 190, meaning that one gram of
+the oil will take up 190 centigrams of iodine. Oils with high
+iodine values have good drying powers, while those with low
+iodine values are, as a rule, very slow drying in nature.</p>
+
+<p>For a description of the working and drying properties of various
+oils used in paints, see <a href="#Ch14">Chapter XIV</a>. The oxygen absorption of
+various oils and mixtures is shown in <a href="#Ch2">Chapter II</a>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Linseed Oil.</b> The seed of the <a href="#Photo01">flax plant</a> which is extensively
+grown in North Dakota, Argentine Republic and Russia, contains
+approximately 36% of oil which may be obtained by grinding,
+heating, and expression. Ripe native seed generally produces<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>
+a pale oil of little odor; the oil from Argentine seed often having
+a greenish tint and an odor resembling sorghum. While filtering,
+pressing and ageing will remove considerable of the (&#8220;foots&#8221;)
+mucilaginous matter, phosphates, silica, etc., from the oil, the
+better grades which are intended for varnish making are often
+refined with sulphuric acid. A light colored oil which may be
+heated without &#8220;breaking&#8221; results from this treatment, but
+such oils are apt to contain considerable free fatty acid, unless
+they are washed with alkali subsequent to the sulphuric acid
+treatment. On account of its rapid drying properties and general
+adaptability for all classes of paints and varnishes, linseed oil
+has never been supplanted by any other oil. Chemically it
+consists of the glycerides of linoleic, oleic, and isolinoleic acid,
+its constitution being responsible for its very high iodine value.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Photo01" id="Photo01"></a>
+<img src="images/illo013.jpg" alt="Flax in Bloom" width="500" height="306" />
+<p class="caption">Field of Flax in bloom in North Dakota</p></div>
+
+<p>Boiled linseed oil, a heavier and darker product, is made by
+heating the raw oil in open kettles to high temperatures, generally
+with the addition of metallic driers such as litharge, and black
+manganese. The resinates of lead and manganese are often
+added to oil heated at a lower temperature, to obtain a boiled oil
+of lighter color.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo014a.jpg" alt="New Type of Flax Harvester" width="300" height="434" />
+<p class="caption">New type of Flax Harvester which pulls plant up
+by the roots, thus preventing infection of soil</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo014b.jpg" alt="Modern Concrete Elevators for Flax Seed"
+width="500" height="422" />
+<p class="caption">Modern Concrete Elevators for storing Flaxseed</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo015a.jpg" alt="Linseed Oil Factory" width="500" height="446" />
+<p class="caption">View of Linseed Oil Factory showing hydraulic press, tanks, etc.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo015b.jpg" alt="Flax Seed Crushers" width="500" height="451" />
+<p class="photocredit left"><i>Photographs courtesy of Spencer Kellogg Sons</i></p>
+<p class="caption">Flaxseed Crushers</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo016a.jpg" alt="Filter Presses" width="500" height="430" />
+<p class="caption">Filter Presses for removing extraneous matter from linseed oil</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo016b.jpg" alt="Linseed Cake from Oil Press" width="500" height="379" />
+<p class="caption">Linseed Cake from Oil Press</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/illo017a.jpg" alt="Soya Bean Plants" width="500" height="396" />
+<p class="caption">Glycine Hispida<br />Mammoth soya bean plants</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/illo017b.jpg" alt="Glycine Hispida Plants, Arlington, Va." width="500" height="448" />
+<p class="photocredit center"><i>Photographs courtesy of David Fairchild, Plant Explorer, U. S. Dept. of
+Agriculture</i></p>
+<p class="caption">Glycine Hispida<br />
+Soya bean plants under cultivation at Arlington, Va.</p></div>
+
+<p>By blowing air through linseed oil that has been heated to
+approximately 200 degrees Fahrenheit, either with or without
+drier, heavy bodied oils are obtained, which find special application
+in varnishes and technical paints. As the viscosity of these
+oils increase, the iodine values decrease, and a slight rise in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>saponification value and specific gravity is observed. The following
+analyses of various types of linseed oil were recently made
+by the writer:</p>
+
+<table class="braces fsize80" summary="Oil analyses">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">Pure Raw<br />Linseed Oil</td>
+<td class="center bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">Boiled<br />L. O.<br />(Linoleate)</td>
+<td class="center bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">Boiled<br />L. O.<br />(Resinate)</td>
+<td class="center bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">Blown<br />L. O.</td>
+<td class="center bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">Litho.<br />L. O.</td>
+<td class="center bt2 bb padr1 padl1">Old<br />Treated<br />Oil</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left br">Color</td>
+<td class="center br">Amber</td>
+<td class="center br">Dark</td>
+<td class="center br">Reddish</td>
+<td class="center br">Pale</td>
+<td class="center br">Dark</td>
+<td class="center">Amber</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center br">Clear</td>
+<td class="center br">Brown</td>
+<td class="center br">Brown</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">Brown</td>
+<td class="center">Clear</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="top">
+<td class="left br">Sp. Gr. at 15&deg; C.</td>
+<td class="center br">.933<br />Average</td>
+<td class="center br">.941</td>
+<td class="center br">.930</td>
+<td class="center br">.968</td>
+<td class="center br">.970</td>
+<td class="center">.943</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br">Iodine No.</td>
+<td class="center br">180</td>
+<td class="center br">172</td>
+<td class="center br">176</td>
+<td class="center br">133</td>
+<td class="center br">102</td>
+<td class="center">172</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Saponification No.</td>
+<td class="center br">191</td>
+<td class="center br">187</td>
+<td class="center br">186</td>
+<td class="center br">189</td>
+<td class="center br">199</td>
+<td class="center">197</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br">Free Fatty Acid</td>
+<td class="center br">3.2</td>
+<td class="center br">2.7</td>
+<td class="center br">2.2</td>
+<td class="center br">2.8</td>
+<td class="center br">2.7</td>
+<td class="center">6.9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br">Unsaponifiable</td>
+<td class="center br">1.4</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center">1.8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br">Maumene</td>
+<td class="center br">111</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center">96</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br bb2">Moisture</td>
+<td class="center br bb2">.2%</td>
+<td class="center br bb2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br bb2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br bb2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br bb2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center bb2">none</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><b>Soya Bean Oil.</b> The <a href="#Photo02">soya plant</a> which is extensively cultivated
+in Asia produces a <a href="#Photo03">seed</a> bearing up to 22% and over of a golden
+colored oil having a peculiar leguminous odor. The oil, which
+probably consists of the glycerides of oleic, linoleic, and palmitic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
+acids, is secured by crushing, steaming and pressing the seed.
+There are several varieties of the plant, and they are said to be
+the best annual legume for forage, the straw and fruit being rich
+in nitrogen and very fattening as a cattle food. Soya may be
+grown in nearly any country and is a great carrier of nitrogen
+to land deficient in this element. Although the oil has been
+used abroad for many years for soap-making purposes, its use as
+a drying oil is comparatively recent; being introduced into the
+paint industry of the United States during the year 1909, when
+linseed oil started on its phenomenal rise in price.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Photo03" id="Photo03"></a>
+<img src="images/illo018a.jpg" alt="Mammoth Soya Bean Plant" width="300" height="443" />
+<p class="caption">Glycine Hispida<br />Mammoth soya bean plant</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Photo02" id="Photo02"></a>
+<img src="images/illo018b.jpg" alt="Soya Plant with Nitrogen Gathering Tubercles" width="300" height="439" />
+<p class="caption">Glycine Hispida<br />Soya bean plant, showing nitrogen gathering tubercles on roots</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The oil has given fair service in some paints when mixed with
+upwards of 75% of pure linseed oil. It is of a semi-drying nature,
+but may be made to dry rapidly when mixed with manganese
+and lead linoleate driers. By compounding it under heat with
+tung oil and rosin, a substitute for linseed oil is produced, which
+some claim to be quite valuable.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><a href="#Tab1">Table I</a> gives the constants of several samples of soya oil examined by the
+writer. <a href="#Tab2">Table II</a> shows the iodine value of mixtures of soya and linseed oils.
+<a href="#Tab3">Table III</a> shows the results of drying experiments on soya oils containing
+different percentages of lead and manganese driers.</p></div>
+
+<h4><a name="Tab1" id="Tab1"></a>TABLE I</h4>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Chemical Characteristics of Soya Bean Oil</span></h5>
+
+<table class="braces fsize80" summary="Table I">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">Sample No.</td>
+<td class="center bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">Specific gravity</td>
+<td class="center bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">Acid No.</td>
+<td class="center bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">Saponification<br />No.</td>
+<td class="center bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">Iodine No.</td>
+<td class="center bt2 bb padr1 padl1">Per cent. of<br />foots</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br">1</td>
+<td class="right br padr5">0.9233</td>
+<td class="right br padr3">1.87</td>
+<td class="right br padr5">188.4</td>
+<td class="right br padr3">127.8</td>
+<td class="right padr4">3.81</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br">2</td>
+<td class="right br padr5">0.9240</td>
+<td class="right br padr3">1.92</td>
+<td class="right br padr5">188.3</td>
+<td class="right br padr3">127.2</td>
+<td class="center">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br">3</td>
+<td class="right br padr5">0.9231</td>
+<td class="right br padr3">1.90</td>
+<td class="right br padr5">187.8</td>
+<td class="right br padr3">131.7</td>
+<td class="center">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br">4</td>
+<td class="right br padr5">0.9233</td>
+<td class="right br padr3">1.91</td>
+<td class="right br padr5">188.4</td>
+<td class="right br padr3">129.8</td>
+<td class="center">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br">5</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr3">130.0</td>
+<td class="center">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br">6</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr3">132.6</td>
+<td class="center">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br">7</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr3">136.0</td>
+<td class="center">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center br bb2">Average</td>
+<td class="right br bb2 padr5">0.9234</td>
+<td class="right br bb2 padr3">1.90</td>
+<td class="right br bb2 padr5">188.2</td>
+<td class="right br bb2 padr3">130.7</td>
+<td class="center bb2">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<h4><a name="Tab2" id="Tab2"></a>TABLE II</h4>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Iodine Values of Linseed Oil and Mixed Oils</span></h5>
+
+<table class="braces fsize80" summary="Iodine Values Linseed and Mixed Oils">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">Sample No.</td>
+<td class="center bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">Straight<br />linseed</td>
+<td class="center bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">Soya<br />25 per cent.<br />Linseed<br />75 per cent.</td>
+<td class="center bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">Soya<br />50 per cent.<br />Linseed<br />50 per cent.</td>
+<td class="center bt2 bb padr1 padl1">Soya<br />75 per cent.<br />Linseed<br />25 per cent.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br">1</td>
+<td class="right br padl2 padr2">190.3</td>
+<td class="right br padr4">175.2</td>
+<td class="right br padr4">160.7</td>
+<td class="right padr4">140.4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br">2</td>
+<td class="right br padl2 padr2">189.5</td>
+<td class="right br padr4">175.9</td>
+<td class="right br padr4">161.7</td>
+<td class="right padr4">140.8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left br">3</td>
+<td class="right br padl2 padr2">188.0</td>
+<td class="right br padr4">175.4</td>
+<td class="right br padr4">160.3</td>
+<td class="right padr4">139.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center br bb2">Average</td>
+<td class="right br bb2 padl2 padr2">189.3</td>
+<td class="right br bb2 padr4">175.5</td>
+<td class="right br bb2 padr4">160.9</td>
+<td class="right bb2 padr4">140.4</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></p>
+
+<h4><a name="Tab3" id="Tab3"></a>TABLE III</h4>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Soya Bean Oil and Lead Drier</span></h5>
+
+
+<table class="braces fsize80" summary="Iodine Values Linseed and Mixed Oils">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">Per&nbsp;cent.<br />PbO</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">0.05</td>
+<td class="center bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">0.10</td>
+<td class="center bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">0.30</td>
+<td class="center bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">0.50</td>
+<td class="center bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">0.70</td>
+<td class="center bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">1.00</td>
+<td class="center bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">1.30</td>
+<td class="center bt2 bb padr1 padl1">1.60</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9127;</b></td>
+<td class="right">1</td>
+<td class="left br">day</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.07</td>
+<td class="center br">0.63</td>
+<td class="center br">1.34</td>
+<td class="center br">1.05</td>
+<td class="center br">1.53</td>
+<td class="center br">0.93</td>
+<td class="center">1.35</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right">3</td>
+<td class="left br">days</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.07</td>
+<td class="center br">3.52</td>
+<td class="center br">4.31</td>
+<td class="center br">2.75</td>
+<td class="center br">4.86</td>
+<td class="center br">4.82</td>
+<td class="center">4.12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right">5</td>
+<td class="left br">days</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.09</td>
+<td class="center br">5.04</td>
+<td class="center br">6.06</td>
+<td class="center br">6.09</td>
+<td class="center br">6.75</td>
+<td class="center br">6.66</td>
+<td class="center">5.52</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center br padr1">Per&nbsp;ct.&nbsp;gain</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9128;</b></td>
+<td class="right">12</td>
+<td class="left br">days</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">6.88</td>
+<td class="center br">7.54</td>
+<td class="center br">7.43</td>
+<td class="center br">7.76</td>
+<td class="center br">7.32</td>
+<td class="center">6.47</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right">15</td>
+<td class="left br">days</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">8.84</td>
+<td class="center br">8.93</td>
+<td class="center br">8.59</td>
+<td class="center br">8.81</td>
+<td class="center br">8.44</td>
+<td class="center">7.46</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9129;</b></td>
+<td class="right">20</td>
+<td class="left br">days</td>
+<td class="center br">0.05</td>
+<td class="center br">0.20</td>
+<td class="center br">9.02</td>
+<td class="center br">9.08</td>
+<td class="center br">8.90</td>
+<td class="center br">9.03</td>
+<td class="center br">8.65</td>
+<td class="center">7.83</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Soya Bean Oil and Manganese Drier</span></h5>
+
+<table class="braces fsize80" summary="Soya Bean Oil - Manganese Drier">
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="center bt br padr1 padl1">Per&nbsp;cent.&nbsp;MnO<span class="denom">2</span></td>
+<td colspan="3" class="center bt br padr1 padl1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center bt br padr1 padl1">0.01</td>
+<td class="center bt br padr1 padl1">0.05</td>
+<td class="center bt br padr1 padl1">0.15</td>
+<td class="center bt br padr1 padl1">0.26</td>
+<td class="center bt padr1 padl1">0.30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="3" class="center br">Per&nbsp;ct.&nbsp;gain</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9127;</b></td>
+<td class="right">1</td>
+<td class="left br">day</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.02</td>
+<td class="center br">0.02</td>
+<td class="center">0.01</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9128;</b></td>
+<td class="right">10</td>
+<td class="left br">days</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">5.06</td>
+<td class="center br">6.48</td>
+<td class="center br">6.10</td>
+<td class="center">5.97</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9129;</b></td>
+<td class="right">20</td>
+<td class="left br">days</td>
+<td class="center br">0.05</td>
+<td class="center br">9.07</td>
+<td class="center br">8.80</td>
+<td class="center br">6.78</td>
+<td class="center">6.51</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Soya Bean Oil, Manganese and Lead Drier</span></h5>
+
+<table class="braces fsize80" summary="Soya Bean Oil - Manganese and Lead Drier">
+
+<tr class="bt bb">
+<td class="center br padl1 padr1">Per&nbsp;cent.&nbsp;PbO</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="center bt br padl1 padr1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br padl1 padr1">0.20</td>
+<td class="center br padl1 padr1">0.30</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">0.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="center br">MnO<span class="denom">2</span></td>
+<td colspan="3" class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.05</td>
+<td class="center br">0.15</td>
+<td class="center">0.25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="3" class="center br">Per&nbsp;ct.&nbsp;gain</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9127;</b></td>
+<td class="right">1</td>
+<td class="left br">day</td>
+<td class="center br">3.04</td>
+<td class="center br">3.77</td>
+<td class="center">3.74</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9128;</b></td>
+<td class="right">8</td>
+<td class="left br">days</td>
+<td class="center br">5.96</td>
+<td class="center br">6.43</td>
+<td class="center">6.47</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb2">
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9129;</b></td>
+<td class="right">12</td>
+<td class="left br">days</td>
+<td class="center br">6.33</td>
+<td class="center br">6.78</td>
+<td class="center">6.67</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><b>Tung Oil.</b> There are grown in China and Japan many
+varieties of the &#8220;<a href="#Photo04">aleurites cordata</a>,&#8221; popularly known as the
+tung tree. This tree bears great quantities of large sized <a href="#Photo05">nuts</a>
+containing as high as 40% of an oil which yields itself in a viscous
+yellow form upon heating and crushing of the fruit. The
+raw oil, which chemically consists of the glycerides of oleic, oleo-margaric,
+and probably isomeric acids, is distinguished by its
+rapid drying properties. When spread in a thin layer it produces
+a hard film with an opaque frosted surface, often showing
+a tendency to wrinkle. Treated tung oil will dry to a clear,
+water-shedding, elastic film. This oil is made by heating the raw
+tung oil at a comparatively low temperature with other oils and
+a metallic drier such as litharge.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo021a.jpg"
+alt="Barrel Factory at Cooperage Shop" width="500" height="434" />
+<p class="photocredit left"><i>Photographs courtesy of David Fairchild</i></p>
+<p class="caption">Aleurites Cordata (Chinese Wood Oil)
+Barrel Factory at Cooperage Shop</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Photo05" id="Photo05"></a>
+<img src="images/illo021b.jpg" alt="Aleurites Fordii fruit" width="500" height="407" />
+<p class="photocredit left"><i>Photographs courtesy of David Fairchild</i></p>
+<p class="caption">Aleurites Fordii (Chinese Wood Oil)<br />
+Fruit from trees at the end of fourth year</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></p>
+
+<p>The affinity of tung oil for rosin has resulted in the production
+of a series of moderate-priced varnishes most suitable for use in
+floor and deck paints or wherever great hardness is required.
+These varnishes are also finding application in the manufacture
+of concrete, steel, and flat wall paints; being especially suitable
+for the above purposes when compounded with kauri gum japan.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Photo04" id="Photo04"></a>
+<img src="images/illo022a.jpg" alt="Flowering Aleurites Fordii in China" width="300" height="451" />
+<p class="caption">Aleurites Fordii<br />
+Wood Oil tree, thirty feet high and three feet in diameter, on
+banks of Yangtse River, Western Szechuan, China. Opium Poppy in the foreground</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo022b.jpg"
+alt="Aleurites Cordata in California" width="300" height="375" />
+<p class="caption">Aleurites Cordata<br />
+Flowering specimen of the Chinese Wood Oil tree at Riverside, California,
+planted in 1907. Photograph taken in 1910, when tree had borne fifty fruits</p></div>
+
+<p>During the boiling of raw tung oil the temperature must not
+exceed much over 400 degrees Fahrenheit. Otherwise a peculiar
+&#8220;hamming&#8221; will take place, the whole mass becoming solid and
+of no further value as a varnish or paint vehicle. Some peculiar
+internal disturbance or rearrangement of the molecules is evidently
+effected by heat, and although the reaction is not clearly
+understood, it has been ascribed to auto-polymerization. Scott
+has stated that the phenomenon of gelatinization is due to the
+exposure of the surface of the oil to the air, and that boiling in
+vacuo obviates such results. The lusterless surface produced when
+tung oil varnishes are dried in vitiated air would tend to confirm
+the conclusion that the oil is very subject to atmospheric influences.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>Lumbang Oil, which is obtained from a tropical species of
+Tung, is very similar in appearance and properties to Linseed
+Oil.</p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Constants of Tung Oils</span></h5>
+
+<table class="braces fsize80" summary="Tung Oil Constants">
+
+<tr class="bt2 bb">
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br padl1 padr1">Sp. Gr.</td>
+<td class="center br padl1 padr1">Iodine No.</td>
+<td class="center br padl1 padr1">Saponifi-<br />cation No.</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">Acid No.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr2">No. 1</td>
+<td class="center br">.944</td>
+<td class="center br">166</td>
+<td class="center br">188</td>
+<td class="center">3.6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb2">
+<td class="left br">No. 2</td>
+<td class="center br">.940</td>
+<td class="center br">164</td>
+<td class="center br">184</td>
+<td class="center">1.8</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo023.jpg"
+alt="Menhaden Net Drying in Sun" width="500" height="504" />
+<p class="photocredit left"><i>Photographs courtesy Alpin I. Dunn</i></p>
+<p class="caption">Menhaden Net drying in the Sun</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Photo06" id="Photo06"></a>
+<img src="images/illo024a.jpg" alt="Loading Menhaden with Swinging Basket" width="500" height="308" />
+<p class="caption">Transporting Menhaden from net to deck of boat, in swinging basket</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo024b.jpg" alt="Big Catch of Menhaden" width="500" height="306" />
+<p class="caption">A big catch of Menhaden made off Narragansett Bay</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Menhaden Oil.</b> Of all the marine-animal oils, such as seal,
+herring, sardine, whale, and menhaden, the latter is the most
+valuable. It is produced by steam digestion and pressure of the
+<a href="#Photo06">menhaden or &#8220;piogey&#8221; fish</a>, which are caught in great quantities
+off the Atlantic Coast. Prompt cooking and treatment of the
+fish results in a light-colored oil having very little odor, the residue
+left in the presses being of great value as a fertilizer. Although
+several grades of oil termed crude, brown, light, etc., are produced,
+the most satisfactory for use in paint is that grade termed &#8220;light
+winter pressed.&#8221; This oil is of a pale straw color and has a high
+iodine number which is responsible for its rapid drying value.
+It contains less of the stearates that precipitate from crude oil,
+but sufficient to render its film water-shedding and elastic. The
+presence of too great a quantity of stearates is apt to result in a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+very soft film, and the use of hard driers, such as the metallic
+tungates, is therefore advisable with menhaden oil. When mixed
+with linseed oil paints the odor of menhaden oil is sometimes
+noticeable, but it disappears entirely after such paints are applied.
+Its use with linseed oil in technical paints exposed to
+the salty air of the Coast has given good results, often preventing
+&#8220;checking&#8221; and &#8220;chalking.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The following constants were determined on samples of menhaden
+oil received in the writer&#8217;s laboratory:</p>
+
+<table class="braces fsize80" summary="Menhaden Oil Analysis">
+
+<tr class="bt2 bb">
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">Sp. Gr.</td>
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">Iodine<br />Value</td>
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">Saponification<br />Number</td>
+<td class="center padr1 padl1">Acid<br />Number</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br">Light</td>
+<td class="center br">.927</td>
+<td class="center br">175.8</td>
+<td class="center br">187.9</td>
+<td class="center">7.55</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Medium</td>
+<td class="center br">.925</td>
+<td class="center br">178.7</td>
+<td class="center br">187.6</td>
+<td class="center">6.19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb2">
+<td class="left br">Dark</td>
+<td class="center br">.927</td>
+<td class="center br">178.0</td>
+<td class="center br">187.3</td>
+<td class="center">7.19</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><b>Whale Oil.</b> While ordinary whale oil is too dark and odorous
+to ever come into extensive use as a paint oil, it is probable that
+the refined oil will be utilized in the manufacture of certain technical
+paints. Whale oil is boiled from chopped whale blubber, the
+first trying being the lightest in color, while the later tryings, as
+well as the product made from bones, are of darker color and of
+very bad odor. Oil of mirbane is often used to mask this odor.
+The oil contains large quantities of stearin and palmitin, as well
+as wax-like constituents which are apt to be thrown out of solution
+in very cold weather, or when the oil is mixed with other oils.
+The refined oil, when ground with lead and zinc pigments and
+mixed with equal parts of linseed oil and treated tung oil, dries
+to an elastic and soft film. Experiments are being made to
+utilize whale oil in the linoleum industry.</p>
+
+<p>The analyses of samples of whale oil tested by the writer are
+as follows:</p>
+
+<table class="braces fsize80" summary="Whale Oil Analysis">
+
+<tr class="bt2 bb">
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">Sp. Gr.</td>
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">Iodine<br />Value</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br padr1 padl1">Saponification<br />Number</td>
+<td class="center padr1 padl1">Free Fatty<br />Acid</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Light Refined</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">.924</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">148</td>
+<td class="right">190</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">.2</td>
+<td class="right padr3">1.2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Dark Yellow</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">.920</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">142</td>
+<td class="right">187</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr3">7.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb2">
+<td class="left br padr1">Dark Brown</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">.910</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">140</td>
+<td class="right">184</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr3">18.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><b>Sunflower Oil.</b> Sunflower oil is produced largely in Russia
+and Hungary, finding favor in those countries as an edible oil.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+The ripe <a href="#Photo07">seeds</a> of the sunflower plant contain over 30% of oil
+which is very pale in
+color and of a pleasant
+smell. It has
+been found that sunflowers
+may be
+grown to advantage
+in dry parts of the
+United States, and
+if suitable yields are
+obtained from a few
+experimental acres
+now being cultivated,
+the industry may receive
+encouragement
+in this country. The
+oil should be well
+suited for varnish
+making, and although
+the iodine number is not very high, it dries quite rapidly.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Photo07" id="Photo07"></a>
+<img src="images/illo026.jpg" alt="Russian Sunflower Seeds" width="300" height="292" />
+<p class="caption">Russian Sunflower Seeds</p></div>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Constants of Sunflower Oil</span></h5>
+
+<table class="braces fsize80" summary="Sunflower Oil Analysis">
+
+<tr class="bt2 bb">
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">Sp. Gr.</td>
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">Iodine No.</td>
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">Saponifica-<br />tion No.</td>
+<td class="center padr1 padl1">Acid<br />No.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb2">
+<td class="center br">.929</td>
+<td class="center br">128</td>
+<td class="center br">188</td>
+<td class="center">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><b>Cottonseed Oil.</b> This oil is expressed from the seed of the
+cotton plant, varying in color according to the time of its pressing
+and degree of refinement. Being edible as well as highly
+suited for soap making, very little of it comes into the market
+as a paint oil. It contains large quantities of stearin and has a
+low iodine value, making it a slow drying oil. Some samples
+are extremely light in color and contain less mucilaginous matter
+and foots than is present in ordinary varieties.</p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Constants of Cottonseed Oil</span></h5>
+
+<table class="braces fsize80" summary="Cottonseed Oil Analysis">
+
+<tr class="bt2 bb">
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">Sp. Gr.</td>
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">Iodine No.</td>
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">Saponifica-<br />tion No.</td>
+<td class="center padr1 padl1">Acid<br />No.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb2">
+<td class="center br">.922</td>
+<td class="center br">106</td>
+<td class="center br">190</td>
+<td class="center">2.4</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span><b>Corn Oil.</b> As a by-product in the manufacture of starch and
+alcoholic liquids, this material comes into the market having a
+golden yellow color, and an odor resembling fermented grain. It
+has a lower drying value than cottonseed oil, and its use in the
+paint industry will probably be limited to color grinding, where
+an oil with a semi-drying value is often desired. Like cottonseed
+oil, it belongs more properly to the soap oil class. It contains
+glycerides of linoleic and especially palmitic acid.</p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Analysis of Corn Oil</span></h5>
+
+<table class="braces fsize80" summary="Corn Oil Analysis">
+
+<tr class="bt2 bb">
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">Sp. Gr.</td>
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">Iodine No.</td>
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">Saponification No.</td>
+<td class="center padr1 padl1">Acid No.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb2">
+<td class="center br">.925</td>
+<td class="center br">118</td>
+<td class="center br">191</td>
+<td class="center">9.5</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><b>Rosin Oil.</b> By the dry distillation of rosin, there is yielded a
+series of heavy dark oils consisting principally of hydrocarbons,
+resinous bodies, and free acid. These oils vary in their saponification
+number from 10 to 60, while their unsaponifiable value averages
+about 80. Of the grades termed first, second, third, and
+fourth run, the latter two are superior for use in paints, as a rule
+containing less free acid than the preliminary runs. Treatment
+with steam and alkali serve to neutralize the acid nature of the
+oils and to remove impurities. Refined oils are lighter in color
+and are often blown and bodied to fairly rapid drying products,
+especially when treated with manganese driers. Rosin oils are
+seldom used with lead pigments, on account of the presence of
+sulphur in the oils, which would result in darkening. Rosin oil
+paints work very smoothly, even when they are curdled, producing
+glossy surfaces. The rapid checking of rosin oil paints on
+wooden surfaces bars the use of this oil for such purposes.</p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Analyses of Rosin Oils</span></h5>
+
+<table class="braces fsize80" summary="Rosin Oil Analysis">
+
+<tr class="bt2 bb">
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br padr1 padl1">Sp. Gr.</td>
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">Iodine<br />Value</td>
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">Saponifica-<br />tion No.</td>
+<td class="center padr1 padl1">Acid No.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">A</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.96</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 padr1">6</td>
+<td class="center br">41</td>
+<td class="center br">27</td>
+<td class="center">16.7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb2">
+<td class="left br">B</td>
+<td class="right">.99</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">48</td>
+<td class="center br">38</td>
+<td class="center">10.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><b>Hydrocarbon Oils.</b> Several grades of neutral or mineral oils,
+varying somewhat in gravity, color, and quality, are produced<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+as the last distillate in the refining of petroleum. These oils
+when mixed with drying oils and strong driers find application
+in the manufacture of some freight-car, barn, and other paints
+which sell at a low price. A small percentage of mineral oil is
+said to be valuable in structural steel paints, acting as a preventative
+of hard drying and thus keeping the film soft and elastic.
+Streaking and sweating is apt to ensue if any great quantity is
+used. Mineral oils have a characteristic bloom, showing a greenish
+fluorescence when examined by transmitted light. This bloom
+is due to the presence of some strongly fluorescent material which
+is shown up with intensity when mineral oils are exposed to ultraviolet
+rays such as emanate from an enclosed arc light. Outerbridge<a name="FNanchor_1_1"
+id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>
+first proposed this test for mineral oils, and he has worked
+out a &#8220;fluorescent scale,&#8221; by which very small percentages of
+hydrocarbon oils may be detected in other oils. Several types of
+so-called debloomed oil have been placed upon the market, and
+although such oils appear under ordinary light conditions to be
+free from bloom, they fluoresce quite strongly when given the
+Outerbridge test.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span
+class="label">[1]</span></a> Alexander E. Outerbridge, Jr.: &#8220;A Novel Method of Detecting Mineral
+Oil and Resin Oil in Other Oils.&#8221; Proc. 14th Annual Meet., Amer. Soc. for
+Testing Mater., Atlantic City, N.J., June 28, 1911.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo028.jpg" alt="Petroleum Paint Thinner Stills" width="500" height="455" />
+<p class="caption">View of Stills Where Petroleum Paint Thinners
+are Manufactured (Waverly)</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Analysis of Debloomed Mineral Paint Oil</span><a name="FNanchor_1_2"
+id="FNanchor_1_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_2" class="fnanchor"><span style="font-size: 1.2em; font-weight: 400;">[2]</span></a></h5>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Debloomed Mineral Paint Oil Analysis">
+
+<tr class="bt2 bb">
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">Sp. Gr.</td>
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">Iodine No.</td>
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">Saponification No.</td>
+<td class="center padr1 padl1">Acid No.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb2">
+<td class="center br">.92</td>
+<td class="center br">12</td>
+<td class="center br">4</td>
+<td class="center">0</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_2" id="Footnote_1_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_2"><span
+class="label">[2]</span></a> Oil of mirbane present, probably as a deblooming agent, or to mask the
+odor.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Pine Oil.</b> This oil is produced by the redistillation of the
+heavy, high boiling point fractions resulting from the steam distillation
+of wood turpentine. It is a heavy straw-colored oil, and
+should be of some use in the paint and varnish industry, where
+a high boiling point solvent with an oxidizing principle is desired.
+It will probably find application in the manufacture of Baking
+Japans, Asphalt Paints and Enamels. Its oxidizing and solvent
+values are very high. It has a distinctive sweet pine smell,
+which makes it popular in the manufacture of turpentine substitutes
+from petroleum spirits.</p>
+
+<p>The writer has examined samples of this material, and the
+following appear to be of the best grade:</p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Constants of Pine Oils</span></h5>
+
+<table class="braces fsize80" summary="Pine Oil Analysis">
+
+<tr class="bt2 bb">
+<td class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">No. 1</td>
+<td class="center">No. 2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Color</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Straw Color</td>
+<td class="left padr1 padl1">Light Yellow</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Specific Gravity at 15&deg; C.</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">.934</td>
+<td class="left padr1 padl1">.936</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Boiling Point</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">192&deg; C.</td>
+<td class="left padr1 padl1">202&deg; C.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="top">
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Distillation</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">95% distils between<br />192-270&deg; C.</td>
+<td class="left padr1 padl1">95% distils between<br />202-280&deg; C.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Residue on Evaporation</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">14.34%</td>
+<td class="left padr1 padl1">14.60%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="top">
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Polymerization Test</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">3<span class="enum">2</span>&#8260;<span class="denom">3</span>% unpolymerized at<br />end of
+<span class="enum">1</span>&#8260;<span class="denom">2</span> hour</td>
+<td class="left padr1 padl1">2<span class="enum">1</span>&#8260;<span class="denom">2</span>% unpolymerized at<br />end of
+<span class="enum">1</span>&#8260;<span class="denom">2</span> hour</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Flash-Point</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">72&deg; C.</td>
+<td class="left padr1 padl1">76&deg; C.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb2 top">
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1 top">Spot Test</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Leaves no grease spot<br />but only evaporates<br />completely in 24<br />hours</td>
+<td class="left padr1 padl1 top">Same as Pine Oil No. 1</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><b>Turpentine.</b> By direct fire or steam distillation of the sap
+drippings collected in pockets cut into pine trees, there is obtained
+the turpentine of commerce. It consists largely of pinene and
+isomeric terpenes, and has the property of attracting oxygen,
+with the formation of peroxides which stimulate the drying of
+oils. It is a high-grade solvent for various gums, and is therefore<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>
+used in the manufacture of many lacquers as well as for thinning
+down oil-gum varnishes.</p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Requisite Constants of Pure Gum Turpentine</span></h5>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Pure Gum Turpentine Analysis">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1 top">Color</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Water White</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1 top">Specific Gravity at 15&deg; C.</td>
+<td class="left padl1">.862-.875</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1 top">Boiling Point</td>
+<td class="left padl1">About 156&deg; C.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1 top">Distillation</td>
+<td class="left padl1">95% should distil between 153 and 165&deg; C.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1 top">Residue on Evaporation</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Not over 2%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1 top">Polymerization</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Not over 5% should remain unpolymerized at<br />end of half hour</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1 top">Flash-Point</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Over 40.5&deg; C.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1 top">Spot Test</td>
+<td class="left padl1">No grease spot should remain when dropped on<br />paper and allowed to evaporate</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1 top">Water</td>
+<td class="left padl1">None</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><b>Wood Turpentine.</b> High-grade wood turpentine is now produced
+by the steam distillation of finely cut fat pine wood. The
+lower-grade qualities are often produced from the destructive
+distillation of sawdust, stumpage, etc., and these products, on
+account of their content of formaldehyde, are objectionable in
+odor. In the steam distillation process, however, a high quality
+product is obtained by cutting out the heavy fractions and redistilling
+the lower and purer fractions. It has a high oxidizing
+value, causing the rapid drying of paints and varnishes to which
+it has been added. Its solvent value is often greater than that of
+gum turpentine. When properly refined it has a sweet smell and
+is to be highly recommended.</p>
+
+<p>Analyses of samples of pure wood turpentine which have come
+to the writer for examination follow:</p>
+
+<table class="braces fsize80" summary="Wood Turpentine Analysis">
+
+<tr class="bt2 bb">
+<td class="left br padr1 top">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br padl1 top">No. 1</td>
+<td class="center padl1 top">No. 2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1 top">Sp. Gr. at 15&deg; C.</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 top">.862</td>
+<td class="left padl1 top">.862</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1 top">Boiling Point</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 top">158&deg; C.</td>
+<td class="left padl1 top">162&deg; C.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1 top">Distillation: 95% distils between</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 top">158 and 185&deg; C.</td>
+<td class="left padl1 top">162 and 177&deg; C.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1 top">Residue on Evaporation</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 top">1.03%</td>
+<td class="left padl1 top">3.06%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1 top">Polymerization Test</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 top">4.1% remains unpoly-<br />merized at end of <span class="enum">1</span>&#8260;<span
+class="denom">2</span><br />hour</td>
+<td class="left padl1 top">0.1 cc. out of 6 cc.<br />unpolymerized =<br />1.66%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1 top">Spot Test</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1 top">No grease spot on evap-<br />oration&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 top">No grease spot on evap-<br />oration</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1 top">Odor</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 top">Excellent</td>
+<td class="left padl1 top">Not objectionable</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1 top">Color</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 top">Water White</td>
+<td class="left padl1 top">Water White</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb2">
+<td class="left br padr1 top">Flash Point</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 top">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 top">47.6&deg; C.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>Petroleum Spirits.</b> There are produced from Texas crude oil
+which has an asphaltum base, and Pennsylvania crude oil which
+has a paraffin base, high boiling-point petroleum spirits which
+have come into wide use as paint and varnish thinners. When
+such materials have the proper evaporating value, high flash-point
+and freedom from sulphur, they are to be highly recommended
+as paint thinners. The following shows the analyses
+of a few of these materials examined in the writer&#8217;s laboratory:</p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Petroleum Spirits</span></h5>
+
+<table class="braces fsize80" summary="Petroleum Spirit Analysis">
+
+<tr class="bt2 bb">
+<td class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">Texas Base</td>
+<td class="center br">California Base</td>
+<td class="center">Penna. Base</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Color</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Water White</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">White</td>
+<td class="left padr1 padl1">Water White</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Specific Gravity</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">.811</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">.79</td>
+<td class="left padr1 padl1">.81</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Boiling Point</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">156&deg; C.</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">138&deg; C.</td>
+<td class="left padr1 padl1">146&deg; C.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Flash-Point</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">44&deg; C.</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">40.5&deg; C.</td>
+<td class="left padr1 padl1">43&deg; C.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb2">
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Residue on Evaporation</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">.2</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">.15</td>
+<td class="left padr1 padl1">.12</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><b>Benzol.</b> &#8220;Solvent naphtha&#8221; or 160-degree benzol is a product
+obtained from the distillation of coal tar, differing from benzine,
+a product obtained from the distillation of petroleum. It is a
+valuable thinner to use in the reduction of paints for the priming
+of resinous lumber and refractory woods such as cypress and
+yellow pitch pine. The penetrating and solvent values of benzol
+are high, and it often furnishes a unison between paint and wood,
+that is a prime foundation to subsequent coatings, preventing the
+usual scaling and sap exudations which often appear on a painted
+surface. Because of the great solvent action of benzol, it should
+never be used in second and third coatings. The writer has
+successfully painted inferior grades of cypress with a paint containing
+benzol in the priming coat.</p>
+
+<p><b>Benzine.</b> Benzine is seldom used in paints on account of its
+rapid evaporation, which is apt to cause pinholing of films and
+other surface defects. In paints of the dipping type where
+rapid evaporation is essential, benzine finds its widest application.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></p>
+<h2><a name="Ch2" id="Ch2"></a>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<h3>A STUDY OF DRIERS AND THEIR EFFECT</h3>
+
+
+<p>The proper drying of oils and their behavior with various
+siccatives in varying quantity is an interesting problem, and obviously
+of considerable importance from a practical standpoint.
+Unfortunately there is a decided scarcity of reliable literature
+dealing with the subject for the guidance of those concerned
+in the manufacture or application of siccative products. Furthermore,
+when the problem is investigated, it is not difficult to see
+why this is so.</p>
+
+<p><b>Uniform Conditions.</b> At a glance it is evident that a decided
+obstacle in experimentation on the drying properties of oils is
+the difficulty in obtaining identical conditions for comparative
+purposes. Inasmuch as a multitude of factors, such as uniformity
+and homogeneity of the driers and the oils themselves,
+intensity and source of light, temperature, uniformity of application,
+and many others, play a decisive part in the siccative
+tendencies of oils, the resources and ingenuity of the chemist
+engaged in the research are severely taxed.</p>
+
+<p><b>Oxygen Absorption.</b> It is a well-known fact that linseed oil,
+when applied to a clean surface, such as a glass plate, will undergo
+oxidation and take up oxygen to the extent of about 16%,
+forming a hard, elastic, non-sticky product which has been
+called linoxyn. This material, unlike the oil from which it
+has been formed, is insoluble in most solvents. Other oils,
+such as cottonseed, hemp, rape, olive, etc., are more fully satisfied
+in nature and have not the power to absorb the amount of oxygen
+taken up by linseed oil.</p>
+
+<p>In carrying out the following tests, on the drying of oils, a
+quantity of pure linseed oil of the following analysis was secured:</p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Analysis of Linseed Oil">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr2">Specific gravity at 15&deg; C.</td>
+<td class="right">0.934</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Acid number</td>
+<td class="right">5</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Saponification number</td>
+<td class="right padr0">191</td>
+<td class="left padl0"><span class="enum">1</span>&#8260;<span class="denom">2</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Iodine number</td>
+<td class="right">188</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></p>
+
+<p>This oil was distributed into a number of 8-oz. oil sample
+bottles, and to a series of these bottles was added varying quantities
+of a very concentrated drier made by boiling oil to 400
+degrees Fahrenheit in an open kettle, with the subsequent addition
+of lead oxide. The amount of drier added to each bottle
+varied according to the percentage desired; being calculated
+on the lead content of the drier, which was very accurately
+determined by analysis.</p>
+
+<p>There was secured in this manner a series of oils containing
+varying amounts of lead oxide, and from this lot was selected
+a certain number of samples which would be representative
+and typical of paint vehicles now found in the market.</p>
+
+<p>Another series of tests were made by combining with a large
+number of samples of pure linseed oil as used above, various
+percentages of a manganese drier made by boiling oil at 400&deg; F.
+and incorporating therewith manganese dioxide.</p>
+
+<p>Still another series of tests were made upon a number of
+oils into which were incorporated various small quantities of
+lead oxide and manganese oxide together, using the standard
+driers made in the above manner, all of which were carefully
+analyzed to determine their contents.</p>
+
+<p>In view of the errors in manipulation that could occur where
+so many tests were made, it was not deemed advisable, in carrying
+out the tests, to use glass plates on which only a minute
+quantity of oil could be maintained. A much better solution
+of the difficulty presented itself in using a series of small, round,
+crimped-edge tin plates, about three inches in diameter, such
+as are used for lids of friction-top cans.</p>
+
+<p>With paints it is impossible to secure films as thin as those
+presented by layers of oil on glass, nor would it be desirable
+to secure films of this same relative thickness. For this reason
+an endeavor was made to conduct the following tests with films
+of the same relative thickness as that possessed by the average
+coating of paint. The drying of the films did not take place
+in the same short period, nor in the same ratio, as with the thin
+layer that is secured by flowing oil upon glass. The results,
+however, are more practical, and of greater value to the manufacturer.</p>
+
+<p>The cans were carefully numbered in consecutive order,
+corresponding to the numbers on the various samples of oil.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+A very small quantity of oil was placed in each of the can covers,
+which were previously weighed, and allowed to distribute itself
+over the bottom surface thereof. Reweighing of the covers
+gave the amount of oil which was taken for each test. The
+test samples in the covers were all placed in a large box with
+glass sides, having a series of perforated shelves. In the side of
+this box is an opening through which a tube was passed, carrying
+a continual current of air washed and dried in sulphuric acid.
+Oxidation of the oil films commenced at once, and the amount
+of oxygen absorbed was determined at suitable periods by
+weighing, the increase in weight giving this factor. This test
+was kept up for a period of twenty days.</p>
+
+<p>A test was also made in the same manner with a current of
+damp air passing into the box, to observe the relative oxidation
+under such conditions. A chart of the results obtained
+has been made (<a href="#Tab6">Table VI</a>), to show the effect of the various
+driers.</p>
+
+<p><b>Results of Tests.</b> The following outline will present to the
+mind of the reader the most salient points which have been
+gleaned from these experiments, and which should give the
+manufacturer definite knowledge as to the best percentage of
+oxides to use either in boiled oil, paints or varnishes.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of lead oxide, an increase in the percentage of
+lead oxide in the oil causes a relative increase in the oxygen
+absorption, but when a very large percentage of lead has been
+added, the film of oil dries to a leathery skin.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of manganese oxide, the increase in oxygen absorption
+on the first day is much more pronounced than is the
+case with lead oxides. Furthermore, the oxidation of manganese
+oils seems to be relative to the increase in manganese
+up to a certain period, when the reverse of this law seems to
+take place, and beyond a certain definite percentage of manganese,
+added percentages seem to be of no value. It was
+furthermore observed that the films dry to a more brittle and
+harder skin than is the case when lead oxide is used. The oxygen
+absorption with oils high in manganese has been noticed to be
+excessive, and the film of oil becomes surface-coated, drying
+beneath in a very slow manner; a condition that often leads
+to checking. The critical percentage where the amount of
+manganese appears to give the greatest efficiency seems to
+be 0.02%. This critical percentage, as it may be termed,
+should not be exceeded, and any added amount of manganese
+has the effect of making the film much more brittle
+and causes the so-called &#8220;burning up&#8221; of the paint. The
+loading of paint with drier and the bad result therefrom may be
+explained to some extent from the above results.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></p>
+<h5><a name="Tab6" id="Tab6"></a>TABLE VI&mdash;<span class="smcap">Linseed Oil and MnO<span class="denom">2</span>
+(Manganese) Drier&mdash;Test No. 1</span></h5>
+
+<table class="braces fsize80" summary="Linseed Oil and MnO2">
+
+<tr class="bt2 bb">
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">Per&nbsp;cent.&nbsp;MnO<span class="denom">2</span></td>
+<td colspan="3" class="center br padr1 padl1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">0.02</td>
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">0.05</td>
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">0.15</td>
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">0.25</td>
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">0.35</td>
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">0.45</td>
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">0.55</td>
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">0.70</td>
+<td class="center padr1 padl1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="15" class="left br">Per&nbsp;cent.&nbsp;gain</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9127;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">1</td>
+<td class="left br">day</td>
+<td class="center br">0.08</td>
+<td class="center br">0.11</td>
+<td class="center br">0.16</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">3.21</td>
+<td class="center br">3.46</td>
+<td class="center br">3.27</td>
+<td class="center br">3.01</td>
+<td class="center">2.76</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">2</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">days</td>
+<td class="center br">0.16</td>
+<td class="center br">5.88</td>
+<td class="center br">4.48</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">3.63</td>
+<td class="center br">4.01</td>
+<td class="center br">3.70</td>
+<td class="center br">3.51</td>
+<td class="center">3.18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">3</td>
+<td class="left br">days</td>
+<td class="center br">0.21</td>
+<td class="center br">6.79</td>
+<td class="center br">4.61</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">3.83</td>
+<td class="center br">4.31</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">3.91</td>
+<td class="center">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">4</td>
+<td class="left br">days</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">4.64</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">5</td>
+<td class="left br">days</td>
+<td class="center br">3.01</td>
+<td class="center br">6.84</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">4.13</td>
+<td class="center br">4.68</td>
+<td class="center br">4.19</td>
+<td class="center br">3.91</td>
+<td class="center">3.99</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">6</td>
+<td class="left br">days</td>
+<td class="center br">8.00</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">4.88</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">4.37</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">4.51</td>
+<td class="center br">4.32</td>
+<td class="center">4.13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">7</td>
+<td class="left br">days</td>
+<td class="center br">8.58</td>
+<td class="center br">6.92</td>
+<td class="center br">4.90</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">4.48</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">4.61</td>
+<td class="center br">4.52</td>
+<td class="center">4.23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9128;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">8</td>
+<td class="left br">days</td>
+<td class="center br">9.06</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">5.03</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">4.55</td>
+<td class="center br">5.23</td>
+<td class="center br">4.77</td>
+<td class="center br">4.62</td>
+<td class="center">4.44</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">9</td>
+<td class="left br">days</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">5.12</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">4.63</td>
+<td class="center br">5.40</td>
+<td class="center br">4.94</td>
+<td class="center br">4.79</td>
+<td class="center">4.51</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">10</td>
+<td class="left br">days</td>
+<td class="center br">9.07</td>
+<td class="center br">6.89</td>
+<td class="center br">5.18</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">4.81</td>
+<td class="center br">5.47</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">4.98</td>
+<td class="center">4.73</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">11</td>
+<td class="left br">days</td>
+<td class="center br">9.15</td>
+<td class="center br">7.03</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">12</td>
+<td class="left br">days</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">4.98</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">5.45</td>
+<td class="center br">5.33</td>
+<td class="center">5.22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">13</td>
+<td class="left br">days</td>
+<td class="center br">9.22</td>
+<td class="center br">7.17</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">5.25</td>
+<td class="center br">6.00</td>
+<td class="center br">5.60</td>
+<td class="center br">5.42</td>
+<td class="center">5.33</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">14</td>
+<td class="left br">days</td>
+<td class="center br">9.25</td>
+<td class="center br">7.18</td>
+<td class="center br">5.55</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb2">
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9129;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">20</td>
+<td class="left br">days</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">7.21</td>
+<td class="center br">5.81</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">5.84</td>
+<td class="center br">6.70</td>
+<td class="center br">5.94</td>
+<td class="center br">5.84</td>
+<td class="center">5.77</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<h5>TABLE VII&mdash;<span class="smcap">Linseed Oil and MnO<span class="denom">2</span> (Manganese) Drier&mdash;Test
+No. 2 (Check)</span></h5>
+
+<table class="braces fsize80" summary="Linseed Oil and MnO2 Check">
+
+<tr class="bt2 bb">
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">Per&nbsp;cent.&nbsp;MnO<span class="denom">2</span></td>
+<td colspan="3" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">0.02</td>
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">0.05</td>
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">0.15</td>
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">0.25</td>
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">0.35</td>
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">0.45</td>
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">0.55</td>
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">0.70</td>
+<td class="center padr1 padl1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9127;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">1</td>
+<td class="left br">day</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">3.12</td>
+<td class="center br">4.42</td>
+<td class="center br">3.86</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">3.19</td>
+<td class="center br">2.98</td>
+<td class="center br">3.27</td>
+<td class="center">2.56</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">2</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">days</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">6.15</td>
+<td class="center br">4.73</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">3.51</td>
+<td class="center br">3.28</td>
+<td class="center br">3.70</td>
+<td class="center">2.96</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">3</td>
+<td class="left br">days</td>
+<td class="center br">0.28</td>
+<td class="center br">6.29</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">4.12</td>
+<td class="center br">3.72</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">3.39</td>
+<td class="center br">3.71</td>
+<td class="center">3.15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">4</td>
+<td class="left br">days</td>
+<td class="center br">3.83</td>
+<td class="center br">6.32</td>
+<td class="center br">4.75</td>
+<td class="center br">4.21</td>
+<td class="center br">3.87</td>
+<td class="center br">3.61</td>
+<td class="center br">3.58</td>
+<td class="center br">4.05</td>
+<td class="center">3.43</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">5</td>
+<td class="left br">days</td>
+<td class="center br">6.64</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">4.84</td>
+<td class="center br">4.23</td>
+<td class="center br">3.94</td>
+<td class="center br">3.73</td>
+<td class="center br">3.65</td>
+<td class="center br">4.21</td>
+<td class="center">3.56</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Per&nbsp;cent.&nbsp;gain</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9128;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">6</td>
+<td class="left br">days</td>
+<td class="center br">8.61</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">4.87</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">4.08</td>
+<td class="center br">3.81</td>
+<td class="center br">3.78</td>
+<td class="center br">4.35</td>
+<td class="center">3.73</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">7</td>
+<td class="left br">days</td>
+<td class="center br">9.07</td>
+<td class="center br">6.35</td>
+<td class="center br">5.00</td>
+<td class="center br">4.41</td>
+<td class="center br">4.18</td>
+<td class="center br">3.91</td>
+<td class="center br">3.85</td>
+<td class="center br">4.54</td>
+<td class="center">3.87</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">9</td>
+<td class="left br">days</td>
+<td class="center br">9.25</td>
+<td class="center br">6.39</td>
+<td class="center br">5.16</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">4.44</td>
+<td class="center br">4.11</td>
+<td class="center br">4.21</td>
+<td class="center br">4.63</td>
+<td class="center">4.26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">11</td>
+<td class="left br">days</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">4.63</td>
+<td class="center br">4.59</td>
+<td class="center br">4.36</td>
+<td class="center br">4.31</td>
+<td class="center br">5.07</td>
+<td class="center">4.46</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb2">
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9129;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">16</td>
+<td class="left br">days</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">6.43</td>
+<td class="center br">5.30</td>
+<td class="center br">4.91</td>
+<td class="center br">4.83</td>
+<td class="center br">4.72</td>
+<td class="center br">4.71</td>
+<td class="center br">5.40</td>
+<td class="center">4.87</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></p>
+
+<h5>TABLE VIII&mdash;<span class="smcap">Linseed Oil and PbO (Lead) Drier</span></h5>
+
+<table class="braces fsize80" summary="Linseed Oil and PbO Drier">
+
+<tr class="bt2 bb">
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">Per&nbsp;cent.&nbsp;PbO</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.00</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">0.05</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">0.10</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">0.30</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">0.50</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">0.70</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">1.00</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">1.30</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">1.60</td>
+<td class="center br">1.30</td>
+<td class="center">1.60</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9127;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">1</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">day</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">0.042</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.04</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 padr1">9</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.09</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 padr1">2</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.05</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 padr1">8</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.06</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 padr1">6</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.06</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 padr1">2</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.06</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 padr1">2</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.07</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 padr1">9</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.03</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 padr1">9</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">0.14</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr1">0.72</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">2</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">days</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">0.098</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.10</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.15</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.11</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">6</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.15</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.19</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">4.83</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">4.79</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">5.27</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr1">6.11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">3</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">days</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">0.128</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.15</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">9</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.17</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.13</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.27</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">9</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.18</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">5</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">7.11</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">8.60</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">5.35</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">7.89</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr1">8.28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">4</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">days</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">0.164</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.21</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.20</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">6</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.17</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">4.07</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">7.39</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">9.55</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">8.53</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">7.93</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr1">8.68</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">5</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">days</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">0.176</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.30</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.34</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">7.60</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">7.47</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">9.87</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">8.78</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">8.18</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">6</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">days</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">0.188</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.23</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.24</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.47</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">2</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">9.36</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">7.64</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">10.01</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">9.00</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">8.24</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr1">9.09</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Per&nbsp;cent.&nbsp;gain</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9128;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">7</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">days</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">0.206</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.25</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.25</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">1.08</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">10.06</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">10.14</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">8</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">days</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">0.212</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.25</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.28</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">4.80</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">10.38</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">7.70</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">10.22</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">9.05</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">9</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">days</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">0.226</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.29</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">1</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.30</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">6</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.33</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">1</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">7.36</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">10.41</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">7.73</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">10.23</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">9.07</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">13</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">days</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">0.327</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.42</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.51</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.67</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">11.01</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">10.67</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">7.91</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">10.48</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">9.29</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">8.62</td>
+<td class="center">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">15</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">days</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">0.466</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.45</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">5</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.65</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">2.41</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">11.05</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">7.92</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">10.50</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">9.30</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb2">
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9129;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">20</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">days</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">0.521</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">1.08</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">1.78</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">8.76</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">11.25</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">10.67</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">7.98</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">10.52</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">9.36</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<h5>TABLE IX&mdash;<span class="smcap">Linseed Oil and PbO (Lead) and MnO<span class="denom">2</span>
+(Manganese)&mdash;Combination Drier</span></h5>
+
+<table class="braces fsize80" summary="Linseed Oil and Manganese-PbO Drier">
+
+<tr class="bt2 bb">
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">Per&nbsp;cent.&nbsp;PbO</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">0.1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">0.3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">0.5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">0.7</td>
+<td class="center br">0.9</td>
+<td class="center br">1.1</td>
+<td class="center">1.4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">Per&nbsp;cent.&nbsp;MnO<span class="denom">2</span></td>
+<td colspan="3" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">.005</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">.015</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">0.025</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">0.35</td>
+<td class="center br">0.45</td>
+<td class="center br">0.55</td>
+<td class="center">0.7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="11" class="left br padr1">Per&nbsp;cent.&nbsp;gain</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9127;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">1</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">day</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.02</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">6</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.06</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">1</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.05</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">5</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.02</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">2</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">0.16</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">0.11</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr1">3.06</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">2</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">days</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.09</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">4</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.08</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">7</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.14</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">3</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.16</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">5.21</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">6.28</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr1">3.37</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">3</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">days</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.11</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.17</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">4.23</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">7.63</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">8.31</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr1">3.74</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">4</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">days</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.11</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.23</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">7.36</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">8.87</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">9.20</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr1">4.02</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">5</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">days</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.12</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">0</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.12</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.29</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">9.04</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">9.13</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">9.37</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr1">4.17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9128;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">6</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">days</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.17</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.13</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">1.44</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">9.88</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">9.26</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">9.51</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr1">4.34</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">7</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">days</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.21</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.18</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">4.65</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">10.11</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">9.28</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr1">4.45</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">11</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">days</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.30</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.26</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">10.03</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">10.35</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">9.61</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">9.85</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr1">5.11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">12</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">days</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">10.45</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">9.66</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">13</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">days</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.35</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.54</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">10.37</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">10.51</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">9.67</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">10.03</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr1">5.33</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb2">
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9129;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr1">18</td>
+<td class="left br padr1">days</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">0.49</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">3.43</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">10.38</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr0">10.62</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padl1 padr1">9.68</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 padr1">5.73</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>In the same way with lead driers, excessive amounts of lead
+oxide seem to have no beneficial effects on the drying of an
+oil, and when the percentage which seems to be the most beneficial,
+namely 0.5% lead oxide, is exceeded, the film is apt to
+become brittle.</p>
+
+<p>Oils containing lead oxide driers are less influenced in their
+drying tendencies by conditions of moisture in the atmosphere
+than oils containing manganese, but frequently, however, the
+former dry much better in a dry atmosphere. As a general
+rule, varnishes rich in manganese dry more quickly in a dry
+atmosphere, while those containing small quantities dry more
+quickly in a damp atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p><b>Volatile Products Formed.</b> It was furthermore noticed in
+these tests that sulphuric acid, placed in dishes on the bottom of
+the large box in which the samples of oil were drying, was discolored
+and turned brown after several days, showing that the
+acid had taken up some material of a volatile nature that was a
+product of the oxidation.</p>
+
+<p>Another curious feature of these tests was the development
+of a peculiar aromatic odor which was given off by the oils
+upon drying in dry air. When the oils were dried in moist air,
+a rank odor resembling propionic acid was observed, and this
+led the observer to believe that a reaction was effected by the
+absorbed oxygen, that caused the glycerin combined with the
+linoleic acid as linolein to split up into evil-smelling compounds.
+It has been suggested that the oxygen first attacks the glycerin,
+transforming it into carbonic acid, water, and other volatile
+compounds, which are eliminated before the oil is dried to
+linoxyn. Toch,<a name="FNanchor_1_3" id="FNanchor_1_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>
+however, has shown that the drying of linseed
+oil gives off only very small percentages of carbon dioxide.
+Mulder has observed that in the process of linseed oil being
+oxidized, glycerin is set free, which becomes oxidized to formic,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+acetic, and other acids, while the acid radicals are converted by
+oxygen into the anhydrides, from which they pass by further
+oxidation into linoxyn.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_3" id="Footnote_1_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Toch:
+The Chem. and Tech. of Mixed Paints, p. 89. D. Van Vostand
+Co., N. Y.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Auto-Oxidation of Oil.</b> The theory of auto-oxidation of
+linseed oil has been very ably treated by Blackler, whose experiments
+indicated that during the drying process the slow absorption
+of oxygen was, at a critical period, followed by a rapid
+absorption, which he attributes to the presence of peroxides.
+The materials produced by this peroxide formation may act
+as catalyzers and accelerate the formation of more peroxide.
+Lead and manganese oxides may also be oxidized to peroxides
+by the action of oxygen, and in this event might act as very
+active catalyzing agents or carriers of oxygen. Blackler&#8217;s
+statement, that the presence of driers do not increase, but
+have a tendency to decrease the initial velocity of oxygen
+absorption, has been confirmed by these experiments, but it
+has been noticed throughout the tests that the driers have an
+accelerative action at a later period.</p>
+
+<p><b>Effect of Metals on Drying of Oils.</b> Some most interesting
+results were secured by dipping extremely fine copper gauze
+into linseed oil, and then suspending the gauze in the air. The
+adhesion of the oil to the copper caused the formation of films
+between the network, and remarkable drying action was observed.
+The copper or any superficial coating of copper oxide which
+may have been present on the metal, undoubtedly affected the
+result to some extent. It has been found that metallic lead is
+even more efficient than copper in this respect, but this may be
+due to the action of free acid in the linseed oil, forming lead
+linoleates, products that greatly accelerate drying. Another
+interesting experiment was made by immersing pieces of
+gauze cloth in linseed oil. After the excess oil had been
+removed, by pressing, the cloth was again weighed to determine
+the amount of oil used for the experiment. The increase
+in oxygen absorption in this case was very rapid, and the result
+obtained confirmed the results in the other experiments.</p>
+
+<p>In order to secure a more evenly distributed state of the oil,
+tests were conducted by saturating pieces of stiff blotting papers,
+and, after exposure, weighing as usual.</p>
+
+<p><b>Influence of Light.</b> The influence of light on the drying of
+oils is unquestionably a potent one. The practical painter knows<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
+that a certain varnish will dry quicker when exposed to the light
+than when in the dark.</p>
+
+<p>Chevreul was one of the first pioneers in this field of research
+to observe the effects of colored lights on drying, and he claimed
+that oil exposed under white glass dried more rapidly than
+when exposed under red glass, which eliminates all light of short
+wave lengths.</p>
+
+<p>Genthe obtained interesting results in the drying of oil submitted
+to the effect of the mercury lamp. Oxidation without
+driers was effected probably through the formation of peroxides.
+In commenting on this subject, Blackler<a name="FNanchor_1_4" id="FNanchor_1_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>
+gives a description of
+the use of the Uveol Lamp, which is similar to the mercury
+lamp, but has, instead of a glass casing which cuts off the valuable
+rays, a fused-quartz casing which allows their passage.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_4" id="Footnote_1_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> M. B.
+Blackler: &#8220;The Use and Abuse of Driers,&#8221; P. and V. Society,
+London, Sept. 9, 1909.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Driers in Boiled Oil.</b> In the boiling of linseed oil, by certain
+processes the oil is heated to 250&deg; F. and manganese resinate
+is incorporated therein. It goes into solution quite rapidly.
+In other processes the oil is heated to 400&deg; F. or over, and
+manganese as an oxide is boiled into the oil. Although it is
+unsafe to say that a small percentage of rosin, such as would be
+introduced by the use of resinate driers, is not harmful, yet it
+appears that this process should give a good oil, inasmuch as it
+has been found that no matter whether the manganese is added
+to the oil, as a resinate, borate or oxide, practically the same
+drying effect is noticed in every case where the percentage of
+manganese is the same. It is the opinion of some, however,
+that the resinate driers are not as well suited for durability as
+oxide driers. However, if a boiled oil is found to contain on
+analysis a small percentage of rosin less than 0.5% or a
+percentage only sufficient to combine with the metal present,
+it should not be suspected of adulteration. Practical tests
+should be made with such oil along with an oil made with
+an oxide drier, before pronouncing on their relative values.
+Inasmuch as the addition of certain driers to linseed oil lessens
+the durability of the film, it is more practical to use the smallest
+amount of drier that will serve the purpose desired, that is,
+set the oil up to a hard condition which will not take dust and
+which will stand abrasion.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>The results of this investigation would indicate that when lead
+or manganese linoleates are used, the most efficient drying is
+shown with 0.5% lead or with 0.02% manganese, or with a combination
+of 0.5% lead and 0.02% manganese.</p>
+
+<p>Until more definite results have been obtained with the
+<i>tungates</i>, which will probably prove of exceptional interest as
+driers, the above driers will probably be used to the greatest
+extent.</p>
+
+<p><b>Co-operative Drying Tests.</b> A series of important drying tests
+made by members of a special committee<a name="FNanchor_1_5" id="FNanchor_1_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>
+appointed by the
+American Society for Testing Materials, of which the writer
+was chairman, is herewith shown:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_5" id="Footnote_1_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a>
+Sub-Committee C of Committee D-1, on Testing Paint Vehicles. Proc.
+Amer. Soc. for Test. Mater., 1911.</p></div>
+
+<p>&#8220;At the January meeting of Committee D-1, a sub-committee
+consisting of the following members was appointed to investigate
+paint vehicles:</p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Sub-Committee">
+<tr><td class="left">G. B. Heckel,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="left">Glenn H. Pickard,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="left">Allen Rogers,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="left">A. H. Sabin,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="left">H. A. Gardner, <i>Chairman</i>.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>&#8220;At a subsequent meeting of the sub-committee it was determined
+to start the investigations with a series of tests on certain
+drying, semi-drying, and non-drying oils, determining their
+drying values, rate of oxygen absorption, etc., when spread out
+in thin films. A quantity of the following oils was selected for
+the tests and subsequently secured from sources known to be
+reliable:</p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" style="text-align: left;" summary="Selected Oils">
+
+<tr>
+<td>Lead and manganese linoleate drier.<a name="FNanchor_2_6" id="FNanchor_2_6"></a><a
+href="#Footnote_2_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></td>
+<td>Cottonseed oil.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Lithographic linseed oil.</td>
+<td>Sunflower oil.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Boiled linseed oil (resinate type).</td>
+<td>Menhaden oil.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Boiled linseed oil (linoleate type).</td>
+<td>Chinese wood oil, raw.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Blown linseed oil (containing drier while being blown).&nbsp;</td>
+<td>Chinese wood oil, treated.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Heavy mineral oil.</td>
+<td>Perilla oil.<a name="FNanchor_3_7" id="FNanchor_3_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Rosin oil.</td>
+<td>Lumbang oil.<a href="#Footnote_3_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Soya bean oil.</td>
+<td>Dry rosin 20%, boiled in 80% linseed oil.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Corn oil.</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_6" id="Footnote_2_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a>
+The drier used, upon analysis, showed the presence of 4.36% PbO
+and 2.51% MnO<span class="denom">2</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_7" id="Footnote_3_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a>
+The lumbang and perilla oils were imported and arrived subsequent
+to the starting of the tests. They were therefore not included in the tests.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>&#8220;Four-ounce
+sample bottles of each oil were sent to the Committee
+members, with the request to proceed with the tests
+along the lines agreed upon at the Committee meeting. The
+instructions for making these tests are outlined as follows:</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) A series of small glass plates, approximately 5 by 7 ins.,
+are to be prepared by each member of the Committee. These
+plates are to be thoroughly cleaned and carefully numbered and
+weighed upon a chemical balance. The oils to be used for the
+tests are to be numbered corresponding to the plates. A test
+of each oil is to be made by painting it upon the surface of a
+glass plate with a camel&#8217;s-hair brush, subsequently weighing the
+plate and the oil. These tests are to be exposed under constant
+conditions of temperature, if possible, for three weeks&#8217; time,
+making weighings of each plate every day for six days and then
+every other day for twelve days.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Another series of tests shall be made, in which 80%
+of raw linseed oil is to be combined with each of the above
+oils named. Previous to making any of the tests, <i>there should
+be added to each oil, or to each combination, 5% of a drier
+containing lead and manganese</i>. The drier to be used is of the
+standard grade submitted, together with the oil samples. The
+results of the tests are to be charted and submitted at the end
+of the tests, so that they may be compared with the results
+obtained by each member of the Committee.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) If possible, the oils and mixture of oils used in the above
+tests are to be ground with pure silica and painted out upon sized
+paper, three-coat work, the films to be stripped and tested for
+strength upon a paint filmometer, at two periods two months
+apart.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The drying of oils to a firm surface when spread in a thin layer
+is accompanied by an increase in weight, due to the absorption
+of oxygen. The percentage of oxygen absorbed often affords a
+criterion of the drying of the oil under examination, and this
+factor, together with data regarding the appearance of the oil
+film, should be taken into consideration when judging the value
+of an oil or oil mixture. Conditions of light, air, temperature,
+etc., often cause great variations in the drying of oils and the
+percentage of oxygen absorbed, as shown by the results obtained
+in the following tests. Although it was impossible in these tests
+to have the conditions under which each experimenter worked<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+parallel in nature, the tests afford nevertheless considerable
+information for guiding future work of a similar nature.</p>
+
+<p>An examination of the results obtained showed generally that
+the greatest increase in weight occurred during the period in
+which the oil dried up to a firm film. This occurred in most cases
+within 48 hours. After this period a slight increase in weight
+was often noticed, and then a more or less steady decline, varying
+with the oil examined. Had the oil tests been continued for a
+greater length of time, a much greater loss might have been
+observed.</p>
+
+<p>It was impossible to include in the tests the oil-silica film work,
+on account of lack of time. It is believed, however, that these
+tests should be conducted, as they would throw much light on
+the elasticity and strength given to paint films by various oils.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></p>
+
+<table class="braces fsize80 wide" summary="Table pages 32-41">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="43" class="tabhead"><span class="smcap">Table I.</span>&mdash;(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap">Boiled
+Linseed Oil (Resinate Type) 100 Per Cent.</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Observer.</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Wt.&nbsp;of&nbsp;Oil<br />for&nbsp;Test,<br />grams.</td>
+<td colspan="38" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Percentage&nbsp;Increase&nbsp;in&nbsp;Weight,&nbsp;in&nbsp;Days.</td>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center bt bb padr1 padl1">Remarks.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr3 padl3">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr3 padl3">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr3 padl3">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr3 padl3">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr3 padl3">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr3 padl3">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr3 padl3">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr3 padl3">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr3 padl3">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr3 padl3">10</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr3 padl3">11</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr3 padl3">12</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr3 padl3">13</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr3 padl3">14</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr3 padl3">15</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr3 padl3">16</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr3 padl3">17</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr3 padl3">18</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr3 padl3">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Gardner</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.1997</td>
+<td class="right">11.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">12.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">12.7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">13.1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">12.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">12.7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Dried to firm, smooth film in<br />2 days.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sabin</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.6242</td>
+<td class="right">14.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right">13.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td class="right">12.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td class="right">11.7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">11.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 padr1">7</td>
+<td class="right">10.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 padr1">4</td>
+<td class="right">10.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 padr1">2</td>
+<td class="right">10.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 padr1">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 padr1">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 padr1">3</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Pickard</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.5027</td>
+<td class="right">10.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td class="right">10.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td class="right">9.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td class="right">9.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td class="right">8.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 padr1">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 padr1">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 padr1">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left">Rogers<br />North</td>
+<td class="fsize150 br">}</td>
+<td class="center br">0.6024</td>
+<td class="right">13.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td class="right">13.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td class="right">12.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td class="right">12.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td class="right">12.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td class="right">12.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 padr1">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Tacky at end of 1st day. Nearly<br  />dry, end
+of 2d day. Perfectly dry,<br />end of 10th day.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="43" class="center"><table class="heading" summary="Table Heading">
+  <tr><td class="left">(<i>b</i>)</td>
+      <td class="left smcap padr2">Boiled Linseed Oil (Resinate Type)</td>
+      <td class="left smcap padl2">20 Per Cent.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+      <td>&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="left smcap padr2">Raw Linseed Oil</td>
+      <td class="left smcap padl2">80 Per Cent.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bt">
+<td class="left">Gardner</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.1933</td>
+<td class="right">13.6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">14.7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">14.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">14.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">14.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">14.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">14.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">14.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">14.7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">14.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">14.7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">14.7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Dried to firm, smooth film in<br />2 days.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sabin</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.3660</td>
+<td class="right">0.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td class="right">1.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td class="right">10.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td class="right">13.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Pickard</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.4640</td>
+<td class="right">12.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td class="right">11.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right">11.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td class="right">11.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td class="right">10.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left">Rogers<br />North</td>
+<td class="fsize150 br">}</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="43" class="tabhead"><span class="smcap">Table II.&mdash;</span>(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap">Boiled Linseed Oil
+(Linoleate Type) 100 Per Cent.</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Observer.</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Wt.&nbsp;of&nbsp;Oil<br />for&nbsp;Test,<br />grams.</td>
+<td colspan="38" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Percentage&nbsp;Increase&nbsp;in&nbsp;Weight,&nbsp;in&nbsp;Days.</td>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center bt bb padr1 padl1">Remarks.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">10</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">11</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">12</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">13</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">14</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">15</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">16</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">17</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">18</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bt">
+<td class="left">Gardner</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.1226</td>
+<td class="right">10.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">12.2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">12.7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">12.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">12.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">12.2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Dried firmly with smooth, even<br />film in 2 days.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sabin</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.5384</td>
+<td class="right">14.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td class="right">13.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td class="right">12.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td class="right">11.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td class="right">10.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td class="right">10.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td class="right">10.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td class="right">9.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Pickard</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.5696</td>
+<td class="right">10.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td class="right">10.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td class="right">10.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right">10.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td class="right">9.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left">Rogers<br />North</td>
+<td class="fsize150 br">}</td>
+<td class="center br">0.3306</td>
+<td class="right">12.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td class="right">11.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td class="right">10.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td class="right">11.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td class="right">10.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td class="right">11.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Tacky at end of 1st day.<br />Slightly tacky, end 2d day.
+Dry,<br />but curled, end of 10th day.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="43" class="center"><table class="heading" summary="Table Heading">
+  <tr><td class="left">(<i>b</i>)</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padr2">Boiled Linseed Oil (Linoleate Type)</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padl2">20 Per Cent.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padr2">Raw Linseed Oil</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padl2">80 Per Cent.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bt">
+<td class="left">Gardner</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.1843</td>
+<td class="right">11.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">13.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">15.1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">15.2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">15.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">14.6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">14.6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">14.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">14.4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">14.4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">14.6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">14.7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Dried with smooth film in 2<br />days.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sabin</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.5790</td>
+<td class="right">10.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td class="right">15.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td class="right">13.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td class="right">12.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right">11.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td class="right">10.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td class="right">9.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td class="right">9.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Pickard</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.4653</td>
+<td class="right">12.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td class="right">11.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td class="right">11.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td class="right">11.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td class="right">10.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left">Rogers<br />North</td>
+<td class="br fsize150">}</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="43" class="tabhead"><span class="smcap">Table III</span>.&mdash;(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap">Lithographic Linseed Oil
+100 Per Cent.</span><span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 100%"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Observer.</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Wt.&nbsp;of&nbsp;Oil<br />for&nbsp;Test,<br />grams.</td>
+<td colspan="38" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Percentage&nbsp;Increase&nbsp;in&nbsp;Weight,&nbsp;in&nbsp;Days.</td>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center bt bb padr1 padl1">Remarks.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">10</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">11</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">12</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">13</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">14</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">15</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">16</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">17</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">18</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bt">
+<td class="left">Gardner</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.4011</td>
+<td class="right">6.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8.7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8.6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.3</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Dried to glossy, firm film,<br />slightly crinkled in 2 days. Oil<br />
+made very thick film on account<br />of heavy body.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sabin</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.8733</td>
+<td class="right">0.8</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td class="right">3.8</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">5</td>
+<td class="right">5.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td class="right">6.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td class="right">6.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">6.8</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td class="right">7.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">2</td>
+<td class="right">7.3</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">6</td>
+<td class="right">7.5</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.8</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.8</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Pickard</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.8812</td>
+<td class="right">3.6</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td class="right">5.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">9</td>
+<td class="right">5.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">9</td>
+<td class="right">6.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td class="right">6.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.3</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left">Rogers<br />North</td>
+<td class="fsize150 br">}</td>
+<td class="center br">2.7318</td>
+<td class="right">.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">51</td>
+<td class="right">.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">51</td>
+<td class="right">.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">51</td>
+<td class="right">.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">41</td>
+<td class="right">.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">81</td>
+<td class="right">.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">69</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">52</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">1.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">84</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">1.6</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">41</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">2.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Remained sticky to 10 days,<br />and even at end of 38 days<br />
+was slightly tacky.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="43" class="center"><table class="heading" summary="Table Heading">
+  <tr><td class="left">(<i>b</i>)</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padr2">Lithographic Linseed Oil</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padl2">20 Per Cent.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="left smcap padr2">Raw Linseed Oil</td>
+      <td class="left smcap padl2">80 Per Cent.</td>
+   </tr>
+</table></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bt">
+<td class="left">Gardner</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.1300</td>
+<td class="right">10.2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">11.3</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">11.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">12.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">11.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">11.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Dried to firm, glossy film in<br />2 days.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sabin</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.7750</td>
+<td class="right">11.3</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">5</td>
+<td class="right">11.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td class="right">10.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td class="right">10.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td class="right">10.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.5</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">1</td>
+<td class="right">9.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td class="right">9.8</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td class="right">9.6</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.6</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.5</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.6</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left">Pickard</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.6538</td>
+<td class="right">9.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td class="right">10.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">1</td>
+<td class="right">10.3</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">9</td>
+<td class="right">10.3</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">5</td>
+<td class="right">9.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.5</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.3</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.6</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="43" class="tabhead"><span class="smcap">Table IV.</span>&mdash;(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap">Blown Linseed Oil 100
+Per Cent.</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Observer.</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Wt.&nbsp;of&nbsp;Oil<br />for&nbsp;Test,<br />grams.</td>
+<td colspan="38" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Percentage&nbsp;Increase&nbsp;in&nbsp;Weight,&nbsp;in&nbsp;Days.</td>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center bt bb padr1 padl1">Remarks.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">10</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">11</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">12</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">13</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">14</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">15</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">16</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">17</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">18</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bt">
+<td class="left">Gardner</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.2105</td>
+<td class="right">8.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">10.2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">10.2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">10.2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">10.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Ropiness of oil made very thick<br />film, but dried in less
+than 2<br />days to smooth film. Films<br />exhibited ridges.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sabin</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.8394</td>
+<td class="right">9.3</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td class="right">8.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td class="right">5.3</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td class="right">9.3</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td class="right">8.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">9</td>
+<td class="right">8.8</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">9</td>
+<td class="right">8.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td class="right">8.8</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.5</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Pickard</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.8457</td>
+<td class="right">5.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td class="right">6.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">6</td>
+<td class="right">6.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td class="right">6.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td class="right">6.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">6.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">6.8</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.6</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.8</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left">Rogers<br />North</td>
+<td class="fsize150 br">}</td>
+<td class="center br">1.0398</td>
+<td class="right">4.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">1</td>
+<td class="right">4.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">1</td>
+<td class="right">5.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">2</td>
+<td class="right">5.6</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">2</td>
+<td class="right">5.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td class="right">6.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">6.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">6.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">6.5</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">6.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Formed skin, end 1st day.<br />Slightly tacky, end 2d; dry, but<br />
+curled, end of 10th day.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="43" class="center"><table class="heading" summary="Table Heading">
+  <tr><td class="left">(<i>b</i>)</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padr2">Blown Linseed Oil</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padl2">20 Per Cent.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padr2">Raw Linseed Oil</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padl2">80 Per Cent.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bt">
+<td class="left">Gardner</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.0774</td>
+<td class="right">10.4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">12.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">13.1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">12.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">12.1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">11.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Dried up to very glossy film<br />in 2 days.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sabin</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.5329</td>
+<td class="right">11.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right">12.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td class="right">10.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td class="right">10.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td class="right">9.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td class="right">9.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td class="right">8.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td class="right">8.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left">Pickard</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.6218</td>
+<td class="right">10.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Glass broke.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="43" class="tabhead"><span class="smcap">Table V.</span>&mdash;(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap">Mineral Oil 100
+Per Cent.</span><span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 100%"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Observer.</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Wt.&nbsp;of&nbsp;Oil<br />for&nbsp;Test,<br />grams.</td>
+<td colspan="38" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Percentage&nbsp;Increase&nbsp;in&nbsp;Weight,&nbsp;in&nbsp;Days.</td>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center bt bb padr1 padl1">Remarks.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">10</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">11</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">12</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">13</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">14</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">15</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">16</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">17</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">18</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bt">
+<td class="left">Gardner</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br br">0.1632</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>12.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>14.2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>16.7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>19.4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>19.4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>19.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>19.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>19.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>19.3</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>19.4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>19.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>19.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Oil lost in weight throughout<br />test on account of presence of<br />
+volatiles. No drying action<br />observed. Film wet at end of test.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sabin</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left">Broken before weighings were<br />made.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Pickard</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left">Rogers<br />North</td>
+<td class="fsize150 br">}</td>
+<td class="center br br">0.1975</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>8.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>16.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>21.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>25.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>28.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>28.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>35.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>35.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>43.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>45.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>48.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Remained oily during entire<br />test.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="43" class="center"><table class="heading" summary="Table Heading">
+  <tr><td class="left">(<i>b</i>)</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padr2">Mineral Oil</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padl2">20 Per Cent.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padr2">Raw Linseed Oil</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padl2">80 Per Cent.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bt">
+<td class="left">Gardner</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.1884</td>
+<td class="right">6.4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">6.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">7.2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">7.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8.1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">7.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Fair drying observed end of 2d<br />day. Film tacky until end
+8th<br />day; after that, fairly firm film<br />shown.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sabin</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.5663</td>
+<td class="right">11.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td class="right">8.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td class="right">6.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td class="right">5.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td class="right">4.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">2.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right">3.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right">2.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right">2.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">2.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">1.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">0.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>0.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Pickard</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.405&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_9">[9]</a></span>9.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_9">[9]</a></span>8.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_9">[9]</a></span>6.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_9">[9]</a></span>6.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_9">[9]</a></span>4.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_9">[9]</a></span>2.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>0.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>0.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>0.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>0.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>0.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left">Rogers<br />North</td>
+<td class="fsize150 br">}</td>
+<td class="center br">0.2598</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_9">[9]</a></span>6.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_9">[9]</a></span>5.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_9">[9]</a></span>2.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_9">[9]</a></span>1.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_9">[9]</a></span>1.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_9">[9]</a></span>1.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_9">[9]</a></span>2.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>0.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>0.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>0.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Sticky, end of 1st day; tacky,<br />end of 2d day and end of<br />
+38 days.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="43" class="tabhead"><span class="smcap">Table VI.</span>&mdash;(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap">Soya Bean Oil 100 Per
+Cent.</span><span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 100%;"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Observer.</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Wt.&nbsp;of&nbsp;Oil<br />for&nbsp;Test,<br />grams.</td>
+<td colspan="38" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Percentage&nbsp;Increase&nbsp;in&nbsp;Weight,&nbsp;in&nbsp;Days.</td>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center bt bb padr1 padl1">Remarks.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">10</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">11</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">12</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">13</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">14</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">15</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">16</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">17</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">18</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bt">
+<td class="left">Gardner</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.1377</td>
+<td class="right">7.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8.4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">12.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">12.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">12.7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.3</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.3</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.3</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Film tacky until 3d day. Clear<br />and fairly firm after 4th day.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sabin</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.3972</td>
+<td class="right">9.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td class="right">9.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td class="right">8.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td class="right">7.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td class="right">7.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">6.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td class="right">6.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right">6.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td class="right">5.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">5.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">3.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Pickard</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.4366</td>
+<td class="right">9.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td class="right">9.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td class="right">9.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td class="right">8.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td class="right">8.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">6.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left">Rogers<br />North</td>
+<td class="fsize150 br">}</td>
+<td class="center br">0.3564</td>
+<td class="right">8.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td class="right">7.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td class="right">7.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right">6.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td class="right">6.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td class="right">6.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">6.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">5.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">5.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">5.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">5.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Sticky, end of 1st day; tacky,<br />end of 2d day; slightly tacky,<br />
+end of 10th and 38th days.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="43" class="center"><table class="heading" summary="Table Heading">
+  <tr><td class="left">(<i>b</i>)</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padr2">Soya Bean Oil</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padl2">20 Per Cent.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padr2">Raw Linseed Oil</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padl2">80 Per Cent.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bt">
+<td class="left">Gardner</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.2218</td>
+<td class="right">11.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">11.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">12.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">13.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">14.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">14.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">14.1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">14.1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">13.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">13.6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">13.6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">13.6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Clear, firm film observed at<br />end of 2d day.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sabin</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.2877</td>
+<td class="right">12.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td class="right">12.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td class="right">11.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td class="right">12.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td class="right">10.6</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.3</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">5</td>
+<td class="right">10.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td class="right">9.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">6</td>
+<td class="right">9.5</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.5</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Pickard</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.4581</td>
+<td class="right">13.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">6</td>
+<td class="right">12.6</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td class="right">11.8</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td class="right">11.5</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td class="right">11.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">6.6</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">6.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">6.6</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left">Rogers<br />North</td>
+<td class="br fsize150">}</td>
+<td class="center br">0.2249</td>
+<td class="right">11.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td class="right">12.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td class="right">10.3</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td class="right">9.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td class="right">9.6</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">6</td>
+<td class="right">9.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Tacky at end of 1st and 2d days.<br />Dry, end 10th day.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="43" class="tabhead"><span class="smcap">Table VII.</span>&mdash;(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap">Rosin Oil
+100 Per Cent.</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Observer.</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Wt.&nbsp;of&nbsp;Oil<br />for&nbsp;Test,<br />grams.</td>
+<td colspan="38" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Percentage&nbsp;Increase&nbsp;in&nbsp;Weight,&nbsp;in&nbsp;Days.</td>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center bt bb padr1 padl1">Remarks.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">10</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">11</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">12</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">13</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">14</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">15</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">16</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">17</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">18</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bt">
+<td class="left">Gardner</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.2590</td>
+<td class="right">1.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">1.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">1.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">3.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">5.2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">4.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Tacky throughout test.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sabin</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Pickard</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Too much on. Showed<br />constantly increasing loss<br />owing to
+the fact that it did<br />not dry and ran off glass.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left">Rogers<br />North</td>
+<td class="fsize150 br">}</td>
+<td class="center br">0.4822</td>
+<td class="right">2.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td class="right">2.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td class="right">2.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right">1.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td class="right">1.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td class="right">0.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">0.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">0.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">0.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">0.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">0.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Oily on 1st and 2d days. Tacky,<br />end of 10 and 38
+days. </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="43" class="center"><table class="heading" summary="Table Heading">
+  <tr><td class="left">(<i>b</i>)<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 100%;"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span></td>
+    <td class="left smcap padr2">Rosin Oil</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padl2">20 Per Cent.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padr2">Raw Linseed Oil</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padl2">80 Per Cent.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bt">
+<td class="left">Gardner</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.1636</td>
+<td class="right">7.4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">7.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8.4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8.1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Film dried up nicely during 3d<br />day, but remained
+slightly soft.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sabin</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.7105</td>
+<td class="right">6.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td class="right">6.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td class="right">6.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td class="right">5.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td class="right">5.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right">4.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right">4.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td class="right">4.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">3.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">3.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Pickard</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.4016</td>
+<td class="right">12.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td class="right">11.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td class="right">11.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td class="right">10.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td class="right">10.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left">Rogers<br />North</td>
+<td class="fsize150 br">}</td>
+<td class="center br">0.3263</td>
+<td class="right">11.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td class="right">12.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right">10.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td class="right">10.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td class="right">10.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right">10.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Oily at end of 1st and 2d days.<br />Slightly tacky, end of
+10th day.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="43" class="tabhead"><span class="smcap">Table VIII.</span>&mdash;(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap">Corn Oil 100 Per
+Cent.</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Observer.</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Wt.&nbsp;of&nbsp;Oil<br />for&nbsp;Test,<br />grams.</td>
+<td colspan="38" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Percentage&nbsp;Increase&nbsp;in&nbsp;Weight,&nbsp;in&nbsp;Days.</td>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center bt bb padr1 padl1">Remarks.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">10</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">11</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">12</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">13</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">14</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">15</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">16</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">17</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">18</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bt">
+<td class="left">Gardner</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.0574</td>
+<td class="right">1.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">4.2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">4.6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">4.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">7.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">7.1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">6.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Film soft and sticky throughout<br />test. Very soapy in appearance.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sabin</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.5858</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>0.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right">7.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td class="right">8.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td class="right">7.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td class="right">7.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">5.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td class="right">6.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right">5.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td class="right">5.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">5.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">3.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Pickard</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.4981</td>
+<td class="right">1.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right">5.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td class="right">7.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a name="FNanchor_1_10" id="FNanchor_1_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_10">[10]</a></span>11.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td class="right">11.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">6.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">5.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">5.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">5.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left">Rogers<br />North</td>
+<td class="fsize150 br">}</td>
+<td class="center br">0.3300</td>
+<td class="right">4.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td class="right">7.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td class="right">7.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td class="right">6.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td class="right">6.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td class="right">6.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">6.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">5.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">5.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">5.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">5.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="43" class="center"><table class="heading" summary="Table Heading">
+  <tr><td class="left">(<i>b</i>)</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padr2">Corn Oil</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padl2">20 Per Cent.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padr2">Raw Linseed Oil</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padl2">80 Per Cent.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bt">
+<td class="left">Gardner</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.1664</td>
+<td class="right">7.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8.4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8.6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">10.2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">10.4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">10.6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.3</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.3</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.3</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Film tacky at end of test.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sabin</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.5469</td>
+<td class="right">13.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td class="right">12.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td class="right">11.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right">10.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td class="right">10.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td class="right">9.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Pickard</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.3716</td>
+<td class="right">13.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td class="right">12.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right">12.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td class="right">11.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td class="right">11.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left">Rogers<br />North</td>
+<td class="fsize150 br">}</td>
+<td class="center br">0.1711</td>
+<td class="right">11.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td class="right">11.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td class="right">9.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td class="right">8.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td class="right">8.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td class="right">8.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Tacky, end of 1st and 2d days.<br />Dry, end 10th day.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="43" class="center tabhead"><span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 100%;"><a name="Page_37"
+id="Page_37">[37]</a></span><span class="smcap">Table IX.</span>&mdash;(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap">Cotton
+Seed Oil 100 Per Cent.</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Observer.</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Wt.&nbsp;of&nbsp;Oil<br />for&nbsp;Test,<br />grams.</td>
+<td colspan="38" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Percentage&nbsp;Increase&nbsp;in&nbsp;Weight,&nbsp;in&nbsp;Days.</td>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center bt bb padr1 padl1">Remarks.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">10</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">11</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">12</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">13</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">14</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">15</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">16</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">17</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">18</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bt">
+<td class="left">Gardner</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.2026</td>
+<td class="right">4.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">4.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">4.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">5.1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8.6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8.7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Film showed very little hardening<br />and remained soft and tacky.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sabin</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.7247</td>
+<td class="right">8.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td class="right">7.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td class="right">6.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td class="right">6.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td class="right">5.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td class="right">5.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td class="right">4.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td class="right">4.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Pickard</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.4135</td>
+<td class="right">7.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td class="right">7.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td class="right">6.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right">6.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td class="right">5.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">3.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">2.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">1.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">2.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">2.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">2.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left">Rogers<br />North</td>
+<td class="fsize150 br">}</td>
+<td class="center br">0.3583</td>
+<td class="right">6.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td class="right">5.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td class="right">4.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td class="right">4.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td class="right">4.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td class="right">4.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">2.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">3.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">3.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">3.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Tacky, end 2d day. Slightly<br />tacky, end 10th and 38th days.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="43" class="center"><table class="heading" summary="Table Heading">
+  <tr><td class="left">(<i>b</i>)</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padr2">Cotton Seed Oil</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padl2">20 Per Cent.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padr2">Raw Linseed Oil</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padl2">80 Per Cent.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bt">
+<td class="left">Gardner</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.1516</td>
+<td class="right">8.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8.7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9.1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">10.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">11.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">11.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Fair drying observed at end of<br />4th day. Film
+slightly tacky at<br />end of test.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sabin</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.9498</td>
+<td class="right">11.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td class="right">11.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td class="right">10.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td class="right">10.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td class="right">9.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right">9.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right">9.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td class="right">9.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Pickard</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.6160</td>
+<td class="right">10.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td class="right">10.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td class="right">10.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td class="right">10.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td class="right">9.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left">Rogers<br />North</td>
+<td class="fsize150 br">}</td>
+<td class="center br">0.2553</td>
+<td class="right">11.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td class="right">11.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td class="right">10.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td class="right">9.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td class="right">9.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td class="right">9.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Tacky on 1st and 2d days. Dry<br />on 10th day.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="43" class="center tabhead"><span class="smcap">Table X.</span>&mdash;(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap">Sun
+Flower Oil 100 Per Cent.</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Observer.</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Wt.&nbsp;of&nbsp;Oil<br />for&nbsp;Test,<br />grams.</td>
+<td colspan="38" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Percentage&nbsp;Increase&nbsp;in&nbsp;Weight,&nbsp;in&nbsp;Days.</td>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center bt bb padr1 padl1">Remarks.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">10</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">11</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">12</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">13</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">14</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">15</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">16</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">17</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">18</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bt">
+<td class="left">Gardner</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.1414</td>
+<td class="right">6.3</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8.2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">11.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">11.6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">11.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">11.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.3</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.3</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.3</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.3</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Film fairly firm, end of 3d<br />day.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sabin</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.6292</td>
+<td class="right">9.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td class="right">9.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right">7.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td class="right">7.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td class="right">7.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">6.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right">6.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td class="right">6.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right">5.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">5.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">5.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Pickard</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.5837</td>
+<td class="right">7.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td class="right">7.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td class="right">7.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td class="right">7.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right">6.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">5.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left">Rogers<br />North</td>
+<td class="fsize150 br">}</td>
+<td class="center br">0.2540</td>
+<td class="right">8.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td class="right">6.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td class="right">6.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td class="right">6.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td class="right">5.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td class="right">6.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">6.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">5.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Sticky, end 1st day; tacky, end<br />2d day; slightly tacky, end<br />10th day.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="43" class="center"><table class="heading" summary="Table Heading">
+  <tr><td class="left">(<i>b</i>)<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 100%"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span></td>
+    <td class="left smcap padr2">Sun Flower Oil</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padl2">20 Per Cent.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padr2">Raw Linseed Oil</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padl2">80 Per Cent.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bt">
+<td class="left">Gardner</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.1600</td>
+<td class="right">9.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">11.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">11.1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">11.3</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">11.4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">10.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Good firm, glossy film shown at<br />end of 2d day.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sabin</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.5030</td>
+<td class="right">14.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">1</td>
+<td class="right">14.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">1</td>
+<td class="right">12.6</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">6</td>
+<td class="right">14.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">1</td>
+<td class="right">11.5</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td class="right">10.6</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td class="right">10.3</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td class="right">10.3</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.3</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.3</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Pickard</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.4470</td>
+<td class="right">12.6</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">2</td>
+<td class="right">12.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">2</td>
+<td class="right">11.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td class="right">11.6</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">5</td>
+<td class="right">10.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">6.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">5.5</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">6.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">5.8</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">5.3</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left">Rogers<br />North</td>
+<td class="fsize150 br">}</td>
+<td class="center br">0.2261</td>
+<td class="right">11.5</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td class="right">11.8</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">5</td>
+<td class="right">9.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">2</td>
+<td class="right">9.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td class="right">8.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">5</td>
+<td class="right">9.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.5</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.5</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.6</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Dry on 1st, 2d and 10th days.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="43" class="center tabhead"><span class="smcap">Table XI.</span>&mdash;(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap">Menhaden
+Oil 100 Per Cent.</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Observer.</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Wt.&nbsp;of&nbsp;Oil<br />for&nbsp;Test,<br />grams.</td>
+<td colspan="38" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Percentage&nbsp;Increase&nbsp;in&nbsp;Weight,&nbsp;in&nbsp;Days.</td>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center bt bb padr1 padl1">Remarks.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">10</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">11</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">12</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">13</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">14</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">15</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">16</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">17</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">18</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bt">
+<td class="left">Gardner</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.1944</td>
+<td class="right">7.7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8.1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">10.1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Good drying during 2d day.<br />Fairly firm film.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sabin</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.5282</td>
+<td class="right">12.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td class="right">12.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td class="right">11.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td class="right">11.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td class="right">11.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td class="right">11.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td class="right">11.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">5</td>
+<td class="right">11.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.3</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.8</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.3</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Pickard</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.7005</td>
+<td class="right">10.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">9</td>
+<td class="right">10.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td class="right">10.8</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">5</td>
+<td class="right">10.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td class="right">10.5</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left">Rogers<br />North</td>
+<td class="fsize150 br">}</td>
+<td class="center br">0.3150</td>
+<td class="right">11.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td class="right">10.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">6</td>
+<td class="right">9.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">2</td>
+<td class="right">9.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td class="right">9.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td class="right">10.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.3</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.8</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.3</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Sticky, end 1st day. Slightly<br />sticky, end 2d and 10th days.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="43" class="center"><table class="heading" summary="Table Heading">
+  <tr><td class="left">(<i>b</i>)</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padr2">Menhaden Oil</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padl2">20 Per Cent.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padr2">Raw Linseed Oil</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padl2">80 Per Cent.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bt">
+<td class="left">Gardner</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.2448</td>
+<td class="right">8.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">10.4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">12.2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">12.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">12.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">12.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Good firm, elastic film shown<br />after 2d day.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sabin</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.4959</td>
+<td class="right">14.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">1</td>
+<td class="right">13.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td class="right">12.6</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td class="right">12.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td class="right">11.5</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td class="right">11.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">9</td>
+<td class="right">11.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td class="right">10.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Pickard</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.4201</td>
+<td class="right">13.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">9</td>
+<td class="right">12.8</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td class="right">12.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td class="right">11.8</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">1</td>
+<td class="right">11.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.5</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.3</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left">Rogers<br />North</td>
+<td class="fsize150 br">}</td>
+<td class="center br">0.2456</td>
+<td class="right">10.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">9</td>
+<td class="right">11.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td class="right">9.5</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">6</td>
+<td class="right">8.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td class="right">8.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">2</td>
+<td class="right">8.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.3</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.3</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Nearly dry on 1st and 2d days.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="43" class="center tabhead"><span class="smcap">Table XII.</span>&mdash;(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap">Raw Chinese Wood
+Oil 100 Per Cent.</span><span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 100%;"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Observer.</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Wt.&nbsp;of&nbsp;Oil<br />for&nbsp;Test,<br />grams.</td>
+<td colspan="38" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Percentage&nbsp;Increase&nbsp;in&nbsp;Weight,&nbsp;in&nbsp;Days.</td>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center bt bb padr1 padl1">Remarks.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">10</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">11</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">12</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">13</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">14</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">15</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">16</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">17</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">18</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bt">
+<td class="left">Gardner</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.2266</td>
+<td class="right">4.1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">11.2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">14.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">14.4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">14.4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">14.2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">14.2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">14.2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">14.2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">14.2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">14.2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">14.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Film crystallized and remained<br />soft until 3d day. Hard but<br />
+opaque film shown after 4th day.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sabin</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.5545</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">2</td>
+<td class="right">11.5</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td class="right">11.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.5</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td class="right">10.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td class="right">10.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td class="right">10.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.8</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.8</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">6</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Pickard</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.4933</td>
+<td class="right">0.5</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">9</td>
+<td class="right">2.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">9</td>
+<td class="right">5.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td class="right">7.5</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">6</td>
+<td class="right">8.6</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.6</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.3</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left">Rogers<br />North</td>
+<td class="fsize150 br">}</td>
+<td class="center br">0.4036</td>
+<td class="right">0.5</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td class="right">2.8</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td class="right">5.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td class="right">6.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td class="right">6.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td class="right">7.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.3</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.5</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Sticky, end of 1st and 2d days;<br />dry but drawn,
+end of 10th day.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="43" class="center"><table class="heading" summary="Table Heading">
+  <tr><td class="left">(<i>b</i>)</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padr2">Raw Chinese Wood Oil</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padl2">20 Per Cent.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padr2">Raw Linseed Oil</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padl2">80 Per Cent.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bt">
+<td class="left">Gardner</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.2087</td>
+<td class="right">9.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">12.1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">12.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">12.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">12.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">12.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Clear and firm film shown after<br />3d day.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sabin</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.2967</td>
+<td class="right">14.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">6</td>
+<td class="right">13.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">1</td>
+<td class="right">11.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">2</td>
+<td class="right">10.6</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td class="right">9.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.6</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">6</td>
+<td class="right">8.8</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">6</td>
+<td class="right">8.8</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td class="right">8.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Pickard</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.3683</td>
+<td class="right">14.3</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td class="right">13.6</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">6</td>
+<td class="right">13.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">1</td>
+<td class="right">12.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">1</td>
+<td class="right">11.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.5</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.8</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.3</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left">Rogers<br />North</td>
+<td class="fsize150 br">}</td>
+<td class="center br">0.2285</td>
+<td class="right">11.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">9</td>
+<td class="right">11.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td class="right">10.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td class="right">9.3</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td class="right">9.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td class="right">9.3</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.3</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">7.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td> </td>
+<td class="left">Dry at end of 1st day.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="43" class="center tabhead"><span class="smcap">Table XIII.</span>&mdash;(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap">Chinese Wood Oil
+(Treated) 100 Per Cent.</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Observer.</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Wt.&nbsp;of&nbsp;Oil<br />for&nbsp;Test,<br />grams.</td>
+<td colspan="38" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Percentage&nbsp;Increase&nbsp;in&nbsp;Weight,&nbsp;in&nbsp;Days.</td>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center bt bb padr1 padl1">Remarks.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">10</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">11</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">12</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">13</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">14</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">15</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">16</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">17</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">18</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bt">
+<td class="left">Gardner</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.1678</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>38.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>30.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>28.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>28.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>28.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>28.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>28.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">27.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>26.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>26.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>26.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>26.2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Loss observed due to presence<br />of volatiles. Firm, clear
+film<br />shown at end of 1st day.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sabin</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.4159</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>19.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">6</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>20.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">6</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>20.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>20.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>20.8</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>21.0</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">9</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>20.8</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>20.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>20.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>20.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>20.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>21.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>21.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">1</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Pickard</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.2934</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>0.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">2</td>
+<td class="right"><span class="fnanchor"><a href="#Footnote_1_8">[8]</a></span>0.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">1</td>
+<td class="right">0.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">2</td>
+<td class="right">0.7</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">9</td>
+<td class="right">0.1</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">0.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">0.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">0.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">0.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">0.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">0.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left">Rogers<br />North</td>
+<td class="fsize150 br">}</td>
+<td class="center br">0.3937</td>
+<td class="right">3.5</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td class="right">3.5</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td class="right">3.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">5</td>
+<td class="right">3.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">5</td>
+<td class="right">3.3</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td class="right">2.9</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">2.5</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">3.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">3.2</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">2.6</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">2.4</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Dry at end of 1st day.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="43" class="center"><table class="heading" summary="Table Heading">
+  <tr><td class="left">(<i>b</i>)<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 100%;"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span></td>
+    <td class="left smcap padr2">Chinese Wood Oil (Treated)</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padl2">20 Per Cent.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padr2">Raw Linseed Oil</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padl2">80 Per Cent.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bt">
+<td class="left">Gardner</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.1638</td>
+<td class="right">8.4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9.4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9.7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Clear and hard film shown<br />during 2d day.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sabin</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.6572</td>
+<td class="right">9.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td class="right">8.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td class="right">7.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td class="right">6.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td class="right">6.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">5.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td class="right">5.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td class="right">5.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td class="right">5.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">5.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Pickard</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.4892</td>
+<td class="right">8.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td class="right">8.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td class="right">8.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td class="right">8.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td class="right">7.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">6.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">5.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">5.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">6.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">6.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">5.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left">Rogers<br />North</td>
+<td class="fsize150 br">}</td>
+<td class="center br">0.2644</td>
+<td class="right">3.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td class="right">3.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td class="right">2.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td class="right">1.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td class="right">1.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td class="right">1.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">2.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">1.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">0.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">1.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Dry at end of 1st day.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="43" class="center tabhead"><span class="smcap">Table XIV.</span>&mdash;(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap">20 Per Cent. Dry
+Rosin in 80 Per Cent. Linseed Oil 100 Per Cent.</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Observer.</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Wt.&nbsp;of&nbsp;Oil<br />for&nbsp;Test,<br />grams.</td>
+<td colspan="38" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Percentage&nbsp;Increase&nbsp;in&nbsp;Weight,&nbsp;in&nbsp;Days.</td>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center bt bb padr1 padl1">Remarks.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">10</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">11</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">12</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">13</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">14</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">15</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">16</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">17</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">18</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bt">
+<td class="left">Gardner</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.2030</td>
+<td class="right">12.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">14.1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">14.8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">14.2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">14.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">14.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">14.1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">14.1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">14.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">14.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">14.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">14.1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Rapid drying observed. Hard<br />film shown during 2d day.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sabin</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Pickard</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.5185</td>
+<td class="right">3.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td class="right">8.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td class="right">9.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td class="right">9.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td class="right">8.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left">Rogers<br />North</td>
+<td class="fsize150 br">}</td>
+<td class="center br">0.2554</td>
+<td class="right">1.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td class="right">11.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td class="right">12.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td class="right">12.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td class="right">12.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right">12.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">13.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Oily, end 1st and 2d days;<br />slightly tacky, end 10th day.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="43" class="center"><table class="heading" summary="Table Heading">
+  <tr><td class="left">(<i>b</i>)</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padr2">20 Per Cent. Dry Rosin in 80 Per Cent. Linseed Oil</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padl2">20 Per Cent.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padr2">Raw Linseed Oil</td>
+    <td class="left smcap padl2">80 Per Cent.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bt">
+<td class="left">Gardner</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.1500</td>
+<td class="right">10.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">13.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">13.6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">13.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">13.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">13.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">13.1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">13.1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">13.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">13.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">13.2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Clear, hard film after 2d day.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sabin</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.7105</td>
+<td class="right">14.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td class="right">13.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td class="right">11.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td class="right">11.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td class="right">10.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td class="right">10.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td class="right">10.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td class="right">10.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Pickard</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.4568</td>
+<td class="right">12.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td class="right">12.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td class="right">12.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td class="right">12.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right">11.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left">Rogers<br />North</td>
+<td class="fsize150 br">}</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="43" class="center tabhead"><span class="smcap">Table XV.</span>&mdash;(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap">Raw Linseed Oil
+100 Per Cent.</span><a name="FNanchor_1_11" id="FNanchor_1_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a><span
+class='pagenum' style="font-size: 100%;"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Observer.</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Wt.&nbsp;of&nbsp;Oil<br />for&nbsp;Test,<br />grams.</td>
+<td colspan="38" class="center bt br bb padr1 padl1">Percentage&nbsp;Increase&nbsp;in&nbsp;Weight,&nbsp;in&nbsp;Days.</td>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center bt bb padr1 padl1">Remarks.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">10</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">11</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">12</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">13</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">14</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">15</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">16</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">17</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">18</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bt">
+<td class="left">Sabin</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.5274</td>
+<td class="right">0.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td class="right">0.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td class="right">0.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td class="right">2.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td class="right">9.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">14.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td class="right">14.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td class="right">14.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td class="right">13.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">13.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">12.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">11.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left">Pickard</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">0.5326</td>
+<td class="right">12.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right">12.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td class="right">11.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td class="right">11.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td class="right">11.0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">9.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10.7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="43" class="center tabhead">(<i>b</i>) <span class="smcap">Drier 100 Per Cent.</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bt bb">
+<td class="left">Rogers<br />North</td>
+<td class="fsize150 br">}</td>
+<td class="center br">0.3445</td>
+<td class="right">48.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td class="right">48.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td class="right">48.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td class="right">48.6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td class="right">48.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td class="right">48.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">48.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">48.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">48.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">48.2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Dry at end of 1st day.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_8" id="Footnote_1_8"></a><span class="label">[8]</span> Lost in weight throughout
+test.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_9" id="Footnote_1_9"></a><span class="label">[9]</span>Gained in weight throughout
+test.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_10" id="Footnote_1_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a>
+Moth got in.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_11" id="Footnote_1_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a>
+The test of this oil was made without the addition of 5 per cent. of drier, the quantity used in all the other tests.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="Ch3" id="Ch3"></a>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<h3>PAINT PIGMENTS AND THEIR PROPERTIES</h3>
+
+<p>For the student of paint technology, who is not already acquainted
+with the chemistry and physics of the various raw
+pigments which are largely used in the manufacture of paints,
+the writer advises a careful reading of this chapter, in which the
+matter has been condensed as much as possible. In order to
+more thoroughly acquaint the reader with the physical constitution
+of the pigments under consideration, there has been
+included photomicrographs, which show to advantage the
+structure of each.<a name="FNanchor_1_12" id="FNanchor_1_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_12" id="Footnote_1_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a>
+The author gratefully acknowledges the assistance of Dr. J. A. Schaeffer
+in the preparation of the photomicrographs shown in this chapter.</p></div>
+
+<table class="illo" summary="Illustration P 42">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter padr2"><a name="Photo08" id="Photo08"></a><img src="images/illo053a.jpg" alt="Carbonate-White Lead Polarized"
+width="300" height="299" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter padl2"><img src="images/illo053b.jpg" alt="Carbonate-White Lead Transmitted" width="302" height="300" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="subcaption padr2">By Polarized Light</td>
+<td class="subcaption padl2">By Transmitted Light</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="caption">Basic Carbonate-White Lead</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><b>Basic Carbonate-White Lead.</b> This <a href="#Photo08">pigment</a> is made by
+stacking clay pots containing dilute acetic acid and lead buckles,
+in tiers, and covering them with tan bark. Fermentation of
+the tan bark, with subsequent formation of carbon dioxide
+acting on the acetate of lead formed within the pots, produces
+basic carbonate of lead. After complete corrosion, the white
+lead is ground, floated, and dried. Corroded white lead has a
+specific gravity of 6.8 and contains about 85% lead oxide and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>
+15% of carbon dioxide and water. Its opaque nature and
+excellent body renders it extremely valuable as a constituent
+of paints. Checking and chalking progress rapidly when the
+pigment is used alone. The various sized particles, both large
+and small, resulting from the corrosion process, are prominently
+shown in the photomicrograph.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Photo13" id="Photo13"></a>
+<img src="images/illo054a.jpg" alt="Cerrusite Crystals in Old Dutch Process White" width="300" height="296" />
+<p class="caption">Crystals of Cerussite in Old Dutch Process White
+Lead. (Greatly magnified)</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Photo12" id="Photo12"></a>
+<img src="images/illo054b.jpg" alt="White Lead Quick Process" width="300" height="302" />
+<p class="caption">White Lead (Quick Process)</p></div>
+
+<p>On account of its alkaline nature, this pigment acts upon the
+saponifiable oil in which it is ground, forming lead soaps which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+accelerate chalking of white lead&mdash;the greatest evil attending
+its use. Solubility in carbonic acid of the atmosphere and
+decay in the presence of sodium chloride may be active causes
+of the rapid chalking of this pigment at the seashore. Checking
+in some climates appears to proceed rapidly on white lead paints,
+in a deep hexagonal form, leaving a series of rough crests and
+cracks. This checking is secondary to the chalking which takes
+place.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Photo09" id="Photo09"></a>
+<img src="images/illo055a.jpg" alt="Corrosion Cylinders for making Quick Process White Lead" width="500" height="350" />
+<p class="caption">Corrosion cylinders used for making Quick Process White Lead</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Photo10" id="Photo10"></a>
+<img src="images/illo055b.jpg" alt="Lead Melting Pots" width="500" height="368" />
+<p class="caption">Lead Melting Pots</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span><b>White Lead (Quick Process).</b> By acting on atomized metallic
+lead, contained within large revolving <a href="#Photo09">wooden cylinders</a>, with dilute
+acetic acid and carbon dioxide, the <a href="#Photo12">quick-process white lead</a> is
+produced. Its value is equal to the <a href="#Photo13">Dutch-process white lead</a>, and
+it is considered by some as possessing greater spreading value.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo056a.jpg"
+alt="Sheet iron box for hydrating Lead" width="500" height="345" />
+<p class="caption">Sheet iron box luted at bottom with water. Atomized lead,
+blown into box with steam, falls to bottom and becomes
+hydrated (Mild Process)</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Photo11" id="Photo11"></a>
+<img src="images/illo056b.jpg" alt="Agitation Tanks for making Mild Process Lead" width="500" height="344" />
+<p class="photocredit left"><i>Photographs courtesy of Stowe Neal</i></p>
+<p class="caption">View of agitation tanks for making Mild Process Lead</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>White Lead (Mild Process).</b> The Mild Process of manufacturing
+white lead consists of first <a href="#Photo10">melting the pig lead</a> and
+converting it into the finest kind of lead powder, then mixing thoroughly
+with <a href="#Photo11">air and water</a>. The lead takes up water and oxygen
+and forms a basic hydroxide of lead. Carbon dioxide gas is
+next pumped slowly through the <a href="#Photo11">cylinders</a> which contain the
+basic hydroxide of lead. The result is basic carbonate of lead&mdash;the
+dry white lead of commerce. The process is called &#8220;Mild&#8221;
+because it is the mildest process possible for the manufacture of
+white lead. It is the only method in practical operation which
+does not require the use of acids, alkalis or other chemicals,
+every trace of which should be removed from the finished product
+by expensive purifying processes. The failure of such washing
+and purifying means a product of inferior quality, which necessarily
+reduces the durability of any paint in which it is used.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo057.jpg" alt="Steam Jected Pans" width="500" height="367" />
+<p class="caption">Steam Jected Pans for Drying White Lead</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Basic Sulphate-White Lead (Sublimed White Lead).</b> By
+the action of the oxygen of the air on the fume produced by the
+<a href="#Photo15">roasting</a> and subsequent volatilization of galena, this fine, white,
+amorphous pigment is made. On analysis, its composition
+shows approximately 75% of lead sulphate, 20% of lead oxide,
+and 5% of zinc oxide. It has a specific gravity of 6.2.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+Possessed of extreme stability, it finds wide use as a constituent
+of paints and as a base for tinting colors. The <a href="#Photo14">photomicrograph</a>
+of this pigment shows its extremely fine, amorphous nature
+with complete absence of crystals. In fineness it closely
+approaches zinc oxide. On account of its non-poisonous
+properties it is replacing corroded lead in many places. Unified
+paints containing sublimed white lead are of great value, showing
+upon long exposure very little decay.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Photo15" id="Photo15"></a>
+<img src="images/illo058.jpg" alt="Sublimed White Lead Furnace" width="500" height="428" />
+<p class="caption">View of Furnace for Making Sublimed White Lead</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo059a.jpg" alt="Goosenecks Used for Collecting Sublimed White Lead Fume"
+width="300" height="425" />
+<p class="caption">View of Goosenecks Used for Collecting Sublimed White
+Lead Fume</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo059b.jpg"
+alt="Bag Room for Deposit of Sublimed White Lead" width="300" height="391" />
+<p class="caption">Bag Room Where Sublimed White Lead is Deposited</p>
+<p class="photocredit left"><i>Photographs courtesy of Picher Lead Co.</i></p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Photo14" id="Photo14"></a>
+<img src="images/illo060a.jpg" alt="Sublimed White Lead" width="300" height="297" />
+<p class="caption">Sublimed White Lead</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo060b.jpg" alt="Hazards, Pa. Zinc Oxide Works" width="500" height="246" />
+<p class="caption">View of largest Zinc Oxide Works in America, at Hazards, Pa.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Sublimed Blue Lead.</b> Sublimed blue lead is made by burning
+coarsely broken lumps of galena, admixed with bituminous coal,
+in a special form of furnace. The fumes which are volatilized
+from this mixture are very complex in their chemical make-up,
+and in color are white, blue, and black. After being drawn
+through the cooling pipes by the suction of huge fans, whereby
+the fumes are cooled, the pigment is deposited in bags. This
+pigment is bluish black in color, and has been highly recommended
+for use on iron and steel. Its composition runs approximately
+as follows:</p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table P 49">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr2">Lead sulphate</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr2">Lead oxide</td>
+<td class="right">35%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr2">Lead sulphide</td>
+<td class="right">5%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr2">Lead sulphite</td>
+<td class="right">5%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr2">Zinc oxide</td>
+<td class="right">2%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr2">Carbon</td>
+<td class="right">3%</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo061a.jpg" alt="Zinc Oxide Furnaces" width="300" height="429" />
+<p class="caption">View of Zinc Oxide Furnaces</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo061b.jpg" alt="Zinc Oxide Fume Pipes with electric suction Fans"
+width="300" height="423" />
+<p class="photocredit left" style="margin-right: -2em;"><i>Photographs courtesy Geo. B. Heckel and N. J. Zinc Co.</i></p>
+<p class="caption">View of Zinc Oxide Fume Pipes with
+electrically driven Suction Fans</p></div>
+
+<p>The color of the pigment is largely due to the carbon and the
+lead sulphide. Its specific gravity is 6.4, and it grinds in
+10% of oil to a stiff paste, 100 lbs. of which may be thinned
+with about 26 lbs. of oil to working consistency. Paint manufacturers
+use it in mixture with iron oxide and other pigments
+for the production of paints for metal surfaces. Wood and
+others have found it of great value for this purpose. It has a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+tendency to chalk, but this may be overcome by admixture
+with other pigments such as zinc oxide and iron oxide. Lane
+has found it to be very durable when admixed with lampblack.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo062.jpg" alt="Bag Room receiving Zinc Oxide" width="300" height="400" />
+<p class="caption">View of Bag Room receiving Zinc Oxide</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Zinc Oxide.</b> This extremely white and fine pigment is prepared
+by the roasting and sublimation of franklinite, zincite,
+and other zinc-bearing ores largely found in New Jersey. Its
+purity approaches in most instances 99.5 or more. It has a
+specific gravity of 5.2. On account of its stability, whiteness,
+and opacity, it is invaluable as a pigment when a constituent
+in a combination formula. Its extreme hardness renders it less
+resistant to temperature changes, when used alone. <a href="#Photo16">Under the
+microscope</a> the fineness and structure of the particles are clearly
+evident. The French-process zinc oxide produced in America
+by the sublimation and oxidation of spelter is the purest made,
+and superior to imported grades which often contain ultramarine
+blue as a whitening agent.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></p>
+
+<table class="illo" summary="Illustrations P 52">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><a name="Photo16" id="Photo16"></a>
+<img src="images/illo063a.jpg" alt="Zinc Oxide" width="300" height="300" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><a name="Photo17" id="Photo17"></a>
+<img src="images/illo063b.jpg" alt="Zinc Lead White" width="300" height="304" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption">Zinc Oxide</td>
+<td class="caption">Zinc Lead White</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo063c.jpg" alt="Zinc Lead" width="300" height="300" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="caption">Zinc Lead. By transmitted light<br />(<i>The Pigment shows black</i>)</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><a name="Photo18" id="Photo18"></a>
+<img src="images/illo063d.jpg" alt="Lithopone" width="300" height="302" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><a name="Photo19" id="Photo19"></a>
+<img src="images/illo063e.jpg" alt="Magnesium Silicate (Asbestine)" width="300" height="299" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption">Lithopone</td>
+<td class="caption">Magnesium Silicate (Asbestine)</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><b>Zinc Lead White.</b> This extremely fine pigment, consisting
+of about equal parts of zinc oxide and lead sulphate,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> results
+from the reduction, volatilization and subsequent oxidation of
+sulphur-bearing lead and zinc ores. It has a specific gravity of
+4.4. Its slightly yellowish tint bars it from being used alone
+very extensively, but when mixed with white lead, zinc oxide
+and inert pigments, or used as a base for colored paints, it is of
+considerable value. The <a href="#Photo17">magnification</a> of the particles shows
+the peculiar way in which the pigment agglomerates, and the
+characteristics of a fine, uniform pigment.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo064.jpg" alt="Easton, Pa. Asbestine Mine" width="500" height="405" />
+<p class="caption">Asbestine Mine at Easton, Pa.</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo065a.jpg" alt="American Barytes" width="300" height="302" />
+<p class="caption">American Barytes. Transmitted light<br />
+(<i>The Pigment shows black</i>)</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo065b.jpg" alt="German Barytes" width="300" height="303" />
+<p class="caption">German Barytes. Mag. 250 Diam.<br />
+(<i>The Pigment shows white</i>)</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Lithopone.</b> Lithopone, probably the whitest of pigments,
+results from the double decomposition of zinc sulphate and
+barium sulphide, thereby forming a molecular combination of
+zinc sulphide and barium sulphate. The peculiar property which
+it possesses, of darkening under the actinic rays of the sun,
+makes it essential that it be combined with other, more stable
+pigments to prolong its life when exposed to weather. Lithopone
+contains approximately 70% barium sulphate, 25 to
+28% zinc sulphide, and as high as 5% of zinc oxide. Its
+specific gravity is about 4.25. It is excellently suited<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> for
+interior use in the manufacture of enamels and wall finishes.
+When properly mixed with other pigments, such as zinc oxide
+and calcium carbonate, fair results are obtained as a pigment
+for outside work. Lead pigments are never used with lithopone,
+as lead sulphide results, giving a black appearance. Its characteristic
+flocculent, non-crystalline nature is plainly evident
+when examined <a href="#Photo18">under the microscope</a>.</p>
+
+<table class="illo" summary="Illustrations P 54">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><a name="Photo20" id="Photo20"></a><img src="images/illo066a.jpg" alt="Barium Sulphate Polarized Light"
+width="300" height="300" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo066b.jpg" alt="Barium Sulphate Transmitted Light" width="300" height="298" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="subcaption">By Polarized Light</td>
+<td class="subcaption">By Transmitted Light</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="caption">Barium Sulphate (Barytes)</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><b>Magnesium Silicate (Asbestine and Talcose).</b> This pigment
+comes in two forms: as <a href="#Photo19">asbestine</a> and as talcose (talc, etc.).
+The former is very fibrous in nature and is a very stable pigment
+to use in the manufacture of paint, on account of its inert nature
+and tendency to hold up heavier pigments, and prevent settling.
+It also has the property of strengthening a paint coat in which
+it is used. The talcose variety is very tabular in form. Both
+varieties are transparent in oil, and very inert. They have a
+gravity of about 2.7 and grind in about 32% of oil.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo067a.jpg" alt="Barium Carbonate" width="300" height="308" />
+<p class="caption">Barium Carbonate. Mag. 250 Diam.<br />
+(<i>The Pigment shows white</i>)</p></div>
+
+<table class="illo" summary="Illustrations P 57 bottom">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><a name="Photo21" id="Photo21"></a><img src="images/illo067b.jpg" alt="Barium Sulphate"
+width="300" height="299" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><a name="Photo22" id="Photo22"></a><img src="images/illo067c.jpg" alt="Barium Carbonate"
+width="300" height="295" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption">Barium Sulphate (Blanc Fixe)</td>
+<td class="caption">Calcium Carbonate (Whiting)</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo068a.jpg" alt="Calcium Carbonate" width="300" height="301" />
+<p class="caption">Calcium Carbonate. By transmitted light<br />
+(<i>The Pigment shows black</i>)</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo068b.jpg" alt="Calcium Sulphate" width="300" height="301" />
+<p class="caption">Calcium Sulphate. By transmitted light<br />
+(<i>The Pigment shows black</i>)</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo069a.jpg" alt="Calcium Sulphate" width="300" height="302" />
+<p class="caption">Calcium Sulfate</p></div>
+
+<table class="illo" summary="Illustrations P 58 bottom">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><a name="Photo23" id="Photo23"></a><img src="images/illo069b.jpg" alt="Calcium Sulphate (Gypsum)"
+width="300" height="304" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><a name="Photo24" id="Photo24"></a><img src="images/illo069c.jpg" alt="Silica (Silex)"
+width="300" height="304" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption">Calcium Sulphate (Gypsum)</td>
+<td class="caption">Silica (Silex)</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo070a.jpg" alt="Silex" width="300" height="300" />
+<p class="caption">Silex. Mag. 250 Diam.<br />
+(<i>The Pigment shows white</i>)</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Photo25" id="Photo25"></a>
+<img src="images/illo070b.jpg" alt="China Clay" width="300" height="302" />
+<p class="caption">China Clay. By transmitted light<br />
+(<i>The Pigment shows black</i>)</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Barium Sulphate (Barytes).</b> By grinding the crude ore,
+treating with acid to remove the iron, and finally washing,
+floating, and drying, there is produced the commercial form of
+this valuable pigment. It is used in large quantity as a base
+upon which to precipitate colors, and also together with other
+white pigments in the manufacture of ready-mixed paints. It
+renders the paint coating more resistant to abrasion, and gives
+to the paint certain very important brushing qualities. It is a
+very stable pigment, not being materially affected by either acid
+or alkali, and can be used with the most delicate colors. In
+oil it is transparent and must be mixed with opaque pigments
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>when used in ready-mixed paints. It is generally used with
+lighter pigments, such as asbestine, in order to prevent settling.
+Under the <a href="#Photo20">microscope</a>, both by polarized and transmitted light,
+the sharp angles of the particles appear distinctly, with no tendency
+to mass into a compact form. Although transparent
+in oil, it is valuable in moderate percentage in a ready-mixed
+paint.</p>
+
+<p><b>Barium Sulphate (Blanc Fixe).</b> Blanc fixe is the precipitated
+form of barium sulphate, resulting from the action of soluble
+barium salts on soluble sulphates. The specific gravity (4.2)
+of this compound is lower than that of barytes. Possessing
+greater opacity in oil, it is of more value as a paint pigment for
+some purposes. It comes in for its greatest use as a base on
+which to precipitate lake colors. The <a href="#Photo21">very fine particles</a> show
+a slight tendency to agglomerate.</p>
+
+<p><b>Calcium Carbonate (Whiting).</b> The natural form of calcium
+carbonate, prepared from chalk, has a much higher specific
+gravity (2.74) than that of the artificial form (2.5) prepared by
+the precipitation of calcium carbonate. The latter, however,
+possesses greater hiding properties. Both grades find a wide
+use in distemper work and in the manufacture of putty. It is
+often used in small percentage in many ready-mixed paints.
+The <a href="#Photo22">photomicrograph</a> of the pigment shows the presence of
+many large particles.</p>
+
+<p><b>Calcium Sulphate (Gypsum).</b> The mineral gypsum, consisting
+of calcium sulphate and about 21% of water of combination,
+is sometimes used as a paint pigment after grinding
+and dehydration. Being slightly soluble in water it has a
+tendency to pass into solution when exposed to atmospheric
+agencies. It lacks hiding power in oil. Its specific gravity is
+2.3. As in the case of all pigments prepared directly from
+mineral substances, the many-sized and shaped particles appear
+clearly when <a href="#Photo23">enlarged</a>. Partially and wholly dehydrated forms
+of gypsum are also used in paint.</p>
+
+<p><b>Silica (Silex.)</b> This white pigment possesses great tooth and
+spreading properties. It is of use as a wood filler and as
+a constituent in combination paints. It wears especially well
+when used in combination with zinc oxide and white lead. Its
+purity often approaches 97%. The particles when <a href="#Photo24">enlarged</a>
+are seen to have sharp angles and are not uniform in size,
+which accounts for its marked tooth and properties.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></p>
+
+<table class="illo" summary="Illustrations P 61">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo072a.jpg" alt="Aluminum Silicate" width="300" height="303" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><a name="Photo26" id="Photo26"></a>
+<img src="images/illo072b.jpg" alt="Ochre" width="300" height="296" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption">Aluminum Silicate (China Clay)</td>
+<td class="caption">Ochre</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><a name="Photo27" id="Photo27"></a><img src="images/illo072c.jpg" alt="Raw Sienna"
+width="300" height="298" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo072d.jpg" alt="Burnt Sienna" width="300" height="297" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="subcaption">Raw</td>
+<td class="subcaption">Burnt</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="caption">Sienna</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><a name="Photo28" id="Photo28"></a><img src="images/illo072e.jpg" alt="Raw Umber"
+width="300" height="302" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo072f.jpg" alt="Burnt Umber" width="300" height="296" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="subcaption">Raw</td>
+<td class="subcaption">Burnt</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="caption">Umber</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span><b>Aluminum Silicate (China Clay).</b> China clay, or aluminum
+silicate, is a permanent and valuable white pigment showing
+very little hiding power in oil. It is found widely distributed
+in granitic formations. It is very stable, with a gravity of 2.6.
+<a href="#Photo25">Particles</a> are found in many shapes and sizes, showing sharp
+and definite angles.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ochre.</b> Ochre is a hydrated ferric oxide permeating a clay
+base, largely used as a tinting material. It has a specific gravity
+of about 3.5, and a decidedly golden yellow color. A good
+quality should contain 20% or over of iron oxide. The <a href="#Photo26">particles</a>
+of this pigment are flocculent and very uniform in
+appearance.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sienna.</b> Sienna, like umber, is essentially a silicate of iron
+and alumina, containing manganic oxide. It contains, however,
+a lower percentage of the latter than in the case of umbers. The
+<a href="#Photo27">photomicrograph</a> of the burnt variety shows clearly the fine
+condition of the pigment, while large particles are shown in the
+raw variety.</p>
+
+<p><b>Umber.</b> Umber, another naturally occurring pigment, consists
+of iron and aluminum silicates, containing varying proportions
+of manganic oxide, its color and tone varying according
+to the percentage of the latter. The raw variety is drab in
+color, which in burning changes to reddish brown. A marked
+percentage of large-sized <a href="#Photo28">particles</a> exist in this pigment.</p>
+
+<p><b>Indian Red.</b> Indian red is the term applied to natural hematite
+ore pigments and to those produced by the roasting of
+copperas (iron sulphate). They generally contain 95% or
+more of iron oxide, with varying percentages of silica. The
+pigment is heavier (specific gravity 5.2) than that of Metallic
+Brown. The crystalline, mineral-like structure of the <a href="#Photo29">particles</a>
+differ greatly from the amorphous particles of Metallic Brown.</p>
+
+<p><b>Metallic Brown.</b> The natural hydrated iron oxide or carbonate
+as mined largely in Pennsylvania, yields, when roasted, a sesquioxide
+of iron known as Metallic Brown. It contains a high
+percentage of alumina and silica, and has a characteristic brown
+color with a gravity of 3.1. It finds wide application as a pigment
+for protective purposes. The <a href="#Photo30">particles</a> when enlarged
+show the usual appearance of a natural compound which has
+been roasted and ground.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></p>
+
+<table class="braces fsize80" summary="Table P 63">
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center bt2 bb">No.</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center bt2 br bb">Name</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center bt2 br bb">Iron Oxide</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center bt2 br bb">Calc.<br />Sulph.<br />(CaSO<span class="denom">4</span>)</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center bt2 br bb">Alumina<br />(Al<span class="denom">2</span>O<span class="denom">3</span>)</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center bt2 br bb">Insoluble<br />(Silica<br />and<br />Silicates)</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center bt2 bb">Color</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center br bb">FeO</td>
+<td class="center br bb">Fe<span class="denom">2</span>O<span class="denom">3</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="center br">%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right">0</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Bright&nbsp;Red</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">0.71</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">96.52</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">.30</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Bright&nbsp;Scarlet</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Bright&nbsp;Red</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">.71</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">95.92</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">.30</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Scarlet&nbsp;Tone</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right">2</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Indian&nbsp;Red</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">.57</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">96.00</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">.78</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">1.40</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">.90</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Indian&nbsp;Red,&nbsp;Medium&nbsp;Shade</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right">3</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Indian&nbsp;Red</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">0.29</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">97.82</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">.85</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">.52</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Indian&nbsp;Red,&nbsp;Dark&nbsp;Shade</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right">4</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Indian&nbsp;Red</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">0.28</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">95.72</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">1.21</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">1.26</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">.58</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Indian&nbsp;Red,&nbsp;Light&nbsp;Shade</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right">5</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Persian&nbsp;Gulf&nbsp;Mix</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">4.53</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">62.25</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">1.75</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">27.64</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Rich,&nbsp;Medium&nbsp;Red</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right">7</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Native&nbsp;Red&nbsp;Oxide</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">0.85</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">89.00</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">0.91</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">6.09</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Medium&nbsp;Red,&nbsp;Brownish&nbsp;Tone</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right">8</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Special&nbsp;Red</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">0.57</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">43.87</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">50.88</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">2.03</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">1.30</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Scarlet&nbsp;Tone</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right">10</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Red&nbsp;Oxide</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">1.44</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">60.25</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">.78</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">5.41</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">15.78</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Brownish-Red</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right">11</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Venetian&nbsp;Red</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">.30</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">34.08</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">52.60</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">2.20</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">3.39</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Bright&nbsp;Red-Brown</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right">12</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">B.&nbsp;Oxide</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">0.58</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">67.68</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">2.48</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">1.97</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Dark&nbsp;Red&nbsp;Brown</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right">13</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Venetian&nbsp;Red</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">0.29</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">25.92</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">58.62</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">2.16</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">1.42</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Medium&nbsp;Red&nbsp;Tone</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right">14</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Venetian&nbsp;Red</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">0.57</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">35.36</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">.99</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">12.06</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">47.97</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Brown</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right">15</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Metallic&nbsp;Brown</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">2.59</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">64.00</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">.63</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">5.82</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">23.42</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Rich&nbsp;Brown</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right">16</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Crimson&nbsp;Oxide</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">0.57</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">66.24</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">1.77</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">3.60</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">25.63</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Rich&nbsp;Dark&nbsp;Red</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right">17</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Red&nbsp;Oxide</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">2.30</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">80.39</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">.37</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">.03</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">9.63</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Medium&nbsp;Brown</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right">18</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Red&nbsp;Oxide</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">0.57</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">61.28</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">.97</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">2.68</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">15.94</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Light&nbsp;Chocolate&nbsp;Brown</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right">20</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Red&nbsp;Oxide</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">7.78</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">46.72</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">1.70</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">7.64</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">20.38</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Dark&nbsp;Reddish&nbsp;Brown</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right">23</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Special&nbsp;French&nbsp;Oxide</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">0.58</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">72.48</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">8.80</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">4.48</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Deep&nbsp;Chocolate&nbsp;Brown</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right">24</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Micaceous&nbsp;Black&nbsp;Oxide</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">2.02</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">86.27</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">2.04</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">9.50</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Dark&nbsp;Gray&nbsp;Tone</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right">25</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Black&nbsp;Oxide</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">33.12</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">57.12</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">1.44</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Jet&nbsp;Black</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right">26</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Red&nbsp;Oxide</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">0.57</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">84.16</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">5.00</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">2.00</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">.63</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Deep&nbsp;Red</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right">27</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Special&nbsp;Red</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">0.57</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">38.40</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">55.62</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">2.12</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">1.53</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Medium&nbsp;Red</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb2">
+<td class="right">28</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Oxide&nbsp;C</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">30.40</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">.94</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">13.60</td>
+<td class="right br padr3 padl3">42.30</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1">Brown</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>Analysis of Iron Oxide Pigments.</b> Because of the great
+consideration now being given to iron oxide paints, the writer
+secured a series of oxides widely used in this country, and has
+determined the most important constituents of each.</p>
+
+<p><b>Basic Lead Chromate (American Vermilion).</b> By boiling
+white lead with chromate of soda and subsequently treating with
+small quantities of sulphuric acid, American vermilion, or basic
+lead chromate, is prepared. It contains 98% of lead compounds,
+frequently free chromates, and has a gravity of 6.8.
+The <a href="#Photo31">particles</a> appear granular and large, frequently assuming
+a square structure.</p>
+
+<p><b>Red Lead.</b> By the continued oxidation of litharge in reverberatory
+furnaces, red lead is produced as a brilliant red pigment
+with a specific gravity of 8.7. The pigment <a href="#Photo32">particles</a>
+appear to be of many sizes, showing a slight tendency to form a
+compact mass.</p>
+
+<p><b>Paranitraniline Red.</b> Paranitraniline red, a very bright red
+material largely used in tinting paints, is prepared by diazotizing
+paranitraniline in hydrochloric acid by means of sodium nitrite
+in the cold. This compound is rendered insoluble when precipitated
+directly on barytes, by acting on it with an alkaline
+solution of beta naphthol. It is the most stable and permanent
+bright red organic pigment which the paint manufacturer uses.
+The <a href="#Photo33">particles</a> of this pigment appear in various sizes, due, no
+doubt, to a massing of the particles in the precipitation process.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chrome Yellow.</b> The neutral chromate of lead, made from
+either the nitrate or acetate of lead and chromate of soda, finds
+wide use as a tinting pigment. When precipitated on a white
+pigment base, various trade names are given to it. The <a href="#Photo34">microscope</a>
+shows clearly the physical character of this pigment.</p>
+
+<p><b>Zinc Chromate.</b> This <a href="#Photo35">pigment</a> is made either from zinc salts
+and bichromate of potash or zinc oxide heated with chrome
+salts, frequently in the presence of acid. Like the rest of the
+chromate pigments, it is a very slow-drying material, often requiring
+over a week to set up, unless considerable drier is added.
+In spite of the impurities which it carries, it has shown itself
+to be one of the most inhibitive pigments known and has
+demonstrated its value in even small percentages in paints for
+iron and steel. It dries to a hard adherent film that tends to
+protect metal from corrosion.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></p>
+
+<table class="illo" summary="Illustrations P 65">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><a name="Photo29" id="Photo29"></a><img src="images/illo076a.jpg" alt="Indian Red"
+width="300" height="298" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><a name="Photo30" id="Photo30"></a><img src="images/illo076b.jpg" alt="Metallic Brown"
+width="300" height="296" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption">Indian Red</td>
+<td class="caption">Metallic Brown</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><a name="Photo31" id="Photo31"></a><img src="images/illo076c.jpg" alt="Basic Lead Chromate"
+width="300" height="299" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><a name="Photo32" id="Photo32"></a><img src="images/illo076d.jpg" alt="Red Lead"
+width="300" height="301" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption">Basic Lead Chromate (American Vermilion)</td>
+<td class="caption">Red Lead</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><a name="Photo33" id="Photo33"></a><img src="images/illo076e.jpg" alt="Paranitraniline"
+width="300" height="298" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><a name="Photo34" id="Photo34"></a><img src="images/illo076f.jpg" alt="Chrome Yellow"
+width="300" height="304" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption">Paranitraniline</td>
+<td class="caption">Chrome Yellow</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span><b>Prussian Blue.</b> On oxidizing the precipitate resulting from
+the interaction of solutions of prussiate of potash and copperas
+(iron sulphate), Prussian blue as used in the paint trade is prepared.
+It has a specific gravity of 1.9. The pigment shows
+an amorphous structure, the <a href="#Photo36">particles</a> varying greatly in size.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ultramarine Blue.</b> This bright blue pigment is prepared by
+burning silica, china clay, soda ash and sulphur in pots or furnaces.
+It has a specific gravity of 2.4. It is of little value as
+a paint pigment on account of its sulphur content, which causes
+darkening when mixed with lead pigments, and corrosion when
+applied to iron or steel. The darkness of the <a href="#Photo37">photograph</a> is due
+to the massing of the pigment particles.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chrome Green.</b> Chrome green is prepared as a paint pigment
+from nitrate of lead, Chinese blue, and bichromate of soda.
+It has a gravity of 4 and is liable to contain slight traces of lead
+salts. The <a href="#Photo38">particles</a> when magnified appear very fine and
+flocculent. This color is often precipitated on pigments, such
+as barytes, which do not reduce its tone.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bone Black.</b> By grinding the carbonaceous matter resulting
+from the charring of bones, in iron retorts, the pigment bone
+black is prepared. It contains about 15% of carbon and
+85% of calcium phosphate. It has a gravity of 2.7. Comparatively
+large <a href="#Photo39">particles</a> of charred bone can be seen scattered
+throughout the mass, resulting from the difficulty of
+grinding to a uniform size.</p>
+
+<p><b>Carbon Black.</b> This form of very pure carbon results from
+the combustion of gas. Its gravity, 1.09, is lower than that
+of lampblack, which shows a gravity of 1.8. It is used in
+much the same way and for the same purposes as lampblack.
+In <a href="#Photo40">physical appearance</a> it shows great similarity to the particles
+of lampblack.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lampblack.</b> This pigment, made from the combustion of
+oils, consists very often of more than 99% carbon. It has
+wonderful tinting value. The <a href="#Photo41">particles</a> show a fine, fibrous
+structure with a tendency toward agglomeration. They differ
+greatly in physical appearance from those of either graphite or
+bone black, being exceedingly more uniform than the latter.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></p>
+
+<table class="illo" summary="Illustrations P 67">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><a name="Photo35" id="Photo35"></a>
+<img src="images/illo078a.jpg" alt="Zinc Chromate" width="300" height="299" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><a name="Photo36" id="Photo36"></a><img src="images/illo078b.jpg" alt="Prussian Blue"
+width="300" height="297" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption">Zinc Chromate</td>
+<td class="caption">Prussian Blue</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><a name="Photo37" id="Photo37"></a><img src="images/illo078c.jpg" alt="Ultramarine Blue"
+width="300" height="296" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><a name="Photo38" id="Photo38"></a><img src="images/illo078d.jpg" alt="Chrome Green"
+width="300" height="298" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption">Ultramarine Blue</td>
+<td class="caption">Chrome Green</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><a name="Photo39" id="Photo39"></a><img src="images/illo078e.jpg" alt="Bone Black"
+width="300" height="295" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><a name="Photo40" id="Photo40"></a><img src="images/illo078f.jpg" alt="Carbon Black"
+width="300" height="301" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption">Bone Black</td>
+<td class="caption">Carbon Black</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span><b>Graphite.</b> Graphite, both in the natural and artificial form,
+contains impurities such as silica, iron oxide and alumina, but
+the natural form has a much greater percentage of these foreign
+materials, in some cases as high as 40%. Graphite is usually
+mixed with other pigments, such as red lead and sublimed blue
+lead, thus serving better as a paint coating. The difference
+in physical appearance of the various carbon pigments is interesting,
+as each pigment has characteristics of its own. In
+graphite we find a great tendency toward agglomeration or
+massing of <a href="#Photo42">particles</a>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mineral Black.</b> Mineral black is a pigment made by grinding
+a black form of slate. It contains a comparatively low percentage
+of carbon and consequently has low tinting value. It
+finds use as an inert pigment in compounded paints, especially
+for machine fillers. The pigment has a flocculent appearance,
+the <a href="#Photo43">particles</a> showing a strong tendency to mass.</p>
+
+<p>Photomicrographs of two combination paint pigments are
+<a href="#Photo44">here</a> given, to show the various pigments as they appear under
+the microscope, when in combination.</p>
+
+<h5>PERCENTAGES OF OIL REQUIRED FOR GRINDING VARIOUS<br />
+DRY PIGMENTS INTO AVERAGE PASTE FORM</h5>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table P 63">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">White&nbsp;lead&nbsp;(corroded)</td>
+<td class="right padl1">9%</td>
+<td class="left padl2">Chrome&nbsp;green,&nbsp;25%,&nbsp;color&nbsp;extra&nbsp;dark</td>
+<td class="right padl1">17%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">White&nbsp;lead&nbsp;(sublimed)</td>
+<td class="right padl1">10%</td>
+<td class="left padl2">Graphite&nbsp;(pure)</td>
+<td class="right padl1">40%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Zinc&nbsp;lead&nbsp;(American)</td>
+<td class="right padl1">12%</td>
+<td class="left padl2">Indian&nbsp;red,&nbsp;(98%)</td>
+<td class="right padl1">20%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">French&nbsp;process&nbsp;zinc&nbsp;oxide</td>
+<td class="right padl1">17%</td>
+<td class="left padl2">Ochre,&nbsp;yellow,&nbsp;American</td>
+<td class="right padl1">26%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">American&nbsp;process&nbsp;zinc&nbsp;oxide</td>
+<td class="right padl1">16%</td>
+<td class="left padl2">Ochre,&nbsp;yellow,&nbsp;French</td>
+<td class="right padl1">28%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Blanc&nbsp;fixe</td>
+<td class="right padl1">30%</td>
+<td class="left padl2">Ochre,&nbsp;golden</td>
+<td class="right padl1">28%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Barytes&nbsp;(natural)</td>
+<td class="right padl1">9%</td>
+<td class="left padl2">Red,&nbsp;Venetian</td>
+<td class="right padl1">23%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Paris&nbsp;white&nbsp;(whiting)</td>
+<td class="right padl1">20%</td>
+<td class="left padl2">Red,&nbsp;Oxide</td>
+<td class="right padl1">25%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Terra&nbsp;alba&nbsp;(gypsum)</td>
+<td class="right padl1">22%</td>
+<td class="left padl2">Red,&nbsp;Tuscan</td>
+<td class="right padl1">27%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Floated&nbsp;silica&nbsp;or&nbsp;Silex</td>
+<td class="right padl1">26%</td>
+<td class="left padl2">Red,&nbsp;Turkey</td>
+<td class="right padl1">28%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Kaolin&nbsp;(China&nbsp;clay)</td>
+<td class="right padl1">28%</td>
+<td class="left padl2">Red,&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="right padl1">12%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Asbestine</td>
+<td class="right padl1">32%</td>
+<td class="left padl2">Red,&nbsp;lake</td>
+<td class="right padl1">55%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Blue,&nbsp;ultramarine</td>
+<td class="right padl1">27%</td>
+<td class="left padl2">Sienna,&nbsp;Italian,&nbsp;raw</td>
+<td class="right padl1">52%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Blue,&nbsp;Chinese&nbsp;or&nbsp;Prussian</td>
+<td class="right padl1">50%</td>
+<td class="left padl2">Sienna,&nbsp;Italian,&nbsp;burnt</td>
+<td class="right padl1">45%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Black,&nbsp;gas&nbsp;carbon</td>
+<td class="right padl1">82%</td>
+<td class="left padl2">Sienna,&nbsp;American,&nbsp;burnt</td>
+<td class="right padl1">38%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Black,&nbsp;lamp</td>
+<td class="right padl1">72%</td>
+<td class="left padl2">Sienna,&nbsp;American,&nbsp;raw</td>
+<td class="right padl1">40%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Black,&nbsp;drop</td>
+<td class="right padl1">60%</td>
+<td class="left padl2">Ultramarine&nbsp;green</td>
+<td class="right padl1">28%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Black,&nbsp;bone</td>
+<td class="right padl1">50%</td>
+<td class="left padl2">Umber,&nbsp;Turkey,&nbsp;raw</td>
+<td class="right padl1">48%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Brown,&nbsp;mineral</td>
+<td class="right padl1">24%</td>
+<td class="left padl2">Umber,&nbsp;Turkey,&nbsp;burnt</td>
+<td class="right padl1">47%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Brown,&nbsp;vandyke</td>
+<td class="right padl1">50%</td>
+<td class="left padl2">Umber,&nbsp;American,&nbsp;burnt</td>
+<td class="right padl1">36%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Chrome&nbsp;yellow,&nbsp;lemon</td>
+<td class="right padl1">23%</td>
+<td class="left padl2">Umber,&nbsp;American,&nbsp;raw</td>
+<td class="right padl1">38%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Chrome&nbsp;yellow,&nbsp;medium</td>
+<td class="right padl1">30%</td>
+<td class="left padl2">Verona&nbsp;green&nbsp;(terra&nbsp;verte&nbsp;or&nbsp;green&nbsp;earth)</td>
+<td class="right padl1">32%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Chrome&nbsp;yellow,&nbsp;orange</td>
+<td class="right padl1">20%</td>
+<td class="left padl2">Vermilion,&nbsp;English&nbsp;(quicksilver)</td>
+<td class="right padl1">14%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Chrome&nbsp;yellow,&nbsp;dark&nbsp;orange</td>
+<td class="right padl1">15%</td>
+<td class="left padl2">Vermilion,&nbsp;American&nbsp;(chrome&nbsp;red)</td>
+<td class="right padl1">16%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Chrome&nbsp;green,&nbsp;Chem.&nbsp;pure&nbsp;light</td>
+<td class="right padl1">21%</td>
+<td class="left padl2">Paris&nbsp;green,&nbsp;American</td>
+<td class="right padl1">23%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Chrome&nbsp;green,&nbsp;Chem.&nbsp;pure&nbsp;extra&nbsp;dark</td>
+<td class="right padl1">25%</td>
+<td class="left padl2">Zinc&nbsp;chromate&nbsp;(permanent&nbsp;yellow)</td>
+<td class="right padl1">15%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Chrome&nbsp;green,&nbsp;25%,&nbsp;color&nbsp;light</td>
+<td class="right padl1">13%</td>
+<td class="left padl2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></p>
+
+<table class="illo" summary="Photos P 69">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><a name="Photo41" id="Photo41"></a>
+<img src="images/illo080a.jpg" alt="Lampblack" width="300" height="295" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><a name="Photo42" id="Photo42"></a>
+<img src="images/illo080b.jpg" alt="Graphite" width="300" height="295" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption">Lampblack</td>
+<td class="caption">Graphite</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="figcenter"><a name="Photo43" id="Photo43"></a><img src="images/illo080c.jpg" alt="Mineral Black"
+width="300" height="299" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="caption">Mineral Black</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><a name="Photo44" id="Photo44"></a>
+<img src="images/illo080d.jpg" alt="Asbestine and Whiting" width="300" height="297" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo080e.jpg" alt="Silica and Asbestine" width="300" height="303" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption">Asbestine and Whiting</td>
+<td class="caption">Silica and Asbestine</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<h3>PHYSICAL LABORATORY PAINT TESTS</h3>
+
+
+<p>For the paint chemist who desires to familiarize himself with
+the more recent analytical methods worked out in American
+laboratories, reference may be had to treatises on the analysis
+of paints, by Gardner and Schaeffer,<a name="FNanchor_1_13" id="FNanchor_1_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_13"
+class="fnanchor">[13]</a> and Holley and Ladd.<a name="FNanchor_2_14" id="FNanchor_2_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_14"
+class="fnanchor">[14]</a>
+Analytical methods are not included in this chapter, the writer&#8217;s
+desire being to treat the subject from the standpoint of the physical
+properties of painting materials. The work outlined herein
+is of a nature that affords a wide field of research, and a brief
+study will doubtless suggest similar work to the student of paint.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_13" id="Footnote_1_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_13"><span
+class="label">[13]</span></a> The Analysis of Paints and Painting Materials. McGraw-Hill Book
+Co., New York, 1910.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_14" id="Footnote_2_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_14"><span
+class="label">[14]</span></a> Mixed Paints, Color Pigments and Varnishes. John Wiley &amp; Sons,
+New York, 1908.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Preparation of Paint Films.</b> The study of paint films is one
+that has become of vital importance, and is receiving at the
+present time great attention. Among the many methods which
+have been suggested and attempted for securing paint films, a
+few already well known may be mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>By painting upon zinc and eating away the zinc with acid:
+The objection to this method is very evident, namely, the action
+of the acid upon the paint coating, which is likely to be very
+severe. Another method has been to spread paraffin on a glass
+plate, and painting upon this surface. When the paint is dried,
+the paraffin is melted off and thus the film is obtained. This
+method is open to objections, in that the paraffin surface is not
+a comparable one upon which to paint, and also that the complete
+removal of the paraffin is not assured.</p>
+
+<p>Another method consists in covering a piece of glass with tin
+foil, painting out the film upon the foil, and after drying properly,
+to remove the sheet of foil with its coating of paint and immerse
+in a bath of mercury which, by amalgamation of the tin, leaves
+the paint film.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>We now come to a method worked out in our laboratories, which
+can be recommended as being not only simple but efficient and
+practical. It has been found that a size from noodle glue, when
+painted upon ordinary fair-quality paper, makes a surface from
+which the paint may be subsequently stripped. The paint is
+applied in the ordinary way to the paper, which is held during
+the operation by thumb tacks, and allowed to dry. The paint
+may be separated by immersion in water kept at about 50 degrees
+Centigrade. By this method large films may be obtained, but it
+has been found very unhandy to work with films exceeding an
+area of eight inches square. When the film of paint has been
+detached from the sized paper through the dissolving of the
+noodle glue, the paint film is then immersed in a fresh solution
+of water, in order to remove whatever excess of noodle glue there
+may be remaining. A glass rod is then introduced into the
+bath, in which the paint film is floated upon the glass rod, which
+is then hung up to dry in a suitable container to prevent the
+accumulation of dust, etc.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo082.jpg"
+alt="Relative Permeability of Films by Amount of Whiting" width="500" height="350" />
+<p class="caption">Bottles Showing Relative Permeability of Films by Amount of Whiting
+Formed Within</p></div>
+
+<p><b>The Permeability of Paint Films.</b> A series of tests were made
+to determine the water-excluding values of various combinations
+of painting pigments ground in pure linseed oil. White pine
+boards, six inches long, four inches wide, and one inch thick, were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+carefully prepared and numbered and given three coats of a white
+paint formula of the corresponding number. After drying, the
+boards were carefully weighed and immersed in a tub of water
+for three weeks. After removal, the surfaces of the boards were
+dried with blotting paper and the boards weighed. The gain
+in weight, corresponding to the amount of water penetrating
+through the pores of the wood, was observed. The boards were
+again immersed and at the end of two months the following
+results were obtained:</p>
+
+<table class="braces fsize80" summary="Table P 72">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Formula<br />No.</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center">Grammes&nbsp;of&nbsp;water<br />absorbed<br />through&nbsp;paint</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">1.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left">Soya&nbsp;bean&nbsp;oil</td>
+<td class="right padr6">120</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">2.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left">Linseed&nbsp;oil</td>
+<td class="right padr6">102</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">3.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left">Calcium&nbsp;sulphate</td>
+<td class="right padr6">93</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">4.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left">Barytes</td>
+<td class="right padr6">88</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">5.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left">Asbestine</td>
+<td class="right padr6">74</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">6.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left">Corroded&nbsp;white&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="right padr6">59</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="5" class="right padr1">7.</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9127;</b></td>
+<td class="left">Basic&nbsp;carb.&mdash;White&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9131;</b></td>
+<td rowspan="5" class="right padr6">58</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="left padr1">Basic&nbsp;sulph.&mdash;White&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="right">20%</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9128;</b></td>
+<td class="left">Zinc&nbsp;oxide</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9132;</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="left">Calcium&nbsp;sulphate</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9129;</b></td>
+<td class="left">Calcium&nbsp;carbonate</td>
+<td class="right">5%</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9133;</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">8.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left">Sublimed&nbsp;white&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="right padr6">56</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">9.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left">Zinc&nbsp;oxide</td>
+<td class="right padr6">56</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9127;</b></td>
+<td class="left">Zinc&nbsp;lead&nbsp;white</td>
+<td class="right">30%</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9131;</b></td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td class="left">Zinc&nbsp;oxide</td>
+<td class="right">40%</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">10.</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9128;</b></td>
+<td class="left">Basic&nbsp;carb.&mdash;White&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="right">20%</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9132;</b></td>
+<td class="right padr6">42</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9129;</b></td>
+<td class="left">Calcium&nbsp;carbonate</td>
+<td class="right">10%</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9133;</b></td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right padr1">11.</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left">Basic&nbsp;carb.&mdash;White&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="fsize150">}</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right padr6">42</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Zinc&nbsp;oxide</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="3" class="right padr1">12.</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9127;</b></td>
+<td class="left">Basic&nbsp;carb.&mdash;White&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="right">38%</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9131;</b></td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="right padr6">38</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9128;</b></td>
+<td class="left">Zinc&nbsp;oxide</td>
+<td class="right">48%</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9132;</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9129;</b></td>
+<td class="left">Silica</td>
+<td class="right">14%</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9133;</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>The test boards were then exposed, with their content of
+water, to the action of the sun&#8217;s rays. Blistering of the painted
+surfaces took place in many cases, caused by the rapid withdrawal
+of the water and its consequent action on the paint film.
+The tests seem to indicate that a mixture of white lead and zinc
+oxide, with or without a small percentage of the inert pigments,
+is not as subject to the action of the water as the single pigment
+paints. In order, however, to corroborate these tests, it occurred
+to the writer to develop a more visible means of demonstrating
+the passage of moisture through paint films.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo084.jpg" alt="Bell Jar Apparatus" width="300" height="520" />
+<p class="caption">Bell Jar Apparatus for Testing Permeability of Paint Films</p>
+<p class="subcaption">Paint films sealed over mouths of Bottles containing Lime Water.
+Carbonic Acid Gas generated under Bell Jar passes through Plate
+Films and precipitates Calcium Carbonate</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>Another series of white pine boards were therefore soaked in
+a solution of iron sulphate for several hours. After removal, the
+surface of each board was dried and coated with one coat of the
+paints previously tested. After thorough drying for forty-eight
+hours, there was placed on the surface of each board a few drops
+of a solution of potassium ferrocyanide. This solution has the
+effect of producing a blue coloration with iron sulphate, and in
+every case when it was placed on a paint of considerable porosity,
+the solution penetrated through and formed a blue coloration
+beneath the paint. The results corroborated the original tests
+referred to above.</p>
+
+<p>A series of sheets or films of paints were then prepared according
+to the method referred to on <a href="#Page_71">page 71</a>. These films were
+placed over glass dialyzing cups, allowing the inner surfaces to
+sag so as to hold a small amount of dilute ammonium chloride
+solution. Distilled water was placed on the reverse side of
+the dialyzing apparatus and the tests started. At the end of
+six days the distilled water in each test was examined and the
+following results obtained:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p class="ind10">Test No. 1 (corroded white lead and asbestine film) allowed
+the passage of 0.002 gm. ammonium chloride.<br />
+Test No. 2 (corroded white lead and zinc oxide film) allowed
+the passage of 0.0003 gm. ammonium chloride.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Tests were also made with dilute solutions of other salts such
+as ferric chloride, having a dilute solution of potassium sulpho-cyanide
+on the reverse side of the apparatus. In the latter case
+the formation of a pink color, characteristic upon the mingling
+of these solutions, was obtained in a few hours.</p>
+
+<p><b>Film-Testing Machine.</b> A <a href="#Photo45">film-testing apparatus</a>, termed a
+&#8220;filmometer&#8221; by its originator, Mr. R. S. Perry, was constructed,
+with the following features: A graduated upright
+tube is fixed by means of sealing wax to two metallic plates which
+carry an evenly bored hole, exactly under the hole in the upright
+tube. This hole measures exactly one square centimeter
+in area, and is circular. The upright tube is graduated into lineal
+centimeters and is called the pressure tube.</p>
+
+<p>Attached to the lower end of this pressure tube, close to the
+metallic plates which serve as carriers for the paint film to be
+tested, is a side-neck, which is inclined at an angle of 45 degrees
+to the pressure tube, and serves the purpose of introducing the
+mercury, as will be described later. Immediately under the
+openings in the metallic plates which carry the film are arranged
+two pieces of iron inclined at a 90-degree angle, so arranged that
+when the pressure of mercury is applied and causes rupture of
+the film, the falling mercury shall be caught between these two
+insulated plates and cause contact. These two plates are connected
+up by wire with a pair of magnets, thence to an electric
+bell, and from there to storage batteries which supply the current.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo086.jpg" alt="Gardner Accelerated Test Box" width="500" height="274" />
+<p class="caption">Gardner Accelerated Test Box</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Photo45" id="Photo45"></a>
+<img src="images/illo087.jpg" alt="Perry Film Testing Machine" width="300" height="441" />
+<p class="caption">Perry Film Testing Machine</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>A film of paint is tested in the following manner: A piece of
+film one inch square is cut out and placed between the two
+metallic plates which hold the film immediately under the pressure
+tube. Mercury is run in from a burette through the side-neck
+and applies pressure upon the film by gravity. As the
+mercury is run in it rises of course in the tubes until this pressure
+becomes so great as to finally break the film. At this point the
+mercury will run out, and, falling upon the two insulated iron
+plates immediately below, will cause contact and close the
+circuit which rings an electric bell, which is a signal for the operator
+to shut off the inflow of mercury through the side-neck from
+the burette.</p>
+
+<p>The pressure tube is also supplied with a piston which is made
+of a piece of thin iron wire having a disc attached to its lower
+end. As the mercury rises in the pressure tube this iron wire
+is pushed up, being very delicately counterpoised over a wheel.
+Upon the breaking of the film the mercury runs out, but upon
+falling upon the two iron plates underneath causes contact to be
+made, which causes the current to run through the pair of magnets
+before mentioned, which, becoming electrified, attract the piston
+in the pressure tube, giving a reading for the maximum height
+of the column of mercury.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><img src="images/illo089.png" alt="Diagram of Perry Filomometer" width="350" height="505" />
+<p class="caption">Diagram of Perry Filmometer</p>
+<p class="center fsize80"><a href="images/large089.png">Open large scale image (49 kB).</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The supply of mercury being shut off, the operator is now in
+a position to determine the total sum of both the elasticity and
+ductility of the paint film, and also the pressure at which the
+film broke. The breaking pressure of course is read directly
+upon the pressure column, which is divided into centimeters
+as has been described above, the piston indicating the maximum
+height of the mercury column. What may be termed
+the elasticity of the film can now be calculated. As is perfectly
+evident, the film in stretching does so by distending from a flat
+surface to a curved or cup-like surface. If the pressure tube is
+calibrated in cubic centimeters reckoned from a flat surface
+where the film was introduced, the stretch of the paint film in
+distending from a flat surface to a curved surface may be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> determined.
+The cubic contents of the pressure tube and side-arm
+become increased, owing to the cup-like shape the paint film
+takes on. By subtracting the amount of mercury indicated by
+the piston in the pressure tube from the amount of mercury
+delivered from the burette, the amount contained in the distended
+paint film is obtained, which serves as a measure of elasticity.
+The temperature is a most important point to consider
+in running daily tests upon the filmometer. The tests made by
+the writer were conducted at 70 degrees Fahrenheit throughout.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="Photo46" id="Photo46"></a>
+<img src="images/illo090.jpg" alt="Gardner-de Horvath Apparatus" width="250" height="479" />
+<p class="caption">Gardner-de Horvath film testing apparatus</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Gardner-de Horvath Filmometer.</b> Another type of filmometer
+which gives very concordant results was recently devised
+by the writer and de Horvath. This apparatus is shown <a href="#Photo46">above</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>It consists of a three-necked Wolff bottle having provision
+at one of its necks for exhausting the air from the bottle. The
+reverse neck is provided with a gauged glass tube dipping into
+a porcelain crucible containing mercury, thus acting as a manometer.
+The middle neck is fitted to accommodate two ground
+glass plates. Both these plates are provided with a central
+orifice one millimeter in diameter. Between the plates is placed
+a small section of paint film. The plates may be pressed together
+or clamped together and placed over the middle neck of the
+bottle, a close contact being made with Canada balsam. As
+the air is exhausted from the bottle, the mercury in the tube
+will rise and continue in its ascent until the film, which is
+exposed to atmospheric pressure, has offered it maximum resistance,
+which is shown by the breaking point. This point is
+observed on the manometer and the result expressed in centimeters
+of mercury.</p>
+
+<p><b>Table of Film Testing Results.</b> By means of the Perry film-testing
+apparatus, described in the above, interesting results have
+been obtained, which are embodied in the following table:</p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Comparative Strengths of Films as Obtained by the Breaking<br />
+Machine</span></h5>
+
+<table class="braces fsize80" summary="Table P 72">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="bt2 br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">No.&nbsp;Coats</td>
+<td class="center bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">Pressure</td>
+<td class="center bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">Thickness</td>
+<td class="center bt2 bb padr1 padl1">Stretch</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">1.</td>
+<td class="left padr1 br">Zinc&nbsp;oxide</td>
+<td class="center br">3</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">33.2</td>
+<td class="center br">0028</td>
+<td class="center">.30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">2.</td>
+<td class="left padr1 br">Zinc&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="center br">3</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">32.7</td>
+<td class="center br">0034</td>
+<td class="center">.35</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">3.</td>
+<td class="left padr1 br">Asbestine</td>
+<td class="center br">3</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">28.0</td>
+<td class="center br">0045</td>
+<td class="center">.15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">4.</td>
+<td class="left padr1 br">Sublimed&nbsp;white&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="center br">3</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">17.9</td>
+<td class="center br">0024</td>
+<td class="center">.38</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">5.</td>
+<td class="left padr1 br">Barytes</td>
+<td class="center br">3</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">13.3</td>
+<td class="center br">0042</td>
+<td class="center">.33</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">6.</td>
+<td class="left padr1 br">Lithopone</td>
+<td class="center br">3</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">13.1</td>
+<td class="center br">0024</td>
+<td class="center">.49</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">7.</td>
+<td class="left padr1 br">Whiting</td>
+<td class="center br">3</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">13.0</td>
+<td class="center br">0033</td>
+<td class="center">.32</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">8.</td>
+<td class="left padr1 br">Quick&nbsp;process&nbsp;white&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="center br">3</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">11.3</td>
+<td class="center br">0025</td>
+<td class="center">.38</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">9.</td>
+<td class="left padr1 br">Gypsum</td>
+<td class="center br">3</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">10.8</td>
+<td class="center br">0039</td>
+<td class="center">.29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">10.</td>
+<td class="left padr1 br">China&nbsp;clay</td>
+<td class="center br">3</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">10.8</td>
+<td class="center br">0035</td>
+<td class="center">.16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">11.</td>
+<td class="left padr1 br">Silex</td>
+<td class="center br">3</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">9.6</td>
+<td class="center br">0032</td>
+<td class="center">.32</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">12.</td>
+<td class="left padr1 br">Blanc&nbsp;fixe</td>
+<td class="center br">3</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">8.5</td>
+<td class="center br">0030</td>
+<td class="center">.28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">13.</td>
+<td class="left padr1 br">Corroded&nbsp;white&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="center br">3</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">7.3</td>
+<td class="center br">0020</td>
+<td class="center">.33</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb2">
+<td class="right padr1">14.</td>
+<td class="left padr1 br">Barium&nbsp;carbonate</td>
+<td class="center br">3</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">7.2</td>
+<td class="center br">0028</td>
+<td class="center">.16</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>By means of this machine it is possible to obtain very valuable
+information concerning the effect of age upon a paint as influencing
+its strength and elasticity. These are two vital qualities
+in a paint, as it is through its strength that a paint resists abrasion,
+cracking, peeling, and blistering. That elasticity is a vital qualification<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>
+of a paint may easily be seen through the checking of
+oil paintings, which, as Ostwalt has pointed out, is due to the
+unequal coefficients of expansion between the ground and the
+paint. This is particularly noticeable in the alligatoring of many
+enamels which contain large percentages of zinc.</p>
+
+<p>Curves have been prepared having pressure as an abscissa
+and elasticity as ordinate. These curves show remarkable
+differences in different pigments. For instance, in the case of
+white lead, the curve takes a steep upward trend when it apparently
+reaches a maximum, the curve then flattening out and
+finally taking another steep upward trend just before breaking.
+This may be construed as follows: That under low pressures
+the white lead film is perfectly elastic, when a maximum is
+obtained, beyond which elasticity does not extend. This point
+is the maximum point of the upward trend. From here on
+pressure may be applied without any increase in stretch, this
+being represented by the flat part of the curve, while the steep
+upward trend just before breaking shows where the paint begins
+to tear, finally culminating in breaking. In the case of asbestine,
+however, the curve is more of a straight line up to the breaking
+point, which would go to prove that elasticity is proportionate
+to pressure in the case of this pigment.</p>
+
+<p><b>Moisture Absorption.</b> The structure of certain pigments is
+such that when they are ground in linseed oil and painted out,
+films are produced which are very water-resistant. This action
+is possibly due to the filling of the voids in the oil, thus making
+a compact and water-resistant film. Pigments which are coarse
+and which present an angular crystalline structure, often produce
+films which contain a relatively large number of voids and are
+less waterproof. Certain pigments are chemically active and
+tend to produce, when ground in oil, metallic soaps which act
+for a time more or less as varnish gums, in keeping out moisture.
+Later on, however, such films are apt to break down and admit
+moisture in quantity. The tests herein described were designed
+by the author to determine the water-excluding value of a number
+of typical pigments when ground in linseed oil and painted out
+into films. Unfortunately, no method has been devised by
+which films of the same gauge could be prepared. The variations
+in the thickness of the films used in these experiments, however,
+are not very great.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Photo47" id="Photo47"></a>
+<img src="images/illo093.jpg" alt="Apparatus for Determining Excluding Properties" width="300" height="412" />
+<p class="caption">Apparatus for Determining Excluding Properties of Paint Films</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>A
+series of small <a href="#Photo47">glass bottles</a> with wide mouths, holding
+about two ounces, were half filled with concentrated sulphuric
+acid, and paint films were tightly sealed over the mouths of the
+bottles with Canada balsam. The bottles were then carefully
+labeled, numbered, and accurately weighed upon chemical balances.
+Later they were exposed under a large glass bell jar containing
+air saturated with moisture and kept at a constant
+temperature. The bottles were removed from the receptacle
+every week and reweighed. The increase in weight, due to the
+amount of moisture which had penetrated through the films, and
+absorbed by the sulphuric acid, owing to its hygroscopic nature,
+was thus determined. In another series of bottles, lumps of
+calcium chloride were substituted for the sulphuric acid. The
+results obtained from these tests correspond to those of the
+former tests, and led to the conclusion that the porosity of linseed
+oil films varied when different pigments were used in the oil.</p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Moisture Experiments</span></h5>
+
+<p class="center">Figures Given Express Percentage Gain in Weight,<br />e.g., Water Absorbed</p>
+
+<table class="fsize80 braces" summary="Table P 83">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center bt2 br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">7&nbsp;days</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">21&nbsp;days</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center bt2 bb padr1 padl1">49&nbsp;days</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">White&nbsp;lead&nbsp;and&nbsp;zinc&nbsp;oxide</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.043</td>
+<td class="left padl0 padr2 br">%</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.115</td>
+<td class="left padl0 padr2 br">%</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.266</td>
+<td class="left padl0 padr2">%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Zinc&nbsp;lead&nbsp;white</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.049</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.130</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.284</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Red&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.049</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.130</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.295</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Sublimed&nbsp;white&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.049</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.128</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.292</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Zinc&nbsp;chromate</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.064</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.176</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.417</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Zinc&nbsp;oxide</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.065</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.172</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.391</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Barytes</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.074</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.202</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.466</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Willow&nbsp;charcoal</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.077</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.236</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.694</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Lithopone</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.083</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.228</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.550</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Chinese&nbsp;blue</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.092</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.276</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.671</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Natural&nbsp;graphite</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.104</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.350</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.951</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb2">
+<td class="left br padr1">Ultramarine</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.119</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.336</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl2">0.814</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>Another series of tests was started, in which were used films
+prepared from various oils and varnishes made especially for
+the test from different gums. The results of this series are very
+interesting, as they indicate that certain gums are more powerful
+than others in making oils resistant to moisture. The reader
+should study with care the data on treated Chinese wood oil,
+most excellent results having been obtained when it was used
+in the proper percentage.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Excluding Tests on Oil Vehicles and Varnishes<br />showing Percentage
+of Moisture absorbed at<br />various Periods</span></h5>
+
+<table class="braces fsize80" summary="Table P 84">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="bt2 br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center bt2 br bb padl1 padr1">6 days</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center bt2 br bb padl1 padr1">18 days</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center bt2 bb padl1 padr1">24 days</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left br">Linseed oil, 100%</td>
+<td class="center br">.233</td>
+<td class="right">.68</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 padr1">6</td>
+<td class="right">.89</td>
+<td class="left padl0 padr1">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left br">Soya bean oil, 100%</td>
+<td class="center br">.340</td>
+<td class="right">1.06</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">1.39</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Linseed oil, 80%</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="br fsize150">}</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br">.250</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right">.75</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left br padl0 padr1">5</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right">.98</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left padl0 padr1">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Soya bean oil, 20%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Linseed oil, 60%</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="br fsize150">}</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br">.289</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right">.85</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left br padl0 padr1">7</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right">1.12</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left padl0 padr1">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Soya bean oil, 40%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Linseed oil, 40%</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="br fsize150">}</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br">.355</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right">1.05</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right">1.39</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Soya bean oil, 60%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Linseed oil, 20%</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="br fsize150">}</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br">.260</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right">.78</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left br padl0 padr1">9</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right">1.03</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Soya bean oil, 80%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left br">China wood oil treated, 100%</td>
+<td class="center br">.130</td>
+<td class="right">.29</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 padr1">7</td>
+<td class="right">.37</td>
+<td class="left padl0 padr1">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Linseed oil, 80%</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="br fsize150">}</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br">.182</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right">.55</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left br padl0 padr1">9</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right">.72</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left padl0 padr1">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">China wood oil treated, 20%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Linseed oil, 60%</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="br fsize150">}</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br">.173</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right">.54</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left br padl0 padr1">0</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right">.70</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left padl0 padr1">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">China wood oil treated, 40%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Linseed oil, 40%</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="br fsize150">}</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br">.119</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right">.34</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left br padl0 padr1">8</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right">.45</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left padl0 padr1">0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">China wood oil treated, 60%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Linseed oil, 20%</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="br fsize150">}</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br">.127</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right">.37</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left br padl0 padr1">5</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right">.49</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left padl0 padr1">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">China wood oil treated, 80%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Kauri gum, 33%</td>
+<td class="symb br"><b>&#9131;</b></td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="center br">.061</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="right">.19</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="left br padl0 padr1">1</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="right">.30</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="left padl0 padr1">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Linseed oil, 33%</td>
+<td class="symb br"><b>&#9132;</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Turpentine, 33%</td>
+<td class="symb br"><b>&#9133;</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Kauri gum, 25%</td>
+<td class="symb br"><b>&#9131;</b></td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="center br">.096</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="right">.26</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="left br padl0 padr1">6</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="right">.34</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="left padl0 padr1">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Linseed oil, 50%</td>
+<td class="symb br"><b>&#9132;</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Turpentine, 25%</td>
+<td class="symb br"><b>&#9133;</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Kauri gum, 20%</td>
+<td class="symb br"><b>&#9131;</b></td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="center br">.122</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="right">.36</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="left br padl0 padr1">7</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="right">.44</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="left padl0 padr1">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Linseed oil, 60%</td>
+<td class="symb br"><b>&#9132;</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Turpentine, 20%</td>
+<td class="symb br"><b>&#9133;</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Kauri gum, 15%</td>
+<td class="symb br"><b>&#9131;</b></td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="center br">.187</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="right">.42</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="left br padl0 padr1">1</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="right">.60</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="left padl0 padr1">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Linseed oil, 70%</td>
+<td class="symb br"><b>&#9132;</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Turpentine, 15%</td>
+<td class="symb br"><b>&#9133;</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Congo copal gum, 20%</td>
+<td class="symb br"><b>&#9131;</b></td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="center br">.228</td>
+<td rowspan="3" colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" colspan="2" class="center">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Linseed oil, 50%</td>
+<td class="symb br"><b>&#9132;</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Turpentine, 30%</td>
+<td class="symb br"><b>&#9133;</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sierra Leone copal, 20%</td>
+<td class="symb br"><b>&#9131;</b></td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="center br">.099</td>
+<td rowspan="3" colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" colspan="2" class="center">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Linseed oil, 50%</td>
+<td class="symb br"><b>&#9132;</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Turpentine, 30%</td>
+<td class="symb br"><b>&#9133;</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Zanzibar gum, 20%</td>
+<td class="symb br"><b>&#9131;</b></td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="center br">.082</td>
+<td rowspan="3" colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" colspan="2" class="center">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Linseed oil, 50%</td>
+<td class="symb br"><b>&#9132;</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Turpentine, 30%</td>
+<td class="symb br"><b>&#9133;</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Amimi gum, 20%</td>
+<td class="symb br"><b>&#9131;</b></td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="center br">.080</td>
+<td rowspan="3" colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td rowspan="3" colspan="2" class="center">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Linseed oil, 50%</td>
+<td class="symb br"><b>&#9132;</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Turpentine, 30%</td>
+<td class="symb br"><b>&#9133;</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left br padr1">Boiled linseed oil (linoleate type)</td>
+<td class="center br">.210</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Collodion solution (6 oz.), 80%</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="br fsize150">}</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br">.201</td>
+<td rowspan="2" colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" colspan="2" class="center">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb2">
+<td class="left">Boiled linseed oil, 20%</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></p>
+
+<table class="illo" summary="Illustrations P 85">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo096a.jpg" alt="Cedar Section" width="300" height="302" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo096b.jpg" alt="Maple Section" width="300" height="300" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption">Microscopic view of section of cedar</td>
+<td class="caption">Microscopic view of section of maple</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo096c.jpg" alt="White Pine Section" width="300" height="302" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="caption" style="width: 300px;">Microscopic view of section of white pine</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><img src="images/illo096d.jpg" alt="Gardner Photomicroscope" width="250" height="496" />
+<p class="caption">Gardner photomicroscope in position against painted surface</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span><b>Use of the Microscope.</b> 4. The microscope is a necessary
+adjunct of every well-ordered paint laboratory, as has been
+recognized throughout the whole paint industry. The writer
+has attempted to collect certain data which may materially
+assist those manufacturers who employ this instrument to
+judge of the quality of their raw and finished products. The
+fineness of grinding considerably affects the quality of the paint,
+and this can be easily controlled through the intelligent use of
+the microscope. This instrument may also be used to detect
+certain adulterations. Appended is a <a href="#TabP87">table</a> giving the fineness
+of grinding of the various pigments, together with their characteristics
+under the microscope. In this table measurements
+are given both in millimeters and in inches, in order to accommodate
+itself to the use of those chemists employing a millimeter
+stage micrometer, or those employing the English or inch system.
+Although it is not yet certain that any and all combinations
+of pigments may be detected under the microscope the writer
+is working toward a method which will allow a manipulator to
+judge of the composition of the paint under observation.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo097.jpg" alt="Inside White on White Pine" width="300" height="298" />
+<p class="caption">Inside White on White Pine</p></div>
+
+<p>In order to properly prepare a paint for microscopic examination,
+the following method is recommended: A microscopic turn-table<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
+is a convenient accessory of the microscope, and its use is
+to be recommended. A glass slide being placed in position upon
+the turn-table, a very small amount of either the pigment rubbed
+up in oil, or the paint, is applied to the slide; a small drop of
+Canada balsam is then applied by means of a glass rod dipped
+in a solution of balsam in xylol, and dropped upon the slide.
+The rod is then used to thoroughly incorporate the pigment with
+the balsam, and a cleaned cover glass is dropped over the whole
+and pressed down tightly, so that a small amount of balsam will
+exude from under the edges and thus firmly seal the glass. In
+order to make permanent slides it has been found advisable to
+rim the cover glass with balsam and even follow this up with
+some suitable black varnish, the slide being then carefully labeled
+and placed in the collection. Following is a table of the characteristics
+of the fourteen chief pigments:</p>
+
+<h5><a name="TabP87" id="TabP87"></a><span class="smcap">Table of the Size of Particles of the Chief Pigments with their<br />
+Characteristics under the Microscope</span></h5>
+
+<table class="braces fsize80" summary="Table P 87">
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center bt2 br bb">No.</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center bt2 br bb">Name</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="center bt2 br bb">Diameter&nbsp;in&nbsp;Millimeters</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="center bt2 bb">Diameter&nbsp;in&nbsp;Inches</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr2 padl2">Small</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr2 padl2">Aver.</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr2 padl2">Large</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr2 padl2">Small</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr2 padl2">Aver.</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center bb padr2 padl2">Large</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Asbestine</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.002</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.12</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.00015</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.049</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">2</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">China&nbsp;clay</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.003</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.06</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.00009</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.025</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">3</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Barium&nbsp;carbonate</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.000</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">76</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.005</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.01</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">72</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.00003</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.00024</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.001</td>
+<td class="left padl0">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">4</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Blanc&nbsp;fixe</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.000</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">73</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.003</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.00</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">73</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.00003</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.00014</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.000</td>
+<td class="left padl0">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">5</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Silex</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.003</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.009</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.03</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.00014</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.00036</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.001</td>
+<td class="left padl0">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">6</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Gypsum</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.003</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.011</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.05</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.00014</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.00044</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.002</td>
+<td class="left padl0">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">7</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Amer.-Paris&nbsp;white</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.001</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.005</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.04</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.00006</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.00022</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.001</td>
+<td class="left padl0">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">8</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Barytes</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.001</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.009</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.05</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.00006</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.00036</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.002</td>
+<td class="left padl0">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">9</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Zinc&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.000</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">37</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.001</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.00</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">37</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.00001</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.00007</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.000</td>
+<td class="left padl0">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">10</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Sublimed&nbsp;white&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.000</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">37</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.001</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.00</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">37</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.00001</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.00007</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.000</td>
+<td class="left padl0">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">11</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Lithopone</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.000</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">76</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.001</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.00003</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.00007</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">12</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Zinc&nbsp;oxide</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.000</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">46</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.001</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.00</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">037</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.00002</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.00007</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.000</td>
+<td class="left padl0">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">13</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Quick&nbsp;Pro.&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.000</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">61</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.003</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.00</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">48</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.00002</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.00012</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.000</td>
+<td class="left padl0">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb2">
+<td class="right br padr1">14</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Dutch&nbsp;Pro.&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.000</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">61</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.001</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.00</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">66</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.00002</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.00007</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.000</td>
+<td class="left padl0">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><b>Film Sectioning and Deductions to be Drawn Therefrom.</b> 5.
+Investigations were undertaken into the innermost structure
+of paint films as revealed under the microscope. Up to the
+present time, work has been done upon barytes, asbestine, blanc
+fixe, and white lead, painted upon wood, and a combination
+paint upon wood. The films, the preparation of which has
+been described in the foregoing, were sectioned and prepared
+for microscopic examination in the following manner:</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>A solidifying dish was partly filled with low melting-point
+paraffin which was allowed to harden, when a small piece of
+paint was thrown upon it and then more paraffin poured over it.
+After hardening, sections were obtained of the paint film by
+means of a microtome.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo099.jpg" alt="Section Barytes Film" width="300" height="299" />
+<p class="caption">Section Barytes Film</p></div>
+
+<p>A view of these sections of paint films under the microscope
+gave to the operator a better idea of the structure of a paint
+than had ever been afforded heretofore. It was easy to perceive
+the relative position of the pigment particles and the
+three coats. The penetration of one coat into another was
+easily discernible, and measurements were made upon the sections
+in order to determine the average thickness of coat and
+its general appearance.</p>
+
+<p>Sections were also made of Inside and Outside White upon
+wood. These sections revealed under the microscope the thickness
+of the coats and also the penetration of the priming coat
+into the wood. Appended is a <a href="#TabP89">table</a> giving microscopic measurements.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></p>
+
+<h5><a name="TabP89" id="TabP89"></a><span class="smcap">Paint Section Measurements under Microscope</span></h5>
+
+<table class="braces fsize80" summary="Table P 87">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="bt2 br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="bt2 br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">Millimeters</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center bt2 bb padr1 padl1">Inches</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Barytes</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">3&nbsp;coats&nbsp;(sum)</td>
+<td class="center br">.1068</td>
+<td class="right">.0042</td>
+<td class="left padl0">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Single&nbsp;coat</td>
+<td class="center br">.0356</td>
+<td class="right">.0014</td>
+<td class="left padl0">0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Inside.&nbsp;White&nbsp;on&nbsp;wood</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">3&nbsp;coats&nbsp;(sum)</td>
+<td class="center br">.1624</td>
+<td class="right">.0063</td>
+<td class="left padl0">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Outside&nbsp;coat</td>
+<td class="center br">.0230</td>
+<td class="right">.0009</td>
+<td class="left padl0">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Next&nbsp;coat</td>
+<td class="center br">.0443</td>
+<td class="right">.0017</td>
+<td class="left padl0">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Field&nbsp;in&nbsp;photographs</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Next&nbsp;coat</td>
+<td class="center br">.0620</td>
+<td class="right">.0024</td>
+<td class="left padl0">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Penetration</td>
+<td class="center br">.0294</td>
+<td class="right">.0011</td>
+<td class="left padl0">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">White&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Inside</td>
+<td class="center br">.0215</td>
+<td class="right">.0008</td>
+<td class="left padl0">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Middle</td>
+<td class="center br">.0405</td>
+<td class="right">.0015</td>
+<td class="left padl0">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Outside</td>
+<td class="center br">.0184</td>
+<td class="right">.0007</td>
+<td class="left padl0">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">3&nbsp;coats&nbsp;(sum)</td>
+<td class="center br">.0811</td>
+<td class="right">.0031</td>
+<td class="left padl0">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Asbestine</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">3&nbsp;coats&nbsp;(sum)</td>
+<td class="center br">.1840</td>
+<td class="right">.0072</td>
+<td class="left padl0">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Blanc&nbsp;fixe</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">3&nbsp;coats&nbsp;(sum)</td>
+<td class="center br">.1068</td>
+<td class="right">.0042</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Single&nbsp;coat</td>
+<td class="center br">.0356</td>
+<td class="right padr0">.0001</td>
+<td class="left padl0">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Outside.&nbsp;White&nbsp;on&nbsp;wood</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Outside&nbsp;coat</td>
+<td class="center br">.1329</td>
+<td class="right">.0052</td>
+<td class="left padl0">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Inside</td>
+<td class="center br">.1845</td>
+<td class="right">.0072</td>
+<td class="left padl0">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb2">
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Penetration</td>
+<td class="center br">.0737</td>
+<td class="right">.0029</td>
+<td class="left padl0">0</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><b>Polar Micro-Examinations and Photomicrographs.</b> By Polar
+Micro-Examination is meant the examination of pigments under
+polarized light. A polarizing apparatus, though not an essential
+in the hands of the paint chemist, is nevertheless much to be
+desired, for by its help deductions may be drawn as to the contents
+of a paint, which by other means might not be possible.
+The polarizing apparatus as marketed by most manufacturers
+of the microscope is attached in the following manner:</p>
+
+<p>The diaphragm immediately under the sub-stage container
+is swung out and opened to its widest limit, allowing the insertion
+of the polarizer. This polarizer carries one of the pair of Nicols
+prisms and is countersunk to allow of the introduction of gypsum
+or selenite plates. The analyzer fits over the eyepiece on the
+tube.</p>
+
+<p>The use of polarized light upon paint is valuable on account of
+its action upon crystalline substances. The re-enforcing pigments,
+such as Asbestine, China Clay, Gypsum, Silex, Barytes,
+etc., are crystalline and consequently act upon the polarized
+light. In most cases these pigments are used in ready-mixed
+paints in small amounts, varying between 5 and 25%. When
+a slide containing a small amount&mdash;for example, less than<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+3%&mdash;of these crystalline pigments is examined under the
+microscope by ordinary transmitted light, they will often
+escape observation, owing to the small amount in which they
+are present. However, in the case of polarized light, this could
+hardly happen.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo101.jpg" alt="Barytes under Polarized Light" width="300" height="304" />
+<p class="caption">Microscopic View of Barytes under
+Polarized Light</p></div>
+
+<p>A slide of paint containing these re-enforcing pigments is
+prepared in the usual manner. On examining this under the
+microscope and using the polarizing apparatus, the crystalline
+pigments are at once detected by revolving the analyzer. At
+one position of the analyzer, one sees an ordinary field, as with
+transmitted light, but if one revolves the analyzer, the field
+gradually becomes darker until total darkness is obtained
+throughout, except in such places where crystalline substances
+are present, when the crystal is shown up with beautiful distinctness.
+Photomicrographs of various single pigments and
+pigment combinations are shown under <a href="#Ch3">Chapter III</a>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Effect of Pigments on Oil.</b> Certain pigments have the property
+of acting upon the linseed oil in which they are ground,
+forming metallic linoleates which accelerate the drying of oil.
+This is especially true of lead and zinc pigments. The inert
+crystalline pigments, when ground in linseed oil and painted
+out, distribute the oil so as to allow a great surface to be exposed
+to the air. Thus by physical action, and possibly catalytic or
+contact action, these inert pigments stimulate the drying of oil<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+paints in which they are ground. Lead and zinc paints, of
+course, have the greatest drying values on account of the added
+effect of the linoleates formed, as outlined above. The writer
+has made a series of tests in which the action of various pigments
+upon linseed oil is shown. The tests were made in the following
+manner:</p>
+
+<p>Five grams of each of a series of commonly used paint pigments,
+including those of inert crystalline nature as well as the more
+valuable amorphous pigments which are considered more or
+less chemically active, were ground separately in an agate
+mortar, with 5 grams of raw linseed oil. The ground paste
+in each case was placed in a marked glass beaker, and allowed
+to stand in a dustless section of the laboratory for one month.
+The oil-pigment paste from each beaker was then separately
+extracted with benzine to remove the linseed oil from the pigment.
+The benzine solutions of oil were then heated to remove
+the benzine and the residue of oil burned to ash in crucibles.
+The ash from each test was weighed, and if it ran above the
+percentage of ash determined on a blank sample of linseed oil
+(namely, .003%), the ash was analyzed qualitatively for metallic
+constituents. The following table of results shows the percentage
+increase in ash, as well as the constituents of ash on the
+various samples tested:</p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Table of Results</span></h5>
+
+<table class="braces fsize80" summary="Table P 87">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center bt2 br bb">Pigment&nbsp;in Oil</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">Per&nbsp;cent.&nbsp;of<br />Ash&nbsp;in&nbsp;Oil<br />Extracted&nbsp;
+from<br />Oil-Pigment<br />Paste</td>
+<td class="center bt2 bb padr1 padl1">Analysis&nbsp;of&nbsp;Ash</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Raw&nbsp;linseed&nbsp;oil&nbsp;without&nbsp;pigment</td>
+<td class="right">0.003</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Barytes</td>
+<td class="right">0.003</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Blanc&nbsp;fixe</td>
+<td class="right">0.003</td>
+<td class="br padr2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Silica</td>
+<td class="right">0.003</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Asbestine</td>
+<td class="right">0.005</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">China&nbsp;clay</td>
+<td class="right">0.007</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Whiting</td>
+<td class="right">0.008</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Chrome&nbsp;yellow</td>
+<td class="right">0.025</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Lead&nbsp;oxide&nbsp;(PbO)</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Lithopone</td>
+<td class="right">0.031</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Zinc&nbsp;oxide&nbsp;(ZnO)</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Prussian&nbsp;blue</td>
+<td class="right">0.032</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Iron&nbsp;oxide&nbsp;(Fe<span class="denom">2</span>O<span class="denom">3</span>)</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Sublimed&nbsp;white&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="right">0.033</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Lead&nbsp;oxide&nbsp;(PbO)</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Zinc&nbsp;oxide</td>
+<td class="right">0.105</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Zinc&nbsp;oxide&nbsp;(ZnO)</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Corroded&nbsp;white&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="right">0.116</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Lead&nbsp;oxide&nbsp;(PbO)</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb2">
+<td class="left br padr1">Red&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="right">0.211</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Lead&nbsp;oxide&nbsp;(PbO)</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>Observation of these results shows that pigments such as
+Barytes, Blanc Fixe, and Silica have no chemical action on the
+linseed oil. The results on Asbestine and China Clay also are
+negative, the extremely slight increase in amount of ash from
+these samples probably being due to traces carried over mechanically
+into the oil mixture; the last named pigments being more
+fluffy and difficult to separate from oil. Slight action seemed to
+be apparent in the case of whiting, a pigment somewhat alkaline
+in nature. A longer test might have shown this pigment to have
+possessed still greater action. Corroded white lead showed
+considerable action, resulting in the formation of lead linoleate
+or some other organic compound. Zinc oxide and lithopone,
+the latter pigment containing 30% of zinc sulphide, both
+indicated action on the oil. Chrome yellow (chromate of lead)
+showed some action, as did also Prussian blue, the ash from
+the last named pigment showing a heavy percentage of iron
+oxide.</p>
+
+<p>Red Lead showed a most astounding gain in these tests,
+chemical action of the pigment on the oil being apparent soon
+after the tests were started, as shown by the formation of a
+hard cake with the linseed oil.</p>
+
+<p>The Raw Linseed Oil which was used in these tests had an
+acid value of 1.84%, which is very low. The neutralization of
+this free fatty acid by some of the alkaline pigments used, may
+account for part of the increased percentage of ash, but in most
+cases the pigments, and more especially the basic pigments,
+had a direct saponifying action upon the glycerides of the oil.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></p>
+<h2><a name="Ch5" id="Ch5"></a>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<h3>THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF SCIENTIFIC PAINT MAKING</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>Laws of Paint Making.</b> To secure a proper comprehension
+of the composition of paints, and to be able to interpret the
+functions of their various constituents, requires an understanding
+of the general physical principles involved. The modern
+grinder has accepted the Law of Minimum Voids, and upon this
+law he bases the design of paint formul&aelig;, aiming toward the
+production of what have been properly termed Scientifically
+Prepared Paints. Perry&#8217;s formulation of the Law of Minimum
+Voids in a paint coating, and the analogy which he has drawn
+between a scientifically prepared paint and a well-proportioned
+concrete, was the result of genuine scientific thought following
+observation and experimentation. It must be admitted that
+analogies are not always safe to draw conclusions from, but it
+surely is no fallacy in reasoning to draw analogies between these
+two materials, when they resemble each other in so many ways.
+To carry out processes of reasoning, and to formulate laws from
+such close analogies, is certainly a step in the right direction.</p>
+
+<p>A graphic summary of the analogies between a properly proportioned
+concrete and a paint, are shown on next page.</p>
+
+<p>Although this table graphically summarizes the principles
+involved, the matter is presented with greater clearness in
+the following:</p>
+
+<p>Law No. 1&mdash;The law of minimum voids to be observed in
+constructing a paint formula&mdash;this law having already been
+accepted as mathematically correct and technically proved in
+the technology of concrete and cement.</p>
+
+<p>Corollary&mdash;The requisite thickness of a paint film together
+with the utmost attainable strength and impermeability can
+best be obtained by a properly proportioned blend of pigments
+of three or more determinate sizes.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></p>
+
+<h5>AN EXHIBITION OF CERTAIN ANALOGIES GOVERNING THE MANUFACTURE<br />
+OF CONCRETE AND OF PAINT</h5>
+
+<table class="fsize80 braces" summary="Exposition P 94 top">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1">1</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padr1 br">Concrete&nbsp;aggregate&nbsp;=&nbsp;solids&nbsp;+&nbsp;vehicle</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padl1">Paint&nbsp;aggregate&nbsp;=&nbsp;solids&nbsp;+&nbsp;vehicle</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="blankrow">
+<td style="width: 10px;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="width: 110px;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="width: 110px;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br" style="width: 10px;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="width: 10px;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="width: 110px;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="width: 110px;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="width: 10px;">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 top">2</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padr1 br top"><table class="exposition center" summary="Concrete 2">
+  <tr>
+  <td>Solids</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;=&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>coarse</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;+&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>medium</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;+&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>fine</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(stone)</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(gravel)</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(sand)</td>
+  </tr>
+</table></td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padl1"><table class="exposition center" summary="Paint 2">
+  <tr>
+  <td>Solids</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;=&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>coarse</td>
+  <td colspan="2">&nbsp;+&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>medium</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;+&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>fine</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td rowspan="3">(pigments</td>
+  <td class="symb">&#9127;</td>
+  <td>pulverized</td>
+  <td class="symb">&#9131;</td>
+  <td rowspan="3" class="fsize150">{</td>
+  <td rowspan="3">precipi-<br />tated</td>
+  <td rowspan="3" class="fsize150">}</td>
+  <td rowspan="3">(fume)</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="symb">&#9128;</td>
+  <td>cryst'lline</td>
+  <td class="symb">&#9132;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="symb">&#9129;</td>
+  <td>(etc.)</td>
+  <td class="symb">&#9133;</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="blankrow">
+<td colspan="4" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 top">3</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padr1 br top"><table class="exposition center" summary="Concrete 3">
+  <tr>
+  <td colspan="4" class="left">Vehicle&nbsp;=</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;=&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>reactive&nbsp;binder</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;+&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>evapor'g&nbsp;thinner</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="fsize150">{</td>
+  <td>cement&nbsp;and&nbsp;com-<br />bining&nbsp;water</td>
+  <td class="fsize150">}</td>
+  <td>(excess&nbsp;water)</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padl1 top"><table class="exposition center" summary="Paint 3">
+  <tr>
+  <td colspan="4" class="left padl1">Vehicle&nbsp;=</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;=&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>reactive&nbsp;binder</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;+&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>evaporating&nbsp;thinner</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(linseed&nbsp;oil)</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(volatiles)</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="blankrow">
+<td colspan="4" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 top">4</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padr1 br top"><table class="exposition center" summary="Concrete 4">
+  <tr>
+  <td>Solids</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;+&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>compacting</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;=&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(tamping)</td>
+  <td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;=&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="3">elimination&nbsp;of&nbsp;accidental&nbsp;voids</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;+&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;+&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="3">proper&nbsp;adhesive&nbsp;contact</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padl1 top"><table class="exposition center" summary="Paint 4">
+  <tr>
+  <td>Solids</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;+&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>compacting</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;=&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(brushing)</td>
+  <td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;=&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="3">elimination&nbsp;of&nbsp;accidental&nbsp;voids</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;+&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;+&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="3">proper&nbsp;adhesive&nbsp;contact</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="blankrow">
+<td colspan="4" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 top">5</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="center padr1 top br">Vehicle&nbsp;+&nbsp;reaction&nbsp;=&nbsp;hydrosilicates,&nbsp;etc.</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="center padl1 top">Vehicle&nbsp;+&nbsp;reaction&nbsp;=&nbsp;linoxyn</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="center br">(setting)</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="center">(drying)</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="blankrow">
+<td colspan="4" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 top">6</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padr1 br top"><table class="exposition center" summary="Concrete 6">
+  <tr>
+  <td colspan="7">Solids&nbsp;+&nbsp;vehicle&nbsp;+</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;+&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>lubrication</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;+&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="3">chemical&nbsp;reaction</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;=&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td rowspan="2">&nbsp;=&nbsp;</td>
+  <td rowspan="2">final&nbsp;product</td>
+  <td rowspan="2" class="fsize150">{</td>
+  <td colspan="2">solidified&nbsp;binder</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;+&nbsp;</td>
+  <td rowspan="2" class="fsize150">}</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td colspan="2">&nbsp;+&nbsp;solids</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padl1 top"><table class="exposition center" summary="Paint 6">
+  <tr>
+  <td colspan="7">Solids&nbsp;+&nbsp;vehicle&nbsp;+</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;+&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>lubrication</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;+&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="3">chemical&nbsp;reaction</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;=&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td rowspan="2">&nbsp;=&nbsp;</td>
+  <td rowspan="2">final&nbsp;product</td>
+  <td rowspan="2" class="fsize150">{</td>
+  <td colspan="2">solidified&nbsp;binder</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;+&nbsp;</td>
+  <td rowspan="2" class="fsize150">}</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td colspan="2">&nbsp;+&nbsp;solids</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="blankrow">
+<td colspan="4" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 top">7</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padr1 br top">Final&nbsp;product&nbsp;=&nbsp;concrete</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padl1 top">Final&nbsp;product&nbsp;=&nbsp;paint&nbsp;coating</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padr1 top"><table class="exposition" summary="Concrete 7-2">
+  <tr>
+  <td rowspan="3" class="left">(of&nbsp;max.&nbsp;strength</td>
+  <td class="symb">&#9127;</td>
+  <td class="left">shearing</td>
+  <td class="symb">&#9131;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="symb">&#9128;</td>
+  <td class="left">tensile</td>
+  <td class="symb">&#9132;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="symb">&#9129;</td>
+  <td class="left">crushing,&nbsp;etc.</td>
+  <td class="symb">&#9133;</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left padl1 top"><table class="exposition" summary="Paint 7-2">
+  <tr>
+  <td rowspan="3" class="left">(of&nbsp;maximum</td>
+  <td class="symb">&#9127;</td>
+  <td class="left">strength</td>
+  <td class="symb">&#9131;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="symb">&#9128;</td>
+  <td class="left">impermeability</td>
+  <td class="symb">&#9132;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="symb">&#9129;</td>
+  <td class="left">durability</td>
+  <td class="symb">&#9133;</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="blankrow">
+<td colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="right"><span class="padr5">*</span><span class="padl5 padr5">*</span><span class="padl5 padr5">*</span><span
+class="padl5 padr2">*</span></td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left"><span class="padl2 padr5">*</span><span class="padl5 padr5">*</span><span class="padl5 padr5">*</span><span
+class="padl5">*</span></td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="blankrow">
+<td colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="8" class="left">If&nbsp;we&nbsp;assume&nbsp;for&nbsp;both&nbsp;paint&nbsp;and&nbsp;concrete</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="left">proper&nbsp;lubrication</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="left">proper&nbsp;proportion&nbsp;of&nbsp;vehicle&nbsp;and&nbsp;solids</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="8" class="left">Then&nbsp;the&nbsp;<i>essential&nbsp;difference</i>&nbsp;between&nbsp;a&nbsp;thin&nbsp;film&nbsp;of</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="blankrow">
+<td colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="center">Concrete</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">and</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="center">Paint</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">is</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="blankrow">
+<td colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">Cement&nbsp;Binder</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">Linoxyn&nbsp;Binder</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="blankrow">
+<td colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center"><i>Disadvantages</i></td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="just top padr1 br">Non-elastic and hence an impracticable binder for a film to protect non-similar structural
+surfaces.</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="just top padl1">Slowly perishable from oxidation by the air.</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="blankrow">
+<td colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center"><i>Advantages</i></td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="just top padr1 br">Durable and with the qualities of a natural mineral.</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="just top padl1">Semi-elastic and therefore a practicable binder for a film to protect structural surfaces.</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="blankrow">
+<td colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="8" class="center">Postulate (def. Webster's Dictionary&mdash;A self-evident problem)</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="blankrow">
+<td colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="8" class="just">Postulate No. 1&mdash;The organic linoxyn or semi-elastic binder of the
+paint vehicle (unlike the cement binder) is perishable and its purity,
+strength and protection from attack means life to the paint coating,
+and hence the <i>life</i> of the oil is the <i>life</i> of the paint.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="8" class="just">Postulate No. 2&mdash;The inorganic or powdered mineral solids of a paint
+coating will crumble unless held together by the binder, but the
+imperishable pigments must be so ground and blended in the binder that
+they will protect the binder and present the greatest possible solid
+front to the atmospheric attack.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="blankrow">
+<td colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="right"><span class="padr5">*</span><span class="padl5 padr5">*</span><span class="padl5 padr5">*</span><span
+class="padl5 padr2">*</span></td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left"><span class="padl2 padr5">*</span><span class="padl5 padr5">*</span><span class="padl5 padr5">*</span><span
+class="padl5">*</span></td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="blankrow">
+<td colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="8" class="just">A paint, to secure the greatest protection and life for the linoxyn,
+together with the durable qualities of cement,</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="blankrow">
+<td colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center"><i>Therefore</i></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="blankrow">
+<td colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">Should expose to air decay</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="just padr1 br top">within limits of physical strength</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="just padl1 top">within limits required for elasticity,</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="just padr1 br top">The greatest amount of pigm't material</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="just padl1 top">etc. The least amount of exposed linoxyn</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="center br top">(which is)</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="center top">or</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="just padr1 br top">Durable and with the inert qualities of
+natural mineral</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="just padl1 top">Considering the linoxyn present between pigment particles as the void or point of attack,</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="center">Then</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="br"></td>
+<td colspan="3" class="just padl1 top">the minimum exposure of linoxyn</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="center">or minimum voids obtainable by proportioned pigments of different particle
+sizes.</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>Law
+No. 2&mdash;The law of the flat arch in paint coatings&mdash;i.e.,
+the fact that in studying the fundamental physical principles
+governing the strength and durability of a paint coating it is
+necessary to regard the coating as consisting of a series of flat
+arches, in which the pigment particles of largest characteristic
+size serve as the piers or supports for the flat arches of which the
+continuous film is composed.</p>
+
+<p>Corollary A&mdash;The strength and durability of a paint coating
+is determined by the strength and durability of the piers or
+supports (which consist of the characteristic pigment particles
+of the largest size).</p>
+
+<p>Corollary B&mdash;Owing to their inherent strength and durability
+the pigment particles of largest characteristic size which serve
+as supports for the paint coating should consist, in part at least,
+of chemically inert pigments, such as natural crystalline barium
+sulphate, calcium carbonate, magnesium silicate, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Corollary C&mdash;It follows directly that the thickness of a paint
+coating is determined by the particles of pigments having the
+largest characteristic size, even if that pigment be present only
+in moderate percentage. Upon this principle depends the comparatively
+great thickness of film and moderate spreading rate
+of paints composed of such pigments as basic carbonate&mdash;white
+lead, red lead, barytes, etc., and the strongly contrasted thinness
+of film and high spreading rate of paints composed of the
+sublimated pigments such as lamp black, zinc oxide, basic sulphate&mdash;white
+lead, zinc-lead white, leaded zinc, etc.</p>
+
+<p>In commenting upon the announced laws set forth above,
+Heckel says: &#8220;The recognition of these laws was an exercise
+of pure deduction. Paint manufacturers before Mr. Perry&#8217;s
+announcement were producing paints containing three or more
+pigments with particles of varying characteristic sizes; but their
+procedure was based largely on empirical knowledge, the result
+of accumulated experience, due to a conscientious endeavor to
+produce the highest type of paints for economic service. In
+the absence of any law to govern or to limit the use of the reinforcing
+pigments, inexperienced manufacturers had brought
+upon the market paints which were badly proportioned as to
+the several pigments, or burdened beyond the limits of effectiveness
+with reinforcing pigments. To all paint manufacturers
+Perry rendered a substantial service in deducing for them the
+laws set forth in his address. In the results following a recognition
+of these laws there was nothing new or startling, but Perry<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>
+was the first to give the principles from which it can be determined
+in advance whether a paint formula will prove to be physically
+good or bad in practice.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo107a.jpg"
+alt="Paint Chasers, Mixers and Grinders" width="500" height="349" />
+<p class="caption">Series of Paint Chasers, Mixers, and Grinders</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo107b.jpg" alt="Overhead Churn Mixer" width="500" height="373" />
+<p class="caption">Overhead Churn Mixer</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo108a.jpg" alt="Battery of Modern Underdriven Paint Mixers and Grinders"
+width="300" height="365" />
+<p class="caption">Battery of Paint Mixers and Grinders of
+Modern Underdriven Type</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo108b.jpg" alt="Shrinkage of Paint Pigment after Grinding in Oil"
+width="500" height="352" />
+<p class="photocredit left"><i>Photographs courtesy of Ernest Heath</i></p>
+<p class="caption">View showing Shrinkage in Bulk of Paint Pigment after being
+ground in Oil. Filled Barrel on Right with the Oil forms one-third
+Barrel Paste as shown in Barrel on Left</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo109.jpg"
+alt="Careful Dressing of Bull Stone Mill from Grinder" width="300" height="302" />
+<p class="caption">View showing careful Dressing of Bull Stone Mill from
+Grinder</p></div>
+
+<p>&#8220;As has been before stated, he was not the first to recognize
+the law governing minimum voids, but by that scientific use of
+the imagination which Tyndall so highly commends, he recognized,
+as by inspiration, the fundamental similarity existing
+between a film composed of solid particles cemented together
+by a semi-solid homogeneous menstruum and a layer of concrete
+composed of solid particles cemented together by a solid homogeneous
+medium. His application of the law permits the paint
+manufacturers to design a paint formula with full knowledge of
+the controlling conditions, so that it shall produce a coating
+neither too thick, and therefore uneconomical and subject to
+excessive internal strains, nor too thin, and thus weak and inefficient
+for protection. That Mr. Perry&#8217;s contention was
+well-founded, other paint technologists have since demonstrated;
+notably Mr. Wirt Tassin, in his microscopic studies of paint
+films in situ, and Prof. G. W. Thompson who, in his address to
+the Penna. Association of Master Painters at Reading, said:&mdash;&#8220;I
+want to agree with Mr. Perry * * * where he says that a
+pigment should be made up of particles of different sizes. Mr.
+Perry also draws a further parallel between paint and concrete
+where he refers to the form of the reinforcing pigment particles
+and suggests that in paint coatings as in concrete a field can be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>
+found for the chemically inert pigments with rod-like or hair-like
+structure, to strengthen the film, just as the steel rods and
+iron mesh are used to reinforce concrete in structural work&mdash;a
+suggestion which, since the first publication of the address, has
+been widely accepted as a practical aid in the manufacture of
+good paints.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><b>Use of Inert Pigments.</b> There seems to be no reasonable
+doubt as to the efficiency of a small amount of inert pigments
+in paint, and the writer has often compared the manufacture of
+paint of the above type to the making of various alloys wherein
+zinc, copper, and other metals are added to gold in order to make
+a product possessed of greater durability, etc.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo110.jpg" alt="Color Grinding Mills" width="500" height="308" />
+<p class="caption">Batteries of Color Grinding Mills</p></div>
+
+<p>There has been considerable inquiry as to just what is meant
+by the statement that &#8220;a moderate percentage of inert pigments,
+combined with properly adjusted mixtures of white lead
+and zinc oxide, have given wonderful service in all the tests.&#8221;
+The writer has been asked to define what &#8220;moderate&#8221; means.
+A &#8220;moderate percentage of inert pigments&#8221; should be defined
+as that amount of natural crystalline pigments that will, when
+mixed with white lead and zinc oxide, not materially detract
+from the hiding power of white lead and zinc oxide. It is possible
+to mix a certain percentage of these crystalline pigments
+with white lead and zinc oxide, and, by thorough grinding, incorporate
+them in such a manner that the mixture will show nearly
+as good a hiding power as the straight white lead and zinc oxide.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+When certain limits have been reached, however, and these
+limits must be determined by the manufacturer and painter in
+making practical tests, the further addition of inert pigments
+lowers the hiding power of the paint and therefore lowers the
+value of the paint. These remarks do not apply to artificial
+crystalline pigments, such as precipitated whiting, which possess
+greater hiding values than the natural pigments.</p>
+
+<p><b>Perry&#8217;s Principles of Paint Making.</b> Parts of the original
+paper<a name="FNanchor_1_15" id="FNanchor_1_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_15"
+class="fnanchor">[15]</a> in which Perry so clearly set forth the principles from
+which the preceding laws were formed, follow:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_15" id="Footnote_1_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_15"><span
+class="label">[15]</span></a> Physical Characteristics of a Paint Coating. R. S. Perry. Michigan
+Chapter, Amer. Institute of Architects, 1907.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Sealing Quality or Imperviousness of the Coating.</b> &#8220;It has
+been emphasized that for durability and protection, the strength
+and imperviousness of a paint coating are vital factors. The
+protective value of the paint coating of course ceases with its
+chalking or disintegration, but, while it is true that the protecting
+or final life of the coating ceases with this disintegration, it is
+also true that a paint coating has always during its true life more
+or less porosity from the nature of the linoxin or oxidized linseed
+oil. Therefore during its protecting life the degree of its imperviousness
+influences its resistance to attack upon its own life and
+its protection of the underlying materials. The more impervious
+the paint coating without loss of strength, the slower the oxidation
+or disintegration of the paint coating itself and the greater
+protection to the underlying material.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;A coating of linseed oil alone is not only weak, but the
+simplest and crudest experiments will show its porosity and this
+porosity increases rapidly with progressive oxidation, the porosity
+of course definitely hastening the over-oxidation or chalking.
+In proportion, therefore, to our success in filling the voids in the
+linseed oil film with proper pigment materials, we will in that
+degree succeed in excluding agencies of decay, not only from the
+mass of the paint coating itself, but also from the surface to be
+protected. These conditions are exactly parallel in the requirements
+and performance of the best-made concrete, and Taylor
+&amp; Thompson in their work on concrete have clearly stated that
+to obtain imperviousness there must be freedom from voids, and
+that to obtain these conditions, the materials used must have
+at least three determining sizes.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo112a.jpg"
+alt="Voids between Larger and Smaller Shot" width="300" height="304" />
+<p class="caption">Equal Volume (One Cubic Centimetre) of Each
+Size of Shot Taken. Note that the Smaller
+Shot Cover more than Half as much again as
+the Larger Shot and the Voids are Smaller.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo112b.jpg" alt="Two Determining Sizes of Solid Particles in Concrete"
+width="500" height="324" />
+<p class="caption">Diagram Illustrating Two Determining Sizes of
+Solid Particles in Concrete</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo112c.jpg" alt="Three Determining Sizes of Solid Particles in Concrete"
+width="500" height="332" />
+<p class="caption">Diagram Illustrating Three Determining Sizes of
+Solid Particles in Concrete</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></p>
+
+<p>&#8220;&#8216;It is a fact that with particles of different sizes as against
+uniform size the densest mixture can be obtained. This is so
+evident as to require no proof.&#8217; It follows that the least density
+and hence the largest percentage of voids occur when the grains
+are all of the same size, and it is shown that the most voids occur
+in a mass of large particles. The least voids occur when the
+voids between the large particles are filled with smaller particles
+and when these smaller voids between the smaller particles are
+in turn filled with still finer particles. In other words&mdash;particles
+with three determining sizes will fill up a given space more completely
+than particles of two determining sizes and very much
+more completely than particles of one size.</p>
+
+<p><b>Elasticity and Strength.</b> &#8220;The paint coating here again is
+governed by many of the laws which govern the similar material,
+i.e., concrete. We find, by again referring to Taylor &amp; Thompson,
+on Concrete, page 275, that tests at the Watertown Arsenal on
+concrete convinced the investigators that the ultimate strength
+of a concrete is identical with the shearing strength of particles
+of stone making up the aggregate.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;This means that in its ultimate form the good concrete will
+crack or shear through the broken rock contained therein, and
+resistance to shearing is directly proportionate to the strength of
+the broken rock chosen for the mixture. The film of semi-liquid
+linseed oil when fresh is extremely weak, but as it hardens, its
+characteristics and physical properties will obviously be those
+qualities which are a composite of the qualities of the solid particles
+and of the semi-solid linolein incorporated together in the
+paint coating. These physical properties of the suspended and
+incorporated pigments profoundly modify the film in this respect.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The dried vehicle, linoxin, is notable for its elasticity, and
+it is weak in crushing and tensile strength, and in hardness or
+resistance to surface wear. The fact that it is a semi-solid
+furnishes an opportunity to modify and improve those characteristics
+of a solid in which it is deficient. The semi-solid, rubber-like
+linoxin between the coarser particles of the pigment obviously
+uses these coarser particles as supporting points. The medium
+sized particles of the second group of alteration products serve
+the same purpose as the broken rock in concrete. The coarser
+particles absolutely do not, and can not, serve the purpose of
+stiffening or of reinforcing or modifying the consistency and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
+qualities of the semi-solid linoxin, for a number of reasons, one
+of which may be mentioned, namely, that particles of the first,
+or coarse, class have a determining size which is a large fraction&mdash;a
+heavy percentage&mdash;of the total thickness of coating, and are
+in some instances thicker in diameter than the thickness of an
+oil coating not reinforced with the fine or fire group.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;We must think of the coarser particles as piers. The mixture
+of linoxin with the other two groups of particles in the spaces
+between these coarser particles, or piers, is the true paint body
+and consists of flat reinforced arches which have the extra support
+of falsework, in the shape of the structural material on which
+the coating rests. Asbestine pulp, a natural product and one
+of our most important natural reinforcing pigments, serves not
+only in the coarse group as supporting particles for the linoxin
+arch, but also because of its peculiar properties serves the more
+important purposes of reinforcement. It retains, no matter
+how finely ground, its peculiar needle-like, or rod-like, form of
+particles, and obviously serves the purpose of reinforcing the flat
+arch of linoxin, exactly as iron bars or iron netting serve in reinforced
+concrete arches. The medium sized particles of the second
+group of pigments produced by chemical alteration or precipitation,
+serve the purpose of the broken rock in concrete, and
+together with the coarser supporting particles and the finest
+reinforcing particles, give minimum voids and a maximum
+imperviousness to agencies of internal decay.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It goes without saying that the pigments of any one group
+contain particles of dimensions which fall into the other two
+groups, but no one pigment supplies the correct proportion of
+each of the three required dimensions, and each pigment has so
+large a percentage of approximate dimensions as to bar it from
+exclusive use in the other two groups. Given similar homogeneous
+coatings under identical conditions, we recognize the law
+that elasticity will vary directly with thickness. Direct deduction
+from this law teaches us that of two paint coatings equal
+in wear, in strength, opaqueness, and in all other qualities except
+thickness, we should choose the thinner coating. Therefore if we
+have two paint coatings fulfilling every requirement, the first
+compounded with pigments giving a thicker coating and the
+second with pigments yielding a thinner coating, we must choose
+the second formula and obtain the thinner coating.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span><b>Adhesive
+Power.</b> &#8220;The adhesion of the linoxin to the coarse
+group of particles and to the underlying material is vital to the
+life of the paint coating. If the coating parts from the surface
+beneath, we have scaling or peeling. It is universally admitted
+that this will result from use of zinc oxide as the sole pigment.
+We have only to conceive of our flat arch of reinforced linoxin
+and leave out our points of support, to realize that this is the
+inevitable result if the coating be subject to extreme exposure,
+although good results may be obtained from zinc oxide used alone,
+as, for instance, in interior house painting where extreme changes
+of temperature and exposure are avoided.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Three major lines of force hold our linoxin in place&mdash;adhesion
+toward the underneath surface, adhesion to the coarse particles,
+and cohesion within the linoxin itself. These lines must be
+represented by a flat arch of linoxin with a downward pointing
+magnet therefrom, to represent adhesion to the surface. Magnets
+on each side of the arch pointing toward the supporting
+coarse particles, and two magnets within the arch and pointing
+toward each other, or to the centre of the arch, these latter to
+represent the force of cohesion.&#8221;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></p>
+<h2><a name="Ch6" id="Ch6"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+
+<h3>THE SCOPE OF PRACTICAL PAINT TESTS</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>The Pigment Contention.</b> During the year 1906 officials of
+the North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station examined
+a number of paints on sale in the northwestern States. The
+presence of large quantities of inert pigments as well as water,
+in some of these paints, prompted agitation for State laws
+requiring the formula-labeling of paints. Certain paints made
+of white opaque pigments such as white lead and zinc oxide were
+exempted from the statute. The white opaque pigments used
+in these paints were believed by certain manufacturers as well
+as by many prominent paint authorities of high standing to be
+benefited in their wearing value by the addition of small percentages
+of inert crystalline pigments, such as barytes, silica,
+China clay, etc. Laboratory experiments had already determined
+that these inert crystalline pigments had a certain definite
+action in increasing the life of paints, but it had become
+evident that they should be used with discretion, in moderation,
+and with a proper understanding of their limitations, if the
+best results were to be obtained. The addition of very large
+quantities of such pigments was not indulged in by discriminating
+manufacturers, but the exact percentage to use was a matter
+of great doubt, even to the most experienced. In order to
+determine just what percentage of crystalline pigments, admixed
+with white opaque paint pigments, would give the best service
+and results, it seemed imperative that practical paint tests should
+be made. A series of paint tests on commercial brands of paint
+had already been started at the Fargo Agricultural College,
+and, at the suggestion of the Paint Manufacturers&#8217; Association
+of the United States, another series of practical paint tests were
+instituted, and carried out under the supervision of Dr. E. F.
+Ladd, Director of the North Dakota Experiment Station.</p>
+
+<p><b>Test Fences to Solve the Problem.</b> It was apparent that
+the pigment question could be solved only through field tests<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
+made on a comprehensive basis and placed under the control of
+scientific and technical societies of renown, so that they might
+be fair and unbiased from every standpoint. In order to secure
+a comparison of the wearing of different paint formulas in various
+sections of the country and under differing climatic conditions,
+another series of tests was started in the East soon after the
+North Dakota tests had been started. Simultaneously fences
+were erected at Atlantic City, N. J., and Pittsburg, Pa. The
+site of the Atlantic City fence is a strip of land running due
+north from Atlantic and Savannah Avenues and within a short
+distance from the Atlantic Ocean, the exposure being a severe
+one. The site of the Pittsburg fence is back of the athletic field
+of the Carnegie Technical Schools, the fence running east and
+west and being exposed to the heavily charged sooty atmosphere
+coming from the many industrial plants near by.</p>
+
+<p><b>Construction of Framework of Fences.</b> At these two locations
+framework fences were built, upon which were placed a
+series of painted panels. Heavy yellow pine posts six inches
+square were set in the ground about six feet apart and to the
+depth of about four feet, upon a concrete base. The posts were
+solidly tamped and then braced at the top with supplementary
+studding braces two inches thick. Connecting the posts was a
+line of studding six inches by two inches, forming a solid framework,
+the bottom of which was approximately fifteen inches from
+the ground. The bottoms and tops of the fences were protected
+by heavy boards two inches thick, so that the moisture and rain
+might be prevented from working itself up into the wood. The
+whole fence was sheathed with twelve-inch planed white pine,
+thus forming a solid background for the test panels.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lumber for Panels.</b> The lumber for the test panels was
+most carefully selected, being of three grades&mdash;white pine,
+yellow pine, and cypress. A large amount of each grade of
+lumber was secured, and after the best portion had been made
+up into panels, the panels were inspected by an expert lumber
+classer; nearly 40% being rejected on account of the presence
+of knots or sappy places which appeared upon the surface.
+Each of the panels finally passed upon as suitable for the test
+was branded with a hot iron with consecutive numbers running
+from 1 to 186. The grade of wood used for each panel was
+indicated by an abbreviated mark&mdash;W for white pine, C for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>
+cypress, and Y for yellow pine. In order that a record of each
+panel might be kept on file, previous to the application of paint
+to the panels, a complete series of photographs was taken of the
+panels in sets of four. This work seemed advisable so that the
+future failure of paint on any one panel, which might be thought
+due to faulty wood, could be either verified or refuted by a reference
+to the series of photographs made of the bare panels.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo118.jpg" alt="Atlantic City Test Fence" width="500" height="215" />
+<p class="caption">View of Atlantic City Test Fence</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Construction of Panels.</b> The panels were constructed of
+Dutch weather boarding, tongued and grooved together in strips
+of three pieces and capped at the top with a weather strip,
+forming a finished surface three feet long and fifteen and a half
+inches high. They were firmly braced together at their backs
+and nailed in such a manner that no portion of the nails would
+appear on the surface of the panel, thus preventing the staining
+of the panel from rust. The construction of the framework of
+the fences at Atlantic City and Pittsburg was of such a nature
+that they would each accommodate 560 panels of this type.</p>
+
+<p><b>Starting of Tests.</b> On account of the lateness of the season,
+it was found necessary to do the painting of the tests within a
+building, so that each formula might be subjected to fair and
+equal conditions of application, thus excluding the blowing of
+dust or rain upon the painted surfaces, which would have taken
+place had the panels been painted upon the fence. The painting
+of the panels began in January, 1908, the temperature within
+the buildings in which the work was done averaging 50 degrees
+Fahrenheit throughout the work.</p>
+
+<p>It was decided to test each formula in three colors, in duplicate,
+and on each grade of wood, exposing the duplicates on either<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+side of the fence. Thus for one paint formula there were required
+18 panels, or 6 painted in each color and on 3 grades of wood.</p>
+
+<p><b>Paints for Tests.</b> The mixed paints received for the tests
+were in quart cans, having been especially prepared from the
+formulas submitted to manufacturers by the technical committee
+in charge of the work. They were properly labeled with
+their number and color, in each case. The formulas decided
+upon for the test are described later. The various white leads
+and other single pigment paints which were used were received
+in kegs weighing 12<span class="enum">1</span>&#8260;<span class="denom">2</span> pounds each, having been bought in the open
+market and then given a formula number. The formulas of
+the paints designed for both the Atlantic City and Pittsburg
+tests, as well as the numbers of the panels upon which the paints
+were applied, are shown on pages <a href="#Page_131">131</a>-<a href="#Page_133">133</a>-<a href="#Page_145">145</a>. The analysis
+of one of the combination paints applied is herewith given, to
+show the correct method of stating the composition of a paint.</p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Formula No. 20, Atlantic City Test Fence</span></h5>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table P 108">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">Percentage&nbsp;Composition</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center bt2 br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">Pigment</td>
+<td class="center bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">Vehicle</td>
+<td class="center bt2 bb padr1 padl1">Total</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Corroded&nbsp;white&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">67.01</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">42.84</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Zinc&nbsp;oxide</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">19.89</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">12.71</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Asbestine</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">3.86</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">2.47</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Calcium&nbsp;carbonate</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">9.24</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">5.91</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Raw&nbsp;oil</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">94.30</td>
+<td class="right padr2">34.02</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Japan&nbsp;drier</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">3.89</td>
+<td class="right padr2">1.40</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left br padr1">Turpentine</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">1.81</td>
+<td class="right padr2">0.65</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb2">
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">100.00</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">100.00</td>
+<td class="right padr2">100.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><b>Brushes.</b> Heavy 7-O round bristle brushes were used for
+the priming coat so that the paint might be well worked into
+the wood, while for the second and third coats three-inch chisel
+edge brushes were used. These brushes were, of course, washed
+several times with turpentine after painting each panel, so that
+pigments from one paint could not be carried over into a paint
+containing other pigments.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo120.jpg" alt="Cypress Panels" width="300" height="448" />
+<p class="caption">Cypress Panels</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Shellacking Panels.</b> The shellacking of any bad places of
+minor nature which may have been present on the surfaces of
+some of the panels, was done with the highest grade orange
+shellac. It was thought advisable to determine whether shellacking
+over the priming coat of paint or on the bare wood<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
+previous to the application of the priming coat, was the better
+method. Panels Nos. 1 to 8 in each test were therefore shellacked
+over the priming coat, while on all other panels the
+shellacking was done directly on the bare wood previous to the
+application of the priming coat of paint.</p>
+
+<p><b>Application of Paints.</b> In order to determine just how much
+paint was applied to each panel and to reckon the spreading rate
+therefrom, careful weighings were made during the application
+of every paint. This was carried out by placing a quart can of
+paint as received, upon a laboratory balance, the gross weight
+being taken and recorded. The can was shaken and its contents
+transferred to a quart-size enameled cup where with the aid of
+a paddle it was broken up into a mixture of even consistency.
+A portion of this paint was then transferred to two small sample
+cans carefully numbered with the formula number, for future
+reference and analysis. The reduction of the paint was then
+made. The brush used on the priming coat was placed with
+the pot and the paint on the balance and the weight taken by
+the official weigher. The pot was then given to the painter who
+applied the priming coat to one panel. The brush, pot, and
+paint were then handed back to the official weigher and the
+difference in weight recorded. From these data could be reckoned
+the spreading rate of the formula applied.</p>
+
+<p>The drying of the panels was noted every few hours and
+observations made to determine whether the paints were penetrating
+properly into the surface of the wood. A period of eight
+days was allowed between each coat in order that thoroughly
+hard setting might take place.</p>
+
+<p>During the application of the second coat of paint to the
+panels, fresh cans of paint were used in every case so that fresh
+reductions could be made of the proper consistency. Full data
+were also recorded on the ease of application, working, and nature
+of drying shown, as well as appearance presented by each paint
+after each coat had been applied. New packages of paint were
+also used for the third coat, and, as a rule, the paint was applied
+without reduction or with full oil reduction, turpentine being
+eliminated in nearly every case for the third coat work.</p>
+
+<p><b>Reductions.</b> The single pigment paints, such as white leads,
+were reduced by the so-called ounce system, each ounce of oil
+added to 12<span class="enum">1</span>&#8260;<span class="denom">2</span>
+ounces of paste pigment representing one gallon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>
+of vehicle to one hundred pounds of lead. A complete report of
+the reductions, spreading rates, etc., used in the tests would take
+up three or four hundred pages of printed matter. The reductions
+shown on the following formulas are, however, fairly
+representative of the reductions used on the combination and
+single pigment paints.</p>
+
+<div class="ind10" style="width: 60%; margin-bottom: 1.5em;">
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Reductions on Formula No. 2</span></h5>
+
+<div class="fsize80">
+
+<p class="center"><i>White and Yellow</i></p>
+
+<p class="center">1st Coat</p>
+
+<p>Condition when opened&mdash;good.<br />
+Consistency when broken up&mdash;heavy.<br />
+Reduction recommended by manufacturer&mdash;none.<br />
+Reduction used&mdash;3 pints raw oil, 1 pint turps, 1 gallon paint.<br />
+Consistency after reducing&mdash;good, stiff.<br />
+Working&mdash;fair.<br />
+Drying&mdash;fair on pines; cypress&mdash;poor.<br />
+Penetration, pines&mdash;good; cypress&mdash;poor.</p>
+
+<p class="center">2nd Coat</p>
+
+<p>Consistency when broken up&mdash;heavy.<br />
+Reduction used&mdash;1<span class="enum">1</span>&#8260;<span class="denom">2</span> pints turpentine, 1 pint boiled oil.<br />
+Consistency after reducing&mdash;good.<br />
+Working&mdash;good.<br />
+Hiding&mdash;medium.<br />
+Drying on pines&mdash;good; cypress&mdash;poor. One-half pint japan added to gallon of paint.<br />
+Penetration&mdash;fair.</p>
+
+<p class="center">3rd Coat</p>
+
+<p>Reduction used&mdash;1<span class="enum">1</span>&#8260;<span class="denom">2</span> pints oil, <span class="enum">1</span>&#8260;<span
+class="denom">2</span> pint turpentine.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Reductions for Lead Pastes</i></p>
+
+<p>Calculated on 100 lb. keg.</p>
+
+<p class="center">Formulas Nos. 37-38. (Corroded White Lead.)</p>
+
+<p class="center">1st Coat</p>
+
+<p>6<span class="enum">1</span>&#8260;<span class="denom">2</span> gallons oil, <span class="enum">1</span>&#8260;<span
+class="denom">2</span> gallon turpentine, 1 pint turpentine japan.</p>
+
+<p class="center">2nd Coat</p>
+
+<p>3<span class="enum">1</span>&#8260;<span class="denom">2</span> gallons oil, 1 gallon turpentine, 1 pint japan.</p>
+
+<p class="center">3rd Coat</p>
+
+<p>3 gallons oil, 1 pint turpentine, <span class="enum">1</span>&#8260;<span class="denom">2</span> pint japan.</p>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Hiding Power of Paints.</b> When the priming coat had thoroughly
+dried on each panel, the painter carefully stencilled a
+black Geneva cross over the priming coat with lampblack in oil.
+The object of this black cross was to make a determination of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+the comparative opacity or hiding power of the different paints
+applied. It is well known that various pigments when ground
+in oil differ in their hiding power in direct proportion to the
+difference in the refractive indices of the pigments and oils used,
+those containing high percentages of pigments such as white
+lead and zinc oxide being superior in hiding power. After the
+second and third coat of paint had been applied to each panel,
+there was evident a remarkable difference in the hiding power,
+as the black cross showed through in some cases quite clearly,
+while in other cases it was almost completely hidden. The
+hiding power of a paint is one of the properties which the master
+painter looks upon as most essential, but it should, of course, be
+accompanied in a satisfactory paint by good spreading power and
+longevity.</p>
+
+<p><b>Actinic Light Tests.</b> After the drying of all the paints, it
+was decided that it would be of extreme interest to conduct a
+test on the resistance of certain paints to actinic light. It is
+well known that the ultraviolet or chemical rays of the sun are
+most energetic in causing chemical reactions that result in the
+early decay of certain types of paint. It was thought that the
+disintegrating effect of these rays, as well as their effect in
+the bleaching out of colors, might be prevented by placing
+upon certain panels small orange colored glass slides which would
+prevent the passing of these rays to the painted surface. The
+slides used were five inches long and three inches wide and were
+placed upon the middle board of certain panels, with picture
+framing, putty, and galvanized iron tacks. The preservation of
+the underlying surface from the sun&#8217;s rays would, it was thought,
+prevent the deterioration of the paint, and at the same time
+preserve its original color so that it might be compared to the
+color of the exposed portion at the time of inspection.</p>
+
+<p><b>Supervision of Tests.</b> The Atlantic City tests were under
+the constant supervision of Committee E of the American
+Society for Testing Materials, this committee having accepted
+the inspection of the fence. A representative was constantly
+present throughout the work in order to see that each formula
+received fair treatment. The actual painting work was under
+the supervision of the writer, together with a master painter
+representing George Butler who was chosen by the Master
+Painters&#8217; Association of Philadelphia as the official painter of<span
+class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>
+the Atlantic City test fence. Mr. J. B. Campbell of Chicago
+also acted as an official of the Paint Manufacturers&#8217; Association
+in the application of the formulas to both the Atlantic City and
+Pittsburg fences.</p>
+
+<p>At Pittsburg the fence was placed directly under the supervision
+and control of the Carnegie Technical Schools, who chose
+for the fence work a committee of their technical force. Drs.
+James and Schaeffer of this institution were present throughout
+most of the work and were constantly represented during the
+test. The Pittsburg Master Painters&#8217; Association appointed a
+committee consisting of Messrs. Dewar, Rapp, and Cluley, for
+the actual painting work, and they were represented with the
+writer throughout the tests.</p>
+
+<p>Great interest was exhibited in the work by the committees
+in charge, and the skill of the practical painters, combined with
+the care of the inspectors, made the treatment of each formula
+fair and satisfactory.</p>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></p>
+<h2><a name="Ch7" id="Ch7"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+<h3>CONDITIONS NOTED AT INSPECTION OF TESTS</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>Inspection of Atlantic City Tests.</b> During the month of
+March, just one year after the placing of the painted panels on
+the Atlantic City fence, an inspection was made jointly by a
+committee representing the Master Painters&#8217; Association of
+Pennsylvania, the Scientific Section of the Paint Manufacturers&#8217;
+Association of the United States, and certain members of sub-Committee
+E of the American Society for Testing Materials.</p>
+
+<p><b>Methods Used at Inspection.</b> One of the most important
+tests made when inspecting paint is the determination of the
+chalking taking place.<a name="FNanchor_1_16" id="FNanchor_1_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_16"
+class="fnanchor">[16]</a> There was developed during the inspection
+of the Atlantic City panels a new method for determining
+the comparative chalking of the various paints. It was thought
+desirable to secure a method, if possible, that would show results
+which might be photographed and even tabulated in percentage
+form, if desired. The apparatus for the new test consisted of a
+small strip of black felt three inches wide by five inches long,
+placed across a small block of wood which would fit in the palm
+of the inspector&#8217;s hand. This outfit resembled a blackboard
+eraser and was used in a similar way. By holding the apparatus
+firmly against the panel and drawing it half-way across the panel
+in a straight line toward the operator, there was obtained on the
+black cloth a white mark proportional in intensity to the amount
+of chalking which had taken place on the given area. When a
+series of these cloths were made, they were assembled and photographed
+for comparison. It should be noted that the above
+chalking test is useful only where the painted panels under
+examination have been exposed over a period of one to two
+years, during which period the chalking of paints has been shown
+to be greatest and the chalked surface of a fairly adherent nature.
+Where longer exposures have been made and where rains have
+removed from the painted panels a considerable amount of the
+chalked pigment which has formed, such a test would not be
+fairly representative of the amount of chalking which had taken
+place.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_16" id="Footnote_1_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Mr.
+Macgregor of the Picher Lead Co. has just developed a new test
+to determine the relative imperviousness of paints which have begun to
+chalk. He draws a mark about two inches long upon the painted surface
+with a fountain pen. The ink mark will spread rapidly to a wide area if
+the chalking is of a bad order. If the chalking is slight and the film in
+good condition, the ink mark will not spread.</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo126.jpg"
+alt="Black Felt Cloths for Chalk Tests" width="500" height="291" />
+<p class="caption">Series of Black Felt Cloths used in making the Chalk Tests on the Various Formulas.
+Numbers over Cloths represent Panels</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo127.jpg" alt="Chalking" width="300" height="459" />
+<p class="caption">CHALKING.&mdash;Type of Decay Exhibited by Improperly Made Paint
+(magnified view)</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo128.jpg" alt="Checking" width="300" height="460" />
+<p class="caption">CHECKING.&mdash;Type of Decay Exhibited by Improperly Made Paint
+(magnified view)</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo129.jpg" alt="Blistering" width="300" height="442" />
+<p class="caption">BLISTERING.&mdash;Type of Decay Exhibited by Improperly Made Paint
+(magnified view)</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo130.jpg" alt="Cracking" width="300" height="456" />
+<p class="caption">CRACKING.&mdash;Type of Decay Exhibited by Improperly Made Paint
+(magnified view)</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo131.jpg" alt="General Disintegration" width="300" height="438" />
+<p class="caption">GENERAL DISINTEGRATION.&mdash;Type of Decay Exhibited by
+Improperly Made Paint (magnified view)</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo132.jpg" alt="Scaling" width="300" height="447" />
+<p class="caption">SCALING.&mdash;Type of Decay Exhibited by Improperly Made Paint
+(magnified view)</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>Gloss.</b> The gloss of the various panels was a condition which
+was also reported upon, the middle board of each panel being
+washed with a wet sponge one day before the inspection so that
+any surface dirt might be removed. By looking at a panel
+from the side, a day after the washing, the inspector was enabled
+to get a fair idea of the degree of gloss exhibited by each formula.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hiding Power.</b> The hiding power of each paint was determined,
+as before described, by observing the degree to which
+the stencilled lampblack cross on the priming coat was visible
+through the second and third coats. Single pigment paints
+such as white lead possessed very great hiding power and obscured
+the black cross almost completely, while the cross was
+quite visible through paints containing high percentages of
+crystalline pigments.</p>
+
+<p><b>Checking.</b> The checking of each panel was determined by
+examining with a small high-power hand glass magnifying fifteen
+diameters. It is well known that examinations with such a
+hand glass will not determine whether so-called fine matt checking
+is taking place, but it will determine whether checking has
+appeared to any marked extent. Fine matt checking is the
+first sign of the decomposition of a paint, and is preliminary to
+the visible checking seen by the naked eye, which is often followed
+by alligatoring. Examination of some formulas disclosed this
+so-called alligatoring and even the exposed wood between the
+fissured surface which had developed from what were at first
+fine hair checks. It is, in the opinion of the writer, possible to
+predict with a fair degree of accuracy by examination of a painted
+surface, one year after exposure, how the paint will wear in the
+future and what its appearance will be at the end of another
+year.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hardness.</b> The hardness of each panel could not be determined
+with any degree of accuracy, but the inspectors were able
+to roughly determine this condition by very close inspection.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
+From practical experience of the wearing of white lead and zinc
+oxide, and the comparative hardness of these two pigments,
+zinc oxide was selected as the maximum for hardness and termed
+number 10, while white lead was selected as the minimum and
+termed number 1. The varying degrees of hardness exhibited
+by the formulas were recorded in terms from one to ten. This
+comparison of course was only an approximate one.</p>
+
+<p><b>General Condition.</b> The so-called general conditions of the
+panels was, as a rule, the consensus of the judgment held by
+the various inspectors, with due regard to such properties as
+chalking, checking, gloss, hiding power, color maintenance,
+condition of surface, etc.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></p>
+<h2><a name="Ch8" id="Ch8"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+
+<h3>RESULTS OF ATLANTIC CITY TESTS</h3>
+
+<p><b>Results on Various Woods.</b> On the Atlantic City Fence all
+the tests made on yellow pine and cypress were found to be in
+an unsatisfactory condition for a report, for in every case the
+sap and small knots contained in such wood had a very bad effect
+upon the paint, causing peeling and scaling. The white pine
+panels were in very much better condition, and it was therefore
+decided to make the inspection entirely from the white pine
+panels and in the future to remove the yellow pine and the
+cypress panels from the fence and from the test. The Committee
+advised that all future tests be made on white pine, as
+it is obviously unfair to use anything but the highest grade wood
+for a paint test in which the desire is to determine the comparative
+wearing value of pigments.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>&mdash;Recent tests have shown that Cypress may be successfully
+painted when the
+priming coat of paint is thinned with Benzol (Solvent Naphtha).</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo136.jpg" alt="Atlantic City Fence Panels" width="500" height="289" />
+<p class="caption">Panels on Atlantic City Fence<br />
+Two Lower Sets of Panels are painted with Lithopone Paints. Rapid Failure shown</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo137.jpg" alt="Atlantic City Fence Panels" width="500" height="321" />
+<p class="caption">Panels on Atlantic City Fence</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo138.jpg" alt="Panels on Atlantic City Fence" width="500" height="309" />
+<p class="caption">Panels on Atlantic City Fence<br />
+Two Lower Sets of Panels are Painted with Combination Pigment Paints. Excellent Results shown</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span><b>Paints
+Containing Lithopone.</b> One of the most striking exhibitions
+of paint disintegration in the whole test was the failure
+of nearly all the lithopone formulas tested. At the time these
+formulas were suggested for the test, various European technical
+journals had advocated the use of lithopone in large percentage
+for paints to be used on exterior surfaces. Good results had
+been obtained in the northwestern section of Europe, with this
+pigment in certain mixtures, and the object of these lithopone
+tests at Atlantic City and Pittsburg was to determine whether
+satisfactory paints could be made of this pigment for exposure
+in this country. Failure of the tests, however, in nearly every
+case except where zinc oxide and whiting were mixed with the
+lithopone, indicated that pigments such as zinc and whiting are
+necessary in order to prevent the decomposition of lithopone
+pigment paints. The decay of lithopone paints after they are
+applied seems to start with rapid oxidation of the linseed oil,
+and this oxidation seems to continue in a progressive and even
+accelerated way; after six months&#8217; exposure the surface of the
+paint being chalked to a great extent and showing rapid decomposition
+of the binder or vehicle. Inasmuch as lithopone
+is really an inert pigment, this rapid decomposition of its
+vehicle cannot be explained in the same way as the decomposition
+of the vehicle of pure white lead paints, where the alkaline
+nature of the lead is probably responsible for the formation
+of easily destroyed compounds. As complete failure had taken
+place in nearly every case where lithopone had been used, it was
+decided to condemn the lithopone panels on the fence, consisting
+of formulas 21 to 27, including panels 151 to 164 in white,
+panels 131 to 144 in yellow, and 109 to 122 in gray. These
+lithopone tests were later on replaced by new tests in 1909,
+which will be reported upon <a href="#Ch11">later</a> in this book.</p>
+
+<p><b>General Results.</b> From these tests, the inspectors reached
+the unanimous conclusion that a paint made from any mixture
+of more than one white opaque pigment, either when used alone
+or in combination with small percentages of inert pigments,
+is far superior to any one single pigment paint. It was found
+that the straight white lead paints failed in every case, and this
+failure was so marked as to make it a conclusive demonstration
+of the unfitness of white lead along the Atlantic coast, when
+used without other pigments. Paints made with large percentages
+of white lead, however, gave excellent results.</p>
+
+<p>Gypsum was found unsafe to use in any large proportion in
+a paint, because of its solubility and liability to percolate through
+the coating of linoxyn or dried film, thus destroying the surface
+of the paint. Whiting, or calcium carbonate, demonstrated
+that it could be used in moderate percentage with some efficiency,
+but it was evident that any great excess of this pigment must also
+be avoided on account of its tendency towards rapid chalking.
+Magnesium silicate, aluminum silicate, and silica are three
+inert pigments which proved to be of great value in strengthening
+and reinforcing paints, especially when they were used in
+small percentage. In the same way, black fixe and barytes, or
+barium sulphate, also appeared to be useful in strengthening a
+paint. As these two last named pigments are chemically the
+same but physically different, the use of both in a paint formula
+is considered advantageous, because of the differences in size
+and form of their particles.</p>
+
+<p><b>Color Tests.</b> It was the unanimous conclusion of all the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>
+inspectors that panels of all formulas which were tinted either
+gray or yellow were showing far superior wear and less chalking
+and checking than those which were painted in plain white.
+The reinforcing action of the tinting materials must be credited
+for this lengthening of the wear of such paints. Formulas 5,
+6, 9, and 16, for instance, in the gray, were in most excellent
+condition, and in these formulas were used ochre, umber, bone-black,
+carbon-black, Venetian red and other inert bases. On
+the yellow panels, formulas 5, 6, 9, and 16 were also in very
+superior condition, and in these formulas chrome yellow and
+inert pigments were also used.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the color tests included the priming of boards with
+white lead, zinc oxide, sublimed white lead, lithopone, and other
+single pigment paints. Over these priming coats was placed a
+high grade brilliant paranitraniline red. Fairly good results
+were obtained in every case, but especially when lithopone or
+zinc oxide was used as a priming base. These pigments seemed
+to have no effect upon the constitution of the para red.</p>
+
+<p>Prussian blue, a colored pigment largely used, but one liable
+to react with certain paint pigments, was admixed with various
+paints applied to certain panels. This color was found in some
+cases to have faded materially, especially when mixed with alkaline
+pigments such as white lead. Sublimed white lead and zinc
+oxide, which are more inert in nature, did not have such action
+on Prussian blue, and the tinted bases of these pigments stood
+up in a remarkable manner. The greens which were tested
+were all in very good condition, with absence of fading, and
+showing only slight mildew.</p>
+
+<p><b>Condensed Results of Inspection.</b> The results of inspection
+as obtained by the fence committee<a name="FNanchor_1_17" id="FNanchor_1_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_17"
+class="fnanchor">[17]</a> having in charge the inspection
+of the test, have been condensed into <a href="#Page_130">table form</a>, and
+are presented on pages 130-131.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_17" id="Footnote_1_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_17"><span
+class="label">[17]</span></a> R. S. Perry, Director Scientific Section, Paint Manufacturers&#8217; Association
+of the U. S.; George Butler, Official Painter, representing Master House
+Painters&#8217; &amp; Decorators&#8217; Association, H. A. Gardner, Asst. Director.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Second Annual Inspection of the Atlantic City Test Fence.</b>
+After the original paints which had been applied to the Atlantic
+City Fence had been exposed for over two years, another inspection
+was made by a committee representing the Master Painters&#8217;
+Association of Philadelphia and the Scientific Section of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>
+Paint Manufacturers&#8217; Association of the United States. A
+digest of the report of this committee<a name="FNanchor_1_18" id="FNanchor_1_18"></a><a
+href="#Footnote_1_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> follows:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_18" id="Footnote_1_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_18"><span
+class="label">[18]</span></a> George Butler, Official Painter Atlantic City Test Fence, representing
+Philadelphia Master Painters&#8217; Association; Charles Macnichol, Master
+Painter; Henry A. Gardner, Director Scientific Section, Paint Manufacturers&#8217;
+Association of the U. S.</p></div>
+
+<p>&#8220;The painted panels were all carefully inspected by the inspectors
+in the usual manner. With the aid of high-power magnifying
+glasses, checking was determined. The degree of chalking
+exhibited by the various paints was ascertained by rubbing a
+piece of black cloth across the surface of each paint. Close
+observance was made to determine scaling, peeling, cracking,
+gloss, color, and the other factors to be considered when examining
+a painted surface. From these observations it was possible for
+the inspectors to state whether a panel exhibited general good
+condition, general fair condition, or general poor condition.</p>
+
+<h5>CHART OF RESULTS&mdash;FIRST INSPECTION&mdash;ATLANTIC CITY TEST FENCE</h5>
+
+<table class="fsize80 wide" summary="Table P 130-131">
+
+<tr class="bt2">
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">For-<br />mula<br />No.</td>
+<td rowspan="2" colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Car-<br />bon-<br />ate<br />Lead</td>
+<td rowspan="2" colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Zinc<br />Ox-<br />ide</td>
+<td rowspan="2" colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Sub-<br />limed<br />White<br />Lead</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Zinc<br />Lead<br />White</td>
+<td colspan="8" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">INERT&nbsp;PIGMENTS</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">First<br />Coat</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Sec-<br />ond<br />Coat</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Third<br />Coat</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Aver-<br />age</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Pa-<br />nel<br />No.</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Condition</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Hiding<br />Power</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Color</td>
+<td rowspan="2" colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Hard-<br />ness</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Checking</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Chalking</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Gloss</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center bb padr1 padl1">Remarks</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Calci-<br />um<br />Car-<br />bon-<br />ate</td>
+<td class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Calci-<br />um<br />Sul-<br />phate</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Mag-<br />ne-<br />sium<br />Sili-<br />cate</td>
+<td class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Bari-<br />um<br />Sul-<br />phate</td>
+<td class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Silica</td>
+<td class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Blanc<br />Fixe</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="center br">%</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="center br">%</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">1</td>
+<td class="right">30.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">70.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">610</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">987</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">664</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">754</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Excellent</td>
+<td class="right">8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Very&nbsp;Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">High</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Like&nbsp;rubbed&nbsp;varnish&nbsp;work.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">2</td>
+<td class="right">50.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">50.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">913</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">1066</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">948</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">976</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">3</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="right">5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Hard&nbsp;Matt</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Moderate</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Med.&nbsp;High</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">3</td>
+<td class="right">20.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">50.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">20.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">10.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">912</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">914</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">786</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">871</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">5</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="right">4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">4</td>
+<td class="right">48.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">48.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">3.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">759</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">939</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">1047</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">915</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">7</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="right">5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Very&nbsp;Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Med.&nbsp;High</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">5</td>
+<td class="right">22.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">50.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">2.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">26.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">714</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">1000</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">709</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">808</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">9</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Weak</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="right">8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0"><span class="enum">1</span>&#8260;<span class="denom">2</span></td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">High</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Hard&nbsp;surface.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">64.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">36.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">928</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">1189</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">863</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">993</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">11</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Fairly&nbsp;Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Weak</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="right">8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Matt</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Surface&nbsp;rough.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">7</td>
+<td class="right">37.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">63.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">763</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">972</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">891</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">875</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">13</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Off&nbsp;Color</td>
+<td class="right">7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">High</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">8</td>
+<td class="right">38.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">48.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">14.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">786</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">910</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">767</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">821</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">15</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="right">8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0"><span class="enum">1</span>&#8260;<span class="denom">2</span></td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">High</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">73.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">2.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">25.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">716</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">1081</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">812</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">870</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">17</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Poor</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Heavy&nbsp;Matt</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">High</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Peeling&nbsp;started.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">10</td>
+<td class="right">44.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">46.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">5.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">5.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">861</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">1014</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">862</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">912</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">19</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="right">5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Some</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Med.&nbsp;High</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">11</td>
+<td class="right">50.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">50.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">822</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">959</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">918</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">900</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">21</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Excellent</td>
+<td class="right">7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0"><span class="enum">1</span>&#8260;<span class="denom">2</span></td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Med.&nbsp;Matt</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Some</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Med.&nbsp;High</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Some&nbsp;washing&nbsp;and&nbsp;discoloration.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">12</td>
+<td class="right">60.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">34.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="8" class="center br"><span class="spaced">6%&nbsp;Inert&nbsp;Pigments</span></td>
+<td class="right br padr1">862</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">965</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">734</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">854</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">23</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="right">4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Heavy&nbsp;Matt</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Bad</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">13</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">27.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">60.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">3.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">10.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">916</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">1031</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">1121</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">1073</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">25</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="right">4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">14</td>
+<td class="right">25.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">25.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">20.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">5.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">25.0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">564</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">806</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">785</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">718</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">27</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Bad</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="right">5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Evident</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Some</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Dead,&nbsp;spongy,&nbsp;surface.&nbsp;White&nbsp;incrustations.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">15</td>
+<td class="right">20.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">40.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">30.0</td>
+<td class="right">10.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">935</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">1044</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">1359</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">1113</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">29</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="right">8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0"><span class="enum">1</span>&#8260;<span class="denom">2</span></td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Coarse&nbsp;Matt</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">High</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">16</td>
+<td class="right">33.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">33.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">34.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">799</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">903</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">994</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">899</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">31</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="right">7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0"><span class="enum">1</span>&#8260;<span class="denom">2</span></td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Bad</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1">White&nbsp;incrustations.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">17</td>
+<td class="right">40.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">40.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">3.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">13.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">4.0</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">806</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">1016</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">884</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">902</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">33</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="right">4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Some</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">18</td>
+<td class="right">75.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">25.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">788</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">1257</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">973</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">1006</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">145</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Excellent</td>
+<td class="right">3</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Hard&nbsp;Matt</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Moderate</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">19</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">25.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">75.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">700</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">1183</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">1400</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">1094</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">147</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Excellent</td>
+<td class="right">2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Hard&nbsp;Matt</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Very&nbsp;Little</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">20</td>
+<td class="right">67.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">19.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">10.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">3.5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">776</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">1063</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">877</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">905</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">149</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="right">5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Very&nbsp;Little</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">33</td>
+<td class="right">15.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">30.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">25.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">30.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">512</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">836</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">689</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">679</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">176</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Rough&nbsp;surface.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">34</td>
+<td class="right">38.9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 padr1">5</td>
+<td class="right">33.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 padr1">8</td>
+<td class="right">4.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 padr1">1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">19.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">3.1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">523</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">800</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">810</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">711</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">175</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="right">4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Evident</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Egg&nbsp;Shell</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">35</td>
+<td class="right">37.5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td class="right">25.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">7</td>
+<td class="right">7.8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">20.3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8.4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">450</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">893</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">724</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">689</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">180</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="right">4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Matt</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Egg&nbsp;Shell</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">36</td>
+<td class="right">100.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">408</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">711</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">861</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">660</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">181</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Bad</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="right">1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Very&nbsp;Apparent</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Bad</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Egg&nbsp;Shell</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Same&nbsp;as&nbsp;177,&nbsp;but&nbsp;checking&nbsp;not&nbsp;so&nbsp;bad.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">37</td>
+<td class="right">100.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">524</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">1065</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">828</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">806</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">182</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Bad</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="right">1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Very&nbsp;Apparent</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Bad</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Egg&nbsp;Shell</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Same&nbsp;as&nbsp;177&nbsp;but&nbsp;wood&nbsp;shows&nbsp;more&nbsp;plainly.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">38</td>
+<td class="right">100.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">555</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">888</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">794</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">746</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">177</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Bad</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="right">1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Bad</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Bad</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Egg&nbsp;Shell</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Cracking&nbsp;and&nbsp;perishing&nbsp;evident.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">39</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">100.0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">550</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">941</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">916</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">802</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">178</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="right">6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Some</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">40</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">100.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">643</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">810</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">998</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">817</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">168</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="right">2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Considerable</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Egg&nbsp;Shell</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">45</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">100.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">850</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">170</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Very&nbsp;Evident</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">High</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">46</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">61.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">39.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">783</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">169</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Some</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb2">
+<td class="right br padr1">47</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">100.0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">730</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right br padr1">172</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="right">10</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Apparent</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Indication&nbsp;of&nbsp;scaling.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>&#8220;An
+inspection of the white lead paints on the fence indicated
+in every instance a rough, chalked, and disintegrated surface
+that seemed to be well worn, in some cases nearly to the wood.
+The strongly oxidizing air of the seacoast is probably responsible
+for the early decay of this pigment.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It was observed that the combination type of paint showed
+better hiding power than white lead, over the black crosses placed
+on the priming coat of each panel, as a hiding power test.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo143.jpg" alt="Rearranged Panels on Fence" width="500" height="292" />
+<p class="caption">Front of Fence showing Present Rearrangement of Panels</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></p>
+
+<h5>TESTS INAUGURATED IN 1907<br />
+CHART OF RESULTS OF SECOND ANNUAL INSPECTION OF ATLANTIC CITY TEST FENCE, MAY, 1910</h5>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table P 133">
+
+<tr class="bt2">
+<td colspan="18" class="center br2 bb">FORMULAS</td>
+<td colspan="4" rowspan="3" class="center br bb">REPORT&nbsp;OF&nbsp;INSPECTION</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="center bb">Pan-<br />el<br />Num-<br />ber</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="3" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">For-<br />mu-<br />la<br />Num-<br />ber</td>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="3" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Basic<br />Car-<br />bon-<br />ate<br />White<br />Lead</td>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="3" class="center br bb padr2 padl2">Zinc<br />Ox-<br />ide</td>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="3" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Basic<br />Sul-<br />phate<br />White<br />Lead</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Zin<br />Lead<br />White</td>
+<td colspan="10" class="center br2 bb padr1 padl1 smcap">inert&nbsp;pigments</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Calci-<br />um<br />Car-<br />bon-<br />ate</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Calci-<br />um<br />Sul-<br />phate</td>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Mag-<br />ne-<br />sium<br />Sili-<br />cate</td>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Bari-<br />um<br />Sul-<br />phate</td>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Silica</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br2 bb padr1 padl1">Blanc<br />Fixe</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center br bb padr1 padl1">CHALKING</td>
+<td class="center br bb padr1 padl1">CHECKING</td>
+<td class="center br bb padr1 padl1">GENERAL<br />CONDITION</td>
+<td class="center br bb padr1 padl1">REMARKS</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="center br">%</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="center br">%</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="center br2">%</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">1</td>
+<td class="right">30</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">70</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Very&nbsp;slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Very&nbsp;slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">2</td>
+<td class="right">50</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">50</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Very&nbsp;good</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">3</td>
+<td class="right">20</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">50</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">20</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">4</td>
+<td class="right">48</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.5</td>
+<td class="right">48</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.0</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Very&nbsp;slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">5</td>
+<td class="right">22</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">50</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">26</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">64</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">36</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Very&nbsp;slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">7</td>
+<td class="right">37</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">63</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">8</td>
+<td class="right">38</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">48</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">14</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Very&nbsp;slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">73</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">25</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Very&nbsp;bad</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Deep,&nbsp;with&nbsp;scaling</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Poor</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">10</td>
+<td class="right">44</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">46</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Heavy</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Deep</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">11</td>
+<td class="right">50</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">50</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">12</td>
+<td class="right">60</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">34</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="7" class="center br">6%&nbsp;Inert&nbsp;Pigment</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Deep</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">13</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">27</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">60</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">3</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Very&nbsp;good</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">14</td>
+<td class="right">25</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">25</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">20</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">25</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Lateral</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">15</td>
+<td class="right">20</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">40</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 padl1 br">30</td>
+<td class="right">10</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Visible&nbsp;with&nbsp;naked&nbsp;eye</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Poor</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">16</td>
+<td class="right">33</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">33</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">34</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">31</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">17</td>
+<td class="right">40</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">40</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">3</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">13</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br2">4</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">33</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">18</td>
+<td class="right">75</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">25</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Very&nbsp;good</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">145</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">19</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">25</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">75</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Considerable</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Deep</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">147</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">20</td>
+<td class="right">67</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.0</td>
+<td class="right">19</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.0</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">149</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">33</td>
+<td class="right">15</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">30</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">25</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">30</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Very&nbsp;good</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">176</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">34</td>
+<td class="right">38</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.95</td>
+<td class="right">33</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.58</td>
+<td class="right">4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.81</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">19</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.48</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.59</td>
+<td class="right">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.59</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight&nbsp;lateral</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">175</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">35</td>
+<td class="right">37</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.51</td>
+<td class="right">25</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.87</td>
+<td class="right">7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.84</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">20</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.36</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.21</td>
+<td class="right">4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.21</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Lateral</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">180</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">36</td>
+<td class="right">100</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Considerable</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Heavy</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Rough&nbsp;surface</td>
+<td class="right padr1">181</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">37</td>
+<td class="right">100</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Considerable</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Heavy&nbsp;and&nbsp;deep</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Poor</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Rough&nbsp;surface</td>
+<td class="right padr1">182</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">38</td>
+<td class="right">100</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">More&nbsp;than&nbsp;Panel&nbsp;no.&nbsp;182</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Very&nbsp;deep</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Poor</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">177</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">39</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 padl1 br">100</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Considerable</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Very&nbsp;slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">178</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">40</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">100</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Heavy</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">168</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">45</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">90</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">170</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">46</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">61</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">39</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">169</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb2">
+<td class="right padr1 br">47</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">100</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">None</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Very&nbsp;deep</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Poor</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">172</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>&#8220;There are no pigments possessing greater hiding properties
+when first used than white leads, but the lack of hiding power
+on the white lead panels after two years&#8217; exposure was caused
+by the chalking away of the lead. The superior hiding power
+of the composite paints was due to the action of the other pigments
+in these combination paints in preventing the lead from
+chalking away.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The Committee finds that the addition of a reasonable percentage
+of zinc oxide to white lead increases its durability and
+retards its chalking, renders it whiter, and forms a surface that
+presents a much better repainting condition. The combinations
+of white lead and zinc oxide on the Atlantic City Test Fence
+were in general good condition throughout.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Corroded white lead, sublimed white lead, zinc oxide, and
+zinc lead are the standard white opaque pigments. They were
+all tested on the Atlantic City Fence and it was found that to
+use any one alone results in inferior protection to the wood.
+Barium sulphate, silica, asbestine, china clay, and calcium carbonate
+are the standard crystalline pigments. In the past,
+the overloading of paints with these crystalline or inert pigments
+has been the cause of the prejudice that painters have had
+against their use. It has been established beyond controversy,
+however, that the use of these pigments, in moderate percentage,
+combined with any of the standard opaque white pigments,
+such as white leads, zinc oxide, etc., undoubtedly results in
+better service from every standpoint and forms the most satisfactory
+white paint for general outside use. Some of the most
+perfect painted surfaces on the fence were those made on the
+above basis as reference to the charted report will show.&#8221;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></p>
+<h2><a name="Ch9" id="Ch9"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2>
+
+<h3>RESULTS OF PITTSBURG TESTS</h3>
+
+
+<p>The First Annual Inspection of the Pittsburg Test Fence
+took place during May, 1909, a little over one year after the
+painted panels had been placed in position. The inspectors
+found that in Pittsburg a heavy deposit of soot had formed on
+the panels, and they considered it therefore inadvisable to make
+a detailed report of the inspection until the second year of the
+exposure. The general results of the Pittsburg inspection as
+reported by the three committees<a name="FNanchor_1_19" id="FNanchor_1_19"></a><a
+href="#Footnote_1_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> having supervision over the
+work, is, however, given herewith.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_19" id="Footnote_1_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a>
+J. H. James, Chairman Test Fence Committee, Carnegie Technical
+Schools.<br />
+A. C. Rapp, Chairman Fence Committee, Pittsburg Branch Pennsylvania
+State Association of Master Painters.<br />
+R. S. Perry, Director Scientific Section, Paint Manufacturers&#8217; Association
+of the U. S.; H. A. Gardner, Asst. Director.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo146.jpg" alt="Pittsburg Test Fence" width="500" height="71" />
+<p class="caption">Pittsburg Test Fence</p></div>
+
+<p>During the inspection of the Pittsburg tests it was decided
+to condemn the lithopone panels on the fence, which consisted
+of formulas 21 to 27, including panels 151 to 164 in white, 131
+to 144 in yellow, 109 to 122 in gray. Almost complete failure
+had taken place in every case where lithopone had been used.
+These lithopone tests were later on replaced by new tests which
+are described later in this book.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;<b>Wood Most Valuable for Test.</b> As on the Atlantic City
+Fence, the white pine panels afforded the best results and gives
+the best indication of the comparative wearing of the paints and
+affords no unfair condition, such as other woods might offer, to
+interfere with the test.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>&#8220;<b>Condition
+of Cypress.</b> Cypress showed inferior conditions,
+except that it was more pronounced and more discoloration of
+the panels was noticed on this grade of wood, which seems to be
+extremely greasy in nature and difficult to properly prime, even
+when the paint used upon this wood contains a large percentage
+of volatile diluent.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;<b>Removal of Lithopone Panels.</b> The Joint Committees confirmed
+the previous recommendation to remove all the lithopone
+formulas, and they decided to remove the cypress and the yellow
+pine panels in every formula except in the white paints.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It was decided to reassemble all the white pine panels and
+group them together for purposes of comparison, and in place
+of the panels condemned and removed, to substitute a series of
+new formulas, to further widen the scope of the tests.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;<b>Ultimate Value of Mixed Paints.</b> The results of the inspection
+conclusively show that a mixture of more than one prime
+white pigment, whether this mixture be alone or in combination
+with a small percentage of inert pigment, produces a paint far
+superior to a paint manufactured from one pigment alone.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;As a general statement of the comparative wearing of the
+paints, it might be said that the composite formulas are less
+advanced toward destruction than the paints made from single
+pigments such as lithopones, white leads and zinc oxides. It
+is not to be understood from this statement that it is the opinion
+of the committee that all of the composite formulas are of
+equal value or that all of them are to be recommended, but it
+is meant that the higher types, as evidenced by the appearance
+of the panels, are in the above relation to the single pigment
+paints.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo148.jpg" alt="Pittsburg Test Fence Panels" width="500" height="296" />
+<p class="caption">Panels on Pittsburg Test Fence</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>&#8220;<b>Lithopone
+Destroyed Rapidly at Pittsburg.</b> It was evident
+some time ago that the formulas containing large percentages
+of lithopone were rapidly failing, and their appearance was very
+much the same as those formulas of a similar type at Atlantic
+City. There seems, however, to be some difference in the way
+these formulas broke down; those on the Pittsburg Fence having
+shown the quicker destruction, possibly due to the action of the
+acid gases in the air upon the paint coating. This further confirms
+the statement that paint compositions containing such
+heavy percentages of lithopone and intended for outside use
+must be designed with relation to the particular uses of the
+product and to the climate in which they are to be used. It
+will also be necessary to consider more carefully the vehicle of
+the paints which are to be made of this pigment.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;<b>Possible Value of Excluding Vehicle for Lithopone.</b> It was
+the belief of the committee that much better paints containing
+lithopone could be designed by varying the percentages of the
+materials contained in the formulas, and it was suggested that
+a less penetrable vehicle, made more on the line of a varnish,
+and not as easily affected as straight linoxyn, should be experimented
+with in connection with these lithopone formulas.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The success of certain European countries in using lithopone
+as a pigment, even in a very high percentage, may be due to the
+use of a special vehicle, and, if it is found in future tests that this
+material, which has been reported as well suited in Northern
+European climates, may be benefited and made of service by
+the addition of special oils and special vehicles, then this test
+would be of great value to the whole paint trade at large.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Preliminary inspections were made on October 6th and
+later on December 12th, 1908, and a marked difference was observed
+at the two inspections in the wearing of the various
+formulas.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The lapse of the two months between these inspections gave
+opportunity during which cold weather caused contraction of
+the paint film which had been previously subjected to the hot
+summer sun, and caused marked chalking of the white lead
+formulas. On October 6th this chalking was just commencing,
+while in the December inspection it was well advanced, and at
+the annual inspection, had proceeded to such an extent that the
+pigment had been washed from the panels representing those
+paints which had started early chalking.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Panel 177, representing Zinc Lead, was found to be extremely
+dark in color throughout the coating and was more on
+the order of a grayish tint. It resisted all attempts to wash it
+down to a white surface. The panel, however, in other respects,
+was in fairly good condition.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;<b>Condition of Corroded White Lead Panels.</b> Panel 174,
+representing Type B Pure Basic Carbonate-White Lead, was
+very badly perished and discolored, and an examination of the
+surface showed very bad checking. Long continued washing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>
+with a sponge removed a discolored surface and showed but a
+rather thin coating. Panel 175, representing Type C Pure
+Basic Carbonate-White Lead, showed most marked checking
+and was in very much the same condition as 174 and 176. Panel
+176, representing Type A Pure Basic Carbonate-White Lead,
+was in the same condition as the Type B and C Basic Carbonate-White
+Leads.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;<b>Condition of Sublimed White Lead.</b> Panel 178, representing
+Sublimed White Lead (Basic Sulphate-White Lead,) was
+chalking, and the paint coat was somewhat disintegrated. The
+chalking present on this formula, however, showed that the
+disintegration of the paint coat had not taken place for
+several months after the Basic Carbonate-White Leads. This
+panel maintained good color, not being acted upon by sulphur
+gases.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;<b>Blackening of Corroded White Lead.</b> The black and gray
+formation on all the Basic Carbonate-White Lead panels was
+probably due to the action of sulphur gases which are present
+in the district immediate to Pittsburg, and which may cause
+the formation of black sulphide of lead.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Possibly a general conclusion from all these panels might be
+described as a perishing of the paint coating, with the formation
+of sulphide of lead which to a certain extent protects the coating
+beneath it, but the perishing has proceeded to such an extent
+that the unaltered paint coating left is but a slight protection
+to the wood, being extremely thin.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The committee resolved that the detailed observations of
+the panels could not be made and that they would not be justified
+in making detailed comparisons between the various formulas,
+giving the gloss, hardness, general condition, checking, etc.
+Precision in this work at such a time was impossible, and it was
+decided that a further period would have to elapse before such
+a detailed comparison could be made between the various blended
+or composite formulas on the fence.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;<b>Report on Colors.</b> It was resolved that at the next inspection
+of the Pittsburg Fence, portions of the original samples of
+the original paints used for the yellows and grays should be on
+hand, previously painted out on small panels for comparison for
+the deterioration of the colors on these same panels on the
+fence.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>&#8220;An examination of the combination formula grays by the
+committee led to the general conclusion that those grays which
+did not contain a very large percentage of white lead were superior
+in their maintenance of tone and tint and general condition to
+any of the other grays upon the fence. However, the presence
+of umber, ochre, and red oxide in some of the grays which showed
+to the best advantage may account for their permanence of tone.
+Some of these grays were the so-called warm grays and were
+much darker in tone and tint than the ordinary drab which is
+generally applied.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The straight pure Basic Carbonate-White Lead paints were
+not painted out in grays or yellow, the test upon this material
+being only in white.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;On Panels 120 and 126, which represent formulas 6 and 9
+respectively, the grays are in most excellent condition, and it
+will be found, by reference to formulas 6 and 9, that there is an
+absence of white lead in their composition. These formulas,
+however, contained a small percentage of umber and ochre.
+Formulas 5 and 16 contained over 20% White Lead and the
+gray of these formulas maintained their blue tone very well.
+These formulas were tinted solely with lampblack.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;An inspection of Panel 138, which represents Formula 15,
+showed good maintenance of color in the gray, and was in much
+better condition as regards permanence of color than the other
+grays containing white lead.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;A study of the yellow panels on the fence led to the unanimous
+conclusion that a liberal amount of Basic Carbonate-White
+Lead seemed to have a beneficial result in preserving the bright
+tone of the chrome yellow in tints so strong as those used on the
+fence. It was noted that Panel 108, which represents Formula
+28, and in which zinc yellow was used, showed great permanence
+of tone and tint. Unfortunately this zinc chromate was added
+to a formula containing a large percentage of lithopone, and the
+destruction of the lithopone to a great extent affected the value
+of this test.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></p>
+
+<table class="illo" summary="Photo P 152">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo152.jpg" alt="Pittsburg Test Fence" width="600" height="158" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="subcaption">Whiteness of Sublimed White Lead</td>
+<td class="subcaption">Darkness of Corroded White Lead</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="caption">On Pittsburg Test Fence</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>&#8220;<b>Maintenance
+of Para Reds.</b> A study of the paranitraniline
+or azo reds painted over the various pigments as priming coats
+demonstrated that the reds on this fence are in better condition
+than the reds at Atlantic City. As is well known, para red is
+manufactured by precipitation in an acid solution and is best
+maintained under acid conditions. The acidity of the Pittsburg
+atmosphere, caused by the large amount of acid gases which are
+being poured into the air, day in and day out, and which are
+constantly condensing on the surface of structures, may account
+for the better preservation of these reds.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It was noted that the para reds which were applied to panels
+prime coated with white lead seemed to be brightening in color
+and seemed to be gradually working over toward a lightening
+which may in the future show a pinkish tint.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;<b>Report on Greens.</b> The bronze green is in most excellent
+condition and shows an absence of the mildew appearance which
+was observed at Atlantic City.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The chrome green is standing up exceedingly well, there
+being practically no change whatsoever in the color since it was
+exposed.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;<b>Best Base for Blues.</b> An inspection of the blues showed
+that those which gave the greatest permanence and the least
+amount of fading were applied in combination with either Sublimed
+White Lead (Basic Sulphate-White Lead), or zinc oxide,
+while those blues which were applied in combination with Basic
+Carbonate-White Lead showed marked failure and were completely
+bleached out, due, of course, to the alkaline nature of
+the corroded white lead; Prussian blues being transformed by
+alkalies to a white compound.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;<b>Superior Value of Composite Formulas.</b> Some of the mixed
+leads, or so-called graded leads, which are combinations of white
+leads with other high-grade pigments and containing some inert
+pigments, were not deteriorated so far as the white lead formulas,
+and the general conclusion was that they were upward of six
+months behind the deterioration of the straight white leads, and
+this was confirmed by the presence of moderate chalking, showing
+an excellent repainting surface and a better thickness and condition
+of the paint coating.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The same conclusions which were reached at Atlantic City,
+as to the best method of shellacking, obtained also on the Pittsburg
+Fence, namely, that application of the shellac to the wood
+previous to the first coat is the better method.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;<b>Analysis of Paints.</b> At the time of the painting of the fence
+a sample of each paint was placed in small friction top cans,
+carefully labeled, and sent to the Carnegie Technical Schools&#8217;<span
+class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>
+laboratory for analysis. The analyses of these paints were
+made by members of the Test Fence Committee, representing
+the schools, and appear in this bulletin. The results obtained
+conform very closely to the formulas which were applied to the
+fence, a variance of only one or two per cent. being shown in
+the amount of the different pigments.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><b>Second Annual Inspection of Pittsburg Test Fence.</b> The
+second annual inspection of the Pittsburg Test Fence was made
+on Thursday, May 7th, 1910. The panels in Pittsburg after
+having weathered for over two years presented an appearance
+which allowed the making of a detailed inspection, this having
+been found impossible during the first annual inspection. The
+inspection party<a name="FNanchor_1_20" id="FNanchor_1_20"></a><a
+href="#Footnote_1_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> included those master painters who represented
+the Pittsburg Master Painters&#8217; Association, who were in
+charge of the application of the paints in 1907, 1908, and 1909,
+together with the test fence committee from the faculty of
+the Carnegie Technical Schools, and representatives of the
+Scientific Section. A summary of the report issued by this
+committee follows:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_20" id="Footnote_1_20"></a><a
+href="#FNanchor_1_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> A. C. Rapp, Chairman, Test Fence Committee, Pittsburg Branch,
+Master Painters&#8217; Association; John Dewar, member Fence Committee,
+Pittsburg Branch, Pennsylvania State Association of Master Painters; J.
+H. James, Chairman, Carnegie Technical Schools&#8217; Test Fence Committee;
+John A. Schaeffer, member Test Fence Committee, Carnegie Technical
+Schools; Henry A. Gardner, Director Scientific Section, Paint Manufacturers&#8217;
+Association of the U. S.</p></div>
+
+<p>&#8220;Two of the members of the inspection party have been
+impressed with the lumber lottery existing in some field tests,
+which have been conducted, and feel that when the object of a
+test is to determine the relative value of paints, such tests should
+be conducted on a standard grade of wood, such as white pine.
+The use of cypress, pitch pine, and other faulty woods, is often
+the cause of the failure of a paint, which on good wood would
+show up well. For this reason, only the white pine panels painted
+with white paints were considered in the inspection, the yellow
+pine panels and cypress panels having been thrown out of the
+test at last year&#8217;s inspection.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Checking, cracking, and alligatoring on the painted surfaces
+were determined by using a magnifying glass. The degree of
+chalking existing was decided upon by using small pieces of black<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>
+felt cloth, rubbing them against the surface of the panel; the
+degree of whiteness removed upon the cloth being indicative of
+the amount of chalking taking place. General condition was
+decided upon after carefully weighing the opinion of each member
+of the inspection party, as regards the general characteristics
+shown by each paint, such as checking, chalking, scaling, condition
+for repainting, hiding power, etc. The results have been
+charted and presented in this manner:<a name="FNanchor_1_21"
+id="FNanchor_1_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_21" id="Footnote_1_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_21"><span
+class="label">[21]</span></a> An endeavor was made to use uniform terms in reporting on each formula.
+In some cases it was necessary to bring out more forcibly the condition
+by the insertion of qualifying remarks.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo155.jpg"
+alt="Single vs Combination Pigment Paint" width="500" height="244" />
+<p class="caption">Panel on Left Painted with Single Pigment Paint; Panel on Right
+Painted with Combination Pigment Paint. Photograph taken
+after Two Years&#8217; Exposure on Pittsburg Test Fence</p></div>
+
+<p>&#8220;<b>Conclusions Reached from the Test.</b> The primary object
+of the test made at Pittsburg was to determine whether a combination
+paint, made of two or more pigments, would be equal
+or superior to single pigment paints. After one year&#8217;s exposure,
+the combination type of paint proved more durable than the
+single pigment paints.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It was early apparent that the combination type of paints,
+that is, those paints made of more than one pigment, indicated
+in most cases very excellent wear, with a minimum of blackness
+and a general good condition of surface.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></p>
+
+<h5>TESTS INAUGURATED IN 1907<br />
+CHART OF RESULTS OF SECOND ANNUAL INSPECTION OF PITTSBURG TEST FENCE, MAY, 1910</h5>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table P 145">
+
+<tr class="bt2">
+<td colspan="21" class="center br2 bb padr1 padl1">FORMULAS</td>
+<td colspan="4" rowspan="3" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">REPORT&nbsp;OF&nbsp;INSPECTION</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="center bb padr1 padl1">Pan-<br />el Num-<br />ber</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="3" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">For-<br />mu-<br />la<br />Num-<br />ber</td>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="3" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Basic<br />Car-<br />bon-<br />ate<br />Wh.<br />L&#8217;d</td>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="3" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Zinc<br />Ox-<br />ide</td>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="3" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Basic<br />Sul-<br />phate<br />Wh.<br />L&#8217;d</td>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="3" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Zinc<br />Lead<br />White</td>
+<td colspan="12" class="center br2 bb padr1 padl1 smcap">inert&nbsp;pigments</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Calci-<br />um<br />Car-<br />bon-<br />ate</td>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Calci-<br />um<br />Sul-<br />phate</td>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Mag-<br />ne-<br />sium<br />Sili-<br />cate</td>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Bari-<br />um<br />Sul-<br />phate</td>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Silica</td>
+<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="center br2 bb padr1 padl1">Blanc<br />Fixe</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center br bb padr1 padl1">CHALKING</td>
+<td class="center br bb padr1 padl1">CHECKING</td>
+<td class="center br bb padr1 padl1">GENERAL<br />CONDITION</td>
+<td class="center br bb padr1 padl1">REMARKS</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">%</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">1</td>
+<td class="right">30</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">70</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">None</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight&nbsp;scaling;&nbsp;fairly&nbsp;white&nbsp;surface</td>
+<td class="right padr1">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">2</td>
+<td class="right">50</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">50</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Very&nbsp;slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Panels&nbsp;quite&nbsp;dark&nbsp;and&nbsp;some&nbsp;scaling</td>
+<td class="right padr1">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">3</td>
+<td class="right">20</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">50</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">20</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Considerable</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">None</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fairly&nbsp;white</td>
+<td class="right padr1">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">4</td>
+<td class="right">48</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.5</td>
+<td class="right">48</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Considerable</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Lateral&nbsp;and&nbsp;irregular</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">White&nbsp;surface</td>
+<td class="right padr1">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">5</td>
+<td class="right">22</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">50</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">26</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Very&nbsp;slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Very&nbsp;good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Extremely&nbsp;white&nbsp;surface</td>
+<td class="right padr1">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">64</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">36</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Very&nbsp;slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Very&nbsp;bad;&nbsp;rough&nbsp;surface</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Poor</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Black&nbsp;surface</td>
+<td class="right padr1">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">7</td>
+<td class="right">37</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">63</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium&nbsp;white&nbsp;surface</td>
+<td class="right padr1">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">8</td>
+<td class="right">38</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">48</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">14</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">White&nbsp;surface;&nbsp;slight&nbsp;scaling</td>
+<td class="right padr1">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">73</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">25</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">None</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Deep;&nbsp;peeling&nbsp;in&nbsp;places</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Very&nbsp;poor</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Film&nbsp;brittle&nbsp;and&nbsp;surface&nbsp;dark</td>
+<td class="right padr1">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">10</td>
+<td class="right">44</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">46</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight&nbsp;lateral&nbsp;in&nbsp;places</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Surface&nbsp;very&nbsp;white</td>
+<td class="right padr1">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="top">
+<td class="right br padr1">11</td>
+<td class="right">50</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">50</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Considerable</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Deep&nbsp;matt&nbsp;checking</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Considerable&nbsp;scaling;&nbsp;formation&nbsp;of<br />black&nbsp;coating&nbsp;shattered&nbsp;off</td>
+<td class="right padr1">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">12</td>
+<td class="right">60</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">34</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="10" class="center br2 spaced">6%&nbsp;Inert&nbsp;Pigment</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fairly&nbsp;good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Surface&nbsp;white</td>
+<td class="right padr1">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">13</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">27</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">60</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">3</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">None</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Excellent</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Very&nbsp;white</td>
+<td class="right padr1">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">14</td>
+<td class="right">25</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">25</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">20</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">25</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Considerable</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Panel&nbsp;fairly&nbsp;white</td>
+<td class="right padr1">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">15</td>
+<td class="right">20</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">40</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">30</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">10</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Surface&nbsp;quite&nbsp;dark</td>
+<td class="right padr1">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">16</td>
+<td class="right">33</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">33</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">34</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Very&nbsp;slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Quite&nbsp;white</td>
+<td class="right padr1">32</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">17</td>
+<td class="right">40</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">40</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">3</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">13</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4</td>
+<td class="br2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Considerable</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight,&nbsp;along&nbsp;lateral&nbsp;lines</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Surface&nbsp;fairly&nbsp;white</td>
+<td class="right padr1">34</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">18</td>
+<td class="right">75</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">25</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Slight,&nbsp;with&nbsp;some&nbsp;scaling</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Surface&nbsp;has&nbsp;become&nbsp;quite&nbsp;dark</td>
+<td class="right padr1">36</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="top">
+<td class="right br padr1">19</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">25</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">75</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Considerable</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">None</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Excellent</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">No&nbsp;black&nbsp;coating;&nbsp;surface&nbsp;very<br />white,&nbsp;due&nbsp;to&nbsp;inertness&nbsp;of&nbsp;
+pigment<br />or&nbsp;progressive&nbsp;chalking</td>
+<td class="right padr1">38</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">20</td>
+<td class="right">67</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.0</td>
+<td class="right">19</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr1">40</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">33</td>
+<td class="right">15</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">30</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">25</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">30</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Heavy</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">None</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">White&nbsp;surface</td>
+<td class="right padr1">168</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="top">
+<td class="right br padr1">34</td>
+<td class="right">38</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.95</td>
+<td class="right">33</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.58</td>
+<td class="right">4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.81</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">19</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.48</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.59</td>
+<td class="right">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.59</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Considerable</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Very&nbsp;slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Surface&nbsp;is&nbsp;very&nbsp;white;&nbsp;progressive<br />
+chalking&nbsp;may&nbsp;have&nbsp;prevented<br />formation&nbsp;of&nbsp;black&nbsp;coating</td>
+<td class="right padr1">172</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="top">
+<td class="right br padr1">35</td>
+<td class="right">37</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.51</td>
+<td class="right">25</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.87</td>
+<td class="right">7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.84</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">20</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.36</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.21</td>
+<td class="right">4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.21</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Bad</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">None</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Very&nbsp;white;&nbsp;no&nbsp;black&nbsp;coating&nbsp;evi-<br />dent</td>
+<td class="right padr1">173</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="top">
+<td class="right br padr1">36</td>
+<td class="right">100</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Bad</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Bad</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Surface&nbsp;is&nbsp;dead&nbsp;black;&nbsp;shattered&nbsp;in<br />places</td>
+<td class="right padr1">174</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="top">
+<td class="right br padr1">37</td>
+<td class="right">100</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Extremely</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Very&nbsp;black&nbsp;surface&nbsp;and&nbsp;mottled&nbsp;in<br />places</td>
+<td class="right padr1">175</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">38</td>
+<td class="right">100</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Very&nbsp;bad&nbsp;and&nbsp;quite&nbsp;dusty</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Very&nbsp;bad,&nbsp;with&nbsp;scaling</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Poor</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Black&nbsp;surface&nbsp;is&nbsp;loose&nbsp;and&nbsp;shattered</td>
+<td class="right padr1">176</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">39</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">100</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Considerable</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Panel&nbsp;surface&nbsp;quite&nbsp;white</td>
+<td class="right padr1">177</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="top">
+<td class="right br padr1">40</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">100</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Very&nbsp;bad</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Surface&nbsp;very&nbsp;white,&nbsp;possibly&nbsp;due<br />
+to&nbsp;progressive&nbsp;chalking&nbsp;or&nbsp;inert-<br />ness&nbsp;of&nbsp;pigment</td>
+<td class="right padr1">178</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">45</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">90</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Considerable</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">White&nbsp;surface</td>
+<td class="right padr1">169</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="top">
+<td class="right br padr1">46</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">61</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">39</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Considerable&nbsp;scaling&nbsp;present;&nbsp;sur-<br />face&nbsp;fairly&nbsp;white</td>
+<td class="right padr1">170</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb2">
+<td class="right br padr1">47</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">100</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Bad</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Bad</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Bad</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Bad&nbsp;condition&nbsp;throughout</td>
+<td class="right padr1">171</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span></p>
+
+<table class="illo"  style="width: 500px;" summary="Photo P 146">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo157.jpg"
+alt="Combination Pigment vs. pure Corroded White Lead" width="500" height="313" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="subcaption padr5">Middle white panel is painted with a combination pigment formula</td>
+<td class="subcaption padl5">Middle white panel is painted with pure Corroded White Lead</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="caption">Notice Difference in Color after Two Years&#8217; Wear</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>&#8220;<b>Recommendation.</b>
+On account of the peculiar conditions
+which obtain in and around Pittsburg, as exemplified by these
+tests, the committee finds, as a result thereof, that the best white
+paint for general exterior use is made of white lead combined
+with zinc oxide and a moderate percentage of inert pigments,
+such as silica, asbestine, or barytes.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;<b>Some Peculiar Conditions Affecting the Tests.</b> The inspectors
+were most impressed during the inspection by the
+blackness exhibited to such a high degree by certain panels, and
+the fair degree of whiteness by others. It is well known that
+in Pittsburg nearly all paints become darkened by the deposition
+on their surface of carbon particles emanating from the combustion
+of soft coal. Certain of the paints, however, presented
+fairly white surfaces, and it would thus appear that the extreme
+darkness shown by other paints was due to their composition.
+Corroded white lead when used alone was uniformly covered by
+black particles, and the higher the percentage of corroded white
+lead in a paint the darker was the surface. It was at first thought
+that this darkness was due to the softness of the white lead
+pigment or to its roughened surface, in causing adherence of soot
+particles. Sublimed white lead, however, which is also a soft
+pigment, chalked even more progressively than corroded white
+lead, but its surface was not rough, and presented a very white
+appearance. Scrapings from the different panels are being taken,
+and after a careful analysis the findings from the investigations
+will be reported by a member of the Inspection Committee.&#8221;</p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Pittsburg Committee Members">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">A.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;Rapp.</span></td>
+<td class="left"><i>Chairman Test Fence Committee, Pittsburg Branch, Master Painters&#8217; Association</i></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">John&nbsp;Dewar.</span></td>
+<td class="left"><i>Member Fence Committee, Pittsburg Branch, Penna. State Association of Master Painters</i></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">J.&nbsp;H.&nbsp;James.</span></td>
+<td class="left"><i>Chairman Carnegie Technical Schools&#8217; Fence Committee</i></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr2 top"><span class="smcap">J.&nbsp;A.&nbsp;Schaeffer.</span></td>
+<td class="left"><i>Instructor in Chemical Practice, Carnegie Technical Schools Pittsburg, Pa.</i></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">H.&nbsp;A.&nbsp;Gardner.</span></td>
+<td class="left"><i>Director Scientific Section, Paint Mfrs. Asso. of U. S.</i></td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><i>May 31, 1910</i></p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></p>
+
+<h5>PITTSBURG TEST FENCE<br />
+<span class="smcap">Comparative Spreading Rates of White Paint on White Pine Panels</span><br />
+<i>Average Spreading Rate 266 Square Feet</i></h5>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table P 148">
+
+<tr class="bt2">
+<td class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Formula<br />Number</td>
+<td class="center br bb padr1 padl1">First&nbsp;Coat<br />(sq.&nbsp;ft.)</td>
+<td class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Second&nbsp;Coat<br />(sq.&nbsp;feet)</td>
+<td class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Third&nbsp;Coat<br />(sq.&nbsp;ft.)</td>
+<td class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Average<br />Spreading<br />Rate<br />(sq.&nbsp;feet)</td>
+<td class="center bb padr1 padl1">Spreading<br />Rate<br />3-Coat<br />Work<br />(sq.&nbsp;feet)</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">1</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">759</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">1020</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">768</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">849</td>
+<td class="right padr4">283</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">2</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">694</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">975</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">1229</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">966</td>
+<td class="right padr4">322</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">3</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">743</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">873</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">770</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">795</td>
+<td class="right padr4">265</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">4</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">537</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">987</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">1019</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">848</td>
+<td class="right padr4">283</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">5</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">509</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">896</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">886</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">764</td>
+<td class="right padr4">255</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">6</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">765</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">1045</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">994</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">935</td>
+<td class="right padr4">312</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">7</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">734</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">922</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">996</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">884</td>
+<td class="right padr4">295</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">8</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">565</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">862</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">854</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">760</td>
+<td class="right padr4">253</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">9</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">622</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">926</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">1160</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">903</td>
+<td class="right padr4">301</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">10</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">610</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">1013</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">1070</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">900</td>
+<td class="right padr4">300</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">11</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">651</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">933</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">1010</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">865</td>
+<td class="right padr4">288</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">12</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">675</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">1027</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">623</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">775</td>
+<td class="right padr4">258</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">13</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">663</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">892</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">981</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">845</td>
+<td class="right padr4">282</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">14</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">498</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">785</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">807</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">697</td>
+<td class="right padr4">232</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">15</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">688</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">1000</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">984</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">891</td>
+<td class="right padr4">297</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">16</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">669</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">880</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">860</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">803</td>
+<td class="right padr4">268</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">17</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">635</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">982</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">1077</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">900</td>
+<td class="right padr4">300</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">18</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">636</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">959</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">1031</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">875</td>
+<td class="right padr4">292</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">19</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">626</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">1076</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">1037</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">913</td>
+<td class="right padr4">304</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">20</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">591</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">1015</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">929</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">845</td>
+<td class="right padr4">282</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">21</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">595</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">948</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">910</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">818</td>
+<td class="right padr4">273</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">22</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">617</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">868</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">810</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">765</td>
+<td class="right padr4">255</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">23</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">549</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">1002</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">986</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">846</td>
+<td class="right padr4">282</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">24</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">539</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">918</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">783</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">747</td>
+<td class="right padr4">249</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">25</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">530</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">929</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">850</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">770</td>
+<td class="right padr4">257</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">26</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">532</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">916</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">1011</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">820</td>
+<td class="right padr4">273</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">27</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">520</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">850</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">656</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">675</td>
+<td class="right padr4">225</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">33</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">600</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">1340</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">810</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">917</td>
+<td class="right padr4">306</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">34</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">471</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">743</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">690</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">635</td>
+<td class="right padr4">212</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">35</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">402</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">598</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">645</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">548</td>
+<td class="right padr4">183</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">36</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">398</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">668</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">838</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">635</td>
+<td class="right padr4">212</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">37</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">579</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">653</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">838</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">690</td>
+<td class="right padr4">230</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">38</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">463</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">615</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">704</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">594</td>
+<td class="right padr4">198</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">39</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">474</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">954</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">849</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">759</td>
+<td class="right padr4">253</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">40</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">446</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">815</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">871</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">711</td>
+<td class="right padr4">237</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">45</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">527</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">841</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">916</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">761</td>
+<td class="right padr4">254</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr4 br">46</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">605</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">740</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">818</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">721</td>
+<td class="right padr4">240</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb2">
+<td class="right padr4 br">47</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">735</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">961</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">993</td>
+<td class="right padr4 br">896</td>
+<td class="right padr4">299</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Ch10" id="Ch10"></a>CHAPTER X</h2>
+
+<h3>A LABORATORY STUDY OF TEST PANELS</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>Panel Sections for Laboratory Test.</b> In order to make a
+laboratory study of the painted panels on the Atlantic City
+and Pittsburg fences, it was thought advisable to remove small
+sections from representative areas and transfer them to the
+laboratory for such work. The fences were visited by the official
+inspection committees soon after the first annual inspection,
+and the panels were carefully looked over. Upon each was
+marked out a representative portion, care being exercised to
+select areas where previous inspections had not disturbed the
+surface of the film in any manner. The inspectors then placed
+the number of the panel upon the areas which had been marked
+off, as well as their initials. The marked sections were sawed
+out, wrapped in tissue paper, and then transferred to the laboratory
+where they were placed upon models of the respective fences
+from which they had been removed. The illustration shows
+the model test fences set up together. It is very apparent that
+the Pittsburg panels are much the darker in color, due to the
+soot, and in some cases lead sulphide formed upon their surfaces.
+This difference was undoubtedly due to the atmospheric conditions
+prevailing where the tests were made. One would be
+led to suppose that a paint film exposed to an atmosphere such
+as is found in Pittsburg would show deterioration more rapidly
+than one exposed in Atlantic City. In all the tests and experiments,
+however, the Atlantic City panels appeared broken down
+to a much greater extent; though it is true that the Pittsburg
+panels had darkened considerably and presented a rather mottled
+appearance. The deposit of soot on the Pittsburg panel
+seemed to act as a preservative coating for the film beneath,
+and prevented marked disintegration.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo161a.jpg"
+alt="Sections of Atlantic City and Pittsburg Fences" width="500" height="341" />
+<p class="caption">Sections of Atlantic City and Pittsburg Fences Arranged for Laboratory
+Examination</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo161b.jpg"
+alt="Sections of Atlantic City and Pittsburg Fences" width="500" height="204" />
+<p class="caption">Sections of Atlantic City and Pittsburg Fences</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 368px;"><img src="images/illo162.jpg"
+alt="Panels tested giving Formula Number and Degree of Chalking"
+width="368" height="500" />
+<p class="caption left">Upper set of tests made on Panels from Atlantic City Fence<br />
+Lower set of tests made on Panels from Pittsburg Fence<br />
+Figures at left indicate Formula Number<br />
+Figures at right indicate Degree of Chalking</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 282px;"><img src="images/illo163.jpg" alt="Color Standard used" width="282" height="500" />
+<p class="caption">Color Standard used in Comparison of Panel Section</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>Chalking Test.</b> Small strips of black felt, about one inch
+square, were firmly attached to a block of wood, and by a clamp
+having the same pressure in each case, the wood with its surface
+of black felt was fixed to the panel. This apparatus, which
+resembles a blackboard eraser, is firmly drawn across the panel
+in one direction for a certain definite distance, during which time
+it gathers all the chalked surface presented by the painted wood.
+Upon detaching the apparatus from the panel it is observed
+that the black cloth becomes whitened to an extent proportionate
+to the chalking that has taken place on the given area.</p>
+
+<p>After each one of the panels had been treated in the same manner
+by the same operator, the black cloths were assembled on
+one large board and photographed. A definite standard of
+chalking was made up, and the operator was enabled to put
+down opposite the report on each panel the degree of chalking
+which had taken place, No. 1 representing the least amount and
+No. 10 the greatest amount of chalking.</p>
+
+<p><b>Degree of Whiteness Shown by Panels.</b> It was a very simple
+matter to gauge the whiteness of the various panels, by comparing
+them with a series of standard boards painted with three
+coats of white paint. Florence Brand, New Jersey zinc oxide,
+was used as the standard for whiteness and termed &#8220;No. 1.&#8221;
+In making &#8220;No. 2&#8221; standard, to the zinc oxide was added .01%
+of lampblack. By adding .02% of lampblack to the zinc,
+standard &#8220;No. 3&#8221; was obtained, and so on, increasing the
+amount of lampblack in each case by .01%. These standards
+were run up to &#8220;No. 30,&#8221; and the various panels on the different
+fences compared with them. The degrees of whiteness are
+recorded in progressive numbers, No. 1 being the standard for
+whiteness and No. 30 the darkest. The Atlantic City panels
+ranged from 3 to 8 in the scale of whiteness, while the Pittsburg
+panels required the use of the entire range of standards.</p>
+
+<p><b>Resistance to Abrasion.</b> The apparatus used for determining
+the abrasion resistance of a paint was made of a glass tube about
+six feet long, having an internal bore of <span class="enum">7</span>&#8260;<span class="denom">8</span> inch. This was
+supported in an upright position over a dish which held the panel
+under test at an angle of 45 degrees. The abrasive material
+consisted of No. 00 emery, which was dropped into the tube
+through a funnel having a bore of 5 mm. When the emery
+reached the bottom of the long tube it scattered itself so as to
+strike a surface on the panel about an inch in diameter. The
+emery was constantly poured in until the paint coating had worn
+away, showing the bare wood. The weight in pounds of emery
+powder required to show the disruption of the coating is recorded
+and reported as the measure of the &#8220;abrasion resist.&#8221; The
+panel requiring the greatest weight of emery to cause abrasion
+is evidently the most resistant to abrasion. Paint is often subjected
+to serious abrasion, through the blowing of sand, especially
+at the seashore, and to withstand such action should contain
+a proportion of pigments especially resistant to abrasion, such
+as silica, zinc oxide, asbestine, and barytes.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 189px;"><img src="images/illo165.jpg"
+alt="Apparaturs for Determining Abbrasion Resistance" width="189" height="500" />
+<p class="caption" style="max-width: 200px;">Apparatus for Determining the Abrasion Resistance
+of Paints</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></p>
+
+<table class="illo" summary="Photos P 155-164">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter" style="width: 305px;"><img src="images/illo166a.jpg" alt="Form. 1" width="300" height="299" /></td>
+<td class="caption left" style="width: 305px;">Formula No. 1, A. C.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption right">Formula No. 2, A. C.</td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo166b.jpg" alt="Form. 2" width="300" height="297" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo166c.jpg" alt="Form. 3" width="300" height="302" /></td>
+<td class="caption left">Formula No. 3, A. C.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption right">Formula No. 4, A. C.<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 100%;"><a
+name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo167a.jpg" alt="Form. 4" width="300" height="297" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo167b.jpg" alt="Form. 5" width="300" height="297" /></td>
+<td class="caption left">Formula No. 5, A. C.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption right">Formula No. 6, A. C.</td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo167c.jpg" alt="Form. 6" width="300" height="300" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="fsize80 just" style="padding-bottom: 1.5em;"><span class="smcap">Note</span>:
+The author wishes to acknowledge
+the assistance of Dr. J. A.
+Schaeffer in the preparation of the
+photomicrographs herewith shown.</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo168a.jpg" alt="Form. 7" width="300" height="299" /></td>
+<td class="caption left">Formula No. 7, A. C.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption right">Formula No. 8, A. C.</td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo168b.jpg" alt="Form. 8" width="300" height="300" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo168c.jpg" alt="Form. 9" width="300" height="300" /></td>
+<td class="caption left">Formula No. 9, A. C.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption right"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>Formula No. 10, A. C.</td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo169a.jpg" alt="Form. 10" width="300" height="302" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo169b.jpg" alt="Form. 11" width="300" height="297" /></td>
+<td class="caption left">Formula No. 11, A. C.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption right">Formula No. 12, A. C.</td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo169c.jpg" alt="Form. 12" width="300" height="297" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span><img src="images/illo170a.jpg" alt="Form. 13"
+width="300" height="298" /></td>
+<td class="caption left">Formula No. 13, A. C.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption right">Formula No. 14, A. C.</td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo170b.jpg" alt="Form. 14" width="300" height="298" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo170c.jpg" alt="Form. 15" width="300" height="298" /></td>
+<td class="caption left">Formula No. 15, A. C.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption right"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>Formula No. 16, A. C.</td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo171a.jpg" alt="Form. 16" width="300" height="298" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo171b.jpg" alt="Form. 17" width="300" height="302" /></td>
+<td class="caption left">Formula No. 17, A. C.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption right">Formula No. 18, A. C.</td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo171c.jpg" alt="Form. 18" width="300" height="301" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span><img src="images/illo172a.jpg" alt="Form. 19"
+width="300" height="299" /></td>
+<td class="caption left">Formula No. 19, A. C.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption right">Formula No. 20, A. C.</td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo172b.jpg" alt="Form. 20" width="300" height="299" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo172c.jpg" alt="Form. 33" width="300" height="300" /></td>
+<td class="caption left">Formula No. 33, A. C.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption right"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>Formula No. 34, A. C.</td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo173a.jpg" alt="Form. 34" width="300" height="300" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo173b.jpg" alt="Form. 35" width="300" height="298" /></td>
+<td class="caption left">Formula No. 35, A. C.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption right">Formula No. 36, A. C.</td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo173c.jpg" alt="Form. 36" width="300" height="298" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span><img src="images/illo174a.jpg" alt="Form. 37"
+width="300" height="299" /></td>
+<td class="caption left">Formula No. 37, A. C.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption right">Formula No. 38, A. C.</td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo174b.jpg" alt="Form. 38" width="300" height="299" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo174c.jpg" alt="Form. 39" width="300" height="301" /></td>
+<td class="caption left">Formula No. 39, A. C.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption right"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>Formula No. 40, A. C.</td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo175a.jpg" alt="Form. 40" width="300" height="299" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo175b.jpg" alt="Form. 45" width="300" height="299" /></td>
+<td class="caption left">Formula No. 45, A. C.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption right">Formula No. 46, A. C.</td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo175c.jpg" alt="Form. 46" width="300" height="299" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span><img src="images/illo176.jpg" alt="Form. 47"
+width="300" height="301" /></td>
+<td class="caption left">Formula No. 47, A. C.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><b>Making Photomicrographs.</b> The photomicrographs which
+are herewith shown were made in the following manner: A
+part of a panel was placed upon the stage of the microscope and
+held firmly in place with clips. By varying the adjustment
+and carefully running over the field the condition of the surface
+was readily given, using the same eye-piece and objective throughout
+the tests, and obtaining a magnification of thirty-three.
+Great care was exercised to secure an average field showing the
+general and typical appearance of every panel. Little difficulty
+was experienced in so doing, as the laboratory panels gave very
+representative surfaces of the large panels on the fence. The
+instrument was then inclined horizontally and the eye-piece
+was fitted into the camera nose. In the back of the bellows of
+the camera was placed the ground glass for focusing. To secure<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>
+illumination the light from an electric arc lamp was reflected
+from a mirror directly upon the painted surface of the panel,
+which in turn was reflected through the camera on to the ground
+glass. The plate-holder was then put in position and six-second
+exposures were made, afterward developing and printing.</p>
+
+<p><b>Checking and Cracking.</b> What was termed &#8220;fine matt
+checking&#8221; at the First Annual Inspection was not visible at
+the time to certain members of the Inspection Committee, but
+it is an established fact that the checking was an existing condition,
+as the photomicrographs have shown. This checking
+has a very peculiar characteristic in that the lines are very narrow
+and hair-like, being somewhat interlaced and peculiarly forked.
+That this hair matt checking is a preliminary condition which
+afterwards develops into matt checking and into marked or heavy
+checking seems to be indicated.</p>
+
+<p>It appears from an examination of the photomicrographs of
+the paint films that a paint coating closely resembles the surface
+of the earth, and is subject to the same basic laws that have
+caused the various geodetic changes in the earth&#8217;s crust. Observation
+of a dried pond or lake bed will disclose types of fissuring
+and cracking similar to those shown by dried paint coatings
+in which the oil has been fully oxidized, and especially in the
+case of paints containing pigments which act upon the oil to
+produce compounds brittle in nature.</p>
+
+<p>At Atlantic City the panels were all clean and free from dirt,
+presenting continuous exposure of the films, and thus maintaining
+conditions for active checking. At Pittsburg, soon after
+the panels began to chalk, the large amount of dust and black
+soot in the atmosphere completely covered the panels with a
+very thick, resistant coating of carbon, which acted as a seal
+or protector, preventing disintegration to a great extent. This
+coating was extremely hard to remove, and photomicrographs,
+before and after removal of this coating by rubbing with a damp
+cloth, failed to reveal marked checking on any of the formulas
+except those made of strictly pure basic carbonate-white lead.
+The checking, even on these, was not as marked as at Atlantic
+City. It is presumed that after the chalking had taken place
+and the chalked pigment had been washed from the panels, the
+gradually increasing coat of carbon and lead sulphide had protected
+the panels from checking, or possibly the atmosphere of
+Pittsburg, which in other respects had deteriorated the panels
+to a greater extent than at Atlantic City, did not have the extreme
+action in causing checking that the Atlantic City atmosphere
+seemed to have effected.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></p>
+
+<table class="illo" summary="Photos P 167-171">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo178a.jpg"
+alt="Pittsburg 1 before washing" width="300" height="297" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo178b.jpg" alt="Pittsburg 1 after washing" width="300" height="299" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="caption">Combination Formula No. 1, Pittsburg</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption"><span class="smcap">Before Washing</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="smcap">After Washing</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption">Mottled surface due to external coating of impurities.</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo179a.jpg" alt="Pittsburg 4 before washing" width="300" height="299" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo179b.jpg" alt="Pittsburg 4 after washing" width="300" height="296" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="caption">Formula No. 4, Pittsburg</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption"><span class="smcap">Before Washing</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="smcap">After Washing</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span><img src="images/illo180a.jpg"
+alt="Pittsburg 38 before washing" width="300" height="299" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo180b.jpg" alt="Pittsburg 38 after washing" width="300" height="299" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="caption">Formula No. 38, Pittsburg<br />
+Basic Carbonate&mdash;White Lead Panels on Fence</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption"><span class="smcap">Before Washing</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="smcap">After Washing</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption">Checking evident
+even through the outer covering of foreign matter.</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span><img src="images/illo181a.jpg"
+alt="Pittsburg 36 before washing" width="300" height="299" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo181b.jpg" alt="Pittsburg 36 after washing" width="300" height="298" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="caption">Formula No. 36, Pittsburg<br />
+Basic Carbonate&mdash;White Lead Panels on Fence</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption"><span class="smcap">Before Washing</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="smcap">After Washing</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption">Peculiar network-like checking appearing
+through outer coat of impurities.</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span><img src="images/illo182a.jpg"
+alt="Pittsburg 40" width="300" height="296" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo182b.jpg" alt="Pittsburg 45" width="300" height="300" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption">Formula No. 40, Pittsburg</td>
+<td class="caption">Formula No. 45, Pittsburg</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span><b>Results on Combination Pigment Paints.</b> It will be noticed
+that the checking on most of the combination pigment paints
+made of lead, zinc, and inert pigments, was moderate, and in
+many cases of a fine order. It has been observed that the
+percentage of zinc oxide in a paint is not always a criterion upon
+which future checking may be judged. Nor could it be said
+that the checking is dependent upon the percentage of basic
+carbonate-white lead added to the paint. However, it appears
+that scientific blending of the various pigments, with regard to
+their physical properties in oil, such as their strength and elastic
+limit, develops the greatest resistance to both cracking and
+checking. Elasticity is vital, but strength must be combined
+therewith in order to prevent disruptions of the paint coating.
+Paint films made of certain inert pigments, when tested on the
+filmometer, were relatively high in strength, but relatively low
+in elasticity. Such pigments, when used in large percentage,
+form coatings which are hard and apt to crack. The use, however,
+of these pigments in moderate percentages seems very
+beneficial in overcoming the effect of using an excessive percentage
+of white lead, or of zinc oxide.</p>
+
+<p><b>Results on White Lead Paints.</b> The maximum checking
+was observed on the basic carbonate-white lead panels, the size
+of the checks in some cases being several times larger than those
+on the other panels.</p>
+
+<p>On some of the basic carbonate-white leads the checking was
+of a very peculiar nature, consisting of very broad fissures in
+the paint coating, disclosing the wood surfaces beneath. The
+type of checking existing was also distinct in its structure, being
+hexagonal in shape. One of the most marked features shown
+by the basic carbonate-white lead films was the extreme roughness
+of their surfaces. This roughness is most likely due to the
+excessive chalking which had taken place.</p>
+
+<p><b>Results on Silica and Barytes Paints.</b> The checking of
+paints very high in silica resolved itself into fine hair-like lines
+which are generally lateral to each other, and indicate a cracked
+appearance. The checking of paints containing very high percentages<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>
+of barytes was also of a distinct nature, being generally
+forked in appearance and of no definite striation.</p>
+
+<p><b>Surface Condition of Fume Pigment Paints.</b> The panels
+painted with basic sulphate-white lead (sublimed white lead)
+showed complete absence of checking. This was also true of
+the panels painted with zinc lead. These are both fume products
+and are extremely fine in their physical size, which may
+account for this condition. Although zinc oxide is made in a
+similar manner, it gives a much harder paint coating than either
+of the afore-mentioned pigments, and presents a surface which
+develops considerable checking, generally of a medium order.
+The past theories regarding zinc oxide, in which it has been maintained
+that zinc oxide gives the maximum checking, are evidently
+incorrect, as the checking found on the zinc oxide panels was
+not as marked or deep as the checking on the basic carbonate-white
+lead panels; in fact, the checking might be more in the
+line of a cracking, possibly due to the brittle nature of the coating
+composed of straight zinc. This is especially true of zinc paints
+containing insufficient oil.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Importance of the Physical Nature of Pigments.</b> It
+appears that very fine grinding of materials, chosen for their
+characteristic fineness, with the absence of any unfavorable
+physical condition or chemical sensitiveness, are important
+factors in the making of a paint to resist cracking or checking.
+The purity of the essential materials, as well as the scientific
+compounding of these materials, with due regard to the law of
+minimum voids, are great factors which enhance the qualities
+of paints, greater, perhaps, than the variation of percentages of
+the various pigments which go to make up a paint.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></p>
+<h2><a name="Ch11" id="Ch11"></a>CHAPTER XI</h2>
+
+<h3>ADDITIONAL TESTS AT ATLANTIC CITY AND PITTSBURG</h3>
+
+<p>A series of new test panels to take the place of those panels
+which were condemned and subsequently removed from the
+Atlantic City and Pittsburg fences, were painted and exposed
+during June, 1909. These new test panels are of white pine,
+this wood having been selected by the joint inspection committee
+as offering the best condition for future tests. The
+method used in painting these panels was the same as in the
+previous tests, together with the adoption of certain refinements
+in the reductions, application, etc. Thirty-six formulas were
+selected with careful regard to the percentage of components,
+including several paints containing lithopone combined with
+whiting and zinc oxide,<a name="FNanchor_1_22" id="FNanchor_1_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a>
+two pigments which gave promise of
+supporting the lithopone for outside use. Some of these lithopone
+paints contained special vehicles which it was thought
+would prevent the destructive action which lithopone seems to
+have upon linseed oil. In order to obtain a criterion of the
+value of the new formulas applied, as against the wearing of
+straight white leads, the original white leads used in the previous
+tests were included, and other brands were added. Each formula
+was painted out in white, yellow, and gray, upon panels of white
+pine wood arranged in sequence upon the fence, and properly
+identified. The customary opacity test, in the form of a small
+black square, was stencilled over the priming coat of each panel,
+as in the former tests. The composition of the vehicle in all
+the new tests was standard, using pure linseed oil with a small
+percentage of turpentine drier. The tints used in each formula
+were secured at the time of application by the use of standard
+colors, lampblack, and medium chrome yellow, using an approximate
+amount for each formula.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_22" id="Footnote_1_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_22"><span
+class="label">[22]</span></a> A brief study of the theory of solutions (See Cushman and Gardner on
+&#8220;Corrosion and Preservation of Iron and Steel&#8221;), involving the modes of
+iron formation, will be invaluable to the student who is inquiring into the
+cause of the peculiar fogging of lithopone, with the idea in view of correcting
+this evil by physical or chemical treatment. Inasmuch as our observations
+thus far have led us to believe that the fogging of lithopone takes place in the
+presence of moisture, with the contributory and necessary action of chemically
+active rays from the sun or other source, it is fair to assume that under
+these conditions the insoluble molecule of zinc sulphide and barium sulphate
+reverts by intricate molecular disturbance and ionization back to the soluble
+barium sulphide and zinc sulphate from which the lithopone is formed by
+metathesis. If this be true, then the acid nature of these soluble salts is no
+doubt combated and overcome at the moment of formation by the basic
+nature of zinc oxide and calcium carbonate, which tend to ionize to an
+alkaline reaction. The value of zinc oxide and calcium carbonate in lithopone
+paints as detergents of blackness, has been demonstrated at both
+Atlantic City and Pittsburg.&#8221; H. A. G.</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo186.jpg"
+alt="Recently Placed Panels in Fence" width="500" height="258" />
+<p class="caption">Section of Fence Showing New Panels Recently Placed</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><img src="images/illo187.jpg" alt="Appearance 1909 Tests" width="400" height="448" />
+<p class="caption">Appearance of 1909 Tests</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></p>
+
+<p>An inspection of these new tests was made during June, 1910,
+and the results of the inspection are shown on <a href="#Page_178">pages 178</a> to <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.
+The results of the inspection prove that it is unsafe to use lithopone
+in a paint containing white lead of any type, early darkening
+and failure being shown in every case where such a combination
+existed. The formulas in the new test, which were properly
+balanced and which had a low percentage of lithopone combined
+with zinc oxide and whiting, presented in some cases very good
+surfaces. A rough, sandy surface, however, was shown where
+lithopone was used in any great quantity.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178-<br />179]</a></p>
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179"></a></p>
+
+<h5>TESTS INAUGURATED IN 1909<br />
+RESULTS OF INSPECTION OF ATLANTIC CITY TEST FENCE, MAY, 1910</h5>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table P 178-179">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="13" class="center bt2 br2 bb padr1 padl1">FORMULAS</td>
+<td colspan="4" rowspan="3" class="center bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">REPORT&nbsp;OF&nbsp;INSPECTION</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="center bt2 bb padr1 padl1">Pa-<br />nel<br />Num-<br />ber</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="3" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">For-<br />mu-<br />la<br />Num-<br />ber</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Basic<br />Car-<br />bonate<br />White<br />Lead</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Zinc<br />Oxide</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Basic<br />Sul-<br />phate<br />White<br />Lead</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Preci-<br />pitated<br />White<br />Lead</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Zinc<br />Lead</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Litho-<br />pone</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="center br2 bb padr1 padl1">INERT&nbsp;PIGMENTS</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Cal-<br />cium<br />Car-<br />bonate</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Silica</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Asbes-<br />tine</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">China<br />Clay</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Bary-<br />tes</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br2 bb padr1 padl1">Blanc<br />Fixe</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center br bb padr1 padl1">CHALKING</td>
+<td class="center br bb padr1 padl1">CHECKING</td>
+<td class="center br bb padr1 padl1">GENERAL<br />CONDITION</td>
+<td class="center br bb padr1 padl1">REMARKS</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="center br2">%</td>
+<td class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2 top">1</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2 top">45</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2 top">40</td>
+<td class="right br padr2 top">15</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2 top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1 top">None</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1 top">None</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Rough&nbsp;surface,&nbsp;but&nbsp;fair&nbsp;for<br />repainting</td>
+<td class="center br top">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 top">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2 top">2</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2 top">45</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2 top">40</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2 top">15</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2 top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1 top">None</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1 top">None</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Fair;&nbsp;rough&nbsp;surface&nbsp;and<br />slightly&nbsp;dark</td>
+<td class="center br top">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 top">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">3</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">45</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">45</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">10</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Very&nbsp;slight</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Very&nbsp;slight</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Good;&nbsp;very&nbsp;white&nbsp;surface</td>
+<td class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2 top">4</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2 top">45</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2 top">45</td>
+<td class="right br padr2 top">10</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2 top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1 top">None</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1 top">None</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Rough&nbsp;surface&nbsp;and&nbsp;slightly<br />dark</td>
+<td class="center br top">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 top">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">5</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">40</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">40</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">20</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Very&nbsp;slight</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Very&nbsp;slight</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Good;&nbsp;very&nbsp;white&nbsp;surface</td>
+<td class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">6</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">45</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">35</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">20</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">None</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">None</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Rough&nbsp;surface;&nbsp;dark</td>
+<td class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">7</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">50</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">36</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">2</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">8</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">4</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">None</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Very&nbsp;slight&nbsp;lateral&nbsp;checking</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">8</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">50</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">36</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">2</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">8</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">4</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Heavy</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Excellent;&nbsp;very&nbsp;white</td>
+<td class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">9</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">50</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">36</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">2</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">12</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Heavy</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Some</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Excellent;&nbsp;very&nbsp;white</td>
+<td class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">10</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">36</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">50</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">2</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">8</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">4</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">None</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">11</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">28</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">55</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">3</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">7</td>
+<td class="right br2 padr2">7</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">None</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Good;&nbsp;slightly&nbsp;dark</td>
+<td class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">12</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">55</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">28</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">3</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">7</td>
+<td class="right br2 padr2">7</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">None</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Slight&nbsp;lateral</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2 top">13</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2 top">60</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2 top">30</td>
+<td class="right br padr2 top">10</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2 top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1 top">Very&nbsp;slight</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Considerable&nbsp;lateral&nbsp;running<br />along&nbsp;grain&nbsp;of&nbsp;wood</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1 top">Fair</td>
+<td class="center br top">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 top">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2 top">14</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2 top">30</td>
+<td class="right br padr2 top">30</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2 top">30</td>
+<td class="right br padr2 top">10</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2 top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1 top">Very&nbsp;slight</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Considerable&nbsp;lateral&nbsp;running<br />along&nbsp;grain&nbsp;of&nbsp;wood</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1 top">Fair</td>
+<td class="center br top">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 top">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">15</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">60</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">30</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">10</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Heavy</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Slight&nbsp;lateral&nbsp;checking</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">16</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">100</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Heavy</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Considerable</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Dark&nbsp;color;&nbsp;rough&nbsp;surface</td>
+<td class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2 top">17</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2 top">100</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2 top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1 top">Considerable</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1 top">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Better&nbsp;than&nbsp;No.&nbsp;16;&nbsp;not&nbsp;as<br />rough&nbsp;or&nbsp;dark</td>
+<td class="center br top">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 top">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">18</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">33</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">33</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">17</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">17</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Very&nbsp;slight</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">None</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">19</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">34</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">33</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">33</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Very&nbsp;slight</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">20</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">34</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">33</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">33</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Very&nbsp;slight</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">None</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">21</td>
+<td class="right br padr2"><a name="FNanchor_1_23" id="FNanchor_1_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a>100</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Fair;&nbsp;rough&nbsp;surface</td>
+<td class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">22</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">100</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Very&nbsp;slight</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Lateral&nbsp;cracking</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Fairly&nbsp;good</td>
+<td class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">23</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">100</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Lateral&nbsp;cracking</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">24</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">100</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Slight&nbsp;cracking</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Good&nbsp;for&nbsp;repainting</td>
+<td class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">25</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">100</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">None</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Good&nbsp;surface</td>
+<td class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">26</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">100</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Heavy</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Slight&nbsp;cracking</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Fair;&nbsp;surface&nbsp;rough&nbsp;&amp;&nbsp;dark</td>
+<td class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">27</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">100</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Heavy</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Lateral&nbsp;cracking</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2 top">28</td>
+<td class="right br padr2 top">100</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2 top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1 top">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1 top">Considerable</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Poor;&nbsp;very&nbsp;rough,&nbsp;dark<br />surface</td>
+<td class="center br top">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 top">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">29</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">24</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">45</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">13</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">18</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">None</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2 top">30</td>
+<td class="right br padr2 top">45</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2 top">40</td>
+<td class="right br padr2 top">15</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2 top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1 top">Heavy</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Heavy&nbsp;checking&nbsp;and<br />alligatoring</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1 top">Poor</td>
+<td class="center br top">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 top">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">31</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">45</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">40</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">15</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">None</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Alligatoring</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Rough&nbsp;surface;&nbsp;dark</td>
+<td class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">31</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">32</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">45</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">35</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">20</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Dark&nbsp;and&nbsp;rough&nbsp;surface</td>
+<td class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">32</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">33</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">50</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">36</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">2</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">12</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Considerable</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Poor;&nbsp;dark&nbsp;surface</td>
+<td class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">33</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">34</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">75</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">25</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">None</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">None</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Fair;&nbsp;dark&nbsp;surface</td>
+<td class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">34</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">35</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">50</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2">50</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">None</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Fair;&nbsp;rough&nbsp;surface</td>
+<td class="center br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">35</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="right br padr2 top">36</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right br padr2 top">100</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2 top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1 top">Extremely&nbsp;bad</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1 top">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1 top">Fair</td>
+<td class="left br padr1 padl1">Vehicle&nbsp;disintegrated;<br />spotted&nbsp;in&nbsp;places</td>
+<td class="right padr2 top">36</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_23" id="Footnote_1_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a>
+This pigment on analysis proved to be zinc lead.</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180-<br />181]</a></p>
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181"></a></p>
+
+<h5>TESTS INAUGURATED IN 1909<br />
+RESULTS OF INSPECTION OF PITTSBURG TEST FENCE, MAY, 1910</h5>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table P 180-181">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="13" class="center bt2 bb br2">FORMULAS</td>
+<td colspan="4" rowspan="3" class="center bt2 bb br">REPORT&nbsp;OF&nbsp;INSPECTION</td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="center bt2 bb padr1 padl1">Pa-<br />nel<br />Num-<br />ber</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="3" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">For-<br />mu-<br />la<br />Num-<br />ber</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Basic Car-<br />bonate<br />White<br />Lead</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Zinc<br />Oxide</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Basic<br />Sul-<br />phate<br />White<br />Lead</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Preci-<br />pitated<br />White<br />Lead</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Zinc<br />Lead</td>
+<td rowspan="3" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Litho-<br />pone</td>
+<td colspan="6" class="center br2 bb">INERT PIGMENT</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Cal-<br />cium<br />Car-<br />bonate</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Silica</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Asbes-<br />tine</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">China<br />Clay</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Bary-<br />tes</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br2 bb padr1 padl1">Blanc<br />Fixe</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center br bb padr1 padl1">CHALKING</td>
+<td class="center br bb padr1 padl1">CHECKING</td>
+<td class="center br bb padr1 padl1">GENERAL<br />CONDITION</td>
+<td class="center br bb padr1 padl1">REMARKS</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="center br">%</td>
+<td class="center br2">%</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br">1</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">45</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">40</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">15</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Considerable</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Slight</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Fair</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Dark&nbsp;in&nbsp;places.&nbsp;Diffused</td>
+<td class="right padr2">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br">2</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">45</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">40</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">15</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Slight</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Bad</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Fair</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Dark&nbsp;in&nbsp;places</td>
+<td class="right padr2">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br">3</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">45</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">45</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">10</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Medium</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">None</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Darkening&nbsp;shown&nbsp;in&nbsp;places</td>
+<td class="right padr2">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br">4</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">45</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">45</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">10</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Considerable</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">None</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Medium&nbsp;dark</td>
+<td class="right padr2">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br">5</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">40</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">40</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">20</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Slight</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">None</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">No&nbsp;excessive&nbsp;darkness</td>
+<td class="right padr2">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br">6</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">45</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">35</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">20</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Medium</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Slight</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Surface&nbsp;fairly&nbsp;white</td>
+<td class="right padr2">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br">7</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">50</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">36</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">2</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">8</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">4</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Medium</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">None</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Excellent</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Whitest&nbsp;surface&nbsp;of&nbsp;new&nbsp;tests</td>
+<td class="right padr2">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br">8</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">50</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">36</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">2</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">8</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">4</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Extremely&nbsp;bad</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Slight</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Fair</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Surface&nbsp;darkening</td>
+<td class="right padr2">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br">9</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">50</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">36</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">2</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">12</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Extremely&nbsp;bad</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Slight</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Fair</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Not&nbsp;as&nbsp;bad&nbsp;as&nbsp;No.&nbsp;8</td>
+<td class="right padr2">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br">10</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">36</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">50</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">2</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">8</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">4</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Slight</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">None</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Excellent&nbsp;surface;&nbsp;very&nbsp;white</td>
+<td class="right padr2">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br">11</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">28</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">55</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">3</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">7</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br2">7</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Slight</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">None</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Excellent</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Surface&nbsp;fairly&nbsp;white;&nbsp;thin&nbsp;soot</td>
+<td class="right padr2">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br">12</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">55</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">28</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">3</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">7</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br2">7</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Medium</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">None</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Surface&nbsp;white</td>
+<td class="right padr2">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br">13</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">60</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">30</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">10</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Medium</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Very&nbsp;bad&nbsp;in&nbsp;spots</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Fair</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Slight&nbsp;darkening</td>
+<td class="right padr2">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br">14</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">30</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">30</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">30</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">10</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Heavy</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Considerable</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Fair</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Slight&nbsp;darkening</td>
+<td class="right padr2">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br">15</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">60</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">30</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">10</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Extremely&nbsp;bad</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Slight</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Fair</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Fairly&nbsp;white</td>
+<td class="right padr2">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br top">16</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br top">100</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2 top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br top">Extremely&nbsp;bad</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br top">Advanced&nbsp;and&nbsp;deep</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br top">Bad</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Surface&nbsp;rough&nbsp;with&nbsp;considerable<br />disintegration&nbsp;and&nbsp;much<br />darkness</td>
+<td class="right padr2 top">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br top">17</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br top">100</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2 top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Not&nbsp;as&nbsp;bad<br />as&nbsp;No.&nbsp;16</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Less&nbsp;advanced&nbsp;than<br />No.&nbsp;16</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br top">Fair</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Not&nbsp;as&nbsp;dark&nbsp;as&nbsp;No.&nbsp;16;&nbsp;slightly<br />
+mottled&nbsp;in&nbsp;places;&nbsp;buff&nbsp;color</td>
+<td class="right padr2 top">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br">18</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">33</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">33</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">17</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">17</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Very&nbsp;slight</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Practically&nbsp;none</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Fair</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Surface&nbsp;white</td>
+<td class="right padr2">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br">19</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">34</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">33</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">33</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Very&nbsp;slight</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">None</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Surface&nbsp;fairly&nbsp;white</td>
+<td class="right padr2">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br">20</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">34</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">33</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">33</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">None</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">None</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Surface&nbsp;fairly&nbsp;white</td>
+<td class="right padr2">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br">21</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">100</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Slight</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Slight</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Fair</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Surface&nbsp;very&nbsp;rough&nbsp;and&nbsp;dark</td>
+<td class="right padr2">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br">22</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br"><a name="FNanchor_1_24" id="FNanchor_1_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a>100</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Medium</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Slight</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Fair</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Surface&nbsp;fairly&nbsp;white</td>
+<td class="right padr2">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br">23</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">100</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Slight</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Bad</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Fair</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 br">Surface&nbsp;rough&nbsp;and&nbsp;darkest&nbsp;on&nbsp;fence</td>
+<td class="right padr2">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br">24</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">100</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Bad</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">None</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Surface&nbsp;white</td>
+<td class="right padr2">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br">25</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">100</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Slight</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">None</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Fairly&nbsp;white&nbsp;surface</td>
+<td class="right padr2">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br top">26</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br top">100</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2 top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br top">Medium</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br top">Slight</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br top">Fair</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Rough&nbsp;and&nbsp;very&nbsp;dark;&nbsp;chalking&nbsp;is<br />disrupting&nbsp;black&nbsp;coating</td>
+<td class="right padr2 top">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br">27</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">100</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Medium</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Slight</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Surface&nbsp;fairly&nbsp;white</td>
+<td class="right padr2">27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br top">28</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br top">100</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2 top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br top">Medium</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 br">Deep;&nbsp;evident&nbsp;without<br />glass</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br top">Poor</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br top">Surface&nbsp;rough&nbsp;and&nbsp;very&nbsp;dark</td>
+<td class="right padr2 top">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br">29</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">24</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">45</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">13</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">18</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Slight</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Slight</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Very&nbsp;white&nbsp;surface</td>
+<td class="right padr2">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br">30</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">45</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">40</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">15</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">None</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Slight</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Fair</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Color&nbsp;dark</td>
+<td class="right padr2">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br">31</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">45</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">40</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">15</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Very&nbsp;slight</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Advanced</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Fair</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Color&nbsp;very&nbsp;dark</td>
+<td class="right padr2">31</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br">32</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">45</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">35</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">20</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 br">Extremely&nbsp;slight</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Considerable</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Fair</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Color&nbsp;very&nbsp;dark;&nbsp;rough&nbsp;surface</td>
+<td class="right padr2">32</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br">33</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">50</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">36</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">2</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">12</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Extremely&nbsp;slight</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Slight</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Fair</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Surface&nbsp;dark&nbsp;and&nbsp;rough</td>
+<td class="right padr2">33</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br">34</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">75</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">25</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Slight</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Deep</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Fair</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Surface&nbsp;medium&nbsp;dark</td>
+<td class="right padr2">34</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr2 br">35</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">50</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br">50</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Considerable</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Slight</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Fair</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Surface&nbsp;medium&nbsp;dark</td>
+<td class="right padr2">35</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="right padr2 br top">36</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr2 br top">100</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="center br2 top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br top">Extremely&nbsp;bad</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br top">None</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br top">Fair</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Vehicle&nbsp;disintegrated,&nbsp;leaving&nbsp;very<br />white,&nbsp;chalked&nbsp;surface&nbsp;of<br />
+pigment</td>
+<td class="right padr2 top">36</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_24" id="Footnote_1_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> This
+pigment on analysis proved to be zinc lead.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XII</h2>
+
+<h3>NORTH DAKOTA PAINT TESTS</h3>
+
+
+<p>An inspection of the original test fence, erected and painted
+by the North Dakota Agricultural College, on the grounds of
+the agricultural Experiment Station at Fargo, was made by the
+inspection committee<a name="FNanchor_1_25" id="FNanchor_1_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a>
+representing the Paint Manufacturers&#8217;
+Association of the United States, on the 19th and 20th of November,
+1909. The fence was erected in 1906 and painted with
+commercial paints, procured in the open market. The east side
+of the fence was built of soft pine and cedar weather-boarding,
+such as is almost universally used on houses in that locality,
+presenting a very good surface for test purposes, while the west
+side was built largely of flat trimmed boards of hard pitch pine
+which, unfortunately, contained knots, pitch pockets, and uneven
+surfaces, causing to a greater or lesser extent cracking, scaling,
+and bad general results on all paints applied thereto.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_25" id="Footnote_1_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a>
+Henry A. Gardner, Director Scientific Section, Educational Bureau,
+Paint Manufacturers&#8217; Association of U. S.; George Butler, Master Painter;
+Charles Macnichol, Master Painter.</p></div>
+
+<p>The fences built in 1907 and 1908 at the suggestion of the Paint
+Manufacturers&#8217; Association, were inspected on the 20th, 21st,
+and 22nd of November, 1909, and the detailed results of the
+inspection of all these fences follow in this report. The same
+general conclusions as to the woods represented in the 1906
+fence also apply to the 1907 and 1908 fences, and because of
+the general bad quality of wood used on the western exposure
+of all fences, the detailed reports were made only from an examination
+of the eastern side of the fences, both on cedar and
+soft pine.</p>
+
+<p>The following general summary of the inspection and its results
+applies to all the test fences on the grounds of the college
+and is the unanimous conclusion drawn by the inspectors from
+this work:</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Non-absorbent woods, difficult to penetrate, such as those
+on the west side of the fences, would undoubtedly have given
+much better results had they been painted with paints properly
+reduced to suit the nature of the wood. This treatment seems
+to have been overlooked in the North Dakota tests, and the
+painting of the hard pine boards was done with the same consistency
+of mixtures and the same reductions as upon soft pine.
+Scaling of course resulted. One of the chief purposes of the
+fences, however, was to study the different types of wood, and
+compliance with this desire resulted in the bad conditions herein
+noted. It has been shown in many other field tests that adherence
+of paints to hard wood surfaces can be obtained only by
+causing the priming coat to become amalgamated with the
+woody fibre, by the use of a large percentage of volatile diluent
+turpentine, benzole, asphaltum spirits, etc., to secure penetration.
+If such treatment is omitted, failure soon results, as was
+evidenced by the uniformly bad conditions presented by the
+paints on the hard pine panels.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo194a.jpg" alt="North Dakota Test Fence 1" width="450" height="188" /></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo194b.jpg" alt="North Dakota Test Fence 2" width="500" height="173" />
+<p class="caption">North Dakota Test Fences</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo194c.jpg"
+alt="Pine Board Showing Knot and Sappy Grain" width="500" height="362" />
+<p class="caption">Typical Sample of Hard Pine Trim Board Showing Knot and Sappy Grain</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo195.jpg"
+alt="Complete Disaintegration of Cheap Paint" width="300" height="419" />
+<p class="caption">Test No. 13&mdash;1906 Fence<br />
+Complete Disintegration and Failure of Cheap Paint</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo196.jpg"
+alt="Pine Weatherboarding Showing Knots and Grain" width="500" height="303" />
+<p class="caption">Pine Weatherboarding Showing Knots and Grain</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo197.jpg"
+alt="Condition of Lumber Affecting Paint" width="300" height="383" />
+<p class="caption">Condition of Lumber Affecting Paint, West Side 1906 Fence</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo198.jpg" alt="Hail-stone Abrasions" width="300" height="432" />
+<p class="caption">Hail-stone Abrasions on House Repainting Tests</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo199.jpg" alt="Hail-stone Damage" width="300" height="418" />
+<p class="caption">Hail-stone Effect, West Side of 1907 Test Fence</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>&#8220;During July, 1908, a violent hailstorm occurred in Fargo,
+and left its impression on nearly every wooden structure; in
+many cases deep dents being made into the wood. The west
+side of the test fences, which received the most injury from this
+storm, was covered with these dents over almost its entire surface,
+causing cracks in the form of concentric rings to appear on the
+abraded paint coatings. The bad condition of the wood, improper
+method of applying priming coat, combined with the
+hailstorm effect on the painted surfaces on the west side of the
+fences, were undoubtedly responsible for the universal failure
+of the paints thereon, and, for these reasons, the west side was
+eliminated from the detailed inspection, only general observations
+of these tests being made. These general observations, however,
+showed that paints Nos. 6 and 8 on the 1906 fence, and paints
+Nos. 8, 10, and 13 on the 1907 fence, proved the most satisfactory
+on the western exposure.<a name="FNanchor_1_26" id="FNanchor_1_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_26" id="Footnote_1_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a>
+These formulas were the same as those respectively numbered on the
+Atlantic City and Pittsburg fences.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo200.jpg"
+alt="Peculiar Crystallization Effect" width="300" height="314" />
+<p class="caption">Peculiar Crystallization Effect on Section 41. New Special Fence Paint
+Applied During Cold Weather</p></div>
+
+<p>&#8220;Ochre was tried out as a priming coat on several formulas,
+but it was found to be most unsatisfactory, affecting the subsequent
+coats of paint and causing early failure, as evidenced by
+broad checking, discoloration, and general bad condition. These<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span>
+conditions also apply to those panels on the 1908 fence coated
+with shellac as a primer.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The colored formulas in every case showed a great superiority
+over the same paints in white untinted, and demonstrated that
+a percentage of color has a wonderful influence on the preservation
+of the paint coating, reducing chalking, checking, and general
+disintegration. This condition is probably due to the reinforcing
+value of the color pigments used.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It is safe to state that the combination formulas tinted yellow
+were of better appearance than the corroded white leads tinted
+yellow, the latter appearing quite dark in many cases.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The wearing of the paints made solely from white lead and
+zinc oxide seemed to indicate that a percentage of a third pigment,
+of an inert nature, would have been beneficial.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The high-type mixtures of pigments containing lead and
+zinc, with moderate percentages of inert pigments, on good wood,
+were in most excellent general condition; in fact, much superior
+to the single pigment paints. Their surface exhibited only minor
+checking and moderate chalking with good maintenance of color,
+and presenting surfaces well adapted to repainting.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The sublimed white lead was in fair condition, with very
+little checking, and offering a fair repainting surface. The
+corroded white lead was somewhat whiter than the sublimed
+white lead, but a careful observation of the surface of the corroded
+lead revealed deep checking.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It was clearly demonstrated, however, that in climates of
+the North Dakota type, white lead alone is not entirely satisfactory.
+The addition of zinc oxide to white lead forms paint
+that has proved much superior to the white lead alone.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It was conclusively demonstrated that mixtures of white
+lead and zinc oxide, properly blended with moderate percentages
+of reinforcing pigments, such as asbestine, barytes, silica and
+calcium carbonate, are most satisfactory from every standpoint,
+and are superior to mixtures of prime white pigments not reinforced
+with inert pigments.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The white leads painted out on the 1908 fence exhibited
+different degrees of checking, the mild-process lead and sublimed
+white lead which presented the best surfaces, being free from
+checking, while the old-process leads seemed to show very deep
+and marked checking, even after one year&#8217;s wear.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></p>
+
+<table class="illo" style="width: 350px;" summary="Photo P 192">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo202.jpg"
+alt="Two White Leads on Two Grades of Wood" width="300" height="422" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption left">Corroded White Lead</td>
+<td class="caption right">Sublimed White Lead</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="caption">Condition of Two White Leads on Two Grades of Wood</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo203a.jpg" alt="Photomicrographic Apparatus in Use" width="300" height="362" /></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo203b.jpg" alt="Photomicrographic Apparatus" width="300" height="282" />
+<p class="caption">Photomicrographic Apparatus and Method of Use</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></p>
+
+<h5>CONDENSED REPORT OF INSPECTION OF &#8220;1906&#8221; TEST FENCE</h5>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fargo, N. D., Nov. 19-23, 1909</span><br />
+<i>No gloss shown by any of the paints. Formulas in white on white pine only included here, on east side of fence</i></p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table P 193">
+
+<tr class="bt2">
+<td rowspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Test<br />No.</td>
+<td colspan="30" class="center br2 bb">FORMULAS</td>
+<td rowspan="2" colspan="5" class="center bb">REPORT&nbsp;OF&nbsp;CONDITION</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="18" class="center br bb"><span class="smcap">Pigment</span></td>
+<td colspan="12" class="center br2 bb"><span class="smcap">Vehicle</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Cor-<br />roded<br />White<br />Lead</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Sub-<br />limed<br />White<br />Lead</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Zinc<br />Oxide</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Cal-<br />cium<br />Car-<br />bonate</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Silica<br />and<br />Sili-<br />cates</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Barium<br />Sul-<br />phate</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Magne-<br />sium<br />Sili-<br />cate</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Clay<br />and<br />Silica</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Bary-<br />tes<br />and<br />Sili-<br />cate</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Lin-<br />seed<br />Oil</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Turp.<br />and<br />Drier</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Japan<br />Drier</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Water</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Ben-<br />zine<br />Drier</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2 bb padr1 padl1">Vola-<br />tile<br />Oil</td>
+<td class="center br bb padr1 padl1"><span class="smcap">Chalking</span></td>
+<td class="center br bb padr1 padl1"><span class="smcap">checking</span></td>
+<td class="center br bb padr1 padl1"><span class="smcap">hiding<br />power</span></td>
+<td class="center br bb padr1 padl1"><span class="smcap">color</span></td>
+<td class="center bb padr1 padl1"><span class="smcap">condition&nbsp;for<br />repainting</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">%</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">%</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">1</td>
+<td class="right padr0">100</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Very&nbsp;bad</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Extremely&nbsp;deep</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Only&nbsp;fair</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1 top">2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0 top">100</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2 top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br top">Bad</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br top">Very&nbsp;slight</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br top">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 br">Light&nbsp;yellowish<br />tint</td>
+<td class="left padl1 top">Fair</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1 top">3</td>
+<td class="right padr0 top">50</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0 top">50</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0 top">90</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0 top">10</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2 top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br top">Medium</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Fine&nbsp;matt&mdash;deep&nbsp;in<br />places</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br top">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br top">Fair</td>
+<td class="left padl1 top">Fair&nbsp;to&nbsp;good</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1 top">4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0 top">60</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0 top">40</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0 top">90</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0 top">10</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2 top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br top">Medium</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Surface&nbsp;checking,&nbsp;very<br />slight</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br top">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br top">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1 top">Fair</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">5</td>
+<td class="right padr0">28</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">71</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">93</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Slight</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Quite&nbsp;deep</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Medium</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Poor.&nbsp;Coating&nbsp;wrin-<br />kled&nbsp;and&nbsp;hard</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">6</td>
+<td class="right padr0">40</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">50</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.3</td>
+<td class="right padr0">4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.1</td>
+<td class="right padr0">5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">90</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.7</td>
+<td class="right padr0">9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Medium</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 br">Slight&nbsp;surface&nbsp;checking</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Good</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1 top">7</td>
+<td class="right padr0 top">21</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 top">.9</td>
+<td class="right padr0 top">21</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 top">.9</td>
+<td class="right padr0 top">45</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 top">.8</td>
+<td class="right padr0 top">10</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 top">.4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0 top">89</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 top">.6</td>
+<td class="right padr0 top">9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 top">.7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0 top">0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 top">.7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2 top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br top">Medium</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Surface&nbsp;checking&nbsp;with<br />slight&nbsp;cracking</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br top">Fair</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br top">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Slight&nbsp;shelling&nbsp;from<br />wood</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">8</td>
+<td class="right padr0">44</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.1</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">46</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.0</td>
+<td class="right padr0">4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">86</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.0</td>
+<td class="right padr0">12</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Medium</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Very&nbsp;slight</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Good</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">9</td>
+<td colspan="30" class="center spaced br2">In&nbsp;gray&nbsp;only&nbsp;No&nbsp;report.</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">10</td>
+<td class="right padr0">13</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">34</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.9</td>
+<td class="right padr0">26</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">24</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.4</td>
+<td class="right padr0">72</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">24</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.0</td>
+<td class="right padr0">3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Slight</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Very&nbsp;bad</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="center padl1">Bad&nbsp;condition&nbsp;throughout.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">11</td>
+<td class="right padr0">55</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">15</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">29</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.8</td>
+<td colspan="12" class="center spaced br2">Test&nbsp;not&nbsp;finished</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">12</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.1</td>
+<td class="right padr0">25</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.0</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">69</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Medium</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Medium</td>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 br">Deficient</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Shelling&nbsp;from&nbsp;wood</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">13</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">31</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.3</td>
+<td class="right padr0">45</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.4</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">22</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.8</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">57</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">16</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.1</td>
+<td class="right padr0">26</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="5" class="center">Worst&nbsp;looking&nbsp;surface&nbsp;in&nbsp;North&nbsp;Dakota&nbsp;tests.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1 top">14</td>
+<td class="right padr0 top">34</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 top">.8</td>
+<td class="right padr0 top">5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 top">.4</td>
+<td class="right padr0 top">59</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 top">.2</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0 top">86</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 top">.0</td>
+<td class="right padr0 top">13</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 top">.7</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0 top">0</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 top">.3</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br2 top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br top">Medium</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Slight&nbsp;surface&nbsp;checking<br />and&nbsp;peeling</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br top">Fair</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br top">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1 top">Good</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb2">
+<td class="right br padr1 top">15</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0 top">64</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0 top">36</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0 top">98</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0 top">2</td>
+<td class="br2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br top">Slight</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br">Lateral&nbsp;cracking&nbsp;quite<br />deep</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br top">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1 br top">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1 top">Hard&nbsp;film</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194-<br />195]</a></p>
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195"></a></p>
+
+<h5>CONDENSED REPORT OF INSPECTION OF &#8220;1907&#8221; TEST FENCE</h5>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fargo, North Dakota, Nov. 19-23, 1909</span></p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table P 194-195">
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="2" class="center bt2 br bb padr1 padl1">Test<br />No.</td>
+<td colspan="38" class="center bt2 br bb">FORMULAS</td>
+<td colspan="5" rowspan="2" class="center bt2 bb">REPORT OF CONDITION</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="22" class="center br bb"><span class="smcap">pigment</span></td>
+<td colspan="16" class="center br bb"><span class="smcap">vehicle</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Cor-<br />roded<br />White<br />Lead</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Sub-<br />limed<br />White<br />Lead</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Zinc<br />Oxide</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Cal-<br />cium<br />Car-<br />bonate</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Alu-<br />minum<br />and<br />Magne-<br />sium<br />Sili<br />cate</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Barytes</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Silica</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Inert</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Magne-<br />sium<br />Sili-<br />cate</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Cal-<br />cium<br />Sul-<br />phate</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Zinc<br />Lead</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Lin-<br />seed<br />Oil</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Tur-<br />pen-<br />tine<br />Drier</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Tur-<br />pen-<br />tine<br />and<br />Japan</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Water</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Turpen-<br />tine<br />and<br />Ben-<br />zine<br />Japan<br />Drier</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Drier</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Vola-<br />tile<br />Oil</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br bb padr1 padl1">Ben-<br />zine</td>
+<td class="center br bb padr1 padl1"><span class="smcap">Chalking</span></td>
+<td class="center br bb padr1 padl1"><span class="smcap">Checking</span></td>
+<td class="center br bb padr1 padl1"><span class="smcap">Hiding<br />Power</span></td>
+<td class="center br bb padr1 padl1"><span class="smcap">Color</span></td>
+<td class="center bb padr1 padl1"><span class="smcap">Condition&nbsp;for<br />Repainting</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br top">1</td>
+<td class="right top">30</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right top">70</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right top">93</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right top">7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 top">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Considerable&nbsp;with<br />lateral&nbsp;cracking</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 top">Fair</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 top">Fair</td>
+<td class="left padl1 top">Poor&nbsp;surface;&nbsp;too&nbsp;hard</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br top">2</td>
+<td class="right top">50</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right top">50</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right top">86</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right top">10</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right top">4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 top">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Considerable&nbsp;with&nbsp;lateral<br />cracking</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 top">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 top">Fair</td>
+<td class="left padl1 top">Rather&nbsp;poor</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">3</td>
+<td class="right">20</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">20</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">50</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">10</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">90</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Bad</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium&mdash;scaling&nbsp;some</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Fair</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br top">4</td>
+<td class="right padr0 top">48</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 top">.5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0 top">48</td>
+<td class="left br padl0 top">.5</td>
+<td class="right top">3</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right top">83</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right top">17</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 top">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Considerable&nbsp;with&nbsp;lateral<br />cracking</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 top">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 top">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1 top">Medium</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">5</td>
+<td class="right">22</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">50</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">26</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">90</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Good</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">6</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">64</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">36</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">98</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Considerable</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Fair</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">7</td>
+<td class="right">37</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">63</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">85</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">13</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Considerable</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Present;&nbsp;long&nbsp;cracks</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Poor</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">8</td>
+<td class="right">38</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">48</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">14</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">91</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Surface&nbsp;checking</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Fair</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br top">9</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right top">73</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right top">2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right top">25</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right top">66</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right top">12</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right top">22</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 top">Not evident</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Considerable&nbsp;with&nbsp;lateral<br />cracking</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 top">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 top">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1 top">Medium</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">10</td>
+<td class="right">44</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">46</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">86</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.0</td>
+<td class="right padr0">12</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.5</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Very&nbsp;slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Good</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">11</td>
+<td class="right">50</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">50</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">78</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">22</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Lateral&nbsp;cracking</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Fair</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br top">12</td>
+<td class="right top">60</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right top">34</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right top">6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right top">91</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right top">7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right top">2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 top">Considerable</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Present&nbsp;with&nbsp;slight&nbsp;cracking<br />and&nbsp;scaling</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 top">Fair</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 top">Fair</td>
+<td class="left padl1 top">Not&nbsp;very&nbsp;good</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">13</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">60</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">27</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">3</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">90</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Surface&nbsp;checking&nbsp;only</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Good</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br top">14</td>
+<td class="right top">25</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right top">20</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right top">25</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right top">5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right top">25</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right top">90</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right top">6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right top">4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 top">Considerable</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Considerable&nbsp;with&nbsp;lateral<br />cracking</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 top">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 top">Fair</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Medium;&nbsp;some&nbsp;washing<br />shown</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">15</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">20</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">40</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">10</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">30</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">90</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Medium</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">16</td>
+<td class="right">33</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">33</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">34</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">90</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">10</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight;&nbsp;some&nbsp;shelling</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Medium</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">17</td>
+<td class="right">100</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="right padr0">(Type</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left br padl0">&nbsp;A)</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Bad</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Alligatoring;&nbsp;deep&nbsp;checking</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Poor</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">18</td>
+<td class="right">100</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="right padr0">(&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&#8222;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left br padl0">&nbsp;B)</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Bad</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Alligatoring;&nbsp;deep&nbsp;checking</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Poor</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">19</td>
+<td class="right">100</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="right padr0">(&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&#8222;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left br padl0">&nbsp;C)</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="8" class="center br">10 gal. oil reduction</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Bad</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Deep</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Poor</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">20</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">100</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Considerable</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Fair</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br top">21</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right top">100</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br top">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 top">Not&nbsp;evident</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">Considerable;&nbsp;slight&nbsp;cracking;<br />scaling</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 top">Fair</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 top">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1 top">Poor</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">22</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right">100</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Lateral&nbsp;cracking;&nbsp;split</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Fair</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">23</td>
+<td class="right">100</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="right padr0">(Type</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left br padl0">&nbsp;C)</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="16" class="center br">5<span class="enum">1</span>&#8260;<span class="denom">2</span> gal. oil reduction for priming</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Bad</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium&nbsp;deep</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Fair</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">24</td>
+<td class="right padr0">37</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.51</td>
+<td class="right padr0">7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.84</td>
+<td class="right padr0">25</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.87</td>
+<td class="right padr0">20</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.36</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.42</td>
+<td colspan="10" class="center br">(Michigan Seal White Lead)</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Considerable</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Slight;&nbsp;lateral&nbsp;cracking</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Good</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right padr1 br">25</td>
+<td class="right padr0">38</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.95</td>
+<td class="right padr0">4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.81</td>
+<td class="right padr0">33</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.58</td>
+<td class="right padr0">19</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.48</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.18</td>
+<td colspan="8" class="center br">(Railway White Lead)</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Considerable</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Some;&nbsp;lateral&nbsp;cracking</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Fair</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Excellent</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="right padr1 br">200</td>
+<td class="right padr0">15</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.625</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.875</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.250</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">43</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.750</td>
+<td class="right padr0">32</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.250</td>
+<td class="right padr0">4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.000</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.250</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br">&mdash;</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Bad&nbsp;cracking</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Good</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Fair</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span>&#8220;As
+before stated, the committee believes that a serious mistake
+was made on the test fence in painting out the leads and
+other formulas on the various woods without any special attention
+to reduction to suit the nature of the wood, thus accounting
+largely for the difference of the wearing of the paints on the
+different woods.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The reduction of the white leads especially was to be criticised
+in these tests, in many cases too much oil and not sufficient
+turpentine being present to cause penetration.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The application of paint to cedar was satisfactory in most
+all cases, and this wood showed much better results than the
+other woods upon the fences. The exudation of resinous pitch
+on the hard pine was extremely serious, in some cases coming
+through the paint in large streaks, causing bad results.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It is to be regretted that the house repainting tests which
+were conducted are of no special value, inasmuch as no information
+is on file as to the composition of the old paints originally
+on the houses before the application of the test paints. Imperfections
+in the old coating, such as excessive chalking, deep checking,
+scaling, rosin exudations, etc., affected the subsequent coats
+in such a manner as to prevent any knowledge of where the new
+and old paint troubles began. The committee, therefore, omitted
+a detailed inspection of such tests.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Examination of the three houses which were painted over
+new wood showed results which correspond with the results
+obtained from the fence tests. That is, they showed the ultimate
+value of high type mixtures of several pigments over one
+pigment alone. These tests seem to indicate that very good
+results can be secured from most of the paints sold in North
+Dakota. If the consumer or householder would exercise more
+care in the selection of wood and preparation of surfaces, with
+due regard to the proper reduction for various coats, more
+satisfactory results would be obtained.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;From an examination of certain paints on the 1908 fence
+containing petroleum spirits, it would appear that this paint
+thinner is of value, and in the face of conditions such as are presented
+by the present scarcity of turpentine, the use of petroleum
+spirits in moderate quantity would be justified.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></p>
+
+<h5>NORTH DAKOTA TESTS</h5>
+
+<table class="illo" style="width: 600px;" summary="Photos P 197-200">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo208a.jpg" alt="Formula 21" width="300" height="299" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo208b.jpg" alt="Section 80" width="300" height="304" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption top">1. Formula No. 21, Section 31, on 1907 Fence</td>
+<td class="caption top">2. Section 80, on 1908 Fence</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo208c.jpg" alt="Formula 6" width="300" height="297" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo208d.jpg" alt="Formula 2" width="300" height="302" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption top">3. Formula No. 6, Section 9, on 1907 Fence</td>
+<td class="caption top">4. Formula No. 2, Section 3, on 1907 Fence</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo208e.jpg" alt="Formula 1" width="300" height="301" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo208f.jpg" alt="Formula 14" width="300" height="302" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption top">5. Formula No. 1, Section 1, on 1907 Fence</td>
+<td class="caption top">6. Formula No. 14, Section 21, on 1907 Fence</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span><img
+src="images/illo209a.jpg" alt="Formula 13" width="300" height="298" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo209b.jpg" alt="Formula 19" width="300" height="297" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption top">7. Formula No. 13, Panel 19, on 1907 Fence</td>
+<td class="caption top">8. Formula No. 19, Panel 28. Broad, Deep Checking on
+Corroded White Lead on 1907 Fence</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo209c.jpg" alt="Formula 24" width="300" height="302" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo209d.jpg" alt="Formula 25" width="300" height="302" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption top">9. Formula No. 24, Panel 36, on 1907 Fence. Good
+Condition. Surface Checking Only</td>
+<td class="caption top">10. Formula No. 25, Section 37, on 1907 Fence. Good
+Condition. Surface Checking Only</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo209e.jpg" alt="Formula 8" width="300" height="298" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo209f.jpg" alt="Formula 12" width="300" height="302" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption top">11. Formula No. 8, Panel 12, on 1907 Fence</td>
+<td class="caption top">12. Formula No. 10, Panel 15, on 1907 Fence</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span><img
+src="images/illo210a.jpg" alt="Formula 23" width="300" height="301" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo210b.jpg" alt="Test 13" width="300" height="297" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption top">13. Panel No. 34, Formula 23, on 1907 Fence. Deep
+Checking on Corroded White Lead</td>
+<td class="caption top">14. Test No. 13 on 1906 Fence. White Spots
+Show Paint Left on Wood. Balance of Paint Split and Disintegrated
+from Surface</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo210c.jpg" alt="Test 6" width="300" height="298" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo210d.jpg" alt="Test 2" width="300" height="302" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption top">15. Test No. 6 on 1906 Fence. Surface Checking Only</td>
+<td class="caption top">16. Test No. 2, 1906 Fence. Sublimed White Lead</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo210e.jpg" alt="Test 15" width="300" height="300" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo210f.jpg" alt="Hard Pine Cracking" width="300" height="298" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption top">17. Cracks in Test No. 15 on 1906 Fence</td>
+<td class="caption top">18. Effect of Cracking on Hard Pine, Causing Splitting
+of Painting Coating</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span><img
+src="images/illo211a.jpg" alt="Section 23" width="300" height="298" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo211b.jpg" alt="Test 8" width="300" height="305" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption top">19. Formula No. 22, Section 23, 1907 Fence. Cracks in Paint Coating, Caused
+by Cracks in Wood; Coating Otherwise in Good Condition</td>
+<td class="caption top">20. Test No. 8, on 1906 Fence. Surface Checking Only</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo211c.jpg" alt="Section 69 Cracking and Checking" width="300" height="302" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="caption">21. Combination Cracking and<br />Checking on Section 69, on 1908 Fence</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo211d.jpg" alt="Cracks in Paint" width="300" height="296" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo211e.jpg" alt="Breakdown of Corroded White Lead" width="300" height="298" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption top">22. Cracks in Paint Coating, Caused by Cracking of Hard Pine Wood</td>
+<td class="caption top">23. Section 65 on 1908 Fence. Showing Early Breakdown of Corroded White Lead</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></p>
+<h2><a name="Ch13" id="Ch13"></a>CHAPTER XIII</h2>
+
+<h3>TENNESSEE PAINT TESTS</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>Location and Object of Tests.</b> On September 15, 1910, the
+erection of a wooden test fence was completed on the State Fair
+Grounds at Nashville, Tenn. Upon this fence were exposed
+forty-two samples of white paint, the object of the test being
+to determine whether the combination type of formula is superior
+to the single pigment type in the southern plateau, of which
+Nashville is the centre.</p>
+
+<p><b>Construction of Tests.</b> The construction and outline of these
+tests differ somewhat from those conducted at Atlantic City
+and elsewhere by the Scientific Section. The fence frame is
+150 feet long, being made of 6-inch bevelled girders supported
+three feet from the ground by 4-inch posts set six feet apart.
+Upon this girder were placed a series of forty-two test panels
+supported at top and bottom with weather strips and braces.
+The test panels used were 40 inches high, 30 inches wide, and
+one inch thick, being made of the highest grade white pine,
+tongued and grooved together, and protected on the edges by
+weather strips projecting from the surface of the panels. Each
+panel was painted on both sides with the same paint, thus giving
+an eastern and western exposure, the fence running north and
+south. The formulas used in the test vary in their percentage
+composition, being made up in some cases of single pigments,
+and again with combinations of the opaque white pigments, with
+and without certain percentages of the crystalline or inert pigments.
+The paints were applied under the supervision of prominent
+master painters and a committee representing the Scientific
+Section and other technical organizations.</p>
+
+<p>Other field tests have shown that the sap and knots in hard-grained
+woods, such as yellow pine, cypress, etc., have been the
+cause of the failure of even the best paints, and that all tests should
+be conducted upon soft woods, such as white pine and poplar,
+if definite results are to be obtained. Paints tinted with ochre,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span>
+chrome yellow, lampblack, iron oxide, etc., have shown on the
+other field tests which have been conducted at Atlantic City,
+Pittsburg, and Fargo the value of these pigments in giving to
+the paints increased wearing properties. On the Southern Test
+Fence, therefore, all the formulas were ground in white only and
+placed upon white pine so as to make the test primarily one to determine
+the value of the various white pigments upon good wood.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo213.jpg" alt="Tennesee Test Fences" width="500" height="336" />
+<p class="caption">Tennessee Test Fences</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Oil and Thinner Tests.</b> Upon one series of panels on the fence
+was placed one of the formulas which had given universal satisfaction
+on the various test fences in the past, and this formula
+was made up with various oils other than linseed oil, in order to
+determine the value of these oils as painting materials. For
+instance, the vehicle part of the one formula referred to is made
+up of 50% linseed oil and 50% soya bean oil, and again 50%
+linseed oil and 50% rosin oil, etc., an effort being made to test
+out a few of the available semi-drying oils.</p>
+
+<p>The same formula referred to was ground in pure linseed oil
+and subjected to a series of tests where it has been thinned for
+application as priming and second coats with a series of wood
+turpentines obtained from the United States Forest Products
+Laboratory at Madison, Wis. These turpentines were made
+from southern pine stumps and sawdust, and they vary greatly
+in their properties. Some were objectionable in odor, while
+others were of excellent quality, having an odor almost equal
+to that of pure gum spirits.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo214a.jpg" alt="View 1 of Tennessee Test Fences" width="500" height="248" /></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo214b.jpg" alt="View 2 of Tennessee Test Fences" width="500" height="260" /></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo214c.jpg"
+alt="View 3 of Tennessee Test Fences" width="500" height="295" />
+<p class="caption">Views of Fence</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>One product under test on the Southern Test Fence is pine
+oil, a high boiling point product obtained from the manufacture
+of wood turpentine from sawdust. This oil has a boiling point
+of over 210 degrees Centigrade as against the 150 degrees of
+ordinary gum spirits. It is almost water white and has the
+same penetrating qualities as the pure gum spirits; when mixed
+with 50% linseed oil forming a paint oil of extremely light color,
+that produces a semi-flat paint of great whiteness.</p>
+
+<p><b>Reductions and Application.</b> Formulas No. 1 to No. 37 were
+all ground in pure refined linseed oil. They were made in the
+form of semi-paste and then thinned down with sufficient refined
+linseed oil so that each would have a relative viscosity. To
+each formula was then added a sufficient amount of pure lead and
+manganese linoleate drier to give proper drying qualities. On
+thinning for the priming coat, one pint of turpentine was added
+to each gallon of paint. For the second coat, one-half pint
+turpentine and one-half pint refined linseed oil were added to
+each gallon. For the third coat work, reduction was made with
+one pint of refined linseed oil.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of formulas 31 to 37, reductions were the same,
+except that a series of specially prepared wood turpentines were
+used in place of the pure gum spirits used in formulas 1 to 31.</p>
+
+<p>Formulas 38 to 41, as will be shown, were ground in equal
+parts of the oils tested. These formulas, however, were all
+thinned for application with pure gum spirits of turpentine,
+and the respective vehicle in which they were ground.</p>
+
+<p>No inspection of the Tennessee Test Fence has yet been made.
+The formulas tested are as follows:</p>
+
+<h5>FORMULAS FOR SOUTHERN TEST FENCE</h5>
+
+<p class="center fsize80"><span class="smcap">Vehicle</span>: <i>Bleached Linseed Oil with Lead and Manganese Linoleate Drier</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table P 204">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center">For-<br />mula<br />No.</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center">1</td>
+<td class="left"><a href="#Footnote_1_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a>Corroded white lead</td>
+<td class="right">100%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center">2</td>
+<td class="left"><a href="#Footnote_1_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a>Sublimed white lead</td>
+<td class="right">100%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center">3</td>
+<td class="left">Zinc oxide XX</td>
+<td class="right">100%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center">4</td>
+<td class="left">Zinc lead white</td>
+<td class="right">100%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center">5</td>
+<td class="left padr2">Leaded zinc 65%, corroded white lead</td>
+<td class="right">35%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center">6</td>
+<td class="left"><a href="#Footnote_1_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a>Corroded white lead</td>
+<td class="right">100%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center">7</td>
+<td class="left"><a href="#Footnote_1_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a>Corroded white lead</td>
+<td class="right">100%</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_27" id="Footnote_1_27"></a><span class="label">[27]</span> Corroded White
+Lead is the Basic Carbonate of Lead. Sublimed White
+Lead is the Basic Sulphate of Lead.</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table P. 205-206">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Corroded white lead</td>
+<td class="right">85%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Zinc oxide</td>
+<td class="right">15%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td >&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right bt">100%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr4">Corroded white lead</td>
+<td class="right">65%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Zinc oxide</td>
+<td class="right">35%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right bt">100%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Corroded white lead</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Zinc oxide</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right bt">100%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Corroded white lead</td>
+<td class="right">40%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Zinc oxide</td>
+<td class="right">60%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right bt">100%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Corroded white lead</td>
+<td class="right">30%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Zinc oxide</td>
+<td class="right">70%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right bt">100%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Corroded white lead</td>
+<td class="right">45%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Zinc oxide</td>
+<td class="right">45%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Silica</td>
+<td class="right">10%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right bt">100%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Corroded white lead</td>
+<td class="right">45%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Zinc oxide</td>
+<td class="right">45%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Asbestine</td>
+<td class="right">10%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right bt">100%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Corroded white lead</td>
+<td class="right">45%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Zinc oxide</td>
+<td class="right">45%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">China clay</td>
+<td class="right">10%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right bt">100%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Corroded white lead</td>
+<td class="right">45%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Zinc oxide</td>
+<td class="right">45%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Barytes</td>
+<td class="right">10%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right bt">100%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Corroded white lead</td>
+<td class="right">45%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Zinc oxide</td>
+<td class="right">40%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Silica</td>
+<td class="right">15%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right bt">100%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Corroded white lead</td>
+<td class="right">45%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Zinc oxide</td>
+<td class="right">40%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Asbestine</td>
+<td class="right">15%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right bt">100%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Corroded white lead</td>
+<td class="right">45%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Zinc oxide</td>
+<td class="right">40%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Barytes</td>
+<td class="right">15%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right bt">100%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sublimed white lead</td>
+<td class="right">45%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Zinc oxide</td>
+<td class="right">40%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Silica</td>
+<td class="right">15%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right bt">100%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sublimed white lead</td>
+<td class="right">45%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Zinc oxide</td>
+<td class="right">40%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Asbestine</td>
+<td class="right">15%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right bt">100%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sublimed white lead</td>
+<td class="right">45%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Zinc oxide</td>
+<td class="right">40%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Barytes</td>
+<td class="right">15%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right bt">100%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Zinc oxide</td>
+<td class="right">90%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Calcium carbonate</td>
+<td class="right">10%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right bt">100%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sublimed white lead</td>
+<td class="right">40%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Zinc oxide</td>
+<td class="right">45%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Calcium carbonate</td>
+<td class="right">15%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right bt">100%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Corroded white lead</td>
+<td class="right">35%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Zinc oxide</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Silica</td>
+<td class="right">15%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right bt">100%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Corroded white lead</td>
+<td class="right">20%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sublimed white lead</td>
+<td class="right">30%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Zinc oxide</td>
+<td class="right">40%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Asbestine</td>
+<td class="right">10%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right bt">100%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 27<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 1em;"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Corroded white lead</td>
+<td class="right">20%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sublimed white lead</td>
+<td class="right">20%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Zinc oxide</td>
+<td class="right">40%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Barytes</td>
+<td class="right">10%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Asbestine</td>
+<td class="right">10%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right bt">100%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Corroded white lead</td>
+<td class="right">20%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sublimed white lead</td>
+<td class="right">20%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Zinc oxide</td>
+<td class="right">40%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Calcium carbonate</td>
+<td class="right">10%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Silica</td>
+<td class="right">10%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right bt">100%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Sublimed white lead</td>
+<td class="right">20%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Corroded white lead</td>
+<td class="right">20%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Zinc oxide</td>
+<td class="right">30%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Barytes</td>
+<td class="right">10%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Asbestine</td>
+<td class="right">10%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Calcium carbonate</td>
+<td class="right">10%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right bt">100%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Corroded white lead</td>
+<td class="right">33%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Zinc oxide</td>
+<td class="right">33%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Barytes</td>
+<td class="right">33%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right bt">99%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 31</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Corroded white lead</td>
+<td class="right">45%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Zinc oxide</td>
+<td class="right">45%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Asbestine</td>
+<td class="right">5%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Calcium carbonate</td>
+<td class="right">5%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right bt">100%</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table P. 206 bottom">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center">For-<br />mula<br />No.</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center">32.</td>
+<td class="left">Same as No. 31 but thinned with wood turpentine No. 1.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center">33.</td>
+<td class="left">Same as No. 31 but thinned with wood turpentine No. 2.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center">34.</td>
+<td class="left">Same as No. 31 but thinned with wood turpentine No. 3.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center">35.</td>
+<td class="left">Same as No. 31 but thinned with wood turpentine No. 4.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center">36.</td>
+<td class="left">Same as No. 31 but thinned with wood turpentine No. 5.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center">37.</td>
+<td class="left">Same as No. 31 but thinned with high-boiling-point petroleum spirits (turpentine substitute).</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center">38.</td>
+<td class="left">Same as No. 31 but ground in 50% raw linseed oil, 50% soya bean oil.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center">39.</td>
+<td class="left">Same as No. 31 but ground in 50% raw linseed oil, 50% corn oil.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center">40.</td>
+<td class="left">Same as No. 31 but ground in 50% raw linseed oil, 50% cotton seed oil.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center">41.</td>
+<td class="left">Same as No. 31 but ground in 50% raw linseed oil, 50% rosin oil.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center">42.</td>
+<td class="left">Same as No. 31 but ground in 50% raw linseed oil, 50% pine oil.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></p>
+<h2><a name="Ch14" id="Ch14"></a>CHAPTER XIV</h2>
+
+<h3>WASHINGTON PAINT TESTS</h3>
+
+
+<p>The new vehicle test fence at Washington is fully described
+in the writer&#8217;s paper<a name="FNanchor_1_28" id="FNanchor_1_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a>
+as presented before the American Society
+for Testing Materials, as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_28" id="Footnote_1_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_28"><span
+class="label">[28]</span></a> The Practical Testing of Drying and Semi-Drying Paint Oils, by Henry
+A. Gardner. Paper presented at Fourteenth Annual Meeting, Amer. Soc.
+for Test. Mater., Atlantic City, N.J., June, 1911.</p></div>
+
+<p>&#8220;The high price attained by linseed oil during the past two
+years of over a dollar a gallon, together with the unusual scarcity
+of this valuable oil, has led many investigators into the field of
+research, with a view of discovering some mixture of other oils to
+partly replace linseed oil. Many valuable contributions to oil
+technology have resulted, but the makers and users of paints have
+wisely demanded specific and authoritative information as to the
+practical value of proposed mixtures before adopting them. The
+Institute of Industrial Research, at the request of the Paint
+Manufacturers&#8217; Association of the United States, has recently
+started a series of practical paint vehicle tests designed to decide
+the question at issue.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Forty-eight white-pine panels have been placed upon a test
+frame on the grounds of the new laboratory building of the Institute,
+at Washington, D. C. They are painted with a standard
+white pigment formula reduced with a different oil formula for
+every panel. White-pine panels were selected for the test on
+account of the good painting surface which this type of lumber
+presents; the grade selected was free from knots or pitch pockets&mdash;defects
+which often ruin a paint test. Each panel was constructed
+of four tongued-and-grooved planed boards, 22 inches
+long, 1 inch thick, and 9 inches wide. The boards were leaded
+together and capped at the sides with weather strips, making the
+finished panels about 2 feet wide and 3 feet high. The fence
+upon which the panels were placed was constructed of 4-inch
+squared yellow pine with open framework, allowing the panels<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span>
+a resting place upon which they were finally secured with sherardized
+screws.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Before erecting the panels, they were carefully painted in a
+paint laboratory especially fitted out for the tests. The work
+was done during the months of April and May, the temperature
+averaging from 60 degrees to 90 degrees Fahrenheit. This
+precaution was taken in order that the paint in each case might
+become thoroughly dry and hard before exposure, so that there
+would be no accumulation of dust or effect from exposure during
+the drying period. The actual painting of each panel was done
+personally by Mr. Charles Macnichol, master painter, of Washington,
+D. C., who has had a wide experience in the practical
+application and testing of paints.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo219.jpg" alt="Washington Test Fence" width="500" height="296" />
+<p class="caption">View of Panels on Washington Test Fence</p></div>
+
+<p>&#8220;The viscous nature of several of the oils tested precluded
+the possibility of grinding each oil formula with the white pigment
+base selected; great heating of the paint mills and a paste of
+insufficient fineness was the result of an early attempt at this
+method. It was decided, therefore, to grind the standard pigment
+formula to a thick paste in the minimum amount of raw
+linseed oil. Subsequently a weighed amount of the white pigment
+base was thinned with the oil formula to be tested, to a
+standard viscosity, judged by the experienced master painter
+in charge of the practical application of the formulas as sufficiently
+heavy for third-coat work. When making the reductions with
+oil mixtures, an allowance was made for the amount of linseed
+oil already contained in the ground white pigment base.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;During the application of the first coat an equal amount of
+turpentine was added to each formula, in the proportion of one-half<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>
+pint to a gallon of paint; in the application of the second
+coat there was added to each formula a like amount of an equal
+mixture of turpentine and the oil formula under test. The
+third coat was applied without the addition of thinners of any
+kind.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It is well known that the time of drying and the condition of
+the dried film of any oil or mixture of drying or semi-drying oils
+will vary widely. It is for the purpose of causing oils to set up
+to a hard film in a short time that metallic driers in the form of
+salts of manganese and lead, soluble in oil, are added to a paint.
+Some oils require a large amount of drier, while others require
+only a very small amount. Those which require a large amount
+are apt, upon exposure, to be burned up by the drier, resulting
+in the formation of a powdered and disintegrated film. To add
+various types of drier or even differing amounts of a drier to the
+oils under test, seemed very unfair from every standpoint, and
+it was therefore decided to eliminate the drier question entirely,
+so as not to vitiate the results by bringing in a factor of this
+nature. The plan of omitting driers proved successful in the
+Atlantic City steel-panel paint tests, erected three years ago by
+the writer under the supervision of Committee A-5 of this
+Society.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The systematic methods which are necessary when making
+paint tests were carefully followed. A standard weighed amount
+of white pigment paste was placed in a clean paint cup and
+thinned to the proper consistency with a weighed amount of the
+oil under test. Proper reductions were made, as before stated.
+Weighings of the paint, cup, and brush were made before and
+after application to the panel, in order to determine the quantity
+of paint used and the spreading power. A period of fifteen days
+was allowed between the application of successive coats, in order
+to give each formula sufficient time to dry thoroughly. Although
+several of the formulas remained tacky for over a week, all dried
+thoroughly in the time allotted. (Oils which when used alone
+have slow drying properties, have been found to yield good firm
+films when used with drying pigments such as lead and zinc.)
+The backs and edges of each panel were painted with two coats
+of the paint used on the face of the panel, so as to prevent the
+admission of moisture. After erection, the panels were numbered
+with aluminum figures pressed into the surface. Frequent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span>
+inspections will be made, and at the proper time reports will
+be issued giving the results of the tests.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;During the painting of the panels considerable interesting
+data were collected, of which the following is a brief r&eacute;sum&eacute;:</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The hiding power of a paint is one of its most important
+requisites. It was found in the tests that some oils had the effect
+of lessening, while others had the effect of increasing the hiding
+power of the standard pigment formula. This may be due in
+part to the varying refractive indices of the oils used, as well as
+to the difference in the quantity of oil required in each test.
+Some oils were very viscous, while others were very light.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The stiff working of heavy-bodied, blown, or heat-oxidized
+oils, produced films which in some cases gave a very glossy surface,
+even on the priming coat. Some of these resembled varnished
+work when finished. It will be of importance to watch
+these tests carefully for any signs of early breakdown, which
+might come from too thick a film. The treated Chinese wood
+oil paints worked rather stiff but produced very smooth films.
+The rosin oil paints became slightly lumpy on standing, but
+worked out to a smooth finish somewhat yellowish in color.
+The marine animal oils, especially the menhaden oil mixtures,
+dried to a film slightly flatter than straight linseed oil. Any
+odor which was present in the paints made from the animal oils
+seemed to disappear a few hours after application. The cotton
+seed and corn oil mixtures made the slowest drying paints, but
+at the end of the second week of the drying period they set up
+rapidly to firm films. Soya bean and perilla oils behaved like
+straight linseed oil, the former being a little slower and the latter
+slightly more rapid in drying properties. The perilla oil was
+made from one of the first importations into this country, and
+was dark in appearance. It made, however, a very easy-working
+and hard-drying paint.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The oils used in the tests were obtained from reliable sources.
+After they were received, they were carefully analyzed. The
+results of the analyses appear in <a href="#Tab14_1">Table 1</a>.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></p>
+
+<h5><a name="Tab14_1" id="Tab14_1"></a><span class="smcap">Table 1. Analyses of Oils Used in the Vehicle Tests</span></h5>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table P 211 top">
+
+<tr class="bt2 bb">
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br center padr1 padl1">Specific<br />Gravity</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br center padr1 padl1">Saponifi-<br />cation<br />Number</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br center padr1 padl1">Iodine<br />Number</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center padr1 padl1">Acid<br />Number</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br">Raw&nbsp;linseed&nbsp;oil</td>
+<td class="right padr0 padl2">0.93</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td class="right">188</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">186</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">2.0</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br padr1">Boiled&nbsp;linseed&nbsp;oil&nbsp;(linoleate&nbsp;type)</td>
+<td class="right padr0">0.94</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td class="right">187</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">172</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">2.7</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br">Boiled&nbsp;linseed&nbsp;oil&nbsp;(resinate&nbsp;type)</td>
+<td class="right padr0">0.93</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td class="right">186</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">176</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">2.2</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br">Blown&nbsp;linseed&nbsp;oil</td>
+<td class="right padr0">0.96</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8</td>
+<td class="right">189</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">133</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">2.8</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br">Lithographic&nbsp;linseed&nbsp;oil</td>
+<td class="right padr0">0.97</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">0</td>
+<td class="right">199</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">102</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">2.7</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br">Soya&nbsp;bean&nbsp;oil</td>
+<td class="right padr0">0.92</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td class="right">189</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">129</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">2.3</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br">Menhaden&nbsp;oil</td>
+<td class="right padr0">0.93</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">2</td>
+<td class="right">187</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">158</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">3.9</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br">Perilla&nbsp;oil</td>
+<td class="right padr0">0.94</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">188</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">180</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">2.0</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br">Chinese&nbsp;wood&nbsp;oil&nbsp;(raw)</td>
+<td class="right padr0">0.94</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td class="right">183</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">166</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">3.8</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br">Chinese&nbsp;wood&nbsp;oil&nbsp;(treated)<a name="FNanchor_1_29" id="FNanchor_1_29"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_1_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></td>
+<td class="right padr0">0.89</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">8<a href="#Footnote_1_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></td>
+<td class="right">128</td>
+<td class="left br padl0"><a href="#Footnote_1_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></td>
+<td class="right">104</td>
+<td class="left br padl0"><a href="#Footnote_1_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></td>
+<td class="right">6.8</td>
+<td class="left padl0"><a href="#Footnote_1_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br">Corn&nbsp;oil</td>
+<td class="right padr0">0.92</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">5</td>
+<td class="right">191</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">118</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9.5</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br">Cottonseed&nbsp;oil</td>
+<td class="right padr0">0.92</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">1</td>
+<td class="right">193</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">105</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">3.6</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br">Rosin&nbsp;oil</td>
+<td class="right padr0">0.96</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td class="right">27</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">41</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">16.7</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left br">Whale&nbsp;oil</td>
+<td class="right padr0">0.92</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">4</td>
+<td class="right">191</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">148</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center">&mdash;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb2">
+<td class="left br">Neutral&nbsp;petroleum&nbsp;oil<a name="FNanchor_2_30" id="FNanchor_2_30"></a><a
+href="#Footnote_2_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></td>
+<td class="right padr0">0.91</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">6</td>
+<td class="right">6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">12</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center">&mdash;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_29" id="Footnote_1_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Low
+constants due to presence of over 40% of volatile matter, largely
+petroleum spirits.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_30" id="Footnote_2_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_30"><span
+class="label">[30]</span></a> This oil contained over 20% of petroleum spirits.</p></div>
+
+<p>&#8220;The pigment formula selected for the tests had the following
+composition:</p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table P 211 middle">
+
+<tr>
+<td style="width: 5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padr2">Basic carbonate-white lead</td>
+<td class="right">20%</td>
+<td style="width: 5em;">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Zinc oxide</td>
+<td class="right">35%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Magnesium silicate</td>
+<td class="right">10%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Barytes</td>
+<td class="right">5%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">100 lbs. of pigment base ground to a stiff paste in 16 lbs. of linseed oil.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>&#8220;While this pigment formula was not selected as being superior to
+certain other formulas, it is of a type that has given very fair service
+in paint tests throughout the country, and will no doubt
+serve admirably for the purpose designed in these tests.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The vehicle formulas in the finished paints are as follows:</p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table P 211-213">
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 1</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td style="width: 3em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">100%</td>
+<td style="width: 3em;">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 2<a name="FNanchor_1_31" id="FNanchor_1_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Soya bean oil</td>
+<td class="right">100%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 3<a name="FNanchor_2_32" id="FNanchor_2_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Menhaden oil</td>
+<td class="right">100%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 4</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padr2">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Boiled linseed oil (resinate)</td>
+<td class="right">75%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 5</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Boiled linseed oil (linoleate)</td>
+<td class="right">75%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 6</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Boiled linseed oil (resinate)</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 7</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Boiled linseed oil (linoleate)</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 8<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 1em;"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span></td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Blown linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 9</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Litho. linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 10</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Soya bean oil</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 11</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Menhaden oil</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 12</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Perilla oil</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 13</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Treated wood oil</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 14</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Corn oil</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 15</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Cottonseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 16</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Rosin oil</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 17</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Whale oil</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 18</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">75%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Soya bean oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 19</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">75%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Menhaden oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 20</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">75%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Perilla oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 21</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">75%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Treated wood oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 22</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">75%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Corn oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 23</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">75%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Cottonseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 24</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">75%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Rosin oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 25</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Soya bean oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Menhaden oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 26</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Soya bean oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Treated wood oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 27</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Blown linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Soya bean oil</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 28</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Soya bean oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Menhaden oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Treated wood oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 29</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Soya bean oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Menhaden oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Corn oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 30</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Soya bean oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Menhaden oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Cottonseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 31</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Soya bean oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Menhaden oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Rosin oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 32</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Soya bean oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Treated wood oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Rosin oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 33</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">20%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Soya bean oil</td>
+<td class="right">20%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Treated wood oil</td>
+<td class="right">20%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Menhaden oil</td>
+<td class="right">20%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Cottonseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">20%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 34<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 1em;"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span></td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">20%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Soya bean oil</td>
+<td class="right">20%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Treated wood oil</td>
+<td class="right">20%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Menhaden oil</td>
+<td class="right">20%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Rosin oil</td>
+<td class="right">20%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 35</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">40%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Soya bean oil</td>
+<td class="right">20%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Corn oil</td>
+<td class="right">20%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Cottonseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">20%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 36</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Whale oil</td>
+<td class="right">33%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Treated wood oil</td>
+<td class="right">33%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">33%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 37</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">L. O.<a name="FNanchor_1_33" id="FNanchor_1_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></td>
+<td class="right">75%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 38</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw Chinese wood oil</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 39</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">75%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Reducing oil<a name="FNanchor_2_34" id="FNanchor_2_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 40</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Soya bean oil</td>
+<td class="right">35%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Neutral petroleum oil</td>
+<td class="right">15%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 41</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Soya bean oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Neutral petroleum oil</td>
+<td class="right">15%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Tungate drier</td>
+<td class="right">10%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 42</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Soya bean oil</td>
+<td class="right">37%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Neutral petroleum oil</td>
+<td class="right">23%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Tungate drier</td>
+<td class="right">15%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 43</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Raw linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Soya bean oil</td>
+<td class="right">37%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Whale oil</td>
+<td class="right">19%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Tungate drier</td>
+<td class="right">19%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 44</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">Special test on white base of the following composition, in pure linseed oil:</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Asbestine</td>
+<td class="right">10%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padr2">Corroded white lead</td>
+<td class="right">20%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Sublimed white lead</td>
+<td class="right">30%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Zinc oxide</td>
+<td class="right">40%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="left">Upper board of panel reduced with straight turpentine on priming coat.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="left">Second board of panel reduced with wood turpentine on priming coat.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="left">Third board of panel reduced with pine oil on priming coat.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="left">Bottom board of panel reduced with petroleum spirits on priming coat.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 45</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Same pigment formula as No. 44, reduced with:</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Pine oil</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padr2">Linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 46</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="center">Special test of white base of the following composition, in pure linseed oil:</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padr2">Corroded white lead</td>
+<td class="right">20%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Sublimed white lead</td>
+<td class="right">30%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Zinc oxide</td>
+<td class="right">35%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Asbestine</td>
+<td class="right">15%</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 47</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">Cypress panel unpainted.</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center">No. 48</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="left">Cypress panel painted with formula No. 1, thinned with benzol on the
+priming coat.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_31" id="Footnote_1_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_31"><span
+class="label">[31]</span></a> Dry pigment formula in soya bean oil.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_32" id="Footnote_2_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_32"><span
+class="label">[32]</span></a> Dry pigment formula in menhaden oil.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_33" id="Footnote_1_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_33"><span
+class="label">[33]</span></a> Mixture of boiled tung and soya bean oil, thinned with petroleum and
+turpentine.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_2_34" id="Footnote_2_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_34"><span
+class="label">[34]</span></a><table style="margin-left: 0; margin-top: 0;" summary="Footnote 34">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+<td class="left padl2">raw linseed oil.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right">73%</td>
+<td class="left padl2">petroleum oil.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right">2%</td>
+<td class="left padl2">drier&mdash;lead and manganese linoleate.&#8221;</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></p>
+<h2><a name="Ch15" id="Ch15"></a>CHAPTER XV</h2>
+
+<h3>CEMENT AND CONCRETE PAINT TESTS</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>Damp-proofing and Waterproofing.</b> The decoration and
+preservation of cement and concrete is a subject which is being
+given the careful consideration of many technologists on account
+of the wide usage of cement for structural purposes, and the
+necessity of properly guarding it against the destructive effects
+of moisture.</p>
+
+<p>To obtain with various paints decorative effects, and, at the
+same time, provide a high degree of damp-proofing, is a process
+quite distinct from that of water-proofing cement and concrete
+superstructures. The use, in small percentage, of stearic acid
+solutions, aluminum stearate, marine animal soaps, and other
+lime-reacting materials, as a component of concrete while it is
+being mixed, has been in practice for some time, the resulting
+mixture being used largely upon base-work subjected to water
+under high pressure. Although some of the materials used for
+such purposes actually do give to the concrete a high power of
+water resistance, the degree of waterproofing to be obtained
+through the use of many such compounds varies to a wide
+extent, often interfering with the lime-silica reactions, and ultimately
+affecting the strength of the finished concrete.</p>
+
+<p><b>Decorative and Preservative Coatings.</b> The necessity of
+obtaining suitable paint coatings for cement and concrete surfaces
+suggested to the writer a series of tests on paints designed
+to prevent the destructive action of the lime which, by seepage
+and other physical action, is brought to the surface, causing
+saponification of some oil coatings, as well as destruction of color.
+The tests referred to were carried out during 1908, and although
+great advances have been made since that time in the preparation
+of concrete paints, the tests have, nevertheless, afforded information
+of a valuable nature as indicating the proper methods to
+follow in the painting of cement, as well as suitable materials to
+use in the manufacture of cement paints. The tests, moreover,
+show the comparative durability of a number of paints typical of
+those prominent in the market at the time the tests were started.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo226.jpg" alt="Concrete Paint Test Panels" width="500" height="255" />
+<p class="caption">View of Concrete Paint Test Panels</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span><b>Acid Reacting Compounds.</b> A series of acid reacting washes
+were included in the tests, having been designed as prime coaters
+for use previous to the application of oil paints. The application
+of many of these washes has the effect of neutralizing the lime
+within cement and concrete surfaces, and often precipitate insoluble
+lime compounds which aid in filling up the outer voids,
+thus presenting a surface more suitable to receive oil coatings.
+To the writer who has since made a careful study of the painting
+of concrete, it would seem advisable for painters to avoid, when
+possible, the use of these lime neutralizing washes, as some of
+them have more or less disintegrating and weakening influences
+upon concrete. Recent laboratory experiments, however, have
+indicated that zinc sulphate, an acid reacting material used for
+many years as a wash for concrete surfaces by Macnichol, actually
+has a strengthening effect upon cement and concrete surfaces.
+The more successful coatings of to-day, however, are those which
+may be placed directly upon the cement and concrete surfaces
+without the aid of such washes. Several fairly successful paints
+of this type have recently appeared in the market; some of them
+being made of acid rosins compounded with vegetable oils.
+Probably one of the first mixtures of this sort was the so-called
+suction varnish which the master painter has for years used as
+a prime coating on plastered walls previous to painting. These
+suction varnishes generally contain a high percentage of rosin,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span>
+a material having an exceptionally high acid value and thus
+lending itself successfully to the neutralization of free lime.
+It has been claimed, however, by certain practical painters that
+the lime-rosin compounds formed when such paints are applied
+to the exterior of buildings, are of a brittle nature and subject
+to early failure. If this is true, it would seem advisable to use
+in a concrete paint an oil of a relatively unsaponifiable nature,
+which would withstand successfully the action of the lime, and,
+at the same time, prevent disruption of the coating and failure
+of the color used in the paint.</p>
+
+<p><b>Outline of Tests.</b> The tests referred to as carried out by the
+writer were made on a brick wall forty feet long, surface-coated
+with a four-inch coating of Portland cement mortar made of one
+part of Portland cement and three parts of sharp, clean sand.
+After the cement had hardened for three days, the solutions under
+test were applied.</p>
+
+<p>In many of the tests outlined above, one-coat, as well as two-coat
+work, was used on different sections of the test surfaces.
+It was shown that the two-coat work gave far better results than
+with the one-coat work, and the writer would recommend for
+the painting of concrete at least two-coat work. Whenever
+paints containing Prussian blue or chrome green are applied to
+concrete surfaces, immediate whitening in the case of the blue,
+and yellowing in the case of the green, will take place, if any
+degree of action has been exerted by the lime within the concrete.
+For this reason, green is an especially delicate color to
+test and should be utilized for this purpose.</p>
+
+<p>The materials used, and the results shown at an inspection
+made after two years&#8217; exposure, are given herewith.</p>
+
+<p><b>Test No. 1.</b> Concrete primed with a 25% solution of zinc
+sulphate crystals dissolved in water. A wide brush was used
+for the application, and the spreading rate was approximately
+200 square feet per gallon. Second and third coated on the
+second day with No. 119 blue paint of the following composition:</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">No. 119 Blue Paint</span></p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table P 216">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr2">Sublimed white lead</td>
+<td class="right">50%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Zinc oxide</td>
+<td class="right">35%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Silica and barytes</td>
+<td class="right">12%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Prussian blue</td>
+<td class="right">3%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Ground in linseed oil, turpentine and drier.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span>This panel,
+after three years&#8217; exposure, is in good condition.
+Slight checking observed.</p>
+
+<p><b>Test No. 2.</b> Concrete primed with a 20% solution of (alum)
+(aluminum sulphate). Second and third coated with No. 119
+blue.</p>
+
+<p>In similar condition to Test No. 1.</p>
+
+<p><b>Test No. 3.</b> Concrete primed with zinc sulphate followed by
+two coats of para red.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Para Red Formula</span></p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table P 217 top">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Blanc fixe</td>
+<td class="right">60%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Whiting</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Zinc oxide</td>
+<td class="right">3%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr2">Paranitraniline lake</td>
+<td class="right">12%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Ground in linseed oil, turpentine and drier.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+
+<p>Panel in fair condition with exception of slight crazing. Characteristic
+dullness of color after exposure shown. Bright red
+color restored upon washing.</p>
+
+<p><b>Test No. 4.</b> Concrete primed with an 8% solution of stearic
+acid and rosin dissolved in benzine. Second and third coated
+with No. 119 blue.</p>
+
+<p>This panel is not in as good condition as Tests Nos. 1 and 2,
+and would indicate the inferiority of the priming liquid used.
+Color failing in spots and checking observed.</p>
+
+<p><b>Test No. 5.</b> Concrete primed with mixture used in Test No.
+4, and then given two coats of para red.</p>
+
+<p>Test is in about the same condition as No. 4.</p>
+
+<p><b>Test No. 6.</b> Concrete primed with a 10% mixture of acid
+calcium phosphate, followed with two coats of No. 119 blue.</p>
+
+<p>The acid phosphate solution evidently had a neutralizing
+effect upon the lime in the concrete, as the paint is in fair condition.</p>
+
+<p><b>Test No. 7.</b> Concrete primed with one coat of a soap emulsion
+of the following composition, then painted with two coats of No.
+119 blue.</p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table P 217 bottom">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Water</td>
+<td class="right">85%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr2">Linseed oil</td>
+<td class="right">12%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Alkali</td>
+<td class="right">3%</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>Very poor results obtained. Destruction of color and peeling
+resulted.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span><b>Test No. 8.</b> Concrete primed with one coat of white paint
+of the following composition:</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Primer</span></p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table P 218 top">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Zinc oxide</td>
+<td class="right">25%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Silica</td>
+<td class="right">35%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr2">Corroded white lead</td>
+<td class="right">20%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Gypsum</td>
+<td class="right">15%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Whiting, etc.</td>
+<td class="right">5%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Ground in a vehicle of linseed oil and containing<br />35% of volatile hydrocarbon
+spirits and drier.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+
+<p>This coat was followed by one of the following composition,
+tinted blue:</p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table P 218 middle top">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr2">Zinc oxide</td>
+<td class="right">60%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Gypsum</td>
+<td class="right">20%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Silica</td>
+<td class="right">20%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Ground in linseed oil with 12%<br />of turpentine and drier.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>Fair results shown during first year, but a breakdown occurred
+during the second year, and cracking and scaling resulted.</p>
+
+<p><b>Test No. 9.</b> This test was a duplicate of No. 8 with the
+addition of 5% of zinc sulphate solution emulsified into the
+primer.</p>
+
+<p>Slightly superior to Test No. 8.</p>
+
+<p><b>Test No. 10.</b> Primed with a white paste paint thinned with
+turpentine. Second coated with same paint tinted blue.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Formula of Paste</span></p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table P 128 middle bottom">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Zinc oxide</td>
+<td class="right">40%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Whiting</td>
+<td class="right">30%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Silica</td>
+<td class="right">20%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Alumina and gypsum</td>
+<td class="right">10%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Ground in 16% of linseed oil<br />vehicle.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>Scaling and peeling due to lack of binder and use of saponifiable
+oil resulted during the first six months&#8217; exposure. Entire
+destruction of coating at end of two years.</p>
+
+<p><b>Test No. 11.</b> Primed with a white mixture, and second coated
+with the same mixture tinted blue.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Formula of Mixture</span></p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table P 128 bottom">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Whiting</td>
+<td class="right">30%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Silica</td>
+<td class="right">30%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left">Zinc oxide</td>
+<td class="right">40%</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Stirred into a 5% solution of<br />glue in water, until a fairly<br />thick paste was
+obtained.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>Much chalking was shown, and a bleaching of color. It is
+evident that this mixture would not serve to keep moisture out.</p>
+
+<p><b>Test No. 12 A.</b> Primed with a 5% solution of soluble nitrated
+cotton and paraffin dissolved in equal parts of amyl acetate
+and benzine. Second coated with No. 119 blue.</p>
+
+<p>Not very good results were obtained, chalking and slight
+scaling resulting.</p>
+
+<p><b>Test No. 12 B.</b> Primed with a heavy varnish containing
+Chinese wood oil and kauri gum. Second coated with No. 119
+blue.</p>
+
+<p>Fair results obtained.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tests Nos. 13, 14, 15, and 16.</b> Primed with a solution made
+by dissolving 10 parts of sodium oxalate in 100 parts of water.
+Second and third coated with linseed oil paints in red, brown,
+blue, and green.</p>
+
+<p>Very good results shown at end of test.</p>
+
+<p><b>Test No. 20, Special.</b> Primed and second coated with a green
+paint containing zinc oxide and barytes, ground in an oil having
+a low saponification value. Very slow drying was shown.
+Excellent results. No failure of color. Extremely glossy,
+waterproof surface presented.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></p>
+<h2><a name="Ch16" id="Ch16"></a>CHAPTER XVI</h2>
+
+<h3>STRUCTURAL STEEL PAINT TESTS</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>The Necessity of Protective Coatings.</b> Most painters have
+in the past considered of minor importance the painting of iron
+and steel; any paint that would properly hide the surface of the
+metal being accepted without much question. The demand,
+however, for structural steel for office buildings, factories, steel
+cars, railroad equipment, etc., has doubled the output of structural
+paints, and created a demand for painters having a knowledge
+of the proper materials to use in the painting of steel, so
+that its life may be preserved, and its strength maintained.
+Such knowledge is as important to the painter as a knowledge
+of how to properly select materials for the painting of wood, and
+how to temper these materials to suit the various conditions met
+with.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Cause of Rust.</b> Everyone is familiar with the appearance
+of rust, but few actually understand what causes rust. No
+attempt will be made here to present even an outline of the many
+theories advanced to explain the phenomenon of the rusting of
+iron, for the subject is as diverse as it is interesting. A brief
+r&eacute;sum&eacute;, however, will be given of the now generally accepted
+theory that explains the subject. This theory is called the electrolytic
+theory. &#8220;Auto-electrolysis&#8221; is the term used to define
+the peculiar tendency of iron to be transformed from a metal
+possessing a hard lustrous surface, high tensile strength, and
+other useful properties, to a crumbling oxide that falls to the
+ground and again becomes part of the earth from which it was
+originally taken by man.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo232.jpg" alt="Steel Test Fences" width="500" height="201" />
+<p class="caption">A Side View of Steel Test Fences</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span>This
+&#8220;going back to nature&#8221; is more readily accomplished
+by most of the steel produced to-day than by the old hand-made
+irons produced many years ago. It seems to be a curious fact
+that the more quickly a product or an article is fashioned by
+man, the more quickly it tends to return again to its original
+oxidized condition. Some manufacturers of steel, however,
+through an understanding of the causes of rust, have progressed
+in the manufacture of slow rusting materials, either by the
+elimination, or by the proper distribution of impurities.</p>
+
+<p>When iron is brought into contact
+with moisture, currents of
+electricity flow over the surface of
+the iron between points that are
+relatively pure and points that
+contain impurities. These currents
+stimulate the natural tendency of
+the iron to go into solution, and
+the solution proceeds with vigor
+at the positive points. The air
+which the water contains oxidizes
+the iron which has gone into solution,
+and precipitates the familiar
+brown iron rust. Thus water,
+which acts as an acid, and air,
+which acts as an oxidizer, have
+combined together to accomplish
+the downfall of the metal.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo233.jpg"
+alt="Micro Photos of Corroding Steel" width="300" height="917" />
+<p class="caption">Three Photomicrographs of Corroding Steel</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Inhibition and Stimulation of
+Rust.</b> It is obvious that if means
+could be devised to stop the solution
+pressure of iron and make it
+resistant to the flow of surface
+electric currents, rust could be
+prevented. Such methods have
+been devised, and to better illustrate
+how they operate, an analogy
+may be drawn between iron in
+water and shellac in alcohol.</p>
+
+<p>It is common knowledge that
+when shellac is placed in alcohol,
+the shellac will force itself into
+solution in the alcohol, and form
+a clear, transparent lacquer. If,
+however, there should be mixed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span>
+with the alcohol a quantity of water, it would be found that
+the shellac could no longer go into solution, and it would remain
+in its original condition. In the same way, if there be placed
+in water a small quantity of material, such as soluble chromates,
+or an alkaline substance like caustic soda or lime, it will be found
+that iron will no longer have a tendency to go into solution in
+this treated water, but will stay bright and clean. These materials
+which prevent the rusting of iron have been called by
+Cushman, who first advanced these explanations, &#8220;rust inhibitors,&#8221;
+or materials which inhibit rusting. The paint maker,
+realizing the importance of these rust inhibitors, is incorporating
+them into paints designed for the protection of iron and steel,
+and the success which paints of this type have met with from a
+practical standpoint is a justification of what was first called
+the &#8220;electrolytic theory,&#8221; which suggested their use.</p>
+
+<p>By placing small, brightly polished steel plates into a mush
+of paint pigment and water, a determination may be made of
+the pigment&#8217;s effect upon the metal. Some pigments, under
+such conditions, cause rapid corrosion of the steel plates. Such
+pigments are stimulators of corrosion, on account of acid
+impurities which they contain, or because of their effect in
+stimulating galvanic currents. Many carbonaceous pigments
+are of this type. Other pigments have the effect of keeping
+bright the steel plates and preventing rust. Such pigments
+are of the inhibitive type, and their action is to check or retard
+the solution pressure of the iron.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Effects of Moisture.</b> It might occur to the reader that
+although paint pigments, when mixed up with water and brought
+into contact with the surface of steel, might show either an inhibitive
+or stimulative action, that it is by no means certain that
+the same tendency will be exhibited by pigments when they are
+properly mixed with linseed oil and laid out as a film upon the
+surface of steel. In answer to this, it may be well to state that
+almost no material used by mankind is absolutely dry. Linseed
+oil, as it is pressed from the seed, comes from the cells, carrying
+with it a certain small definite percentage of water, and it is
+quite certain that even the best linseed oil that goes into use is
+not theoretically dry. Everyone knows, of course, that oil and
+water do not readily mix and are, in fact, more or less repellent
+to each other. It is, however, true that, in spite of this, oils can<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span>
+carry quite a percentage of water, without the admixture being
+apparent to the eye. In addition to this, careful experiments
+have proved very conclusively that linseed oil films, even
+after they have oxidized and hardened, have the power to a
+certain extent of absorbing water from the atmosphere. It is,
+therefore, safe to say that no linseed oil film in a paint coating
+is dry all the time. As a matter of fact, there is abundant evidence
+to show that in rainy weather, and, in fact, when the
+humidity in the air is high, paint films have absorbed water.
+As the sun comes out and warms the paint coating, and the
+humidity content of the atmosphere falls, this water to a large
+extent evaporates out of the film, only to be taken up again when
+the weather conditions change. This action may be likened
+to a breathing of the paint film, that is to say, an indrawing of
+water under humid conditions, followed by an exhaling of water
+under dry conditions. With these facts in mind, it must be
+apparent that pigments laid out in intimate contact with the
+surface of steel are subjected at all times either more or less to
+the reactions produced by water contact. Furthermore, as it
+is a property of water to become saturated with the gases of the
+atmosphere, such as oxygen, carbonic and sulphurous acids,
+and other impurities, there is present in a protective paint film
+at all times the elements necessary to carry on the corrosive
+process and reactions.</p>
+
+<p>An outline of Cushman&#8217;s original research work, upon which
+has been based the classification of pigments as inhibitors,
+stimulators, and inerts, is clearly presented in his report<a name="FNanchor_1_35" id="FNanchor_1_35"></a><a
+href="#Footnote_1_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> as
+Chairman of Committee U of the American Society for Testing
+Materials, of which the following is an excerpt:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_35" id="Footnote_1_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_35"><span
+class="label">[35]</span></a> Page 73, 1910 Proceedings of the American Society for Testing Materials.</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo236a.jpg"
+alt="Ferroxyl Tests on Painted Steel" width="500" height="291" />
+<p class="caption">Ferroxyl Tests on Painted Steel Surfaces.
+Upper Row Painted with Stimulative Paints&mdash;Lower
+Row with Inhibitive Paints.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo236b.jpg" alt="Water Test on Painted Plates" width="500" height="399" />
+<p class="caption">Water Test on Plates Painted&mdash;Except in
+Center Spot. Left Hand Plates Painted
+with Stimulative Paints, Right Hand Plates
+Painted with Inhibitive Paints.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo236c.jpg"
+alt="Steel Plates with Stimulative Paints immersed in Ferroxyl Jelly"
+width="500" height="388" />
+<p class="caption">View of Steel Plates Painted with Stimulative
+Paints, after Immersion in Ferroxyl Jelly.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>&#8220;Three
+years ago the suggestion was made in a paper presented
+before the Tenth Annual Meeting of this Society that the
+various types of substances used as pigments in protective coatings
+might exert a stimulative or an inhibitive action on the rate
+and tendency to corrosion of the underlying metal. It was
+further suggested on a theoretical ground that slightly soluble
+chromates should exert a protective action when employed as
+pigments by maintaining the surface of the iron in a passive
+condition in case water and oxygen penetrated the paint film.
+In view also of the well-known fact that alkalies inhibit while
+acids stimulate the corrosion of iron, it was suggested that the
+action of more or less pure pigments on iron in the presence of
+water should be thoroughly investigated. Two years ago this
+Committee invited the co-operation of Committee D-1 (then
+known as Committee E) in the investigation, and a special sub-committee
+representing the two main committees was appointed.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The methods and results of the water-pigment tests have
+previously been reported and published, and need not be given
+in detail. Briefly, the method consisted in immersing samples
+of steel in water suspensions of the various pigments and blowing
+air through the containers for definite periods of time, the corrosion
+being measured by the loss in weight sustained by the test
+pieces. About fifty pigments which are in more or less common
+use for painting steel were purchased in the open market and distributed
+among a number of the members of the Committee,
+who agreed to carry out the work. Each investigator worked
+independently of the others, except that the same general method
+was followed; the time of exposure to the corroding action,
+however, varied in the different experiments. When the results
+were compared and analyzed by the sub-committee, it was felt
+that the general agreement of the results obtained by the several
+investigators was striking and merited further and more systematic
+work. As a result of these tests the sub-committee tentatively
+divided the pigments into inhibitors, stimulators,
+and indeterminates. The word &#8216;indeterminate&#8217; was selected
+after considerable discussion, because the words &#8216;neutral&#8217;
+or &#8216;inert&#8217; already possess a special meaning as applied to paint
+technology. The Committee takes this occasion to emphatically
+state that in adopting this tentative classification, the words
+&#8216;inhibitive&#8217; and &#8217;stimulative&#8217; as used by them up to the
+present time apply only to the results obtained in the water tests,
+and the inference that the results obtained have decided which
+class the pigment will fall into when made into a paint with the
+usual vehicles and used as a protective coating on iron and steel,
+is not justified. In order to make this point quite clear, it has
+been agreed by the Committee to qualify the classification so
+as to speak of the various materials tested as &#8216;water stimulative&#8217;
+or &#8216;water inhibitive.&#8217;&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo238.png"
+alt="Apparatus to Test Inhibitive Value of Pigments" width="500" height="344" />
+<p class="caption">Apparatus for Testing the Inhibitive Value of Pigments</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span><b>Importance
+of Field Tests.</b> Although the laboratory accelerated
+tests for the determination of the relative value of structural
+steel paints afford information of some import, there seems
+to be a general opinion that the best method to follow, if information
+of a reliable character is to be obtained, is to make actual
+field exposure tests upon large surfaces. The results of the above
+described water-pigment tests suggested the erection of a series
+of steel panels on which to test out the same pigments under
+practical service conditions. The Paint Manufacturers&#8217; Association
+of the United States erected and painted the panels, the
+work being under the constant supervision of the writer, and
+the inspection of the work under Committee U of the American
+Society for Testing Materials. A brief r&eacute;sum&eacute; of the work<a name="FNanchor_1_36"
+id="FNanchor_1_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> is
+herewith presented.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_36" id="Footnote_1_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_36"><span
+class="label">[36]</span></a> Page 181, &#8220;Corrosion and Preservation of Iron and Steel&#8221;&mdash;Cushman
+and Gardner&mdash;McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York City.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Pickling and Preparation of Plates.</b> The three types of
+metal<a name="FNanchor_2_37" id="FNanchor_2_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a>
+selected for the test were rolled to billets, the middle of
+which were selected, and worked up into plates 24 inches wide,
+36 inches high, and <span class="enum">1</span>&#8260;<span class="denom">8</span> inch in diameter&mdash;approximately 11
+gauge. A number of plates of each of the metals selected, in all
+450, were pickled in 10% sulphuric acid, kept at 180 to 200 degrees
+Fahrenheit, in order to remove the mill-scale. The plates
+were then washed in water, and later in 10% solution of caustic
+soda. Finally the plates were again washed in water and wiped
+dry. They were then packed in boxes containing dry lime, in
+order to prevent superficial corrosion. By this method the plates
+were secured in perfect condition, the surfaces being smooth and
+free from scale. Upon these pickled plates paints were applied
+with a definite spreading rate of 900 square feet per gallon. The
+unpickled plates, coated with mill-scale, were painted with the
+same paints, but without adopting any special spreading rate,
+thus following more closely the ordinary method of painting
+structural steel. A few extra plates of special Bessemer steel
+and Swedish charcoal iron were also included in the test, some
+of which were painted, while others were exposed without any
+protective coating. Plates of the three types of metal already
+mentioned were also exposed unpainted, both in the black and
+pickled condition.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_37" id="Footnote_2_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_37"><span
+class="label">[37]</span></a> Bessemer Steel, Open Hearth Steel, and Pure Iron.</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo240.jpg" alt="Steel Test Fences" width="500" height="181" />
+<p class="caption">Front View of Steel Test Fences</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Fence Erection and Preparation for Work.</b> The fences which
+were erected for the holding of the plates were constructed of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span>
+yellow pine, the posts being set deeply in the ground and properly
+braced. The framework of the fence was open, with a ledge
+upon the lateral girders, upon which the plates might rest, and
+to which the plates were secured by the use of steel buttons.
+After the framework had been erected, painted, and made ready
+for the placement of the panels, a small shed was built upon the
+ground, and the materials for the field test placed therein. The
+steel plates were unpacked from the boxes in which they were
+shipped, brushed off, and stacked up ready for painting. Small
+benches were erected, and the accessories of the work, such as
+cans, brushes, pots, balances, etc., were placed in position.</p>
+
+<p><b>Methods Followed in Painting Plates.</b> A frame resting upon
+the workbench served to hold the plates in a lateral position
+while being painted, room being allowed beneath the plate for
+the operator to place his hands in order to lift the plates from
+the under surface after the painting had been finished.</p>
+
+<p>A pickled plate having been placed upon the framework
+everything was in readiness for the work. The specific gravity
+and weight per gallon of the paint to be applied was determined,
+and the amount, in grams, to be applied to each individual panel
+was calculated according to the following formula:</p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Formula P 230">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center">Spreading&nbsp;rate</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center">Sq.&nbsp;ft.&nbsp;in&nbsp;plate</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center">Grams&nbsp;paint&nbsp;in&nbsp;gal.</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center">900&nbsp;sq.&nbsp;ft.</td>
+<td class="center padr3 padl3">:</td>
+<td class="center">6</td>
+<td class="center padr3 padl3">::</td>
+<td class="center">5400</td>
+<td>:</td>
+<td class="padl5">x</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>The reciprocal of <i>x</i> being the number of grams of paint to be
+applied to the panels.</p>
+
+<p>An enamel cup was then filled with the paint and a brush
+well stirred within. The cup, paint, and brush were placed
+upon the balances and accurately weighed in grams. After
+most of the paint had been applied to the panel, cross-brushing of
+the panel was continued until the pot with brush and paint
+exactly counterbalanced the deducted weight. The painted
+panel was then set in a rack, in a horizontal position to dry.</p>
+
+<p>A period of eight days elapsed between the drying of each
+coat. The greatest care was taken in the painting of the edges
+of the plates, and the racks for containing the plates after they
+were painted were so constructed that the paint would not be
+abraded while sliding the plates back and forth. The working
+properties of each paint, and the appearance of the surface of
+each plate after painting, were carefully noted and included in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span>
+the report. No reductions were made to any of the paints
+applied except in three cases, where the viscosity was so great
+that it was necessary to add a small amount of pure spirits of
+turpentine. The amount of paint was proportionately increased
+in such cases, so that the evaporation of the turpentine would
+leave upon the plate the amount of paint originally intended.</p>
+
+<p>The appearance of the completed series of test panels is shown
+on <a href="#Page_221">page 221</a>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Vehicles Used and Reasons for Avoidance of Japan Driers.</b>
+The pigments used were selected with the view to securing as
+nearly as possible purity and strength, and as already noted,
+were out of the same lots used in making the preliminary laboratory
+tests on inhibitives. They were ground in a vehicle composed
+of two parts of raw linseed oil and one part of pure boiled
+oil. Paint is generally caused to dry rapidly by the use of japan
+or driers. These materials contain a large amount of metallic
+oxides which might have some effect in either exciting or retarding
+corrosion. To prevent the introduction of such a factor,
+these materials were not used in the test. The boiled oil, with
+its small percentages of metallic oxides, was sufficient, however,
+to cause the paints to dry in a short time after they were spread.</p>
+
+<p><b>Testing Effect of Various Prime Coats.</b> Some of the special
+tests made included a series of plates prime-coated with different
+inhibitive pigments, and these tests were designed to determine
+which pigments offer the best results for such work. These
+plates were all second-coated with the same paint. It is the
+opinion of the authors that any good excluding paint may be
+used whether it be inhibitive in action or not, provided the contact
+coat is inhibitive. If, however, both coats can be designed
+so as to have the maximum possible value from both these points
+of view, the best results would, of course, accrue. The only way
+such data can be obtained is by careful observation of the results
+of exposure tests.</p>
+
+<p><b>Combination Formulas Tested.</b> By selecting a series of pigments
+which in the water tests showed inhibitive tendencies, and
+properly combining these pigments into a paint, it was thought
+possible that a more or less inhibitive paint would be produced.
+If this proved to be the case, it would follow that the selection
+and introduction into a paint of the stimulative pigments would
+inevitably produce a paint unfit for use on iron or steel.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span><b>Data on Application of Paints.</b> The recorded data on the
+application of the paint to the panels is voluminous. There is
+presented herewith, however, the data on two of the paints.</p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table P 232">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="8" class="left"><span class="smcap">No.&nbsp;2,&nbsp;Quick&nbsp;Process&nbsp;White&nbsp;Lead</span>:</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td style="width: 3em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left">Sp.&nbsp;Gr.&nbsp;of&nbsp;pigment</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="right">6.78</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left">Lbs.&nbsp;to&nbsp;gallon&nbsp;oil</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="right">20.34</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left">Sp.&nbsp;Gr.&nbsp;of&nbsp;paint&nbsp;as&nbsp;received</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="right">2.47</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left">Wt.&nbsp;of&nbsp;paint&nbsp;per&nbsp;gallon</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="right">20.56</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left">Grams&nbsp;to&nbsp;panel</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="right">62</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left">Condition&nbsp;of&nbsp;paint</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="right">Good</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left">Working&nbsp;properties</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="right">Works&nbsp;easy</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left">Drying</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="right">24&nbsp;hrs.&nbsp;all&nbsp;coats</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padr2">1&nbsp;coat</td>
+<td class="left padl2">Oct.</td>
+<td class="right padr2">26</td>
+<td class="center padr2 padl2">T&nbsp;60</td>
+<td class="center padr2 padl2">B&nbsp;29.94</td>
+<td class="left padl2">W.&nbsp;fair</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padr2">2&nbsp;coat</td>
+<td class="left padl2">Nov.</td>
+<td class="right padr2">3</td>
+<td class="center padr2 padl2">T&nbsp;54</td>
+<td class="center padr2 padl2">B&nbsp;30.23</td>
+<td class="left padl2">W.&nbsp;clear</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padr2">3&nbsp;coat</td>
+<td class="left padl2">Nov.</td>
+<td class="right padr2">7</td>
+<td class="center padr2 padl2">T&nbsp;52</td>
+<td class="center padr2 padl2">B&nbsp;29.66</td>
+<td class="left padl2">W.&nbsp;cloudy</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="8" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="8" class="left"><span class="smcap">No.&nbsp;9,&nbsp;Orange&nbsp;Mineral&nbsp;(American)</span>:</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left">Sp.&nbsp;Gr.&nbsp;of&nbsp;pigment</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="right">8.97</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left">Lbs.&nbsp;to&nbsp;gallon&nbsp;oil</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="right">26.91</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left">Sp.&nbsp;Gr.&nbsp;of&nbsp;paint&nbsp;as&nbsp;received</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="right">2.97</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left">Wt.&nbsp;of&nbsp;paint&nbsp;per&nbsp;gallon</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="right">24.74</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left">Grams&nbsp;to&nbsp;panel</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="right">74.7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left">Condition&nbsp;of&nbsp;paint</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="right">Good</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left">Working&nbsp;properties</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="right">Smooth&mdash;no&nbsp;brush&nbsp;marks</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left">Drying</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="right">Good</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padr2">1&nbsp;coat</td>
+<td class="left padl2">Oct.</td>
+<td class="right padr2">28</td>
+<td class="center padr2 padl2">T&nbsp;58</td>
+<td class="center padr2 padl2">B&nbsp;30.01</td>
+<td class="left padl2">W.&nbsp;cloudy</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padr2">2&nbsp;coat</td>
+<td class="left padl2">Nov.</td>
+<td class="right padr2">4</td>
+<td class="center padr2 padl2">T&nbsp;65</td>
+<td class="center padr2 padl2">B&nbsp;29.61</td>
+<td class="left padl2">W.&nbsp;cloudy</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left padr2">3&nbsp;coat</td>
+<td class="left padl2">Nov.</td>
+<td class="right padr2">9</td>
+<td class="center padr2 padl2">T&nbsp;58</td>
+<td class="center padr2 padl2">B&nbsp;29.91</td>
+<td class="left padl2">W.&nbsp;clear</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><b>Composition of Paints.</b> The <a href="#Page_233">following table</a> gives data
+regarding the composition, etc., of paints applied to the steel
+panels.</p>
+
+<p><b>Results of Inspection.</b> The results of an inspection of the
+steel test plates, made by Sub-committee D representing Committee
+D-1 of the American Society for Testing Materials, is
+herewith presented:</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;On Wednesday, June 28, 1911, the second inspection of the
+Atlantic City Steel Test Panels, erected in October, 1908, was
+made by Sub-committee D of Committee D-1, this Committee
+having agreed to report upon the condition of the painted surfaces,
+leaving any report on the comparative corrosion of the
+various types of metal used in the test to Committee A-5 on
+the corrosion of iron.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></p>
+
+<table class="braces fsize80" summary="Table P 233">
+
+<tr class="bt2 bb">
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">Pig-<br />ment<br />No.</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center br">Name</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br padr1 padl1">Sp.&nbsp;Gr.<br />of&nbsp;Pig-<br />ment</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="center br padr1 padl1">Wt.&nbsp;of<br />Pigment<br />to&nbsp;Gal.<br />of&nbsp;oil<br />Lbs.</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br padr1 padl1">Sp.&nbsp;Gr.<br />of&nbsp;Paint<br />Rec&#8217;d</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br padr1 padl1">Wt.&nbsp;of<br />Paint<br />per&nbsp;Gal.<br />Lbs.</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center padr1 padl1">Grams<br />Paint<br />to&nbsp;Panel<br />at&nbsp;900<br />Sq.&nbsp;ft.<br />spread-<br />ing&nbsp;rate</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">1</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 br">Dutch&nbsp;process&nbsp;white&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="right padr0">6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.83</td>
+<td class="right padr0">20</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.49</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.45</td>
+<td class="right padr0">20</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.49</td>
+<td class="right padr0">61</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">2</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 br">Quick&nbsp;process&nbsp;white&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="right padr0">6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.78</td>
+<td class="right padr0">20</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.34</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.47</td>
+<td class="right padr0">20</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.34</td>
+<td class="right padr0">62</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">3</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 br">Zinc&nbsp;oxide</td>
+<td class="right padr0">5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.56</td>
+<td class="right padr0">16</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.68</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.12</td>
+<td class="right padr0">16</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.68</td>
+<td class="right padr0">59</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">4</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 br">Sublimed&nbsp;white&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="right padr0">6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.45</td>
+<td class="right padr0">19</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.17</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.36</td>
+<td class="right padr0">19</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.17</td>
+<td class="right padr0">59</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">5</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 br">Sublimed&nbsp;blue&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="right padr0">6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.39</td>
+<td class="right padr0">19</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.17</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.42</td>
+<td class="right padr0">19</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.17</td>
+<td class="right padr0">61</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">6</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 br">Lithopone</td>
+<td class="right padr0">4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.26</td>
+<td class="right padr0">12</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.78</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.80</td>
+<td class="right padr0">12</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.78</td>
+<td class="right padr0">45</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">7</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 br">Zinc&nbsp;lead&nbsp;white</td>
+<td class="right padr0">4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.42</td>
+<td class="right padr0">13</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.26</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.96</td>
+<td class="right padr0">13</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.26</td>
+<td class="right padr0">49</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">9</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 br">American&nbsp;orange&nbsp;mineral</td>
+<td class="right padr0">8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.97</td>
+<td class="right padr0">26</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.91</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.97</td>
+<td class="right padr0">26</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.91</td>
+<td class="right padr0">74</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">10</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 br">Red&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="right padr0">8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.70</td>
+<td class="right padr0">26</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.10</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.93</td>
+<td class="right padr0">26</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.10</td>
+<td class="right padr0">73</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">12</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 br">Bright&nbsp;red&nbsp;oxide</td>
+<td class="right padr0">5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.26</td>
+<td class="right padr0">15</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.78</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.05</td>
+<td class="right padr0">15</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.78</td>
+<td class="right padr0">60</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">14</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 br">Venetian&nbsp;red</td>
+<td class="right padr0">3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.1</td>
+<td class="right padr0">9</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.30</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.52</td>
+<td class="right padr0">9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.30</td>
+<td class="right padr0">38</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">15</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 br">Prince&#8217;s&nbsp;metallic&nbsp;brown</td>
+<td class="right padr0">3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.17</td>
+<td class="right padr0">9</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.51</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.50</td>
+<td class="right padr0">9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.51</td>
+<td class="right padr0">37</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">16</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 br">Natural&nbsp;graphite</td>
+<td class="right padr0">2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.60</td>
+<td class="right padr0">7</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.80</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.37</td>
+<td class="right padr0">7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.80</td>
+<td class="right padr0">34</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">17</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 br">Acheson&nbsp;graphite</td>
+<td class="right padr0">2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.21</td>
+<td class="right padr0">6</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.63</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.22</td>
+<td class="right padr0">6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.63</td>
+<td class="right padr0">30</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right br padr1">19</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="fsize150" style="width: .5em;">{</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Lampblack</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left br padl0">.82</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.82</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="fsize150 br" style="width: .5em;">}</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left br padl0">.60</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.82</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right padr0">40</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left padl0">.2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1">Barytes</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">8</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.92</td>
+<td class="right padr0">8</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">.92</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">20</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 br">Willow&nbsp;charcoal</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.49</td>
+<td class="right padr0">4</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.47</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.08</td>
+<td class="right padr0">4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.47</td>
+<td class="right padr0">27</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right br padr1">21</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="fsize150">{</td>
+<td class="left padl1">Gas&nbsp;carbon&nbsp;black</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left br padl0">.85</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.39</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="fsize150 br">}</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left br padl0">.67</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.39</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right padr0">50</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left padl0">.7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1">Natural&nbsp;barytes</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">10</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.03</td>
+<td class="right padr0">10</td>
+<td class="left padl0 br">.03</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+
+<td class="right br padr1">24</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 br">French&nbsp;yellow&nbsp;ochre</td>
+<td class="right padr0">2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.94</td>
+<td class="right padr0">8</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.82</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.46</td>
+<td class="right padr0">8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.82</td>
+<td class="right padr0">37</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">27</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 br">Natural&nbsp;barytes</td>
+<td class="right padr0">4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.46</td>
+<td class="right padr0">13</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.38</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.83</td>
+<td class="right padr0">13</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.38</td>
+<td class="right padr0">46</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">28</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 br">Precipitated&nbsp;barytes&nbsp;(blanc&nbsp;fixe)</td>
+<td class="right padr0">4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.23</td>
+<td class="right padr0">12</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.69</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.84</td>
+<td class="right padr0">12</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.69</td>
+<td class="right padr0">46</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">29</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 br">Calcium&nbsp;carbonate&nbsp;(whiting)</td>
+<td class="right padr0">5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.48</td>
+<td class="right padr0">8</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.22</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.37</td>
+<td class="right padr0">8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.22</td>
+<td class="right padr0">34</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">30</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 br">Calcium&nbsp;carbonate&nbsp;precipitated</td>
+<td class="right padr0">2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.56</td>
+<td class="right padr0">7</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.68</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.35</td>
+<td class="right padr0">7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.68</td>
+<td class="right padr0">34</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">31</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 br">Calcium&nbsp;sulphate&nbsp;(gypsum)</td>
+<td class="right padr0">2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.33</td>
+<td class="right padr0">6</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.99</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.25</td>
+<td class="right padr0">6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.99</td>
+<td class="right padr0">31</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">32</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 br">China&nbsp;clay&nbsp;(kaolin)</td>
+<td class="right padr0">2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.67</td>
+<td class="right padr0">8</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.01</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.34</td>
+<td class="right padr0">8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.01</td>
+<td class="right padr0">34</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">33</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 br">Asbestine&nbsp;(silicate&nbsp;of&nbsp;magnesium)</td>
+<td class="right padr0">2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.75</td>
+<td class="right padr0">8</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.25</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.38</td>
+<td class="right padr0">8</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.25</td>
+<td class="right padr0">34</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">34</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 padr1 br">American&nbsp;vermilion&nbsp;(chrome&nbsp;scarlet)</td>
+<td class="right padr0">6</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.83</td>
+<td class="right padr0">20</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.49</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">20</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.49</td>
+<td class="right padr0">64</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">36</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 br">Medium&nbsp;chrome&nbsp;yellow</td>
+<td class="right padr0">5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.88</td>
+<td class="right padr0">17</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.64</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">17</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.64</td>
+<td class="right padr0">67</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">39</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 br">Zinc&nbsp;chromate</td>
+<td class="right padr0">3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.57</td>
+<td class="right padr0">10</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.71</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.57</td>
+<td class="right padr0">10</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.71</td>
+<td class="right padr0">39</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">40</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 br">Zinc&nbsp;and&nbsp;barium&nbsp;chromate</td>
+<td class="right padr0">3</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.45</td>
+<td class="right padr0">10</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.35</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.58</td>
+<td class="right padr0">10</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.35</td>
+<td class="right padr0">40</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">41</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 br">Chrome&nbsp;green&nbsp;(blue&nbsp;tone)</td>
+<td class="right padr0">4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.44</td>
+<td class="right padr0">13</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.32</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.94</td>
+<td class="right padr0">13</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.32</td>
+<td class="right padr0">49</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">44</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 br">Prussian&nbsp;blue</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.96</td>
+<td class="right padr0">5</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.88</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.88</td>
+<td class="right padr0">30</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">45</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 br">Prussian&nbsp;blue</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.93</td>
+<td class="right padr0">5</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.79</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">5</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.79</td>
+<td class="right padr0">34</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">48</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 br">Ultramarine&nbsp;blue</td>
+<td class="right padr0">2</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.40</td>
+<td class="right padr0">7</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.20</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.29</td>
+<td class="right padr0">7</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.20</td>
+<td class="right padr0">32</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">49</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 br">Zinc&nbsp;and&nbsp;lead&nbsp;chromate</td>
+<td class="right padr0">4</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.76</td>
+<td class="right padr0">14</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.28</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.92</td>
+<td class="right padr0">14</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.28</td>
+<td class="right padr0">48</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">51</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left padl1 br">Magnetic&nbsp;black&nbsp;oxide</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">15</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.00</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.92</td>
+<td class="right padr0">15</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">48</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="center br"><i>Composite&nbsp;Paints</i></td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">111</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left padl1">Brown</td>
+<td class="symb" style="width: .5em;"><b>&#9131;</b></td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="left padl1 padr1 br">Made&nbsp;from<br />pigments&nbsp;that&nbsp;were<br />inhibitive&nbsp;in<br />the&nbsp;
+water&nbsp;test</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">10</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.82</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.30</td>
+<td class="right padr0">10</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.82</td>
+<td class="right padr0">32</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">222</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left padl1">Black</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9132;</b></td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">10</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.86</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.30</td>
+<td class="right padr0">10</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.86</td>
+<td class="right padr0">32</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">333</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left padl1">White</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">14</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.52</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.74</td>
+<td class="right padr0">14</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.52</td>
+<td class="right padr0">43</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">444</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left padl1">Green</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9133;</b></td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">12</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.77</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.53</td>
+<td class="right padr0">12</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.77</td>
+<td class="right padr0">38</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="blankrow">
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">555</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left padl1">Black</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9131;</b></td>
+<td rowspan="4" class="left padl1 br">Made&nbsp;from<br />pigments&nbsp;that&nbsp;were<br />stimulative&nbsp;in<br />
+the&nbsp;water&nbsp;test</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">9</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.37</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.125</td>
+<td class="right padr0">9</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.37</td>
+<td class="right padr0">28</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">666</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left padl1">Brown</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9132;</b></td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">11</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.74</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.41</td>
+<td class="right padr0">11</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.74</td>
+<td class="right padr0">35</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">777</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left padl1">White</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9130;</b></td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">14</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.55</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.75</td>
+<td class="right padr0">14</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.55</td>
+<td class="right padr0">44</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb2">
+<td class="right br padr1">888</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left padl1">Green</td>
+<td class="symb"><b>&#9133;</b></td>
+<td colspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">14</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.57</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr0">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.75</td>
+<td class="right padr0">14</td>
+<td class="left br padl0">.57</td>
+<td class="right padr0">14</td>
+<td class="left padl0">.57</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span>&#8220;According to the amount of rust apparent on the painted
+surfaces of the panels, as well as the degree of checking, chalking,
+scaling, cracking, peeling, loss of color, and other signs of paint
+failure shown, ratings were given each panel. The system of
+rating which took into consideration all the above conditions,
+was similar to the system used at the first inspection during 1910,
+when 0 (zero) recorded the worst results and 10 (ten) the best
+results.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;In <a href="#Tab16_1">Table No. 1</a> there is shown the rating accorded by each
+inspector to each panel, as well as an average for each panel.</p>
+
+<h5><a name="Tab16_1" id="Tab16_1"></a><span class="smcap">Table No. 1.&mdash;Second Inspection of
+Steel Paint Test Panels at Atlantic City, N. J.,<br />
+by Sub-committee D of Committee D-1</span></h5>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table P 234">
+
+<tr class="bt2 bb">
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">Panel<br />No.</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="center br">Pigment</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br padr1 padl1">W.&nbsp;H.<br />Walker</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br padr1 padl1">P.&nbsp;H.<br />Walker</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br padr1 padl1">H.&nbsp;A.<br />Gardner<br />Chair-<br />man</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center br padr1 padl1">C.<br />&nbsp;Chap-&nbsp;<br />man</td>
+<td class="center padr1 padl1">Aver-<br />age</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">1</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Dutch&nbsp;process&nbsp;white&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="right">2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">3</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">3</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">3.7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">2</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Quick&nbsp;process&nbsp;white&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="right">4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">3</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">4.2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">3</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Zinc&nbsp;oxide&nbsp;(XX)</td>
+<td class="right">1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">1</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right">1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">2</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">1.5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">4</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Sublimed&nbsp;white&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">9.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">5</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Sublimed&nbsp;blue&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right">7</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">8.8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">6</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Lithopone</td>
+<td class="right">2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">1</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right">2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">3</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">2.2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">7</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Zinc&nbsp;lead&nbsp;white</td>
+<td class="right">3</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">4.7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">9</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Orange&nbsp;mineral</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">6</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">8.3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">10</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Red&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">6</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">8.3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">12</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Bright&nbsp;red&nbsp;oxide</td>
+<td class="right">8</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">8.1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">14</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Venetian&nbsp;red</td>
+<td class="right">7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">8.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">15</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Prince&#8217;s&nbsp;metallic&nbsp;brown</td>
+<td class="right">5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">7</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right">6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">6.3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">16</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Natural&nbsp;graphite</td>
+<td class="right">6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">6.8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">17</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Artificial&nbsp;graphite</td>
+<td class="right">5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">7</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right">4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">5.9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">19</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Lampblack</td>
+<td class="right">5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">7</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right">5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">6.3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">20</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Willow&nbsp;charcoal</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">8.8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">21</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Carbon&nbsp;black</td>
+<td class="right">7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right">5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">7.2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">24</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Yellow&nbsp;ochre&nbsp;(French)</td>
+<td class="right">5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">5.5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">27</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Barytes&nbsp;(natural)</td>
+<td class="right">1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">0.7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">28</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Barytes&nbsp;(precipitated)</td>
+<td class="right">2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">1</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right">2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">1.8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">29</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Calcium&nbsp;carbonate&nbsp;(whiting)</td>
+<td class="right">0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">0.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">30</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Calcium&nbsp;carbonate&nbsp;(precipitated)</td>
+<td class="right">0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">0.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">31</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Calcium&nbsp;sulphate&nbsp;(gypsum)</td>
+<td class="right">1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">3</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">1.7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">32</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">China&nbsp;clay&nbsp;(kaolin)</td>
+<td class="right">6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">6</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">6.3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">33</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Asbestine&nbsp;(magnes.&nbsp;silicate)</td>
+<td class="right">5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">4</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right">6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">5.1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">34</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">American&nbsp;vermilion</td>
+<td class="right">10</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">10</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">10</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">10</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">10.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">36</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Lead&nbsp;chromate</td>
+<td class="right">7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">7</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right">8</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right">8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">7.7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">39</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Zinc&nbsp;chromate</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">10</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">9.5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">40</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Zinc&nbsp;and&nbsp;barium&nbsp;chromate</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right">10</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">9.5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">41</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Chrome&nbsp;green&nbsp;(blue&nbsp;tone)</td>
+<td class="right">10</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">10</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">10</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">9.8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">44</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Prussian&nbsp;blue,&nbsp;W.&nbsp;S</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">9.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">45</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Prussian&nbsp;blue,&nbsp;W.&nbsp;I</td>
+<td class="right">8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right">8</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right">8</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">8.5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">48</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Ultramarine&nbsp;blue</td>
+<td class="right">0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">0.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">49</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Zinc&nbsp;and&nbsp;lead&nbsp;chromate</td>
+<td class="right">10</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right">10</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">9.7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">51</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Magnetic&nbsp;black&nbsp;oxide</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right">10</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">9.5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">111</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Brown&nbsp;composite&nbsp;paint</td>
+<td class="right">7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">8.5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">222</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Black&nbsp;composite&nbsp;paint</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">8.8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">3333</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">White&nbsp;composite&nbsp;paint</td>
+<td class="right">4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">3</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">4.5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">444</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Green&nbsp;composite&nbsp;paint</td>
+<td class="right">5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">6.7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">555</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Black&nbsp;composite&nbsp;paint</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">8.2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">666</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Brown&nbsp;composite&nbsp;paint</td>
+<td class="right">8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">6</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">7.7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">777</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">White&nbsp;composite&nbsp;paint</td>
+<td class="right">7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">10</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">7.2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">888</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Green&nbsp;composite&nbsp;paint</td>
+<td class="right">7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">9</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">8.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right br padr1">2000</td>
+<td class="left padl1">1&nbsp;coat&nbsp;zinc&nbsp;chromate</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="fsize150">}</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right">8</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right">8</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right">8</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right">8</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right padr2">8.1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1">1&nbsp;coat&nbsp;iron&nbsp;oxide&nbsp;excluder</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">3000</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">1&nbsp;coat&nbsp;lead&nbsp;chromate</td>
+<td class="right">7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">7</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">7.3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right br padr1">4000</td>
+<td class="left padl1">1&nbsp;coat&nbsp;red&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="fsize150">}</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right">7</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right">8</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right">8</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right">7</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="right padr2">7.7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1">1&nbsp;coat&nbsp;iron&nbsp;oxide&nbsp;excluder</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">100</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1 padr1">Straight&nbsp;carbon&nbsp;black&nbsp;paint&nbsp;with&nbsp;turps&nbsp;and&nbsp;drier</td>
+<td class="right">5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right">4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8</td>
+<td class="left br">&#189;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">6.5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">90</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Straight&nbsp;lampblack&nbsp;paint&nbsp;with&nbsp;turps&nbsp;and&nbsp;drier</td>
+<td class="right">5</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">3</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">5.7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">5555</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Coal&nbsp;tar&nbsp;paint&nbsp;over&nbsp;red&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="right">4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">8</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">7</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">5.2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">1000</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">Chrome&nbsp;resinate&nbsp;in&nbsp;oil&nbsp;(1&nbsp;coat)</td>
+<td class="right">1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">2</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">0.7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb2">
+<td class="right br padr1">1&nbsp;plate</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left br padl1">3&nbsp;coats&nbsp;boiled&nbsp;linseed&nbsp;oil</td>
+<td class="right">1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">0</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">1</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">4</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padr2">1.5</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&#8220;In <a href="#Tab16_2">Table No. 2</a> there is shown the rating obtained by those
+panels which were considered by the committee as meriting
+from 8 to 10, and having given the best all-round service.</p>
+
+<h5><a name="Tab16_2" id="Tab16_2"></a><span class="smcap">Table No. 2.&mdash;Analysis of Averages. Grade of Excellence from<br />
+8 to 10</span></h5>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table P 235">
+
+<tr class="bt2 bb">
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">Plate</td>
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">Pigment</td>
+<td class="center padr1 padl1">Average</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">34</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">American&nbsp;vermilion&nbsp;(basic&nbsp;chromate&nbsp;of&nbsp;lead)</td>
+<td class="right padr3">10.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">41</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Chrome&nbsp;green</td>
+<td class="right padr3">9.8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">49</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Lead&nbsp;and&nbsp;zinc&nbsp;chromate</td>
+<td class="right padr3">9.7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">39</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Zinc&nbsp;chromate</td>
+<td class="right padr3">9.5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">40</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Zinc&nbsp;and&nbsp;barium&nbsp;chromate</td>
+<td class="right padr3">9.5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">51</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Black&nbsp;oxide&nbsp;of&nbsp;iron</td>
+<td class="right padr3">9.5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">4</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Sublimed&nbsp;white&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="right padr3">9.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">44</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Prussian&nbsp;blue</td>
+<td class="right padr3">9.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">5</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Sublimed&nbsp;blue&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="right padr3">8.8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">20</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Willow&nbsp;charcoal</td>
+<td class="right padr3">8.8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">222</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Composite&nbsp;paint</td>
+<td class="right padr3">8.8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">45</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Prussian&nbsp;blue</td>
+<td class="right padr3">8.5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">111</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Composite&nbsp;formula</td>
+<td class="right padr3">8.5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">9</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Orange&nbsp;mineral</td>
+<td class="right padr3">8.3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">10</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Red&nbsp;lead</td>
+<td class="right padr3">8.3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">555</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Composite&nbsp;paint</td>
+<td class="right padr3">8.2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">12</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Bright&nbsp;red&nbsp;oxide&nbsp;of&nbsp;iron</td>
+<td class="right padr3">8.1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">2000</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">1&nbsp;coat&nbsp;zinc&nbsp;chromate;&nbsp;1&nbsp;coat&nbsp;iron&nbsp;oxide</td>
+<td class="right padr3">8.1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr1">14</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Venetian&nbsp;red</td>
+<td class="right padr3">8.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb2">
+<td class="right br padr1">888</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Composite&nbsp;paint</td>
+<td class="right padr3">8.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><b>Comparison of Results.</b> It is of interest to compare with
+<a href="#Tab16_2">Table 2 of the above report</a>, <a href="#Tab16_II">Table 2 of the 1910 report</a> of
+Committee U of the American Society for Testing Materials.
+Both charts show the highly inhibitive pigments to be in the
+lead.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></p>
+
+<h3>COMMITTEE U REPORT 1910</h3>
+
+<h5><a name="Tab16_II" id="Tab16_II"></a><span class="smcap">Table II.&mdash;Analysis of Averages. Grade of<br />
+Excellence from 8 to 10</span></h5>
+
+<p class="center fsize80">(<i>Only resistance to corrosion was considered, and only<br />pigments which were common
+to both tests are included</i>)</p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table P 236">
+
+<tr class="bt2 bb">
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">No.</td>
+<td class="center br padr1 padl1">Pigment</td>
+<td class="center padr1 padl1">Average</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">34</td>
+<td class="left br padl1 padr1">American vermilion (chrome scarlet)</td>
+<td class="right padr3">9.8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">41</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Chrome green (blue tone)</td>
+<td class="right padr3">9.7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">40</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Zinc and barium chromate</td>
+<td class="right padr3">9.7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">5</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Sublimed blue lead</td>
+<td class="right padr3">9.6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">4</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Sublimed white lead</td>
+<td class="right padr3">9.5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">49</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Zinc and lead chromate</td>
+<td class="right padr3">9.5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">39</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Zinc chromate</td>
+<td class="right padr3">9.4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">12</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Bright red oxide</td>
+<td class="right padr3">9.3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">44</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Prussian blue (water stimulative)</td>
+<td class="right padr3">9.2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">16</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Natural graphite</td>
+<td class="right padr3">9.1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">9</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Orange mineral (American)</td>
+<td class="right padr3">9.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">36</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Medium chrome yellow</td>
+<td class="right padr3">9.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">2</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">White lead (quick process)</td>
+<td class="right padr3">8.9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">20</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Willow charcoal</td>
+<td class="right padr3">8.8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">45</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Prussian blue (water inhibitive)</td>
+<td class="right padr3">8.8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">1</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">White lead (Dutch process)</td>
+<td class="right padr3">8.7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right br padr2">10</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Red lead</td>
+<td class="right padr3">8.7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb2">
+<td class="right br padr2">7</td>
+<td class="left br padl1">Zinc lead white</td>
+<td class="right padr3">8.0</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>The writer has recently made a careful inspection of the panels
+painted with single pigment paints, and has made the following
+brief summary of the characteristic appearance of each.</p>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 1&mdash;Dutch Process White Lead.</b> The excessive
+chalking which took place began to disappear at the end of a
+year, being washed away by the rains and carried away by the
+winds, so that there was left upon the surface but a thin coating
+of pigment, insufficient to give good protection. Slight corrosion
+was apparent beneath the film.</p>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 2&mdash;Quick Process White Lead.</b> In the same
+condition as Panel No. 1.</p>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 3&mdash;Zinc Oxide.</b> Panel covered with thin lateral
+streaks of rust, due to the admittance of moisture in cracks
+caused by brittleness of film. Result doubtless due to insufficient
+amount of oil used with pigment. Removal of film shows
+steel very bright except where cracks have formed.</p>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 4&mdash;Sublimed White Lead.</b> Although sublimed
+white lead chalked very heavily, the chalked pigment seemed to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>
+be tenacious and adhered to the plate, presenting an excellent
+surface with absence of rust. Film of good color and quite
+elastic.</p>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 5&mdash;Sublimed Blue Lead.</b> In same condition as
+Panel No. 4, but color has slightly faded.</p>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 6&mdash;Lithopones.</b> Lithopone was early destroyed,
+as is usual with this pigment when used alone on exterior surfaces.
+It became rough and discolored, presenting a very
+blotchy appearance and disclosed the formation of rust working
+through the film.</p>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 7&mdash;Zinc Lead White.</b> In general good condition
+with the exception of the color, which is slightly dark. Medium
+chalking was apparent but only very slight corrosion appeared.</p>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 9&mdash;Orange Mineral.</b> In excellent condition,
+showing a good firm surface with no checking or corrosion apparent.
+Shortly after exposure the film became covered with a
+white coating of carbonate of lead, which indicates action of the
+red lead with the carbonic acid of the atmosphere. Removal of
+this white coating with water discloses the brilliant color of the
+unaffected portion of the red lead.</p>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 10&mdash;Red Lead.</b> In same condition as Panel No. 9.</p>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 12&mdash;Bright Red Iron Oxide.</b> In general good condition.
+Film intact and unfading in color.</p>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 14&mdash;Venetian Red.</b> Similar to Panel No. 12, but
+slight corrosion apparent beneath, in localized spots, and film
+showing slight wart-like formations.</p>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 15&mdash;Prince&#8217;s Metallic Brown.</b> Similar to Panel
+No. 14.</p>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 16&mdash;Natural Graphite.</b> Deeply pitted in spots,
+showing bulbous eruptions, indicating the stimulative nature of
+this pigment.</p>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 17&mdash;Artificial Graphite.</b> In same condition as
+Panel No. 16.</p>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 19&mdash;Lampblack and Barytes.</b> Although the film
+seems to be intact, there are apparent abrasions of the surface
+showing stimulative corrosion effects of a pronounced nature.</p>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 21&mdash;Carbon Black and Barytes.</b> In same condition
+as Panel No. 19.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo249.jpg"
+alt="Corrosion Pits on Graphite Panel" width="300" height="441" />
+<p class="caption">Corrosion Pits on Graphite Panel</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><img src="images/illo250.jpg" alt="Rust on Stripped Grpahite Film" width="200" height="441" />
+<p class="caption">Rust on Stripped Graphite Film</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo251.jpg"
+alt="Wire with Stimulative Carbon Paint" width="500" height="170" />
+<p class="caption">Section of Wire Painted with a Stimulative Carbonaceous Paint</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><img src="images/illo252.jpg"
+alt="Corroded and Pitted Surface of Plate with Stimulative Paint"
+width="350" height="401" />
+<p class="caption">Corroded and Pitted Surface of Plate Painted with Stimulative
+Paint</p></div>
+
+<p>The longevity of lampblack and carbon black paint films when
+applied to wood has been attributed to the slow drying nature
+of these pigments when mixed with oil. It is assumed that they
+have the property of keeping the oil in a semi-drying condition,
+which will not disintegrate as early as when the oil is thoroughly
+dried to linoxyn. If this is true, it would seem advisable to use
+with hard-drying pigments, a proportion of some oil that is semi-drying
+in nature or one which will leave a film not too hard.
+Soya bean oil, wood oil, and fish oil present themselves as candidates
+for such use. How they will work in practice, however,
+is a question not yet determined. On the other hand, it is well
+known that these pigments require enormous quantities of oil
+in order to grind to a working consistency, and it is possible that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span>
+the life of such coatings is due rather to the property of these
+pigments, of taking up large quantities of oil, than to their effect
+upon the slow drying of oil. Excessive oil carrying, however,
+should be avoided, as shown by the early failure and pitting of
+those carbon black and lampblack paints ground with very
+large quantities of oil, as is the usual practice. When these carbon
+and lampblack pigments were ground with barytes (which
+is a heavy pigment and requires only about 9 pounds of oil to
+100 pounds of pigment, as against 175 pounds of oil to 100
+pounds of lampblack), it was found that the lampblack and carbon
+black paints were reinforced and made more suitable for
+actual practice. The stimulative nature of these black pigments,
+however, asserted itself in both cases, and large pittings
+and eruptions were evident at the end of a year. Carbon black,
+lampblack, graphite, or any other good conductor of electricity
+should never be placed next to the surface of iron. They are
+good as top-coatings, but not as prime-coaters. Some pigments
+are stimulators of corrosion, because they contain water-soluble
+impurities that hasten the rusting, while others, like graphite,
+hasten it simply because, being good conductors, they stimulate
+surface electrolysis.</p>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 20&mdash;Willow Charcoal.</b> In excellent condition
+throughout. Presence of small quantities of potash may be
+responsible for the inhibitive nature of this black pigment.</p>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 24&mdash;Ochre.</b> While the film seems intact, it has a
+very mottled appearance and examination shows eruptions of
+rust through the film, in several places.</p>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 27&mdash;Natural Barytes.</b> Within a year the film
+became pin-holed, and corrosion was apparent. At the end of
+three years very little of the pigment was left upon the plate,
+having chalked and scaled off. Barytes has proved its usefulness
+as a constituent of a combination type of paint, but it
+should not be used alone.</p>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 28&mdash;Blanc Fixe.</b> In the same condition as Panel
+No. 27, but slightly more chalking and disintegration was
+shown.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo254.jpg" alt="Panel Painted with Blanc Fixe" width="300" height="467" />
+<p class="caption">Panel Painted with Blanc Fixe. Right Side Stripped of Paint to
+Show Corrosion</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo255.jpg" alt="Scaled Whiting Films" width="500" height="488" />
+<p class="subcaption">Scaled Whiting Films</p>
+<p class="caption">Chemically Active Pigments and Their Effect After Eighteen Months&#8217; Wear</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo256.jpg"
+alt="Effect of Chemically Active Pigment on Oil" width="500" height="432" />
+<p class="caption">Plate Showing Effect of Chemically Active Pigments on Oil
+after One Year&#8217;s Wear</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 29&mdash;Whiting.</b> Plates coated with calcium carbonate
+or whiting in oil presented a very fair appearance at the
+start of the test, but they soon began to chalk and disintegrate.
+It is well known that whiting, being alkaline, has the property
+of acting on oil and causing its early disintegration by saponification.
+As a matter of fact, six months after the whiting plates
+were exposed, crumbling of the surface appeared, and twelve
+months was sufficient for the total destruction of the paint. At
+this time the rusted surface of the plates which had been painted
+with calcium carbonate, seemed not to rust as fast as those
+plates which were exposed without paint coatings, and the rust
+which had formed appeared to be of an even, fine texture. On
+the lower left-hand corner of these plates had been lettered the
+figures &#8220;29&#8221; and &#8220;30,&#8221; using lampblack in oil. One of the
+most remarkable things which appears on the fence to-day is
+the perfect condition of these lampblack letters over their priming
+coat of calcium carbonate, standing out in clear relief against
+the rusted metal. This test would suggest, therefore, that if
+the surface of metal is properly protected with a pigment which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span>
+is slightly alkaline or inhibitive in nature, and then topped with
+a good weather-resisting material, such as lampblack, graphite
+or carbon black, good results would be obtained. Further tests
+will be made to determine the value of this suggestion.</p>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 30&mdash;Precipitated Calcium Carbonate.</b> Showed
+more rapid destruction than Panel No. 29.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><img src="images/illo257.jpg" alt="Corrosion Adhering to Film of Panel Painted with Gypsum"
+width="350" height="381" />
+<p class="caption">Corrosion Adhering to Film Stripped from Panel Painted
+with Gypsum (Calcium Sulphate)</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 31&mdash;Calcium Sulphate.</b> Under the paint film of
+gypsum, rust soon appeared, showing that the film was not a
+good excluder of moisture. Although the film remained intact,
+rusting progressed throughout the test and considerably darkened
+the color of the paint.</p>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 32&mdash;China Clay.</b> This pigment gave excellent
+service for eighteen months. Afterwards indications of corrosion
+were shown, and apparent breakdown of the film was indicated.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></p>
+
+<table style="font-size: .9em;" summary="Photo P 247">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3"><img src="images/illo258.jpg" alt="China Clay, Asbestine and Gypsum" width="400" height="405" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl2">China<br />Clay</td>
+<td class="center top">Asbestine</td>
+<td class="right padr3 top">Gypsum</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 33&mdash;Asbestine.</b> In the same condition as Panel
+No. 32.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><img src="images/illo259.jpg"
+alt="American Vermillion in Excellent State" width="350" height="412" />
+<p class="caption">Excellent Surface shown by American Vermilion after nearly
+Four Years&#8217; Exposure</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 34&mdash;American Vermilion.</b> This pigment has
+given perfect protection to the plates. The film is strong and
+elastic, and upon removal reveals the bright steel. No chalking,
+checking, discoloration, or other signs of paint failure are
+shown. It would appear that the inhibitive characteristics of
+this pigment are pronounced, and it promises to give efficient
+service for several years more.</p>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 36&mdash;Lead Chromate.</b> This panel is in generally
+fair condition, but slight checking is shown.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><img src="images/illo260.jpg"
+alt="Cracked Negative of Perfect Condition of Plate Painted with Zinc" width="300" height="430" />
+<p class="caption">Perfect Condition of Plate Painted with Zinc Chromate; One Half
+Stripped. (<i>Negative cracked</i>)</p></div>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 39&mdash;Zinc Chromate.</b> This panel is in condition
+similar to Panel No. 34, presenting a perfect appearance, with
+decided maintenance of color, elasticity of film, and freedom from
+any bad characteristics. It has proved to be one of the highest
+type rust inhibitive pigments.</p>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 40&mdash;Zinc-and-Barium-Chromate.</b> Although the
+color of this pigment is not very pleasing, it has proved itself to
+be the equal of zinc chromate in its protective value.</p>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 41&mdash;Chrome Green.</b> In excellent condition.
+Presents an appearance similar to Panels Nos. 34 and 39.
+Its surface is perfect and will doubtless give service for many
+years.</p>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 44&mdash;Prussian Blue.</b> This panel stands forth as the
+most wonderful moisture-excluder in the whole test, its surface
+presenting an appearance similar to a varnished plate, even
+after three years&#8217; exposure. Action between the pigment and the
+oil, resulting in the formation of iron linoleate, may account for
+this property.</p>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 45&mdash;Prussian Blue.</b> In same condition as Panel
+No. 44.</p>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 48&mdash;Ultramarine Blue.</b> Soon after this test was
+exposed, early vehicle decay and excessive chalking were observed.
+The admittance of moisture may have caused the formation of
+acid with the sulphur content of the pigment, which would
+account for the rapid corrosion which followed. It is of a pronounced
+stimulative type. The effect of stimulative under-coatings
+is well shown on some special plates on the fence, which
+when received were not pickled before painting, but had upon
+their surfaces the ordinary coating of mill scale. Over this had
+been stencilled in a triangular form the trade mark of the manufacturer.
+The stencilling material was made of ultramarine
+blue. When these plates were painted with some of the special
+paints, and exposed, the stimulative nature of the ultramarine
+blue began to assert itself, and within a short time, wherever the
+stencil marks were located, signs of rust began to appear through
+the coatings of top paint which had been applied. Corrosion
+under these stencil marks became so great that the trade mark
+was plainly outlined in letters of rust. This would seem to be
+final proof that pigments of a stimulative nature should never be
+used for the priming of iron and steel.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 49&mdash;Zinc-Lead Chromate.</b> In excellent condition
+throughout, with a smooth surface and showing no corrosion.
+Stands in the same class as Panels Nos. 34 and 39.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><img src="images/illo262.jpg" alt="Effect of Stimulative Paint" width="500" height="479" />
+<p class="caption">Effect of Stimulative Paint. Manufacturer&#8217;s Trade Mark
+Stencilled on Bare Metal in Triangular Form, showing
+Through Subsequent Paint Coating</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Panel No. 51&mdash;Black Magnetic Oxide of Iron.</b> In excellent
+condition.</p>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></p>
+<h2><a name="Ch17" id="Ch17"></a>CHAPTER XVII</h2>
+
+<h3>THE SANITARY VALUE OF WALL PAINTS</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>Decoration and Sanitation.</b> The proper decoration of the
+interior of dwellings and public buildings has become of even
+greater importance than the protection and decoration of exteriors.
+There is, moreover, an increasing demand for harmonious
+effects and the production of more sanitary conditions
+than have prevailed in the past. Up until a few years ago a
+great variety of wall papers of more or less pleasing appearance
+were almost exclusively used for the decoration of walls
+in the interior of buildings, and their application was commonly
+considered the most effective means of wall decoration.
+There seems to be no question, however, that the use of
+wall paper is steadily decreasing, and that the art of interior
+decoration is undergoing a transition to the almost universal use
+of paint.</p>
+
+<p>Modern progress demands the maintenance of sanitary conditions
+for the benefit of the public welfare, and there is no doubt
+that from the standpoint of sanitation and hygiene, properly
+painted wall surfaces are far superior to papered walls. There
+is an abundance of evidence which shows that dust germs may
+easily be harbored, and thus disease transmitted from wall
+paper. In the tenement houses, which are common to the larger
+cities, and to a lesser extent in the dwellings found in smaller
+communities, where tenants are more or less transient, the continued
+maintenance of sanitary conditions presents a difficult
+problem. Infectious and epidemic illnesses generally leave behind
+bacilli of different types, which may find a culture medium
+in the fibrous and porous surfaces presented by wall paper,
+backed up as they invariably must be by starch, casein, or other
+organic pastes. Occasionally the restrictions of local boards of
+health provide in such events for proper fumigation, but too
+often no precautions are taken to destroy the disease germs
+which are caught in the dust which collects on wall paper. As a
+rule, both tenant and landlord are oblivious to all conditions
+which cannot be readily seen or detected. Burning sulphur, one
+of the most effective means of fumigation, will generally cause
+bleaching and consequent fading of the delicate colors used in
+printing the designs upon wall paper. Washing of the paper with
+antiseptic solutions will destroy its adhesiveness to the plaster
+and often cause bulging and general destruction.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></p>
+
+<table class="illo" summary="Photo P 253">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo264.jpg" alt="Effect of Sanitary Wall Paint" width="600" height="325" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption padl3 padr3">Heavy Colonies of Bacteria Developing in
+Agar Jelly Treated with Washings from
+Wall Paper</td>
+<td class="caption padl3 padr3">Practically no Development of Bacterial
+Colonies in Agar Jelly Treated with
+Washings from Sanitary Wall Paint</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></p>
+
+<p><b>Hospital Practice.</b> In hospitals, where it is necessary to
+maintain sanitary conditions, the walls are invariably painted,
+and requirements should demand the use of paints which can
+be washed frequently, so that there will be no possibility of
+uncleanliness. Inquiry made of a prominent surgeon<a name="FNanchor_1_38"
+id="FNanchor_1_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> connected
+with one of the large metropolitan hospitals substantiated the
+writer&#8217;s findings regarding the greater sanitary value of wall
+paints, and brought forth the information that in hospitals
+under construction provision had been made for the finishing of
+walls so that a hard, non-absorbent, and washable surface might
+be obtained. The same authority stated that the common
+practice, in apartments and tenements, of covering the old wall
+paper over with a layer of new each time a tenant moved in,
+should be condemned, and that from a hygienic standpoint the
+use of sanitary wall paints should be advocated in all dwellings
+as well as public buildings.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_38" id="Footnote_1_38"></a><a
+href="#FNanchor_1_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Dr. F. F. Gwyer, Cornell Uni. Med. Col., New York City.</p></div>
+
+<p>If such conditions are maintained in hospitals, where special
+attention is paid to sanitation, it would appear that similar
+precautions should be equally as necessary in public buildings
+and in dwellings&mdash;wherever, in fact, people congregate
+or live.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sanitary Wall Paints.</b> There have recently appeared in trade
+a number of wall paints composed of non-poisonous pigments
+ground in paint vehicles having valuable waterproofing and
+binding properties, and of a nature to produce the flat or
+semi-flat finish that has become so popular. Such paints
+produce a sanitary, waterproof surface, which permits of frequent
+washing. By their use it is possible to secure a more permanent
+and a wider range of tints than can be obtained with
+wall paper, as they are produced in a myriad of shades, tints and
+solid colors, from which any desired combination may be selected.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span>
+On the border or on the body of walls decorated with such paints,
+attractive stencil designs, which bring out in relief the color
+combinations, may be applied.</p>
+
+<p>For the decoration of chambers and living rooms, delicate
+French grays, light buffs, cream tints and ivory whites may be
+used, while in the library and other rooms richer and more solid
+colors, such as greens, reds, and blues, may be harmoniously
+combined.</p>
+
+<p><b>Defects of Wall Paper.</b> It recently occurred to the writer to
+investigate the conditions which obtain in many apartment
+houses in the larger cities. Inspection of a number of such
+places, in which wall paper had been exclusively used on the
+walls, showed generally bad conditions; bulging of the surfaces,
+caused by dampness in the walls, which had loosened up the
+binder, as well as peeling and dropping of the paper from the
+ceilings, were frequently observed. In many cases a shabby
+appearance was shown, accompanied by an odor which suggested
+decomposition of the paste binder used on the paper. The writer
+was impressed with the fact that such conditions could easily be
+avoided by the very simple expedient of using properly manufactured
+wall paints, which are so easily made dustproof and
+waterproof.</p>
+
+<p>Samples of wall paper, which had been applied to plastered
+walls for a year or more, were obtained, and examination under
+the microscope showed a most uncleanly surface. Cultures were
+made of these samples, and bacilli of different types were developed
+in the culture medium in a short time.</p>
+
+<p><b>Experimental Evidence.</b> That the above conditions could not
+have existed, had proper wall paints been used, seemed doubtless,
+and suggested a carefully conducted experiment to prove the
+relative sanitary values of wall paper and wall paints. A large
+sheet of fibre board, such as is occasionally used to replace
+plastered walls, was painted on one side with a high-grade wall
+paint, three-coat work. A similar sheet was papered on one
+side with a clean, new wall paper. These test panels were placed
+where unsanitary conditions, such as dampness, foul odors, and
+a scarcity of air were present. After a short period of exposure,
+the panels were taken to the bacteriological laboratory and a
+small section of the painted surface, about two inches square, as
+well as a small section of the papered surface of similar size, were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span>
+removed and used for making cultures. In each case the surface
+of the section under test was washed with 100 c.c. of distilled,
+sterilized water. The washings which dripped from the
+surface were collected in a graduated flask. One c.c. of the
+washings was used in each case, admixed with bouillon and again
+with agar-agar. The enormous development of bacteria in the
+bouillon, treated with the washings from the wall-papered surface,
+was sufficient evidence to convince one of the greater
+sanitary value of the wall paint, the washings from which gave
+a culture practically free from bacteria. The colonies of bacteria
+shown in the petri-dish test made of the washings from
+wall paper further supports these findings. It will be noticed
+that the tests made from the washings of the wall paint show
+practical absence of bacteria, and was clear, as was the bouillon-solution
+test of the paint. The washings from the wall paper
+showed active development of bacteria, both in the bouillon and
+agar tests.</p>
+
+<table class="illo" summary="Photo P 256">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo267.jpg" alt="Growth of Bacteria and Effect on Sanitary Wall Paint" width="600"
+height="470" /></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="caption"><span class="smcap">Development of Bacteria in Bouillon Solutions</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="caption padl3 padr3">Note Practical Freedom of
+Bacteria in Clear Bouillon
+Solution Treated with
+Washings from Sanitary
+Wall Paint</td>
+<td class="caption padl3 padr3">Note Milky Appearance of
+Solution Due to Heavy Development
+of Bacteria in
+Bouillon Treated with
+Washings from Wall Paper</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span><i>From
+the Conservation Standpoint</i>: It would be of interest to
+sum up in figures the acreage and cordage of wood that annually
+is transformed into pulp for the manufacture of wall paper.
+Unfortunately, there are no available statistics on this subject.
+It is clear, however, that from the standpoint of conservation
+the use of wall paints should take precedence over the use of
+wall paper.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258"></a></p>
+<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></p>
+<h2><a name="Ch18" id="Ch18"></a>INDEX</h2>
+
+<table style="margin-bottom: 3em;" summary="Index">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Abrasion, apparatus for determining resistance to,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_153">153</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Acid reacting compounds,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Actinic light tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Adhesive power of Paint Coating,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Aluminum Silicate,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">American Vermilion,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Analogies of Paint and Concrete manufacture,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Analyses of Averages in Atlantic City steel paint test,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td style="width: 2em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Corn Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Cottonseed Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Debloomed Mineral Paint Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Iron Oxide Pigments, table,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Linseed Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Menhaden Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Oils used in Washington tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Petroleum Spirits,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Rosin Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Soya Bean Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Sunflower Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Tung Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Whale Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Wood Turpentine,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Asbestine,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Atlantic City fence tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">steel paint tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_228">228</a>-<a href="#Page_235">235</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Checking,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Gloss,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Hiding power,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">inspection of,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Methods used,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Results,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Auto-electrolysis,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Bacteria in wall paper,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_256">256</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Barium Sulphate,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Barytes,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">and Silica Paints in Pittsburg tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_172">172</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Basic Carbonate-White Lead,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Benzine,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Benzol,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span>Blanc Fixe,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Blue Lead, Sublimed,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Blue Paint for concrete wall, formula,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Blue paints in Pittsburg tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Boiled Linseed Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_2">2</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Driers in,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Bone Black,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Calcium Carbonate,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Calcium Sulphate,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Carbon Black,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Cause of rust in steel work,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Chalking test for laboratory,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Checking and cracking in Pittsburg tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_166">166</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Checking, in Atlantic City tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">China Clay,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Chrome Green,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Chrome Yellow,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Coatings for cement and concrete,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Colored formulas in North Dakota tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Colors, report of, in Pittsburg tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Combination formulas in inhibitive paints,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_231">231</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Composite formulas in North Dakota tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">in Pittsburg tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Composition of paints, in steel test,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Conclusion from Pittsburg tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Concrete primer formula,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_218">218</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Constants of Pine Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Pure Gum Turpentine,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Co-operative tests of Driers,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_29">29</a>-<a href="#Page_41">41</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Corn Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Cottonseed Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Damp-proofing and Waterproofing,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Decay of Lithopone paints,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Decomposition of Paint,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Driers, Co-operative tests of,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_29">29</a>-<a href="#Page_41">41</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">in Boiled Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Tests of Manganese, Lead and Combination, tables,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_24">24</a>-<a href="#Page_25">25</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Drying Properties of Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Elasticity and Strength of Paint Coating,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Fence tests of paints,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Supervision of,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Film sectioning,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Film testing results, table,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Filmometers,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_74">74</a>-<a href="#Page_79">79</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span>Formula
+for Blue Paint for concrete wall,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Concrete primer,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_218">218</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Para Red Paint for concrete wall,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Formulas of Atlantic City fence test,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Tennessee tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Washington tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Fume Pigments Paints in Pittsburg tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">General results of Atlantic City tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_128">128</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Gloss, in Atlantic City tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Graphite,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Green paints in Pittsburg tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Grinding Pigments,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Gums as moisture resisters,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Gypsum,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Hailstorm, effects of in North Dakota tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Hospital, painting practice,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_254">254</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">House paint tests in North Dakota,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Hydrocarbon Oils,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Imperviousness of paint coating,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Indian Red,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Inert Pigments, use of,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Inhibition of rust,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_222">222</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Iodine Values of Linseed and Mixed Oils, table,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Iron Oxide Paints,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Japan driers in tests on steel,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_231">231</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Laboratory tests, panels for,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Lampblack,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Laws of Paint Making,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Lime action on paint,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Linoxyn,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Linseed Oil, boiled,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_2">2</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Chemical action of pigments upon,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Table of Analyses of Various Types of,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">tests of Driers with,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Lithopone,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">paint in Pittsburg tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">tests at Atlantic City,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Lumbang Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Magnesium Silicate,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Manufacturing Barytes,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Blue Lead,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span>Manufacturing Bone Black,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Paint Pigments,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_42">42</a>-<a href="#Page_68">68</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">White Lead,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Menhaden Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Constants of, table,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Metallic Brown,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Microscope, use of in paint laboratory,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Microscopic examination of paint, preparation for,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">measurements of paint sections,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Mineral Black,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Oils,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Moisture Absorption, tests in,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">experiments with various Pigments,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">North Dakota Paints tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">test fence,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">report of, table,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_193">193</a>-<a href="#Page_195">195</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Ochre,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Oil and Thinner tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_202">202</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Oil, Corn,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Cottonseed,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Effects of Pigments on,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Linseed,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Linseed, Analyses of Various Types of, table,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Linseed, Iodine Values of, table,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Linseed, Tests of Driers with,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Lumbang,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Menhaden,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Menhaden, Constants of, table,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Perilla,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Pine,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Rosin,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Soya Bean, and Driers, table,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Soya Bean,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Chemical Characteristics of, table,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Sunflower,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Tung,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Whale,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Oils, Constants and Characteristics of,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Drying properties of,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Hydrocarbon,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">In Washington paint tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Iodine Value of Linseed and Mixed, table,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Mineral,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Moisture resistance of,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Oxygen Absorbing qualities,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_21">21</a><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span></p></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Oils, Outline of tests of paints on concrete walls,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_216">216</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Oxygen Absorption in Oils,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Paint Coating, Adhesive power of,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Elasticity and Strength of,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">imperviousness of,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">decomposition of,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">films, action of water upon,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_223">223</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">permeability of,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Testing machine,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">preparation of,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">in Hospitals,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_254">254</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">making, Laws of,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Perry&#8217;s Principles of,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">pigments,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_42">42</a>-<a href="#Page_69">69</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">pigments, properties of,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">preparation for microscopic examination of,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">tests at North Dakota Experiment Station,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">at Washington,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_207">207</a>-<a href="#Page_213">213</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">supervisors of,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">woods used on,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Painting steel plates for tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_230">230</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Paints for cement and concrete surfaces,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">composition of in steel test,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_233">233</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">hiding power of,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">sanitary value of,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_252">252</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Panels for laboratory tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Para Red formula for concrete wall,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Paranitraniline paints in Pittsburg tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Paranitraniline Red,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Perilla Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Perry&#8217;s analogies of paint and concrete manufacture,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">principles of Paint Making,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Petroleum Spirits,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Photomicrographs,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Pigment contention, the,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">grinding,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Pigments,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_42">42</a>-<a href="#Page_69">69</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">as stimulators of rust,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_223">223</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Chemical action of upon Linseed Oil, table,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Effects of on Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">inert, use of,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">moisture experiments with, table,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">percentages of Oil required for grinding,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">re-enforcing,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">report of results of steel paint tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_236">236</a>-<a href="#Page_251">251</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Water resistance of,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span>Pine Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Pittsburg fence tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Polar Micro-Examinations and Photomicrographs,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Primer for concrete,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_218">218</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Properties of Paint Pigments,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Prussian Blue,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Red Lead,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Reductions used in fence tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Re-enforcing Pigments,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Results of new test at Atlantic City test fence in 1910, table,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_178">178</a>-<a href="#Page_181">181</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Pittsburg tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">steel test plates,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Rosin Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Rust, cause of in steel work,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">inhibition of,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_222">222</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">stimulation of,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_223">223</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Sanitary value of paints,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_252">252</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">wall paints,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_254">254</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Sienna,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Silex,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Silica,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Silica and Barytes Paints in Pittsburg tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_172">172</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Solvent Naphtha,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Soya Bean Oil and Driers, table,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Chemical Characteristics of, table,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Steel Paint test, rating report,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">reports on pigments used,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_236">236</a>-<a href="#Page_251">251</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Steel paint, result of tests at Atlantic City,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Steel, preparation of for paint tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_228">228</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">water contact and paint,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_224">224</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Structural steel paint tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Sublimed Blue Lead,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Sublimated White Lead,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Suction varnish,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Sunflower Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Constants of, table,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Supervisors of paint tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Table Analysis of Averages in Atlantic City Steel Paint test,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Analyses of Corn Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Analyses of Debloomed Mineral Paint Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Analysis of Iron Oxide Pigments,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Analyses of Oils used in Washington tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Analyses of Petroleum Spirits,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Analyses of Rosin Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span>Table
+Analyses of various types of Linseed Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Analyses of wood Turpentine,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Atlantic City test fence formula,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Chemical Characteristics of Soya Bean Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Comparative spreading rates of White Paint in Pittsburg tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_148">148</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Composition of Blue Lead,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Composition of paints in Atlantic City Steel test,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_233">233</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Constants of Cottonseed Oil, table,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Constants of Menhaden Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Constants of Pine Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Constants of Sunflower Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Constants of Whale Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Co-operative drying tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a>-<a href="#Page_41">41</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Excluding tests for moisture absorbed,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Fineness for grinding pigments,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Formulas in Tennessee tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Iodine Value of Linseed Oil and Mixed Oils,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Moisture experiments with various pigments,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Paint section measurements under microscope,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Percentages of Oil required for grinding various dry pigments,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Permeability of Paints,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Ratings of Atlantic City Steel Paint test,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Report of North Dakota test fence,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_193">193</a>-<a href="#Page_195">195</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Results of Atlantic City test fence,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Results of new tests at Atlantic City test fence in 1910,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_178">178</a>-<a href="#Page_181">181</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Results of second annual inspection Atlantic City test fence,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Results of second annual inspection in Pittsburg tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Showing action of various pigments upon Linseed Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Soya Bean Oil and Driers,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Tests of Linseed Oil and Manganese, Lead and Combination Driers,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Talcose,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Tennessee Paint tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_201">201</a>-<a href="#Page_206">206</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Test Fences in Paint Experiments,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">at Atlantic City,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_114">114</a>-<a href="#Page_134">134</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">at Pittsburg,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_135">135</a>-<a href="#Page_148">148</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">at Washington,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_207">207</a>-<a href="#Page_213">213</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Cement and concrete,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">in Tennessee,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_201">201</a>-<a href="#Page_206">206</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">laboratory, chalking,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">North Dakota,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">of Oil and Thinners,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_202">202</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">of various pigments in steel paint,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_236">236</a>-<a href="#Page_251">251</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">panel sections for,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Structural steel paints,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Water pigment,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Thinner, Wood Turpentine as a,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_202">202</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Tung Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span>Tung Varnishes,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Turpentine,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Ultramarine Blue,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Umber,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Varnishes from Tung Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Vermilion, American,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Wall paints,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_252">252</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Wall paper, defects of,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_255">255</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Washington Paint tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_207">207</a>-<a href="#Page_213">213</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Water, action of upon paint films,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_223">223</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">contact with steel and paint,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_224">224</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">resistance of Pigments,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Water-pigment tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Waterproofing and damp-proofing,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Whale Oil,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">White Lead, Basic Carbonate,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Basic Sulphate,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Mild Process,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Quick Process,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">in Pittsburg tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">in North Dakota tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">Paints, checking in Pittsburg tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_172">172</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">processes of manufacture of,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_43">43</a>-<a href="#Page_46">46</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Whiting,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Wood Turpentine,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left">experiments with as a thinner,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_202">202</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Woods used in paint tests,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="blankrow">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Zinc Chromate,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Zinc Lead White,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left">Zinc Oxide,</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<div class="bbox">
+
+<p class="center"><a name="TN" id="TN"></a><b>Transcriber's Notes:</b></p>
+
+<ul>
+  <li>Minor typopgraphical errors have been corrected silently; inconsistencies in spelling have not been changed.</li>
+  <li>Footnotes have been moved to directly below the table or paragraph to which they refer. Where a single footnote has multiple
+      anchors, there is no backward link.</li>
+  <li>Depending on the browser and its settings, some of the symbols used may not display properly.</li>
+  <li>Where there are mutiple footnotes to a single footnote anchor, the reverse link is not implemented. In these cases it is
+      suggested to use the browser back button.</li>
+  <li>Tables that were spread over two pages in the original work have been re-combined into a single table.</li>
+  <li>Page 25, Table VIII: the header row contains duplicate values (last two columns) that could be typographical errors.</li>
+  <li>Page 32-41: some table headers moved or inserted for consistency and better readability.</li>
+  <li>Pages 86 and 87 have some section titles followed by numbers. These serve no obvious purpose, but have not been deleted.</li>
+  <li>Page 87 (table): row 12 (zinc oxide), column 5: <i>.00037</i> is probably an error for <i>.0037</i></li>
+  <li>Page 124 contains a footnote without anchor; this has been moved to below the first paragraph of the page as an
+      unnumbered footnote.</li>
+  <li>Photos and other illustrations have been edited slightly to show more detail and remove dirt and scratches, except for the
+      (micro)photographs of paint surfaces and other materials; the latter have only been edited slightly to show better contrast.</li>
+  <li>Changes made to the text:
+    <ul>
+      <li>Page 26: <i>as discolored and turned brown</i> changed to <i>was discolored and turned brown</i>.</li>
+      <li>Page 87: table row 3, <i>0.00076&mdash;</i> changed to <i>0.00076</i>.</li>
+      <li>Page 94: row 6 (Concrete), } moved down one row as in Paint.</li>
+      <li>Page 124: The note at the bottom of the page has been moved to directly underneath the first paragraph.</li>
+      <li>Page 137: <i>Pittsburgh</i> in caption changed to <i>Pittsburg</i> as elsewhere in text (and in illustration itself).</li>
+      <li>Page 142: <i>prussian blue</i> changed to <i>Prussian blue</i>.</li>
+      <li>Page 161: <i>A.C.</i> changed to <i>A. C.</i> (space added) as elsewhere.</li>
+      <li>Page 177: <i>pages 174 to 177</i> changed to <i>pages 178 to 180</i>.</li>
+      <li>Pages 197-200: Order of photgraphs changed from vertical to horizontal.</li>
+      <li>Page 211: One footnote anchor * changed to [29] as others in same row.</li>
+      <li>Page 230: <i>4500</i> in formula changed to <i>5400</i>.</li>
+      <li>Page 234: rows for Panel No. 2000: bracket added as elsewhere in table.</li>
+      <li>Page 259 (Index): <i>determinating</i> changed to <i>determining</i> as in text.</li>
+      <li>Page 259 (Index): <i>Derbloomed</i> changed to <i>Debloomed</i> as in text.</li>
+      <li>Page 260 (Index): <i>Filometers</i> changed to <i>Filmometers</i> as in text.</li>
+      <li>Page 261 (Index): <i>Grinding Pigments</i> moved to proper place in alphabetic order.</li>
+      <li>Page 263 (Index): <i>Parilla Oil</i> changed to <i>Perilla Oil</i> as in text.</li>
+      <li>Page 264 (Index): <i>Derbloomed</i> changed to <i>Debloomed</i> as in text.</li>
+    </ul>
+  </li>
+</ul>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Paint Technology and Tests, by Henry A. Gardner
+
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+</body>
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+Project Gutenberg's Paint Technology and Tests, by Henry A. Gardner
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Paint Technology and Tests
+
+Author: Henry A. Gardner
+
+Release Date: September 13, 2011 [EBook #37420]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PAINT TECHNOLOGY AND TESTS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Harry Lame and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  +------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                      TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES                         |
+  |                                                                  |
+  | * Where the original work uses text in italics or bold face, this|
+  |   e-text uses _text_ and =text=, respectively. Small caps in the |
+  |   original work are represented here in all capitals. Subscripts |
+  |   are represented as _{subscript}.                               |
+  | * Footnotes have been moved to directly below the paragraph or   |
+  |   table to which they belong.                                    |
+  | * Several tables have been split, transposed or otherwise re-    |
+  |   arranged to make them fit within the available width.          |
+  |                                                                  |
+  | More Transcriber's Notes will be found at the end of this text.  |
+  +------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+  PAINT TECHNOLOGY AND TESTS
+
+
+  Published by the
+  McGraw-Hill Book Company
+  New York
+
+
+  Successors to the Book Departments of the
+
+  McGraw Publishing Company                      Hill Publishing Company
+
+
+  Publishers of Books for
+
+  Electrical World                    The Engineering and Mining Journal
+  Engineering Record                                  American Machinist
+  Electric Railway Journal                                      Coal Age
+  Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering                           Power
+
+
+
+
+  PAINT TECHNOLOGY
+  AND TESTS.
+
+  BY
+
+  HENRY A. GARDNER
+
+  _Assistant Director, The Institute of Industrial Research,
+  Washington, D. C._
+
+  _Director, Scientific Section, Paint Manufacturers' Association
+  of the United States, etc._
+
+  McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY
+  239 WEST 39TH STREET, NEW YORK
+  6 BOUVERIE STREET, LONDON, E.C.
+  1911
+
+
+
+
+  _Copyright, 1911, by the_ MCGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY
+
+  THE.PLIMPTON.PRESS.NORWOOD.MASS.U.S.A
+
+
+
+
+  TO
+  MY MOTHER
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+A few years ago the producer and consumer of paints possessed
+comparatively little knowledge of the relative durability of various
+pigments and oils. There existed in some cases a prejudice for a few
+standard products, that often held the user in bondage, discouraging
+investigation and exciting suspicion whenever discoveries were made,
+that brought forth new materials. Such conditions indicated to the more
+progressive, the need of positive information regarding the value of
+various painting materials, and the advisability of having the questions
+at issue determined in a practical manner.
+
+The desire that such work should be instituted, resulted in the creation
+of a Scientific Section, the scope of which was to make investigations
+to determine the relative merits of different types of paint, and to
+enlighten the industry on various technical problems. Paint exposure
+tests of an extensive nature were started in various sections of the
+country where climatic conditions vary. This field work was supplemented
+in the laboratory by a series of important researches into the
+properties of pigments, oils, and other raw products entering into the
+manufacture of protective coatings. The results of the work were
+published in bulletin form and given wide distribution. The demand for
+these bulletins early exhausted the original impress, and a general
+summary therefore forms a part of this volume.
+
+The purpose of the book is primarily to serve as a reference work for
+grinders, painters, engineers, and students; matter of an important
+nature to each being presented. Without repetition of the matter found
+in other books, two chapters on raw products have been included, and
+they present in condensed form a summary of information that will prove
+of aid to one who desires to become conversant with painting materials
+with a view to continuing tests such as are outlined herein. In other
+chapters there has been compiled considerable matter from lectures and
+technical articles presented by the writer before various colleges,
+engineering societies, and painters' associations.
+
+The writer wishes to gratefully acknowledge the untiring efforts of the
+members of the Educational Bureau of the Paint Manufacturers'
+Association, whose early endeavors made possible many of the tests
+described in this volume. Kind acknowledgment is also made to members of
+the International Association of Master House Painters and Decorators of
+the United States and Canada, who stood always ready to aid in
+investigations which promised to bring new light into their art and
+craft.
+
+HENRY A. GARDNER.
+
+WASHINGTON, October, 1911.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER                                                  PAGE
+
+     I PAINT OILS AND THINNERS                                1
+
+    II A STUDY OF DRIERS AND THEIR EFFECT                    21
+
+   III PAINT PIGMENTS AND THEIR PROPERTIES                   42
+
+    IV PHYSICAL LABORATORY PAINT TESTS                       70
+
+     V THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF SCIENTIFIC PAINT MAKING    93
+
+    VI THE SCOPE OF PRACTICAL PAINT TESTS                   105
+
+   VII CONDITIONS NOTED AT INSPECTION OF TESTS              114
+
+  VIII RESULTS OF ATLANTIC CITY TESTS                       124
+
+    IX RESULTS OF PITTSBURG TESTS                           135
+
+     X A LABORATORY STUDY OF TEST PANELS                    149
+
+    XI ADDITIONAL TESTS AT ATLANTIC CITY AND PITTSBURG      174
+
+   XII NORTH DAKOTA PAINT TESTS                             182
+
+  XIII TENNESSEE PAINT TESTS                                201
+
+   XIV WASHINGTON PAINT TESTS                               207
+
+    XV CEMENT AND CONCRETE PAINT TESTS                      214
+
+   XVI STRUCTURAL STEEL PAINT TESTS                         220
+
+  XVII THE SANITARY VALUE OF WALL PAINTS                    252
+
+
+
+
+PAINT TECHNOLOGY
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+PAINT OILS AND THINNERS
+
+
+=Constants and Characteristics of Oils and Their Effect upon Drying.= An
+attempt has been made to give in this chapter a brief summary of the
+most important characteristics of those oils finding application in the
+paint and varnish industry. For methods of oil analysis, the reader is
+referred to standard works on this subject; the analytical constants
+herein being given only for comparative purposes.
+
+It is well known that one of the most desirable features of a paint oil
+is the ability to set up in a short period to a hard surface that will
+not take dust. This drying property is dependent upon the chemical
+nature of the oil. If it is an unsaturated compound, like linseed oil,
+rapid absorption of oxygen will cause the film to dry rapidly and become
+hard. If the oil be of a fully satisfied nature, like mineral oil,
+oxygen cannot be taken up to any great extent and drying will not take
+place. The various animal and vegetable oils differ in their power of
+oxygen absorption to a lesser or greater extent. This difference is
+referred to by the chemist in terms of the iodine value. The iodine
+value of linseed oil is approximately 190, meaning that one gram of the
+oil will take up 190 centigrams of iodine. Oils with high iodine values
+have good drying powers, while those with low iodine values are, as a
+rule, very slow drying in nature.
+
+For a description of the working and drying properties of various oils
+used in paints, see Chapter XIV. The oxygen absorption of various oils
+and mixtures is shown in Chapter II.
+
+=Linseed Oil.= The seed of the flax plant which is extensively grown in
+North Dakota, Argentine Republic and Russia, contains approximately 36%
+of oil which may be obtained by grinding, heating, and expression. Ripe
+native seed generally produces a pale oil of little odor; the oil from
+Argentine seed often having a greenish tint and an odor resembling
+sorghum. While filtering, pressing and ageing will remove considerable
+of the ("foots") mucilaginous matter, phosphates, silica, etc., from the
+oil, the better grades which are intended for varnish making are often
+refined with sulphuric acid. A light colored oil which may be heated
+without "breaking" results from this treatment, but such oils are apt to
+contain considerable free fatty acid, unless they are washed with alkali
+subsequent to the sulphuric acid treatment. On account of its rapid
+drying properties and general adaptability for all classes of paints and
+varnishes, linseed oil has never been supplanted by any other oil.
+Chemically it consists of the glycerides of linoleic, oleic, and
+isolinoleic acid, its constitution being responsible for its very high
+iodine value.
+
+[Illustration: Field of Flax in bloom in North Dakota]
+
+Boiled linseed oil, a heavier and darker product, is made by heating the
+raw oil in open kettles to high temperatures, generally with the
+addition of metallic driers such as litharge, and black manganese. The
+resinates of lead and manganese are often added to oil heated at a lower
+temperature, to obtain a boiled oil of lighter color.
+
+[Illustration: New type of Flax Harvester which pulls plant up by the
+roots, thus preventing infection of soil]
+
+[Illustration: Modern Concrete Elevators for storing Flaxseed]
+
+[Illustration: View of Linseed Oil Factory showing hydraulic press,
+tanks, etc.]
+
+[Illustration: _Photographs courtesy of Spencer Kellogg Sons_
+
+Flaxseed Crushers]
+
+[Illustration: Filter Presses for removing extraneous matter from
+linseed oil]
+
+[Illustration: Linseed Cake from Oil Press]
+
+[Illustration: Glycine Hispida
+
+Mammoth soya bean plants]
+
+[Illustration: _Photographs courtesy of David Fairchild, Plant Explorer,
+U. S. Dept. of Agriculture_
+
+Glycine Hispida
+
+Soya bean plants under cultivation at Arlington, Va.]
+
+By blowing air through linseed oil that has been heated to approximately
+200 degrees Fahrenheit, either with or without drier, heavy bodied oils
+are obtained, which find special application in varnishes and technical
+paints. As the viscosity of these oils increase, the iodine values
+decrease, and a slight rise in saponification value and specific gravity
+is observed. The following analyses of various types of linseed oil were
+recently made by the writer:
+
+  ===========+========+========+=========+========+=========+=========
+             |Pure Raw| Boiled | Boiled  | Blown  |  Litho. |  Old
+             |Linseed |  L. O. |  L. O.  | L. O.  |  L. O.  |Treated
+             |  Oil   | (Lino- | (Resin- |        |         |  Oil
+             |        | leate) |  ate)   |        |         |
+  -----------+--------+--------+---------+--------+---------+---------
+  Color      | Amber  |  Dark  | Reddish |  Pale  |  Dark   |  Amber
+             | Clear  | Brown  |  Brown  |        |  Brown  |  Clear
+             |        |        |         |        |         |
+  Sp. Gr. at |   .933 |  .941  |   .930  |  .968  |  .970   |  .943
+  15 deg. C. |        |        |         |        |         |
+             |Average |        |         |        |         |
+  Iodine No. |   180  |  172   |   176   |   133  |   102   |   172
+             |        |        |         |        |         |
+  Saponifi-  |   191  |  187   |   186   |   189  |   199   |   197
+  cation No. |        |        |         |        |         |
+             |        |        |         |        |         |
+  Free Fatty |   3.2  |  2.7   |   2.2   |   2.8  |   2.7   |   6.9
+  Acid       |        |        |         |        |         |
+             |        |        |         |        |         |
+  Unsaponi-  |   1.4  |   --   |    --   |    --  |    --   |   1.8
+  fiable     |        |        |         |        |         |
+             |        |        |         |        |         |
+  Maumene    |   111  |   --   |    --   |    --  |    --   |   96
+             |        |        |         |        |         |
+  Moisture   |   .2%  |   --   |    --   |    --  |    --   |  none
+  ===========+========+========+=========+========+=========+=========
+
+[Illustration: Glycine Hispida
+
+Mammoth soya bean plant]
+
+[Illustration: Glycine Hispida
+
+Soya bean plant, showing nitrogen gathering tubercles on roots]
+
+=Soya Bean Oil.= The soya plant which is extensively cultivated in Asia
+produces a seed bearing up to 22% and over of a golden colored oil
+having a peculiar leguminous odor. The oil, which probably consists of
+the glycerides of oleic, linoleic, and palmitic acids, is secured by
+crushing, steaming and pressing the seed. There are several varieties of
+the plant, and they are said to be the best annual legume for forage,
+the straw and fruit being rich in nitrogen and very fattening as a
+cattle food. Soya may be grown in nearly any country and is a great
+carrier of nitrogen to land deficient in this element. Although the oil
+has been used abroad for many years for soap-making purposes, its use as
+a drying oil is comparatively recent; being introduced into the paint
+industry of the United States during the year 1909, when linseed oil
+started on its phenomenal rise in price.
+
+The oil has given fair service in some paints when mixed with upwards of
+75% of pure linseed oil. It is of a semi-drying nature, but may be made
+to dry rapidly when mixed with manganese and lead linoleate driers. By
+compounding it under heat with tung oil and rosin, a substitute for
+linseed oil is produced, which some claim to be quite valuable.
+
+     Table I gives the constants of several samples of soya oil
+     examined by the writer. Table II shows the iodine value of
+     mixtures of soya and linseed oils. Table III shows the results of
+     drying experiments on soya oils containing different percentages
+     of lead and manganese driers.
+
+TABLE I
+
+CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOYA BEAN OIL
+
+  =======+==========+===========+============+==========+===========
+  Sample | Specific | Acid No.  |  Saponifi- | Iodine   |Per cent.
+    No.  | gravity  |           |   cation   |   No.    | of foots
+         |          |           |    No.     |          |
+  -------+----------+-----------+------------+----------+-----------
+    1    |  0.9233  |   1.87    |   188.4    |  127.8   |    3.81
+    2    |  0.9240  |   1.92    |   188.3    |  127.2   |     --
+    3    |  0.9231  |   1.90    |   187.8    |  131.7   |     --
+    4    |  0.9233  |   1.91    |   188.4    |  129.8   |     --
+    5    |    --    |    --     |     --     |  130.0   |     --
+    6    |    --    |    --     |     --     |  132.6   |     --
+    7    |    --    |    --     |     --     |  136.0   |     --
+  Average|  0.9234  |   1.90    |   188.2    |  130.7   |     --
+  =======+==========+===========+============+==========+===========
+
+TABLE II
+
+IODINE VALUES OF LINSEED OIL AND MIXED OILS
+
+  ==============+============+============+============+============
+                |            |    Soya    |    Soya    |    Soya
+    Sample No.  |  Straight  |25 per cent.|50 per cent.|75 per cent.
+                |  linseed   |  Linseed   |  Linseed   |  Linseed
+                |            |75 per cent.|50 per cent.|25 per cent.
+  --------------+------------+------------+------------+------------
+        1       |   190.3    |   175.2    |   160.7    |   140.4
+        2       |   189.5    |   175.9    |   161.7    |   140.8
+        3       |   188.0    |   175.4    |   160.3    |   139.0
+  --------------+------------+------------+------------+------------
+     Average    |   189.3    |   175.5    |   160.9    |   140.4
+  ==============+============+============+============+============
+
+TABLE III
+
+SOYA BEAN OIL AND LEAD DRIER
+
+  =========+==========+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====
+  Per cent.|          |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+    PbO    |          |0.05|0.10|0.30|0.50|0.70|1.00|1.30|1.60
+  ---------+----------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----
+           | {  1 day | -- |0.07|0.63|1.34|1.05|1.53|0.93|1.35
+           | {  3 days| -- |0.07|3.52|4.31|2.75|4.86|4.82|4.12
+  Per ct.  | {  5 days| -- |0.09|5.04|6.06|6.09|6.75|6.66|5.52
+  gain     | { 12 days| -- | -- |6.88|7.54|7.43|7.76|7.32|6.47
+           | { 15 days| -- | -- |8.84|8.93|8.59|8.81|8.44|7.46
+           | { 20 days|0.05|0.20|9.02|9.08|8.90|9.03|8.65|7.83
+  ---------+----------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----
+
+SOYA BEAN OIL AND MANGANESE DRIER
+
+  -----------------+----------+----+----+----+----+----
+  Per cent. MnO_{2}|          |0.01|0.05|0.15|0.26|0.30
+  -----------------+----------+----+----+----+----+----
+                   | {  1 day | -- | -- |0.02|0.02|0.01
+    Per ct. gain   | { 10 days| -- |5.06|6.48|6.10|5.97
+                   | { 20 days|0.05|9.07|8.80|6.78|6.51
+  -----------------+----------+----+----+----+----+----
+
+SOYA BEAN OIL, MANGANESE AND LEAD DRIER
+
+  -------------+----------+----+----+----
+  Per cent. PbO|          |0.20|0.30|0.50
+  -------------+----------+----+----+----
+  MnO_{2}      |          |0.05|0.15|0.25
+  -------------+----------+----+----+----
+               | {  1 day |3.04|3.77|3.74
+  Per ct. gain | {  8 days|5.96|6.43|6.47
+               | { 12 days|6.33|6.78|6.67
+  =============+==========+====+====+====
+
+=Tung Oil.= There are grown in China and Japan many varieties of the
+"aleurites cordata," popularly known as the tung tree. This tree bears
+great quantities of large sized nuts containing as high as 40% of an oil
+which yields itself in a viscous yellow form upon heating and crushing
+of the fruit. The raw oil, which chemically consists of the glycerides
+of oleic, oleo-margaric, and probably isomeric acids, is distinguished
+by its rapid drying properties. When spread in a thin layer it produces
+a hard film with an opaque frosted surface, often showing a tendency to
+wrinkle. Treated tung oil will dry to a clear, water-shedding, elastic
+film. This oil is made by heating the raw tung oil at a comparatively
+low temperature with other oils and a metallic drier such as litharge.
+
+[Illustration: _Photographs courtesy of David Fairchild_
+
+Aleurites Cordata (Chinese Wood Oil)
+
+Barrel Factory at Cooperage Shop]
+
+[Illustration: _Photographs courtesy of David Fairchild_
+
+Aleurites Fordii (Chinese Wood Oil)
+
+Fruit from trees at the end of fourth year]
+
+The affinity of tung oil for rosin has resulted in the production of a
+series of moderate-priced varnishes most suitable for use in floor and
+deck paints or wherever great hardness is required. These varnishes are
+also finding application in the manufacture of concrete, steel, and flat
+wall paints; being especially suitable for the above purposes when
+compounded with kauri gum japan.
+
+[Illustration: Aleurites Fordii
+
+Flowering specimen of the Chinese Wood Oil tree, thirty feet high and
+three feet in diameter, on banks of Yangtse River, Western Szechuan,
+China. Opium Poppy in the foreground]
+
+[Illustration: Aleurites Cordata
+
+Wood Oil tree at Riverside, California, planted in 1907. Photograph
+taken in 1910, when tree had borne fifty fruits]
+
+During the boiling of raw tung oil the temperature must not exceed much
+over 400 degrees Fahrenheit. Otherwise a peculiar "hamming" will take
+place, the whole mass becoming solid and of no further value as a
+varnish or paint vehicle. Some peculiar internal disturbance or
+rearrangement of the molecules is evidently effected by heat, and
+although the reaction is not clearly understood, it has been ascribed to
+auto-polymerization. Scott has stated that the phenomenon of
+gelatinization is due to the exposure of the surface of the oil to the
+air, and that boiling in vacuo obviates such results. The lusterless
+surface produced when tung oil varnishes are dried in vitiated air would
+tend to confirm the conclusion that the oil is very subject to
+atmospheric influences.
+
+Lumbang Oil, which is obtained from a tropical species of Tung, is very
+similar in appearance and properties to Linseed Oil.
+
+CONSTANTS OF TUNG OILS
+
+  =====+=========+============+==============+==========
+       | Sp. Gr. | Iodine No. |Saponification| Acid No.
+       |         |            |     No.      |
+  -----+---------+------------+--------------+----------
+  No. 1|   .944  |    166     |     188      |   3.6
+  No. 2|   .940  |    164     |     184      |   1.8
+  =====+=========+============+==============+==========
+
+[Illustration: _Photographs courtesy Alpin I. Dunn_
+
+Menhaden Net drying in the Sun]
+
+[Illustration: Transporting Menhaden from net to deck of boat, in
+swinging basket]
+
+[Illustration: A big catch of Menhaden made off Narragansett Bay]
+
+=Menhaden Oil.= Of all the marine-animal oils, such as seal, herring,
+sardine, whale, and menhaden, the latter is the most valuable. It is
+produced by steam digestion and pressure of the menhaden or "piogey"
+fish, which are caught in great quantities off the Atlantic Coast.
+Prompt cooking and treatment of the fish results in a light-colored oil
+having very little odor, the residue left in the presses being of great
+value as a fertilizer. Although several grades of oil termed crude,
+brown, light, etc., are produced, the most satisfactory for use in paint
+is that grade termed "light winter pressed." This oil is of a pale straw
+color and has a high iodine number which is responsible for its rapid
+drying value. It contains less of the stearates that precipitate from
+crude oil, but sufficient to render its film water-shedding and elastic.
+The presence of too great a quantity of stearates is apt to result in a
+very soft film, and the use of hard driers, such as the metallic
+tungates, is therefore advisable with menhaden oil. When mixed with
+linseed oil paints the odor of menhaden oil is sometimes noticeable, but
+it disappears entirely after such paints are applied. Its use with
+linseed oil in technical paints exposed to the salty air of the Coast
+has given good results, often preventing "checking" and "chalking."
+
+The following constants were determined on samples of menhaden oil
+received in the writer's laboratory:
+
+  ========+==========+==========+==============+==========
+          | Sp. Gr.  |  Iodine  |Saponification|   Acid
+          |          |  Value   |    Number    |  Number
+  --------+----------+----------+--------------+----------
+  Light   |   .927   |  175.8   |    187.9     |   7.55
+  Medium  |   .925   |  178.7   |    187.6     |   6.19
+  Dark    |   .927   |  178.0   |    187.3     |   7.19
+  ========+==========+==========+==============+==========
+
+=Whale Oil.= While ordinary whale oil is too dark and odorous to ever
+come into extensive use as a paint oil, it is probable that the refined
+oil will be utilized in the manufacture of certain technical paints.
+Whale oil is boiled from chopped whale blubber, the first trying being
+the lightest in color, while the later tryings, as well as the product
+made from bones, are of darker color and of very bad odor. Oil of
+mirbane is often used to mask this odor. The oil contains large
+quantities of stearin and palmitin, as well as wax-like constituents
+which are apt to be thrown out of solution in very cold weather, or when
+the oil is mixed with other oils. The refined oil, when ground with lead
+and zinc pigments and mixed with equal parts of linseed oil and treated
+tung oil, dries to an elastic and soft film. Experiments are being made
+to utilize whale oil in the linoleum industry.
+
+The analyses of samples of whale oil tested by the writer are as
+follows:
+
+  =============+=========+========+==============+============
+               | Sp. Gr. | Iodine |Saponification| Free Fatty
+               |         | Value  |    Number    |    Acid
+  -------------+---------+--------+--------------+------------
+  Light Refined|  .924   |  148   |    190.2     |    1.2
+  Dark Yellow  |  .920   |  142   |    187       |    7.0
+  Dark Brown   |  .910   |  140   |    184       |   18.0
+  =============+=========+========+==============+============
+
+=Sunflower Oil.= Sunflower oil is produced largely in Russia and
+Hungary, finding favor in those countries as an edible oil. The ripe
+seeds of the sunflower plant contain over 30% of oil which is very pale
+in color and of a pleasant smell. It has been found that sunflowers may
+be grown to advantage in dry parts of the United States, and if suitable
+yields are obtained from a few experimental acres now being cultivated,
+the industry may receive encouragement in this country. The oil should
+be well suited for varnish making, and although the iodine number is not
+very high, it dries quite rapidly.
+
+[Illustration: Russian Sunflower Seeds]
+
+CONSTANTS OF SUNFLOWER OIL
+
+  ========+============+================+======
+  Sp. Gr. | Iodine No. | Saponification | Acid
+          |            |      No.       |  No.
+  --------+------------+----------------+------
+    .929  |    128     |      188       |  4
+  ========+============+================+======
+
+=Cottonseed Oil.= This oil is expressed from the seed of the cotton
+plant, varying in color according to the time of its pressing and degree
+of refinement. Being edible as well as highly suited for soap making,
+very little of it comes into the market as a paint oil. It contains
+large quantities of stearin and has a low iodine value, making it a slow
+drying oil. Some samples are extremely light in color and contain less
+mucilaginous matter and foots than is present in ordinary varieties.
+
+CONSTANTS OF COTTONSEED OIL
+
+  ========+============+================+======
+  Sp. Gr. | Iodine No. | Saponification | Acid
+          |            |      No.       |  No.
+  --------+------------+----------------+------
+    .922  |    106     |      190       | 2.4
+  ========+============+================+======
+
+=Corn Oil.= As a by-product in the manufacture of starch and alcoholic
+liquids, this material comes into the market having a golden yellow
+color, and an odor resembling fermented grain. It has a lower drying
+value than cottonseed oil, and its use in the paint industry will
+probably be limited to color grinding, where an oil with a semi-drying
+value is often desired. Like cottonseed oil, it belongs more properly to
+the soap oil class. It contains glycerides of linoleic and especially
+palmitic acid.
+
+ANALYSIS OF CORN OIL
+
+  ========+============+================+=====
+  Sp. Gr. | Iodine No. | Saponification | Acid
+          |            |      No.       |  No.
+  --------+------------+----------------+-----
+    .925  |    118     |      191       | 9.5
+  ========+============+================+=====
+
+=Rosin Oil.= By the dry distillation of rosin, there is yielded a series
+of heavy dark oils consisting principally of hydrocarbons, resinous
+bodies, and free acid. These oils vary in their saponification number
+from 10 to 60, while their unsaponifiable value averages about 80. Of
+the grades termed first, second, third, and fourth run, the latter two
+are superior for use in paints, as a rule containing less free acid than
+the preliminary runs. Treatment with steam and alkali serve to
+neutralize the acid nature of the oils and to remove impurities. Refined
+oils are lighter in color and are often blown and bodied to fairly rapid
+drying products, especially when treated with manganese driers. Rosin
+oils are seldom used with lead pigments, on account of the presence of
+sulphur in the oils, which would result in darkening. Rosin oil paints
+work very smoothly, even when they are curdled, producing glossy
+surfaces. The rapid checking of rosin oil paints on wooden surfaces bars
+the use of this oil for such purposes.
+
+ANALYSES OF ROSIN OILS
+
+  ==+=========+============+================+======
+    | Sp. Gr. |   Iodine   | Saponification | Acid
+    |         |   Value    |      No.       |  No.
+  --+---------+------------+----------------+------
+  A |   .966  |     41     |       27       | 16.7
+  B |   .99   |     48     |       38       | 10.0
+  ==+=========+============+================+======
+
+=Hydrocarbon Oils.= Several grades of neutral or mineral oils, varying
+somewhat in gravity, color, and quality, are produced as the last
+distillate in the refining of petroleum. These oils when mixed with
+drying oils and strong driers find application in the manufacture of
+some freight-car, barn, and other paints which sell at a low price. A
+small percentage of mineral oil is said to be valuable in structural
+steel paints, acting as a preventative of hard drying and thus keeping
+the film soft and elastic. Streaking and sweating is apt to ensue if any
+great quantity is used. Mineral oils have a characteristic bloom,
+showing a greenish fluorescence when examined by transmitted light. This
+bloom is due to the presence of some strongly fluorescent material which
+is shown up with intensity when mineral oils are exposed to ultraviolet
+rays such as emanate from an enclosed arc light. Outerbridge[1] first
+proposed this test for mineral oils, and he has worked out a
+"fluorescent scale," by which very small percentages of hydrocarbon oils
+may be detected in other oils. Several types of so-called debloomed oil
+have been placed upon the market, and although such oils appear under
+ordinary light conditions to be free from bloom, they fluoresce quite
+strongly when given the Outerbridge test.
+
+  [1] Alexander E. Outerbridge, Jr.: "A Novel Method of Detecting
+      Mineral Oil and Resin Oil in Other Oils." Proc. 14th Annual Meet.,
+      Amer. Soc. for Testing Mater., Atlantic City, N.J., June 28, 1911.
+
+[Illustration: View of Stills Where Petroleum Paint Thinners are
+Manufactured (Waverly)]
+
+ANALYSIS OF DEBLOOMED MINERAL PAINT OIL[2]
+
+  ========+============+================+=====
+  Sp. Gr. | Iodine No. | Saponification | Acid
+          |            |      No.       |  No.
+  --------+------------+----------------+-----
+    .92   |     12     |       4        |  0
+  ========+============+================+=====
+
+  [2] Oil of mirbane present, probably as a deblooming agent, or to mask
+      the odor.
+
+=Pine Oil.= This oil is produced by the redistillation of the heavy,
+high boiling point fractions resulting from the steam distillation of
+wood turpentine. It is a heavy straw-colored oil, and should be of some
+use in the paint and varnish industry, where a high boiling point
+solvent with an oxidizing principle is desired. It will probably find
+application in the manufacture of Baking Japans, Asphalt Paints and
+Enamels. Its oxidizing and solvent values are very high. It has a
+distinctive sweet pine smell, which makes it popular in the manufacture
+of turpentine substitutes from petroleum spirits.
+
+The writer has examined samples of this material, and the following
+appear to be of the best grade:
+
+CONSTANTS OF PINE OILS
+
+  ==========================+======================+====================
+                            |        No. 1         |         No. 2
+  --------------------------+----------------------+--------------------
+  Color                     |Straw Color           |Light Yellow
+  Specific Gravity at 15 deg. C.|.934                  |.936
+  Boiling Point             |192 deg. C.           |202 deg. C.
+  Distillation              |95% distils between   |95% distils between
+                            |  192-270 deg. C.     |  202-280 deg. C.
+  Residue on Evaporation    |14.34%                |14.60%
+  Polymerization Test       |3-2/3% unpolymerized  |2-1/2% unpolymerized
+                            |  at end of 1/2 hour  |  at end of 1/2 hour
+  Flash-Point               |72 deg. C.            |76 deg. C.
+  Spot Test                 |Leaves no grease spot |Same as Pine Oil No.
+                            |but only evaporates   |1.
+                            |completely in 24 hours|
+  ==========================+======================+====================
+
+=Turpentine.= By direct fire or steam distillation of the sap drippings
+collected in pockets cut into pine trees, there is obtained the
+turpentine of commerce. It consists largely of pinene and isomeric
+terpenes, and has the property of attracting oxygen, with the formation
+of peroxides which stimulate the drying of oils. It is a high-grade
+solvent for various gums, and is therefore used in the manufacture of
+many lacquers as well as for thinning down oil-gum varnishes.
+
+REQUISITE CONSTANTS OF PURE GUM TURPENTINE
+
+  Color                        Water White
+  Specific Gravity at 15 deg. C.   .862-.875
+  Boiling Point                About 156 deg. C.
+  Distillation                 95% should distil between 153 and 165 deg. C.
+  Residue on Evaporation       Not over 2%
+  Polymerization               Not over 5% should remain unpolymerized
+                               at end of half hour
+  Flash-Point                  Over 40.5 deg. C.
+  Spot Test                    No grease spot should remain when dropped
+                               on paper and allowed to evaporate
+  Water                        None
+
+=Wood Turpentine.= High-grade wood turpentine is now produced by the
+steam distillation of finely cut fat pine wood. The lower-grade
+qualities are often produced from the destructive distillation of
+sawdust, stumpage, etc., and these products, on account of their content
+of formaldehyde, are objectionable in odor. In the steam distillation
+process, however, a high quality product is obtained by cutting out the
+heavy fractions and redistilling the lower and purer fractions. It has a
+high oxidizing value, causing the rapid drying of paints and varnishes
+to which it has been added. Its solvent value is often greater than that
+of gum turpentine. When properly refined it has a sweet smell and is to
+be highly recommended.
+
+Analyses of samples of pure wood turpentine which have come to the
+writer for examination follow:
+
+  ======================+==========================+====================
+                        |           No. 1          |        No. 2
+  ----------------------+--------------------------+--------------------
+  Sp. Gr. at 15 deg. C. |.862                      |.862
+  Boiling Point         |158 deg. C.               |162 deg. C.
+  Distillation: 95%     |                          |
+    distils between     |158 and 185 deg. C.       |162 and 177 deg. C.
+  Residue on Evaporation|1.03%                     |3.06%
+  Polymerization Test   |4.1% remains unpolymerized|0.1 cc. out of 6 cc.
+                        |at end of 1/2             |  unpolymerized =
+                        |hour                      |  1.66%
+  Spot Test             |No grease spot on         |No grease spot on
+                        |  evaporation             |  evaporation
+  Odor                  |Excellent                 |Not objectionable
+  Color                 |Water White               |Water White
+  Flash Point           |                          |47.6 deg. C.
+  ======================+==========================+====================
+
+=Petroleum Spirits.= There are produced from Texas crude oil which has
+an asphaltum base, and Pennsylvania crude oil which has a paraffin base,
+high boiling-point petroleum spirits which have come into wide use as
+paint and varnish thinners. When such materials have the proper
+evaporating value, high flash-point and freedom from sulphur, they are
+to be highly recommended as paint thinners. The following shows the
+analyses of a few of these materials examined in the writer's
+laboratory:
+
+PETROLEUM SPIRITS
+
+  =======================+=============+============+==============
+                         | Texas Base  | California | Penna. Base
+                         |             |    Base    |
+  -----------------------+-------------+------------+--------------
+  Color                  | Water White | White      | Water White
+  Specific Gravity       | .811        | .79        | .81
+  Boiling Point          | 156 deg. C. | 138 deg. C.| 146 deg. C.
+  Flash-Point            | 44 deg. C.  | 40.5 deg. C.| 43 deg. C.
+  Residue on Evaporation | .2          | .15        | .12
+  =======================+=============+============+==============
+
+=Benzol.= "Solvent naphtha" or 160-degree benzol is a product obtained
+from the distillation of coal tar, differing from benzine, a product
+obtained from the distillation of petroleum. It is a valuable thinner to
+use in the reduction of paints for the priming of resinous lumber and
+refractory woods such as cypress and yellow pitch pine. The penetrating
+and solvent values of benzol are high, and it often furnishes a unison
+between paint and wood, that is a prime foundation to subsequent
+coatings, preventing the usual scaling and sap exudations which often
+appear on a painted surface. Because of the great solvent action of
+benzol, it should never be used in second and third coatings. The writer
+has successfully painted inferior grades of cypress with a paint
+containing benzol in the priming coat.
+
+=Benzine.= Benzine is seldom used in paints on account of its rapid
+evaporation, which is apt to cause pinholing of films and other surface
+defects. In paints of the dipping type where rapid evaporation is
+essential, benzine finds its widest application.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+A STUDY OF DRIERS AND THEIR EFFECT
+
+
+The proper drying of oils and their behavior with various siccatives in
+varying quantity is an interesting problem, and obviously of
+considerable importance from a practical standpoint. Unfortunately there
+is a decided scarcity of reliable literature dealing with the subject
+for the guidance of those concerned in the manufacture or application of
+siccative products. Furthermore, when the problem is investigated, it is
+not difficult to see why this is so.
+
+=Uniform Conditions.= At a glance it is evident that a decided obstacle
+in experimentation on the drying properties of oils is the difficulty in
+obtaining identical conditions for comparative purposes. Inasmuch as a
+multitude of factors, such as uniformity and homogeneity of the driers
+and the oils themselves, intensity and source of light, temperature,
+uniformity of application, and many others, play a decisive part in the
+siccative tendencies of oils, the resources and ingenuity of the chemist
+engaged in the research are severely taxed.
+
+=Oxygen Absorption.= It is a well-known fact that linseed oil, when
+applied to a clean surface, such as a glass plate, will undergo
+oxidation and take up oxygen to the extent of about 16%, forming a hard,
+elastic, non-sticky product which has been called linoxyn. This
+material, unlike the oil from which it has been formed, is insoluble in
+most solvents. Other oils, such as cottonseed, hemp, rape, olive, etc.,
+are more fully satisfied in nature and have not the power to absorb the
+amount of oxygen taken up by linseed oil.
+
+In carrying out the following tests, on the drying of oils, a quantity
+of pure linseed oil of the following analysis was secured:
+
+  Specific gravity at 15 deg. C.       0.934
+  Acid number                            5
+  Saponification number                191-1/2
+  Iodine number                        188
+
+This oil was distributed into a number of 8-oz. oil sample bottles, and
+to a series of these bottles was added varying quantities of a very
+concentrated drier made by boiling oil to 400 degrees Fahrenheit in an
+open kettle, with the subsequent addition of lead oxide. The amount of
+drier added to each bottle varied according to the percentage desired;
+being calculated on the lead content of the drier, which was very
+accurately determined by analysis.
+
+There was secured in this manner a series of oils containing varying
+amounts of lead oxide, and from this lot was selected a certain number
+of samples which would be representative and typical of paint vehicles
+now found in the market.
+
+Another series of tests were made by combining with a large number of
+samples of pure linseed oil as used above, various percentages of a
+manganese drier made by boiling oil at 400 deg. F. and incorporating
+therewith manganese dioxide.
+
+Still another series of tests were made upon a number of oils into which
+were incorporated various small quantities of lead oxide and manganese
+oxide together, using the standard driers made in the above manner, all
+of which were carefully analyzed to determine their contents.
+
+In view of the errors in manipulation that could occur where so many
+tests were made, it was not deemed advisable, in carrying out the tests,
+to use glass plates on which only a minute quantity of oil could be
+maintained. A much better solution of the difficulty presented itself in
+using a series of small, round, crimped-edge tin plates, about three
+inches in diameter, such as are used for lids of friction-top cans.
+
+With paints it is impossible to secure films as thin as those presented
+by layers of oil on glass, nor would it be desirable to secure films of
+this same relative thickness. For this reason an endeavor was made to
+conduct the following tests with films of the same relative thickness as
+that possessed by the average coating of paint. The drying of the films
+did not take place in the same short period, nor in the same ratio, as
+with the thin layer that is secured by flowing oil upon glass. The
+results, however, are more practical, and of greater value to the
+manufacturer.
+
+The cans were carefully numbered in consecutive order, corresponding to
+the numbers on the various samples of oil. A very small quantity of oil
+was placed in each of the can covers, which were previously weighed, and
+allowed to distribute itself over the bottom surface thereof. Reweighing
+of the covers gave the amount of oil which was taken for each test. The
+test samples in the covers were all placed in a large box with glass
+sides, having a series of perforated shelves. In the side of this box is
+an opening through which a tube was passed, carrying a continual current
+of air washed and dried in sulphuric acid. Oxidation of the oil films
+commenced at once, and the amount of oxygen absorbed was determined at
+suitable periods by weighing, the increase in weight giving this factor.
+This test was kept up for a period of twenty days.
+
+A test was also made in the same manner with a current of damp air
+passing into the box, to observe the relative oxidation under such
+conditions. A chart of the results obtained has been made (Table VI), to
+show the effect of the various driers.
+
+=Results of Tests.= The following outline will present to the mind of
+the reader the most salient points which have been gleaned from these
+experiments, and which should give the manufacturer definite knowledge
+as to the best percentage of oxides to use either in boiled oil, paints
+or varnishes.
+
+In the case of lead oxide, an increase in the percentage of lead oxide
+in the oil causes a relative increase in the oxygen absorption, but when
+a very large percentage of lead has been added, the film of oil dries to
+a leathery skin.
+
+In the case of manganese oxide, the increase in oxygen absorption on the
+first day is much more pronounced than is the case with lead oxides.
+Furthermore, the oxidation of manganese oils seems to be relative to the
+increase in manganese up to a certain period, when the reverse of this
+law seems to take place, and beyond a certain definite percentage of
+manganese, added percentages seem to be of no value. It was furthermore
+observed that the films dry to a more brittle and harder skin than is
+the case when lead oxide is used. The oxygen absorption with oils high
+in manganese has been noticed to be excessive, and the film of oil
+becomes surface-coated, drying beneath in a very slow manner; a
+condition that often leads to checking. The critical percentage where
+the amount of manganese appears to give the greatest efficiency seems to
+be 0.02%. This critical percentage, as it may be termed, should not be
+exceeded, and any added amount of manganese has the effect of making the
+film much more brittle and causes the so-called "burning up" of the
+paint. The loading of paint with drier and the bad result therefrom may
+be explained to some extent from the above results.
+
+TABLE VI--LINSEED OIL AND MnO_{2} (MANGANESE) DRIER--TEST NO. 1
+
+  =========+=========+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====
+  Per cent.|         |0.02|0.05|0.15|0.25|0.35|0.45|0.55|0.70|1.00
+  MnO_{2}  |         |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  ---------+---------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----
+           |{  1 day |0.08|0.11|0.16| -- |3.21|3.46|3.27|3.01|2.76
+           |{  2 days|0.16|5.88|4.48| -- |3.63|4.01|3.70|3.51|3.18
+           |{  3 days|0.21|6.79|4.61| -- |3.83|4.31| -- |3.91| --
+           |{  4 days| -- | -- |4.64| -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | --
+           |{  5 days|3.01|6.84| -- | -- |4.13|4.68|4.19|3.91|3.99
+           |{  6 days|8.00| -- |4.88| -- |4.37| -- |4.51|4.32|4.13
+  Per      |{  7 days|8.58|6.92|4.90| -- |4.48| -- |4.61|4.52|4.23
+  cent.    |{  8 days|9.06| -- |5.03| -- |4.55|5.23|4.77|4.62|4.44
+  gain     |{  9 days| -- | -- |5.12| -- |4.63|5.40|4.94|4.79|4.51
+           |{ 10 days|9.07|6.89|5.18| -- |4.81|5.47| -- |4.98|4.73
+           |{ 11 days|9.15|7.03| -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | --
+           |{ 12 days| -- | -- | -- | -- |4.98| -- |5.45|5.33|5.22
+           |{ 13 days|9.22|7.17| -- | -- |5.25|6.00|5.60|5.42|5.33
+           |{ 14 days|9.25|7.18|5.55| -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | --
+           |{ 20 days| -- |7.21|5.81| -- |5.84|6.70|5.94|5.84|5.77
+  =========+=========+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====
+
+TABLE VII--LINSEED OIL AND MnO_{2} (MANGANESE) DRIER--TEST NO. 2 (CHECK)
+
+  =========+=========+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====
+  Per cent.|         |0.02|0.05|0.15|0.25|0.35|0.45|0.55|0.70|1.00
+  MnO_{2}  |         |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  ---------+---------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----
+           |{  1 day | -- |3.12|4.42|3.86| -- |3.19|2.98|3.27|2.56
+           |{  2 days| -- |6.15|4.73| -- | -- |3.51|3.28|3.70|2.96
+           |{  3 days|0.28|6.29| -- |4.12|3.72| -- |3.39|3.71|3.15
+           |{  4 days|3.83|6.32|4.75|4.21|3.87|3.61|3.58|4.05|3.43
+  Per      |{  5 days|6.64| -- |4.84|4.23|3.94|3.73|3.65|4.21|3.56
+  cent.    |{  6 days|8.61| -- |4.87| -- |4.08|3.81|3.78|4.35|3.73
+  gain     |{  7 days|9.07|6.35|5.00|4.41|4.18|3.91|3.85|4.54|3.87
+           |{  9 days|9.25|6.39|5.16| -- |4.44|4.11|4.21|4.63|4.26
+           |{ 11 days| -- | -- | -- |4.63|4.59|4.36|4.31|5.07|4.46
+           |{ 16 days| -- |6.43|5.30|4.91|4.83|4.72|4.71|5.40|4.87
+  =========+=========+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====
+
+TABLE VIII--LINSEED OIL AND PbO (LEAD) DRIER
+
+  =====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+======+======+=====+======+=====+====+====
+   Per |     |     |     |     |     |      |      |     |      |     |    |
+  cent.|     | 0.00| 0.05| 0.10| 0.30| 0.50 | 0.70 | 1.00| 1.30 | 1.60|1.30|1.60
+   PbO |     |     |     |     |     |      |      |     |      |     |    |
+  -----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+------+-----+------+-----+----+----
+       |{ 1  |0.042|0.049|0.092|0.058| 0.066| 0.062|0.062| 0.079|0.039|0.14|0.72
+       |{day |     |     |     |     |      |      |     |      |     |    |
+       |{ 2  |0.098|0.104|0.153|0.116| 0.158|  --  |0.194| 4.83 |4.79 |5.27|6.11
+       |{days|     |     |     |     |      |      |     |      |     |    |
+       |{ 3  |0.128|0.159|0.170|0.137| 0.279| 0.185|7.11 | 8.60 |5.35 |7.89|8.28
+       |{days|     |     |     |     |      |      |     |      |     |    |
+       |{ 4  |0.164|0.214|0.206|0.178|   -- | 4.07 |7.39 | 9.55 |8.53 |7.93|8.68
+       |{days|     |     |     |     |      |      |     |      |     |    |
+       |{ 5  |0.176|  -- |0.306|  -- | 0.340| 7.60 |7.47 | 9.87 |8.78 |8.18| --
+       |{days|     |     |     |     |      |      |     |      |     |    |
+  Per  |{ 6  |0.188|0.231|  -- |0.243| 0.472| 9.36 |7.64 |10.01 |9.00 |8.24|9.09
+  cent.|{days|     |     |     |     |      |      |     |      |     |    |
+  gain |{ 7  |0.206|0.251|  -- |0.253| 1.080|10.06 | --  |10.14 | --  | -- | --
+       |{days|     |     |     |     |      |      |     |      |     |    |
+       |{ 8  |0.212|0.253|  -- |0.280| 4.80 |10.38 |7.70 |10.22 |9.05 | -- | --
+       |{days|     |     |     |     |      |      |     |      |     |    |
+       |{ 9  |0.226|0.291|0.306|0.331| 7.36 |10.41 |7.73 |10.23 |9.07 | -- | --
+       |{days|     |     |     |     |      |      |     |      |     |    |
+       |{13  |0.327|0.428|0.510|0.674|11.01 |10.67 |7.91 |10.48 |9.29 |8.62| --
+       |{days|     |     |     |     |      |      |     |      |     |    |
+       |{15  |0.466|0.455|0.650|2.41 |11.05 |  --  |7.92 |10.50 |9.30 | -- | --
+       |{days|     |     |     |     |      |      |     |      |     |    |
+       |{20  |0.521|1.08 |1.78 |8.76 |11.25 |10.67 |7.98 |10.52 |9.36 | -- | --
+       |{days|     |     |     |     |      |      |     |      |     |    |
+  =====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+======+======+=====+======+=====+====+====
+
+TABLE IX--LINSEED OIL AND PbO (LEAD) AND MnO_{2} (MANGANESE)--COMBINATION
+DRIER
+
+  =================+========+=====+=====+======+======+====+=====+====
+  Per cent. PbO    |        | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.5  | 0.7  |0.9 | 1.1 |1.4
+  -----------------+--------+-----+-----+------+------+----+-----+----
+  Per cent. MnO_{2}|        |.005 |.015 | 0.025| 0.35 |0.45| 0.55|0.7
+  -----------------+--------+-----+-----+------+------+----+-----+----
+                   |{ 1 day |0.026|0.061| 0.055| 0.022|0.16| 0.11|3.06
+                   |{ 2 days|0.094|0.087| 0.143| 0.16 |5.21| 6.28|3.37
+                   |{ 3 days|0.118| --  | 0.17 | 4.23 |7.63| 8.31|3.74
+                   |{ 4 days| --  |0.11 | 0.23 | 7.36 |8.87| 9.20|4.02
+                   |{ 5 days|0.120|0.12 | 0.29 | 9.04 |9.13| 9.37|4.17
+  Per cent. gain   |{ 6 days|0.17 |0.13 | 1.44 | 9.88 |9.26| 9.51|4.34
+                   |{ 7 days|0.21 |0.18 | 4.65 |10.11 |9.28|  -- |4.45
+                   |{11 days|0.30 |0.26 |10.03 |10.35 |9.61| 9.85|5.11
+                   |{12 days| --  | --  |  --  |10.45 |9.66|  -- | --
+                   |{13 days|0.35 |0.54 |10.37 |10.51 |9.67|10.03|5.33
+                   |{18 days|0.49 |3.43 |10.38 |10.62 |9.68|  -- |5.73
+  =================+========+=====+=====+======+======+====+=====+====
+
+In the same way with lead driers, excessive amounts of lead oxide seem
+to have no beneficial effects on the drying of an oil, and when the
+percentage which seems to be the most beneficial, namely 0.5% lead
+oxide, is exceeded, the film is apt to become brittle.
+
+Oils containing lead oxide driers are less influenced in their drying
+tendencies by conditions of moisture in the atmosphere than oils
+containing manganese, but frequently, however, the former dry much
+better in a dry atmosphere. As a general rule, varnishes rich in
+manganese dry more quickly in a dry atmosphere, while those containing
+small quantities dry more quickly in a damp atmosphere.
+
+=Volatile Products Formed.= It was furthermore noticed in these tests
+that sulphuric acid, placed in dishes on the bottom of the large box in
+which the samples of oil were drying, was discolored and turned brown
+after several days, showing that the acid had taken up some material of
+a volatile nature that was a product of the oxidation.
+
+Another curious feature of these tests was the development of a peculiar
+aromatic odor which was given off by the oils upon drying in dry air.
+When the oils were dried in moist air, a rank odor resembling propionic
+acid was observed, and this led the observer to believe that a reaction
+was effected by the absorbed oxygen, that caused the glycerin combined
+with the linoleic acid as linolein to split up into evil-smelling
+compounds. It has been suggested that the oxygen first attacks the
+glycerin, transforming it into carbonic acid, water, and other volatile
+compounds, which are eliminated before the oil is dried to linoxyn.
+Toch,[3] however, has shown that the drying of linseed oil gives off
+only very small percentages of carbon dioxide. Mulder has observed that
+in the process of linseed oil being oxidized, glycerin is set free,
+which becomes oxidized to formic, acetic, and other acids, while the
+acid radicals are converted by oxygen into the anhydrides, from which
+they pass by further oxidation into linoxyn.
+
+  [3] Toch: The Chem. and Tech. of Mixed Paints, p. 89. D. Van Vostand
+      Co., N. Y.
+
+=Auto-Oxidation of Oil.= The theory of auto-oxidation of linseed oil has
+been very ably treated by Blackler, whose experiments indicated that
+during the drying process the slow absorption of oxygen was, at a
+critical period, followed by a rapid absorption, which he attributes to
+the presence of peroxides. The materials produced by this peroxide
+formation may act as catalyzers and accelerate the formation of more
+peroxide. Lead and manganese oxides may also be oxidized to peroxides by
+the action of oxygen, and in this event might act as very active
+catalyzing agents or carriers of oxygen. Blackler's statement, that the
+presence of driers do not increase, but have a tendency to decrease the
+initial velocity of oxygen absorption, has been confirmed by these
+experiments, but it has been noticed throughout the tests that the
+driers have an accelerative action at a later period.
+
+=Effect of Metals on Drying of Oils.= Some most interesting results were
+secured by dipping extremely fine copper gauze into linseed oil, and
+then suspending the gauze in the air. The adhesion of the oil to the
+copper caused the formation of films between the network, and remarkable
+drying action was observed. The copper or any superficial coating of
+copper oxide which may have been present on the metal, undoubtedly
+affected the result to some extent. It has been found that metallic lead
+is even more efficient than copper in this respect, but this may be due
+to the action of free acid in the linseed oil, forming lead linoleates,
+products that greatly accelerate drying. Another interesting experiment
+was made by immersing pieces of gauze cloth in linseed oil. After the
+excess oil had been removed, by pressing, the cloth was again weighed to
+determine the amount of oil used for the experiment. The increase in
+oxygen absorption in this case was very rapid, and the result obtained
+confirmed the results in the other experiments.
+
+In order to secure a more evenly distributed state of the oil, tests
+were conducted by saturating pieces of stiff blotting papers, and, after
+exposure, weighing as usual.
+
+=Influence of Light.= The influence of light on the drying of oils is
+unquestionably a potent one. The practical painter knows that a certain
+varnish will dry quicker when exposed to the light than when in the
+dark.
+
+Chevreul was one of the first pioneers in this field of research to
+observe the effects of colored lights on drying, and he claimed that oil
+exposed under white glass dried more rapidly than when exposed under red
+glass, which eliminates all light of short wave lengths.
+
+Genthe obtained interesting results in the drying of oil submitted to
+the effect of the mercury lamp. Oxidation without driers was effected
+probably through the formation of peroxides. In commenting on this
+subject, Blackler[4] gives a description of the use of the Uveol Lamp,
+which is similar to the mercury lamp, but has, instead of a glass casing
+which cuts off the valuable rays, a fused-quartz casing which allows
+their passage.
+
+  [4] M. B. Blackler: "The Use and Abuse of Driers," P. and V. Society,
+      London, Sept. 9, 1909.
+
+=Driers in Boiled Oil.= In the boiling of linseed oil, by certain
+processes the oil is heated to 250 deg. F. and manganese resinate is
+incorporated therein. It goes into solution quite rapidly. In other
+processes the oil is heated to 400 deg. F. or over, and manganese as an
+oxide is boiled into the oil. Although it is unsafe to say that a small
+percentage of rosin, such as would be introduced by the use of resinate
+driers, is not harmful, yet it appears that this process should give a
+good oil, inasmuch as it has been found that no matter whether the
+manganese is added to the oil, as a resinate, borate or oxide,
+practically the same drying effect is noticed in every case where the
+percentage of manganese is the same. It is the opinion of some, however,
+that the resinate driers are not as well suited for durability as oxide
+driers. However, if a boiled oil is found to contain on analysis a small
+percentage of rosin less than 0.5% or a percentage only sufficient to
+combine with the metal present, it should not be suspected of
+adulteration. Practical tests should be made with such oil along with an
+oil made with an oxide drier, before pronouncing on their relative
+values. Inasmuch as the addition of certain driers to linseed oil
+lessens the durability of the film, it is more practical to use the
+smallest amount of drier that will serve the purpose desired, that is,
+set the oil up to a hard condition which will not take dust and which
+will stand abrasion.
+
+The results of this investigation would indicate that when lead or
+manganese linoleates are used, the most efficient drying is shown with
+0.5% lead or with 0.02% manganese, or with a combination of 0.5% lead
+and 0.02% manganese.
+
+Until more definite results have been obtained with the _tungates_,
+which will probably prove of exceptional interest as driers, the above
+driers will probably be used to the greatest extent.
+
+=Co-operative Drying Tests.= A series of important drying tests made by
+members of a special committee[5] appointed by the American Society for
+Testing Materials, of which the writer was chairman, is herewith shown:
+
+  [5] Sub-Committee C of Committee D-1, on Testing Paint Vehicles. Proc.
+      Amer. Soc. for Test. Mater., 1911.
+
+"At the January meeting of Committee D-1, a sub-committee consisting of
+the following members was appointed to investigate paint vehicles:
+
+  G. B. Heckel,
+  Glenn H. Pickard,
+  Allen Rogers,
+  A. H. Sabin,
+  H. A. Gardner, _Chairman_.
+
+"At a subsequent meeting of the sub-committee it was determined to start
+the investigations with a series of tests on certain drying,
+semi-drying, and non-drying oils, determining their drying values, rate
+of oxygen absorption, etc., when spread out in thin films. A quantity of
+the following oils was selected for the tests and subsequently secured
+from sources known to be reliable:
+
+  Lead and manganese linoleate drier.[6]
+  Lithographic linseed oil.
+  Boiled linseed oil (resinate type).
+  Boiled linseed oil (linoleate type).
+  Blown linseed oil (containing drier while being blown).
+  Heavy mineral oil.
+  Rosin oil.
+  Soya bean oil.
+  Corn oil.
+  Cottonseed oil.
+  Sunflower oil.
+  Menhaden oil.
+  Chinese wood oil, raw.
+  Chinese wood oil, treated.
+  Perilla oil.[7]
+  Lumbang oil.[7]
+  Dry rosin 20%, boiled in 80% linseed oil.
+
+  [6] The drier used, upon analysis, showed the presence of 4.36% PbO
+      and 2.51% MnO_{2}.
+
+  [7] The lumbang and perilla oils were imported and arrived subsequent
+      to the starting of the tests. They were therefore not included in
+      the tests.
+
+"Four-ounce sample bottles of each oil were sent to the Committee
+members, with the request to proceed with the tests along the lines
+agreed upon at the Committee meeting. The instructions for making these
+tests are outlined as follows:
+
+(_a_) A series of small glass plates, approximately 5 by 7 ins., are to
+be prepared by each member of the Committee. These plates are to be
+thoroughly cleaned and carefully numbered and weighed upon a chemical
+balance. The oils to be used for the tests are to be numbered
+corresponding to the plates. A test of each oil is to be made by
+painting it upon the surface of a glass plate with a camel's-hair brush,
+subsequently weighing the plate and the oil. These tests are to be
+exposed under constant conditions of temperature, if possible, for three
+weeks' time, making weighings of each plate every day for six days and
+then every other day for twelve days.
+
+(_b_) Another series of tests shall be made, in which 80% of raw linseed
+oil is to be combined with each of the above oils named. Previous to
+making any of the tests, _there should be added to each oil, or to each
+combination, 5% of a drier containing lead and manganese_. The drier to
+be used is of the standard grade submitted, together with the oil
+samples. The results of the tests are to be charted and submitted at the
+end of the tests, so that they may be compared with the results obtained
+by each member of the Committee.
+
+(_c_) If possible, the oils and mixture of oils used in the above tests
+are to be ground with pure silica and painted out upon sized paper,
+three-coat work, the films to be stripped and tested for strength upon a
+paint filmometer, at two periods two months apart."
+
+The drying of oils to a firm surface when spread in a thin layer is
+accompanied by an increase in weight, due to the absorption of oxygen.
+The percentage of oxygen absorbed often affords a criterion of the
+drying of the oil under examination, and this factor, together with data
+regarding the appearance of the oil film, should be taken into
+consideration when judging the value of an oil or oil mixture.
+Conditions of light, air, temperature, etc., often cause great
+variations in the drying of oils and the percentage of oxygen absorbed,
+as shown by the results obtained in the following tests. Although it was
+impossible in these tests to have the conditions under which each
+experimenter worked parallel in nature, the tests afford nevertheless
+considerable information for guiding future work of a similar nature.
+
+An examination of the results obtained showed generally that the
+greatest increase in weight occurred during the period in which the oil
+dried up to a firm film. This occurred in most cases within 48 hours.
+After this period a slight increase in weight was often noticed, and
+then a more or less steady decline, varying with the oil examined. Had
+the oil tests been continued for a greater length of time, a much
+greater loss might have been observed.
+
+It was impossible to include in the tests the oil-silica film work, on
+account of lack of time. It is believed, however, that these tests
+should be conducted, as they would throw much light on the elasticity
+and strength given to paint films by various oils.
+
+  TABLE I.--(_a_) BOILED LINSEED OIL (RESINATE TYPE)    100 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.1997   |   0.6242  |   0.5027  |  0.6024
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |    11.9    |   14.42   |   10.21   |  13.69
+             |  2 |    12.5    |   13.37   |   10.00   |  13.01
+             |  3 |    12.7    |   12.53   |    9.57   |  12.50
+             |  4 |    13.1    |   11.7    |    9.65   |  12.29
+             |  5 |    12.8    |   11.03   |    8.99   |  12.00
+             |  6 |    12.7    |     --    |     --    |  12.25
+             |  7 |     --     |   10.17   |    8.57   |    --
+             |  8 |    12.7    |   10.34   |     --    |  11.64
+             |  9 |     --     |   10.12   |    8.93   |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |    12.6    |   10.00   |     --    |  10.73
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |    8.81   |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |    12.8    |    9.69   |     --    |  10.68
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |    9.31   |    --
+             | 14 |    12.8    |     --    |     --    |  11.18
+             | 15 |     --     |    9.04   |    9.43   |    --
+             | 16 |    12.7    |     --    |     --    |  10.68
+             | 17 |     --     |    8.68   |     --    |    --
+             | 18 |    12.9    |     --    |    9.11   |    --
+             | 19 |     --     |    8.13   |     --    |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Dried to    |           |           |Tacky at end
+                  |firm, smooth|           |           |of 1st day.
+                  |film in 2   |           |           |Nearly dry,
+                  |days        |           |           |end of 2d day.
+                  |            |           |           |Perfectly dry,
+                  |            |           |           |end of 10th
+                  |            |           |           |day.
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  (_b_) BOILED LINSEED OIL (RESINATE TYPE)    20 PER CENT.
+        RAW LINSEED OIL                       80 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.1933   |   0.3660  |   0.4640  |     --
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |    13.6    |    0.57   |   12.48   |     --
+             |  2 |    14.7    |    1.66   |   11.92   |     --
+             |  3 |    14.9    |   10.50   |   11.49   |     --
+             |  4 |    14.9    |   13.30   |   11.10   |     --
+             |  5 |    14.8    |     --    |   10.84   |     --
+             |  6 |    14.8    |     --    |     --    |     --
+             |  7 |     --     |   12.51   |    9.48   |     --
+             |  8 |    14.8    |     --    |     --    |     --
+             |  9 |     --     |   11.40   |    7.41   |     --
+  Percentage | 10 |    14.8    |     --    |     --    |     --
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |    7.56   |     --
+  in Weight, | 12 |    14.7    |   10.20   |     --    |     --
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |    8.36   |     --
+             | 14 |    14.5    |     --    |     --    |     --
+             | 15 |     --     |    9.84   |    8.54   |     --
+             | 16 |    14.7    |     --    |     --    |     --
+             | 17 |     --     |     --    |     --    |     --
+             | 18 |    14.7    |     --    |    8.51   |     --
+             | 19 |     --     |     --    |     --    |     --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Dried to    |           |           |
+                  |firm, smooth|           |           |
+                  |film in 2   |           |           |
+                  |days.       |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  TABLE II.--(_a_) BOILED LINSEED OIL (LINOLEATE TYPE)    100 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+---------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+---------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.1226   |   0.5384  |   0.5696  |  0.3306
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |    10.9    |   14.34   |   10.25   |  12.09
+             |  2 |    12.2    |   13.26   |   10.41   |  11.33
+             |  3 |    12.7    |   12.18   |   10.22   |  10.94
+             |  4 |    12.5    |   11.29   |   10.16   |  11.10
+             |  5 |    12.8    |   10.75   |    9.90   |  10.86
+             |  6 |    12.2    |     --    |     --    |  11.25
+             |  7 |     --     |    9.88   |    9.60   |    --
+             |  8 |    12.2    |   10.25   |     --    |  10.87
+             |  9 |     --     |   10.01   |    9.72   |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |    12.4    |    9.91   |     --    |   9.72
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |    9.48   |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |    12.1    |    9.60   |     --    |  10.02
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |    9.97   |    --
+             | 14 |    12.     |     --    |     --    |  10.62
+             | 15 |     --     |    9.12   |   10.36   |    --
+             | 16 |    12.1    |     --    |     --    |  10.46
+             | 17 |     --     |    8.37   |     --    |    --
+             | 18 |    12.1    |     --    |    9.59   |    --
+             | 19 |     --     |    8.30   |     --    |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Dried firmly|           |           |Tacky at end
+                  |with smooth,|           |           |of 1st day.
+                  |even film in|           |           |Slightly
+                  |2 days.     |           |           |tacky, end 2d
+                  |            |           |           |day. Dry, but
+                  |            |           |           |curled, end of
+                  |            |           |           |10th day.
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  (_b_) BOILED LINSEED OIL (LINOLEATE TYPE)    20 PER CENT.
+        RAW LINSEED OIL                        80 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.1843   |   0.5790  |  0.4653   |    --
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |    11.8    |   10.14   |  12.40    |    --
+             |  2 |    13.9    |   15.71   |  11.90    |    --
+             |  3 |    15.1    |   13.29   |  11.50    |    --
+             |  4 |    15.2    |   12.12   |  11.11    |    --
+             |  5 |    15.0    |   11.43   |  10.90    |    --
+             |  6 |    14.6    |     --    |    --     |    --
+             |  7 |     --     |   10.05   |   9.37    |    --
+             |  8 |    14.6    |   10.26   |    --     |    --
+             |  9 |     --     |    9.55   |   8.53    |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |    14.5    |    9.32   |    --     |    --
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |   7.48    |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |    14.4    |    8.84   |    --     |    --
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |   8.43    |    --
+             | 14 |    14.4    |     --    |    --     |    --
+             | 15 |     --     |    8.46   |   8.02    |    --
+             | 16 |    14.6    |     --    |    --     |    --
+             | 17 |     --     |    7.68   |    --     |    --
+             | 18 |    14.7    |     --    |   7.27    |    --
+             | 19 |     --     |    7.55   |    --     |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Dried with  |           |           |
+                  |smooth film |           |           |
+                  |in 2 days.  |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  TABLE III.--(_a_) LITHOGRAPHIC LINSEED OIL    100 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+---------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.4011   |   0.8733  |  0.8812   |  2.7318
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+-------------
+             |  1 |     6.9    |    0.87   |   3.60    |   .051
+             |  2 |     8.5    |    3.85   |   5.10    |   .051
+             |  3 |     8.9    |    5.14   |   5.00    |   .051
+             |  4 |     8.9    |    6.07   |   6.78    |   .041
+             |  5 |     8.7    |    6.40   |   6.97    |   .081
+             |  6 |     8.0    |     --    |    --     |   .169
+             |  7 |      --    |    6.84   |   7.38    |    --
+             |  8 |     8.0    |    7.22   |    --     |   .19
+             |  9 |      --    |    7.36   |   7.42    |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |     8.0    |    7.57   |    --     |   .752
+  Increase   | 11 |      --    |     --    |   7.44    |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |     8.0    |    7.75   |    --     |  1.184
+  in Days.   | 13 |      --    |     --    |   8.01    |    --
+             | 14 |     8.4    |     --    |    --     |  1.641
+             | 15 |      --    |    7.98   |   8.03    |    --
+             | 16 |     8.4    |     --    |    --     |  2.00
+             | 17 |      --    |    7.83   |    --     |    --
+             | 18 |     8.3    |     --    |   7.99    |    --
+             | 19 |      --    |    7.80   |    --     |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Dried to    |           |           |Remained
+                  |glossy, firm|           |           |sticky to 10
+                  |film,       |           |           |days, and even
+                  |slightly    |           |           |at end of 38
+                  |crinkled in |           |           |days was
+                  |2 days. Oil |           |           |slightly
+                  |made very   |           |           |tacky.
+                  |thick film  |           |           |
+                  |on account  |           |           |
+                  |of heavy    |           |           |
+                  |body.       |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  (_b_) LITHOGRAPHIC LINSEED OIL    20 PER CENT.
+        RAW LINSEED OIL             80 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard
+                  |            |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.1300   |   0.7750  |  0.6538
+  Test, grams     |            |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------
+             |  1 |    10.2    |   11.35   |   9.94
+             |  2 |    11.3    |   11.48   |  10.41
+             |  3 |    11.9    |   10.93   |  10.39
+             |  4 |    12.0    |   10.77   |  10.35
+             |  5 |    11.8    |   10.25   |   9.93
+             |  6 |    11.8    |     --    |    --
+             |  7 |      --    |    9.51   |   9.54
+             |  8 |    11.8    |    9.93   |    --
+             |  9 |      --    |    9.80   |   9.36
+  Percentage | 10 |    11.8    |    9.68   |    --
+  Increase   | 11 |      --    |     --    |   8.99
+  in Weight, | 12 |    11.8    |    9.65   |    --
+  in Days.   | 13 |      --    |     --    |   9.61
+             | 14 |    11.8    |     --    |    --
+             | 15 |      --    |    9.51   |   9.70
+             | 16 |    11.9    |     --    |    --
+             | 17 |      --    |    9.07   |    --
+             | 18 |    11.9    |     --    |   9.13
+             | 19 |      --    |    8.67   |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------
+  Remarks.        |Dried to    |           |
+                  |firm, glossy|           |
+                  |film in 2   |           |
+                  |days.       |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------
+
+  TABLE IV.--(_A_) BLOWN LINSEED OIL    100 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.2105   |   0.8394  |  0.8457   |  1.0398
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |     8.5    |    9.30   |   5.07    |   4.41
+             |  2 |    10.2    |    8.97   |   6.16    |   4.91
+             |  3 |    10.2    |    5.30   |   6.48    |   5.22
+             |  4 |    10.2    |    9.30   |   6.94    |   5.62
+             |  5 |    10.0    |    8.99   |   6.73    |   5.73
+             |  6 |     9.9    |     --    |    --     |   6.06
+             |  7 |      --    |    8.49   |   6.99    |    --
+             |  8 |     9.8    |    8.89   |    --     |   6.43
+             |  9 |      --    |    8.73   |   6.89    |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |     9.8    |    8.89   |    --     |   6.18
+  Increase   | 11 |      --    |     --    |   7.11    |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |     9.7    |    8.73   |    --     |   6.51
+  in Days.   | 13 |      --    |     --    |   7.60    |    --
+             | 14 |     9.8    |     --    |    --     |   6.95
+             | 15 |      --    |    8.52   |   7.95    |    --
+             | 16 |     9.8    |     --    |    --     |   7.00
+             | 17 |      --    |    8.07   |    --     |    --
+             | 18 |     9.9    |     --    |   7.86    |    --
+             | 19 |      --    |    7.74   |    --     |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Ropiness of |           |           |Formed skin,
+                  |oil made    |           |           |end 1st day.
+                  |very thick  |           |           |Slightly
+                  |film, but   |           |           |tacky end 2nd;
+                  |dried in    |           |           |dry, but
+                  |less than 2 |           |           |curled, end of
+                  |days to     |           |           |10th day.
+                  |smooth film.|           |           |
+                  |Films       |           |           |
+                  |exhibited   |           |           |
+                  |ridges.     |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  (_b_)BLOWN LINSEED OIL         20 PER CENT.
+       RAW LINSEED OIL           80 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard
+                  |            |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.0774   |   0.5329  |   0.6218
+  Test, grams     |            |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------
+             |  1 |    10.4    |   11.82   |   10.71
+             |  2 |    12.8    |   12.76   |     --
+             |  3 |    13.1    |   10.98   |     --
+             |  4 |    12.9    |   10.39   |     --
+             |  5 |    12.1    |    9.81   |     --
+             |  6 |    11.9    |     --    |     --
+             |  7 |     --     |    8.69   |     --
+             |  8 |    12.0    |    9.15   |     --
+             |  9 |     --     |    8.91   |     --
+  Percentage | 10 |    11.8    |    8.97   |     --
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |     --
+  in Weight, | 12 |    11.8    |    8.67   |     --
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |     --
+             | 14 |    11.7    |     --    |     --
+             | 15 |     --     |    8.22   |     --
+             | 16 |    11.6    |     --    |     --
+             | 17 |     --     |    7.63   |     --
+             | 18 |    11.8    |     --    |     --
+             | 19 |     --     |    7.32   |     --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------
+  Remarks.        |Dried to    |           |Glass broke.
+                  |very glossy |           |
+                  |film in 2   |           |
+                  |days.       |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------
+
+  TABLE V.--(_a_) MINERAL OIL    100 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.1632   |    --     |    --     |  0.1975
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |  [8]12.5   |    --     |    --     | [8] 8.12
+             |  2 |  [8]14.2   |    --     |    --     | [8]16.22
+             |  3 |  [8]16.7   |    --     |    --     | [8]21.23
+             |  4 |  [8]19.4   |    --     |    --     | [8]25.58
+             |  5 |  [8]19.4   |    --     |    --     | [8]28.41
+             |  6 |  [8]19.5   |    --     |    --     | [8]28.92
+             |  7 |      --    |    --     |    --     |      --
+             |  8 |  [8]19.5   |    --     |    --     | [8]35.25
+             |  9 |      --    |    --     |    --     |      --
+  Percentage | 10 |  [8]19.5   |    --     |    --     | [8]35.76
+  Increase   | 11 |      --    |    --     |    --     |      --
+  in Weight, | 12 |  [8]19.3   |    --     |    --     | [8]43.86
+  in Days.   | 13 |      --    |    --     |    --     |      --
+             | 14 |  [8]19.4   |    --     |    --     | [8]45.28
+             | 15 |      --    |    --     |    --     |      --
+             | 16 |  [8]19.5   |    --     |    --     | [8]48.08
+             | 17 |      --    |    --     |    --     |      --
+             | 18 |  [8]19.5   |    --     |    --     |      --
+             | 19 |      --    |    --     |    --     |      --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Oil lost in |Broken be- |Broken be- |Remained oily
+                  |weight      |fore weigh-|fore weigh-|during entire
+                  |throughout  |ings were  |ings were  |test.
+                  |test on ac- |made.      |made.      |
+                  |count of    |           |           |
+                  |presence of |           |           |
+                  |volatiles.  |           |           |
+                  |No drying   |           |           |
+                  |action ob-  |           |           |
+                  |served. Film|           |           |
+                  |wet at end  |           |           |
+                  |of test.    |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  [8] Lost in weight throughout test.
+
+  (_b_) MINERAL OIL                 20 PER CENT.
+        RAW LINSEED OIL             80 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.1884   |   0.5663  |   0.405   |   0.2598
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |     6.4    |   11.51   | [9]9.66   | [9]6.69
+             |  2 |     6.8    |    8.21   | [9]8.92   | [9]5.06
+             |  3 |     7.2    |    6.51   | [9]6.82   | [9]2.88
+             |  4 |     7.8    |    5.19   | [9]6.03   | [9]1.52
+             |  5 |     8.1    |    4.36   | [9]4.68   | [9]1.29
+             |  6 |     7.9    |     --    |     --    | [9]1.68
+             |  7 |     --     |    2.72   | [9]2.64   |     --
+             |  8 |     7.9    |    3.12   |     --    |[10]2.07
+             |  9 |     --     |    2.82   |[10]0.30   |     --
+  Percentage | 10 |     8.1    |    2.59   |     --    |[10]0.08
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |[10]0.56   |     --
+  in Weight, | 12 |     7.8    |    2.35   |     --    |[10]0.93
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |[10]0.04   |     --
+             | 14 |     7.8    |     --    |     --    |[10]0.54
+             | 15 |      --    |    1.36   |[10]0.14   |     --
+             | 16 |     7.8    |     --    |     --    |     --
+             | 17 |     --     |    0.53   |     --    |     --
+             | 18 |     7.8    |     --    |[10]0.86   |     --
+             | 19 |     --     |[10]0.14   |     --    |     --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Fair drying |           |           |Sticky, end of
+                  |observed end|           |           |1st day;
+                  |of 2d day.  |           |           |tacky, end of
+                  |Film tacky  |           |           |2d day and end
+                  |until end   |           |           |of 38 days.
+                  |8th day;    |           |           |
+                  |after that, |           |           |
+                  |fairly firm |           |           |
+                  |film shown. |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+   [9] Gained in weight throughout test.
+
+  [10] Lost in weight throughout test.
+
+  TABLE VI.--(_a_) SOYA BEAN OIL    100 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.1377   |   0.3972  |  0.4366   |  0.3564
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |     7.5    |    9.79   |   9.87    |   8.25
+             |  2 |     8.4    |    9.69   |   9.87    |   7.58
+             |  3 |     9.5    |    8.56   |   9.35    |   7.02
+             |  4 |    12.8    |    7.60   |   8.66    |   6.74
+             |  5 |    12.9    |    7.09   |   8.13    |   6.46
+             |  6 |    12.7    |     --    |    --     |   6.74
+             |  7 |     --     |    6.00   |   6.44    |    --
+             |  8 |    12.6    |    6.22   |    --     |   6.46
+             |  9 |     --     |    6.00   |   4.88    |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |    12.5    |    5.54   |    --     |   5.40
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |   4.26    |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |    12.4    |    5.36   |    --     |   5.59
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |   4.99    |    --
+             | 14 |    12.3    |     --    |    --     |   5.80
+             | 15 |     --     |    4.73   |   4.94    |    --
+             | 16 |    12.3    |     --    |    --     |   5.67
+             | 17 |     --     |    4.23   |    --     |    --
+             | 18 |    12.3    |     --    |   4.94    |    --
+             | 19 |     --     |    3.70   |    --     |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Film tacky  |           |           |Sticky, end of
+                  |until 3d    |           |           |1st day;
+                  |day. Clear  |           |           |tacky, end of
+                  |and fairly  |           |           |2d day;
+                  |firm after  |           |           |slightly
+                  |4th day.    |           |           |tacky, end of
+                  |            |           |           |10th and 38th
+                  |            |           |           |days.
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  (_b_) SOYA BEAN OIL       20 PER CENT.
+        RAW LINSEED OIL     80 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.2218   |   0.2877  |  0.4581   |  0.2249
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |    11.5    |   12.78   |  13.16    |  11.74
+             |  2 |    11.8    |   12.78   |  12.64    |  12.27
+             |  3 |    12.5    |   11.74   |  11.84    |  10.38
+             |  4 |    13.9    |   12.23   |  11.50    |   9.43
+             |  5 |    14.0    |   10.60   |  11.01    |   9.66
+             |  6 |    14.0    |     --    |    --     |   9.75
+             |  7 |     --     |    9.35   |   9.15    |    --
+             |  8 |    14.1    |   10.08   |    --     |  10.29
+             |  9 |     --     |    9.76   |   7.29    |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |    14.1    |    9.59   |    --     |   9.08
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |   6.61    |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |    13.8    |    9.59   |    --     |   8.18
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |   7.43    |    --
+             | 14 |    13.6    |     --    |    --     |   8.95
+             | 15 |     --     |    9.00   |   6.96    |    --
+             | 16 |    13.6    |     --    |    --     |    --
+             | 17 |     --     |    8.09   |    --     |    --
+             | 18 |    13.6    |     --    |   6.66    |    --
+             | 19 |     --     |    8.00   |    --     |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Clear, firm |           |           |Tacky at end
+                  |film ob-    |           |           |of 1st and 2d
+                  |served at   |           |           |days. Dry, end
+                  |end of 2d   |           |           |10th day.
+                  |day.        |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  TABLE VII.--(_a_) ROSIN OIL    100 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.2590   |    --     |    --     |  0.4822
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |     1.5    |    --     |    --     |   2.24
+             |  2 |     1.5    |    --     |    --     |   2.53
+             |  3 |     1.8    |    --     |    --     |   2.32
+             |  4 |     3.0    |    --     |    --     |   1.27
+             |  5 |     5.2    |    --     |    --     |   1.06
+             |  6 |     4.9    |    --     |    --     |   0.66
+             |  7 |     --     |    --     |    --     |    --
+             |  8 |     4.8    |    --     |    --     |   0.24
+             |  9 |     --     |    --     |    --     |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |     4.8    |    --     |    --     |   0.78
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |    --     |    --     |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |     4.8    |    --     |    --     |   0.68
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |    --     |    --     |    --
+             | 14 |     4.8    |    --     |    --     |   0.41
+             | 15 |     --     |    --     |    --     |    --
+             | 16 |     4.8    |    --     |    --     |   0.39
+             | 17 |     --     |    --     |    --     |    --
+             | 18 |     4.8    |    --     |    --     |    --
+             | 19 |     --     |    --     |    --     |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Tacky       |           |Too much   |Oily on 1st
+                  |throughout  |           |on. Showed |and 2d days.
+                  |test.       |           |constantly |Tacky, end of
+                  |            |           |increasing |10 and 38
+                  |            |           |loss owing |days.
+                  |            |           |to the fact|
+                  |            |           | that it   |
+                  |            |           |did not dry|
+                  |            |           |and ran off|
+                  |            |           |glass.     |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  TABLE VII.--(_b_) ROSIN OIL          20 PER CENT.
+                  RAW LINSEED OIL    80 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.1636   |   0.7105  |  0.4016   |  0.3263
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |     7.4    |    6.64   |   12.21   |  11.48
+             |  2 |     7.8    |    6.40   |   11.45   |  12.02
+             |  3 |     8.5    |    6.05   |   11.13   |  10.60
+             |  4 |     8.5    |    5.63   |   10.53   |  10.26
+             |  5 |     8.4    |    5.23   |   10.13   |  10.42
+             |  6 |     8.1    |     --    |     --    |  10.42
+             |  7 |     --     |    4.42   |    8.8    |    --
+             |  8 |     8.0    |    4.92   |     --    |  10.95
+             |  9 |     --     |    4.83   |    8.12   |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |     8.0    |    4.57   |     --    |   9.96
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |    7.45   |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |     8.0    |    4.68   |     --    |   9.53
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |    8.27   |    --
+             | 14 |     7.9    |     --    |     --    |   9.96
+             | 15 |     --     |    4.13   |    8.52   |    --
+             | 16 |     7.9    |     --    |     --    |    --
+             | 17 |     --     |    3.81   |     --    |    --
+             | 18 |     8.2    |     --    |    8.62   |    --
+             | 19 |     --     |    3.43   |     --    |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Film dried  |           |           |Oily at end of
+                  |up nicely   |           |           |1st and 2d
+                  |during 3d   |           |           |days. Slightly
+                  |day, but re-|           |           |tacky, end of
+                  |mained      |           |           |10th day.
+                  |slightly    |           |           |
+                  |soft.       |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  TABLE VIII.--(_a_) CORN OIL    100 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.0574   |   0.5858  |  0.4981   |  0.3300
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |     1.9    |[11]0.22   |     1.22  |   4.63
+             |  2 |     4.2    |    7.03   |     5.86  |   7.27
+             |  3 |     4.6    |    8.79   |     7.27  |   7.14
+             |  4 |     4.8    |    7.43   |[12]11.35  |   6.99
+             |  5 |     7.5    |    7.17   |    11.35  |   6.69
+             |  6 |     7.1    |     --    |      --   |   6.93
+             |  7 |     --     |    5.85   |    11.37  |    --
+             |  8 |     7.1    |    6.02   |      --   |   6.84
+             |  9 |     --     |    5.84   |     6.26  |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |     7.1    |    5.58   |      --   |   5.11
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |     4.97  |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |     7.2    |    5.38   |      --   |   5.17
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |     5.62  |    --
+             | 14 |     7.1    |     --    |      --   |   5.38
+             | 15 |     --     |    4.78   |     5.34  |    --
+             | 16 |     7.0    |     --    |      --   |   5.17
+             | 17 |     --     |    4.15   |      --   |    --
+             | 18 |     6.9    |     --    |     5.34  |    --
+             | 19 |     --     |    3.63   |      --   |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Film soft   |           |           |
+                  |and sticky  |           |           |
+                  |throughout  |           |           |
+                  |test. Very  |           |           |
+                  |soapy in    |           |           |
+                  |appearance. |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  [11] Lost in weight throughout test.
+
+  [12] Moth got in.
+
+  (_b_) CORN OIL           20 PER CENT.
+        RAW LINSEED OIL    80 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |  0.1664    |   0.5469  |  0.3716   |  0.1711
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |    7.5     |   13.01   |  13.81    |  11.87
+             |  2 |    8.4     |   12.41   |  12.92    |  11.69
+             |  3 |    8.6     |     --    |  12.16    |   9.78
+             |  4 |   10.2     |   11.13   |  11.71    |   8.33
+             |  5 |   10.4     |   11.52   |  11.11    |   8.50
+             |  6 |   10.6     |     --    |    --     |   8.62
+             |  7 |    --      |   11.22   |   9.23    |    --
+             |  8 |   10.5     |   10.98   |    --     |   9.61
+             |  9 |    --      |   10.38   |   8.29    |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |   10.3     |    9.64   |    --     |   8.16
+  Increase   | 11 |    --      |     --    |   7.24    |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |   10.3     |    9.07   |    --     |   7.00
+  in Days.   | 13 |    --      |     --    |   8.42    |    --
+             | 14 |   10.3     |     --    |    --     |   8.28
+             | 15 |    --      |    8.38   |   8.26    |    --
+             | 16 |   10.2     |     --    |    --     |    --
+             | 17 |    --      |    8.77   |    --     |    --
+             | 18 |   10.0     |     --    |   7.94    |    --
+             | 19 |    --      |     --    |    --     |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Film tacky  |           |           |Tacky, end of
+                  |at end of   |           |           |1st and 2d
+                  |test.       |           |           |days. Dry, end
+                  |            |           |           |10th day.
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  TABLE IX.--(_a_) COTTON SEED OIL  100 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |  0.2026    |   0.7247  |  0.4135   |  0.3583
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |    4.5     |    8.03   |   7.04    |   6.67
+             |  2 |    4.8     |    7.48   |   7.16    |   5.61
+             |  3 |    4.8     |    6.68   |   6.62    |   4.85
+             |  4 |    5.1     |    6.00   |   6.24    |   4.65
+             |  5 |    8.6     |    5.65   |   5.78    |   4.37
+             |  6 |    8.7     |     --    |    --     |   4.71
+             |  7 |    --      |    4.85   |   3.72    |    --
+             |  8 |    8.1     |    5.09   |    --     |   4.57
+             |  9 |    --      |    4.95   |   2.08    |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |    7.9     |    4.80   |    --     |   2.97
+  Increase   | 11 |    --      |     --    |   1.72    |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |    8.0     |     --    |    --     |   3.11
+  in Days.   | 13 |    --      |     --    |   2.52    |    --
+             | 14 |    8.0     |     --    |    --     |   3.39
+             | 15 |    --      |     --    |   2.35    |    --
+             | 16 |    8.1     |     --    |    --     |   3.39
+             | 17 |    --      |     --    |    --     |    --
+             | 18 |    8.0     |     --    |   2.32    |    --
+             | 19 |    --      |     --    |    --     |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Film showed |           |           |Slightly
+                  |very little |           |           |tacky, end
+                  |hardening   |           |           |10th and 38th
+                  |and remained|           |           |days.
+                  |soft and    |           |           |
+                  |tacky.      |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  (_b_) COTTON SEED OIL    20 PER CENT.
+        RAW LINSEED OIL    80 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |  0.1516    |   0.9498  |  0.6160   |  0.2553
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |    8.5     |   11.00   |   10.94   |  11.83
+             |  2 |    8.7     |   11.15   |   10.81   |  11.83
+             |  3 |    9.1     |   10.58   |   10.51   |  10.15
+             |  4 |   10.8     |   10.17   |   10.37   |   9.29
+             |  5 |   11.9     |    9.82   |    9.87   |   9.29
+             |  6 |   11.8     |     --    |     --    |   9.45
+             |  7 |    --      |    9.02   |    8.93   |    --
+             |  8 |   11.9     |    9.42   |     --    |  10.00
+             |  9 |    --      |    9.35   |    8.90   |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |   11.9     |    9.27   |     --    |   8.95
+  Increase   | 11 |    --      |     --    |    8.70   |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |   11.8     |    9.32   |     --    |   8.06
+  in Days.   | 13 |    --      |     --    |    9.29   |    --
+             | 14 |   11.8     |     --    |     --    |   8.61
+             | 15 |    --      |    8.81   |    9.63   |    --
+             | 16 |   11.8     |     --    |     --    |    --
+             | 17 |    --      |    8.24   |     --    |    --
+             | 18 |   10.7     |     --    |    8.47   |    --
+             | 19 |    --      |    7.92   |     --    |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Fair drying |           |           |Tacky on 1st
+                  |observed at |           |           |and 2d days.
+                  |end of 4th  |           |           |Dry on 10th
+                  |day. Film   |           |           |day.
+                  |slightly    |           |           |
+                  |tacky at end|           |           |
+                  |of test.    |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  TABLE X.--(_a_) SUN FLOWER OIL    100 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.1414   |   0.6292  |  0.5837   |  0.2540
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |     6.3    |    9.69   |   7.85    |   8.39
+             |  2 |     8.2    |    9.42   |   7.73    |   6.94
+             |  3 |    11.5    |    7.99   |   7.45    |   6.21
+             |  4 |    11.6    |    7.43   |   7.02    |   6.13
+             |  5 |    11.5    |    7.04   |   6.36    |   5.81
+             |  6 |    11.5    |     --    |    --     |   6.01
+             |  7 |     --     |    6.12   |   5.16    |    --
+             |  8 |    11.3    |    6.45   |    --     |   6.09
+             |  9 |     --     |    6.12   |   4.57    |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |    11.3    |    5.92   |    --     |   4.81
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |   4.20    |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |    11.3    |    5.69   |    --     |   4.73
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |   4.54    |    --
+             | 14 |    11.3    |     --    |    --     |   4.81
+             | 15 |     --     |    5.24   |   4.61    |    --
+             | 16 |    11.2    |     --    |    --     |   5.01
+             | 17 |     --     |    4.57   |    --     |    --
+             | 18 |    11.0    |     --    |   4.30    |    --
+             | 19 |     --     |    4.26   |    --     |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Film fairly |           |           |Sticky, end
+                  |firm, end of|           |           |1st day;
+                  |3d day.     |           |           |tacky, end 2d
+                  |            |           |           |day; slightly
+                  |            |           |           |tacky, end
+                  |            |           |           |10th day.
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  TABLE X.--(_b_) SUN FLOWER OIL    20 PER CENT.
+                  RAW LINSEED OIL   80 PER CENT.
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.1600   |   0.5030  |  0.4470   |  0.2261
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |     9.5    |   14.21   |   12.62   |  11.54
+             |  2 |    11.0    |   14.21   |   12.02   |  11.85
+             |  3 |    11.1    |   12.66   |   11.48   |   9.92
+             |  4 |    11.3    |   14.01   |   11.65   |   9.13
+             |  5 |    11.4    |   11.59   |   10.25   |   8.95
+             |  6 |    10.9    |     --    |     --    |   9.04
+             |  7 |     --     |   10.24   |    8.14   |    --
+             |  8 |    10.8    |   10.63   |     --    |   9.52
+             |  9 |     --     |   10.34   |    6.26   |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |    10.8    |   10.34   |     --    |   8.55
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |    5.54   |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |    10.8    |   10.27   |     --    |   7.67
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |    6.22   |    --
+             | 14 |    10.6    |     --    |     --    |   8.20
+             | 15 |     --     |   11.33   |    5.82   |    --
+             | 16 |    10.6    |     --    |     --    |    --
+             | 17 |     --     |   10.73   |     --    |    --
+             | 18 |    10.9    |     --    |    5.35   |    --
+             | 19 |     --     |   10.30   |     --    |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Good firm,  |           |           |Dry on 1st, 2d
+                  |glossy film |           |           |and 10th days.
+                  |shown at end|           |           |
+                  |of 2d day.  |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  TABLE XI.--(_a_) MENHADEN OIL    100 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.1944   |   0.5282  |  0.7005   |  0.3150
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |     7.7    |   12.47   |  10.79    |  11.27
+             |  2 |     8.1    |   12.17   |  10.98    |  10.16
+             |  3 |     8.9    |   11.70   |  10.85    |   9.72
+             |  4 |    10.1    |   11.47   |  10.90    |   9.97
+             |  5 |     9.8    |   11.13   |  10.57    |   9.94
+             |  6 |     9.8    |     --    |    --     |  10.27
+             |  7 |     --     |   10.28   |   9.27    |    --
+             |  8 |     9.8    |   11.20   |    --     |  10.36
+             |  9 |     --     |   11.15   |   8.48    |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |     9.8    |   11.02   |    --     |   8.80
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |   8.27    |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |     9.8    |   11.37   |    --     |   9.22
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |   8.91    |    --
+             | 14 |     9.6    |     --    |    --     |   9.40
+             | 15 |     --     |   10.85   |   8.75    |    --
+             | 16 |     9.6    |     --    |    --     |   9.31
+             | 17 |     --     |   10.34   |    --     |    --
+             | 18 |     9.6    |     --    |   9.21    |    --
+             | 19 |     --     |    9.90   |    --     |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Good drying |           |           |Sticky, end
+                  |during 2d   |           |           |1st day.
+                  |day. Fairly |           |           |Slightly
+                  |firm film.  |           |           |sticky, end 2d
+                  |            |           |           |and 10th days.
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  (_b_) MENHADEN OIL    20 PER CENT.
+        RAW LINSEED OIL 80 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.2448   |   0.4959  |  0.4201   |  0.2456
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |     8.5    |   14.11   |  13.19    |  10.99
+             |  2 |    10.4    |   13.47   |  12.88    |  11.28
+             |  3 |    12.2    |   12.68   |  12.23    |   9.56
+             |  4 |    12.9    |   12.04   |  11.81    |   8.90
+             |  5 |    12.9    |   11.59   |  11.17    |   8.72
+             |  6 |    12.9    |     --    |    --     |   8.72
+             |  7 |     --     |   10.44   |   9.50    |    --
+             |  8 |    12.9    |   11.09   |    --     |   9.34
+             |  9 |     --     |   11.04   |   8.48    |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |    12.9    |   10.74   |    --     |   8.40
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |   7.77    |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |    12.9    |   10.90   |    --     |   7.37
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |   8.33    |    --
+             | 14 |    12.8    |     --    |    --     |   8.11
+             | 15 |     --     |   10.18   |   8.24    |    --
+             | 16 |    12.7    |     --    |    --     |    --
+             | 17 |     --     |    9.48   |    --     |    --
+             | 18 |    12.9    |     --    |   8.12    |    --
+             | 19 |     --     |    8.93   |    --     |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Good firm,  |           |           |Nearly dry on
+                  |elastic film|           |           |1st and 2d
+                  |shown after |           |           |days.
+                  |2d day.     |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  TABLE XII.--(_a_) RAW CHINESE WOOD OIL    100 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.2266   |   0.5545  |  0.4933   |  0.4036
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |     4.1    |     --    |   0.59    |   0.54
+             |  2 |    11.2    |     --    |   2.09    |   2.80
+             |  3 |    14.9    |   11.02   |   5.13    |   5.10
+             |  4 |    14.4    |   11.53   |   7.56    |   6.00
+             |  5 |    14.4    |   11.03   |   8.68    |   6.27
+             |  6 |    14.2    |     --    |    --     |   7.09
+             |  7 |     --     |   10.53   |  10.11    |    --
+             |  8 |    14.2    |   10.74   |    --     |   8.39
+             |  9 |     --     |   10.47   |   9.65    |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |    14.2    |   10.27   |    --     |   8.01
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |   9.43    |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |    14.2    |   10.22   |    --     |   8.55
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |   9.77    |    --
+             | 14 |    14.2    |     --    |    --     |   9.13
+             | 15 |     --     |    9.80   |   9.73    |    --
+             | 16 |    14.2    |     --    |    --     |   9.27
+             | 17 |     --     |    9.25   |    --     |    --
+             | 18 |    14.5    |     --    |   9.33    |    --
+             | 19 |     --     |    8.86   |    --     |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Film crys-  |           |           |Sticky, end of
+                  |tallized and|           |           |1st and 2d
+                  |remained    |           |           |days; dry but
+                  |soft until  |           |           |drawn, end of
+                  |3d day. Hard|           |           |10th day.
+                  |but opaque  |           |           |
+                  |film shown  |           |           |
+                  |after 4th   |           |           |
+                  |day.        |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  (_b_) RAW CHINESE WOOD OIL    20 PER CENT.
+        RAW LINSEED OIL         80 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.2087   |   0.2967  |  0.3683   |  0.2285
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |     9.0    |   14.46   |  14.37    |  11.99
+             |  2 |    12.1    |   13.11   |  13.66    |  11.90
+             |  3 |    12.9    |   11.72   |  13.11    |  10.14
+             |  4 |    12.8    |   10.68   |  12.41    |   9.30
+             |  5 |    12.8    |    9.77   |  11.78    |   9.08
+             |  6 |    12.8    |     --    |    --     |   9.30
+             |  7 |     --     |    8.66   |  10.51    |    --
+             |  8 |    12.7    |    8.86   |    --     |   9.70
+             |  9 |     --     |    8.80   |   8.72    |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |    12.6    |    8.49   |    --     |   8.90
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |   7.0     |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |    12.6    |    8.15   |    --     |   7.34
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |   8.82    |    --
+             | 14 |    12.5    |     --    |    --     |   7.78
+             | 15 |     --     |    8.05   |   8.39    |    --
+             | 16 |    12.5    |     --    |    --     |    --
+             | 17 |     --     |    7.41   |    --     |    --
+             | 18 |    12.7    |     --    |   7.98    |    --
+             | 19 |     --     |    7.04   |    --     |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Clear and   |           |           |Dry at end of
+                  |firm film   |           |           |1st day.
+                  |shown after |           |           |
+                  |3d day.     |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  TABLE XIII.--(_a_) CHINESE WOOD OIL (TREATED)    100 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.1678   |   0.4159  |  0.2934   |  0.3937
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |[13]38.0    |[13]19.06  |[13]0.92   |   3.53
+             |  2 |[13]30.0    |[13]20.16  |[13]0.41   |   3.58
+             |  3 |[13]28.0    |[13]20.47  |    0.72   |   3.25
+             |  4 |[13]28.0    |[13]20.47  |    0.79   |   3.25
+             |  5 |[13]28.0    |[13]20.80  |    0.13   |   3.33
+             |  6 |[13]28.0    |     --    |     --    |   2.93
+             |  7 |     --     |[13]21.09  |    0.22   |    --
+             |  8 |[13]28.0    |[13]20.87  |     --    |   2.55
+             |  9 |     --     |[13]20.98  |    0.46   |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |    27.5    |[13]20.78  |     --    |   3.40
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |    0.44   |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |[13]26.0    |[13]20.70  |     --    |   3.23
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |    0.43   |    --
+             | 14 |[13]26.0    |     --    |     --    |   2.61
+             | 15 |     --     |[13]20.97  |    0.42   |    --
+             | 16 |[13]26.0    |     --    |     --    |   2.48
+             | 17 |     --     |[13]21.22  |     --    |    --
+             | 18 |[13]26.2    |     --    |    0.43   |    --
+             | 19 |     --     |[13]21.11  |     --    |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Loss ob-    |           |           |Dry at end of
+                  |served due  |           |           |1st day.
+                  |to presence |           |           |
+                  |of vola-    |           |           |
+                  |tiles. Firm,|           |           |
+                  |clear film  |           |           |
+                  |shown at end|           |           |
+                  |of 1st day. |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  [13] Lost in weight throughout test.
+
+  TABLE XIII.--(_b_) CHINESE WOOD OIL (TREATED)    20 PER CENT.
+                     RAW LINSEED OIL               80 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.1638   |   0.6572  |  0.4892   |  0.2644
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |     8.4    |    9.25   |   8.93    |   3.21
+             |  2 |     9.4    |    8.07   |   8.71    |   3.48
+             |  3 |     9.8    |    7.36   |   8.44    |   2.15
+             |  4 |     9.7    |    6.75   |   8.16    |   1.58
+             |  5 |     9.9    |    6.25   |   7.95    |   1.56
+             |  6 |     9.9    |     --    |    --     |   1.77
+             |  7 |      --    |    5.49   |   6.75    |    --
+             |  8 |    10.0    |    5.87   |    --     |   2.30
+             |  9 |      --    |    5.70   |   5.99    |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |     9.6    |    5.67   |    --     |   1.62
+  Increase   | 11 |      --    |     --    |   5.50    |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |     9.5    |    4.37   |    --     |   0.86
+  in Days.   | 13 |      --    |     --    |   6.40    |    --
+             | 14 |     9.5    |     --    |    --     |   1.50
+             | 15 |      --    |    5.15   |   6.01    |    --
+             | 16 |     9.5    |     --    |    --     |    --
+             | 17 |      --    |    4.69   |    --     |    --
+             | 18 |     9.6    |     --    |   5.87    |    --
+             | 19 |      --    |    4.17   |    --     |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Clear and   |           |           |Dry at end of
+                  |hard film   |           |           |1st day.
+                  |shown during|           |           |
+                  |2d day.     |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+---------------
+
+  TABLE XIV.--(_a_) 20 PER CENT. DRY ROSIN IN 80 PER CENT. LINSEED OIL
+                    100 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.2030   |     --    |  0.5185   |  0.2554
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |    12.0    |     --    |   3.76    |   1.80
+             |  2 |    14.1    |     --    |   8.76    |  11.78
+             |  3 |    14.8    |     --    |   9.20    |  12.17
+             |  4 |    14.2    |     --    |   9.20    |  12.29
+             |  5 |    14.5    |     --    |   8.49    |  12.02
+             |  6 |    14.0    |     --    |    --     |  12.49
+             |  7 |     --     |     --    |   9.07    |    --
+             |  8 |    14.1    |     --    |    --     |  13.15
+             |  9 |     --     |     --    |   9.01    |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |    14.1    |     --    |    --     |  11.85
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |   9.09    |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |    14.0    |     --    |    --     |  11.78
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |  10.50    |    --
+             | 14 |    14.0    |     --    |    --     |  12.69
+             | 15 |     --     |     --    |  10.16    |    --
+             | 16 |    14.0    |     --    |    --     |  12.83
+             | 17 |     --     |     --    |    --     |    --
+             | 18 |    14.1    |     --    |  10.18    |    --
+             | 19 |     --     |     --    |    --     |    --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Rapid drying|           |           |Oily, end 1st
+                  |observed.   |           |           |and 2d days;
+                  |Hard film   |           |           |slightly
+                  |shown during|           |           |tacky, end
+                  |2d day.     |           |           |10th day.
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+---------------
+
+  (_b_) 20 PER CENT. DRY ROSIN IN 80 PER CENT. LINSEED OIL  20 PER CENT.
+        RAW LINSEED OIL                                     80 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+   Observer.      |  Gardner   |   Sabin   |  Pickard  | { Rogers }
+                  |            |           |           | { North  }
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.1500   |   0.7105  |  0.4568   |     --
+  Test, grams     |            |           |           |
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+             |  1 |    10.9    |   14.19   |  12.86    |     --
+             |  2 |    13.5    |   13.17   |  12.73    |     --
+             |  3 |    13.6    |   11.84   |  12.13    |     --
+             |  4 |    13.0    |   11.46   |  12.02    |     --
+             |  5 |    13.0    |   10.87   |  11.30    |     --
+             |  6 |    13.0    |     --    |    --     |     --
+             |  7 |     --     |    9.80   |  10.95    |     --
+             |  8 |    13.1    |   10.33   |    --     |     --
+             |  9 |     --     |   10.40   |  11.21    |     --
+  Percentage | 10 |    13.1    |   10.04   |    --     |     --
+  Increase   | 11 |     --     |     --    |  10.53    |     --
+  in Weight, | 12 |    13.0    |   10.35   |    --     |     --
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --     |     --    |  11.21    |     --
+             | 14 |    12.9    |     --    |    --     |     --
+             | 15 |     --     |    9.64   |  10.88    |     --
+             | 16 |    13.0    |     --    |    --     |     --
+             | 17 |     --     |    8.98   |    --     |     --
+             | 18 |    13.2    |     --    |  11.43    |     --
+             | 19 |     --     |    8.62   |    --     |     --
+  -----------+----+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+  Remarks.        |Clear, hard |           |           |
+                  |film after  |           |           |
+                  |2d day.     |           |           |
+  ----------------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------
+
+  TABLE XV.--(_a_) RAW LINSEED OIL    100 PER CENT.[14]
+
+  ----------------+-----------+-----------
+   Observer.      |   Sabin   |  Pickard
+                  |           |
+  ----------------+-----------+-----------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |   0.5274  |  0.5326
+  Test, grams     |           |
+  -----------+----+-----------+-----------
+             |  1 |    0.26   |  12.42
+             |  2 |    0.51   |  12.39
+             |  3 |    0.11   |  11.88
+             |  4 |    2.35   |  11.83
+             |  5 |    9.14   |  11.08
+             |  6 |     --    |    --
+             |  7 |   14.48   |  10.29
+             |  8 |   14.48   |    --
+             |  9 |   14.18   |   9.56
+  Percentage | 10 |   13.86   |    --
+  Increase   | 11 |     --    |   9.85
+  in Weight, | 12 |   13.00   |    --
+  in Days.   | 13 |     --    |  10.30
+             | 14 |     --    |    --
+             | 15 |   12.23   |  10.12
+             | 16 |     --    |    --
+             | 17 |   11.66   |    --
+             | 18 |     --    |  10.78
+             | 19 |   11.07   |    --
+  -----------+----+-----------+-----------
+  Remarks.        |           |
+  ----------------+-----------+-----------
+
+  [14] The test of this oil was made without the addition of 5 per cent.
+       of drier, the quantity used in all the other tests.
+
+  (_b_) DRIER    100 PER CENT.
+
+  ----------------+--------------
+   Observer.      | { Rogers }
+                  | { North  }
+  ----------------+--------------
+  Wt. of Oil for  |  0.3445
+  Test, grams     |
+  -----------+----+--------------
+             |  1 |  48.95
+             |  2 |  48.53
+             |  3 |  48.68
+             |  4 |  48.68
+             |  5 |  48.48
+             |  6 |  48.26
+             |  7 |    --
+             |  8 |  48.43
+             |  9 |    --
+  Percentage | 10 |  48.89
+  Increase   | 11 |    --
+  in Weight, | 12 |  48.22
+  in Days.   | 13 |    --
+             | 14 |  48.22
+             | 15 |    --
+             | 16 |    --
+             | 17 |    --
+             | 18 |    --
+             | 19 |    --
+  -----------+----+--------------
+  Remarks.        | Dry at end of
+                  | 1st day.
+  ----------------+--------------
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+PAINT PIGMENTS AND THEIR PROPERTIES
+
+
+For the student of paint technology, who is not already acquainted with
+the chemistry and physics of the various raw pigments which are largely
+used in the manufacture of paints, the writer advises a careful reading
+of this chapter, in which the matter has been condensed as much as
+possible. In order to more thoroughly acquaint the reader with the
+physical constitution of the pigments under consideration, there has
+been included photomicrographs, which show to advantage the structure of
+each.[15]
+
+  [15] The author gratefully acknowledges the assistance of Dr. J. A.
+       Schaeffer in the preparation of the photomicrographs shown in
+       this chapter.
+
+[Illustration: By Polarized Light
+
+By Transmitted Light
+
+Basic Carbonate-White Lead]
+
+=Basic Carbonate-White Lead.= This pigment is made by stacking clay pots
+containing dilute acetic acid and lead buckles, in tiers, and covering
+them with tan bark. Fermentation of the tan bark, with subsequent
+formation of carbon dioxide acting on the acetate of lead formed within
+the pots, produces basic carbonate of lead. After complete corrosion,
+the white lead is ground, floated, and dried. Corroded white lead has a
+specific gravity of 6.8 and contains about 85% lead oxide and 15% of
+carbon dioxide and water. Its opaque nature and excellent body renders
+it extremely valuable as a constituent of paints. Checking and chalking
+progress rapidly when the pigment is used alone. The various sized
+particles, both large and small, resulting from the corrosion process,
+are prominently shown in the photomicrograph.
+
+[Illustration: Crystals of Cerussite in Old Dutch Process White Lead.
+(Greatly magnified)]
+
+[Illustration: White Lead (Quick Process)]
+
+On account of its alkaline nature, this pigment acts upon the
+saponifiable oil in which it is ground, forming lead soaps which
+accelerate chalking of white lead--the greatest evil attending its use.
+Solubility in carbonic acid of the atmosphere and decay in the presence
+of sodium chloride may be active causes of the rapid chalking of this
+pigment at the seashore. Checking in some climates appears to proceed
+rapidly on white lead paints, in a deep hexagonal form, leaving a series
+of rough crests and cracks. This checking is secondary to the chalking
+which takes place.
+
+[Illustration: Corrosion cylinders used for making Quick Process White
+Lead]
+
+[Illustration: Lead Melting Pots]
+
+=White Lead (Quick Process).= By acting on atomized metallic lead,
+contained within large revolving wooden cylinders, with dilute acetic
+acid and carbon dioxide, the quick-process white lead is produced. Its
+value is equal to the Dutch-process white lead, and it is considered by
+some as possessing greater spreading value.
+
+[Illustration: Sheet iron box luted at bottom with water. Atomized lead,
+blown into box with steam, falls to bottom and becomes hydrated (Mild
+Process)]
+
+[Illustration: _Photographs courtesy of Stowe Neal_
+
+View of agitation tanks for making Mild Process Lead]
+
+[Illustration: Steam Jected Pans for Drying White Lead]
+
+=White Lead (Mild Process).= The Mild Process of manufacturing white
+lead consists of first melting the pig lead and converting it into the
+finest kind of lead powder, then mixing thoroughly with air and water.
+The lead takes up water and oxygen and forms a basic hydroxide of lead.
+Carbon dioxide gas is next pumped slowly through the cylinders which
+contain the basic hydroxide of lead. The result is basic carbonate of
+lead--the dry white lead of commerce. The process is called "Mild"
+because it is the mildest process possible for the manufacture of white
+lead. It is the only method in practical operation which does not
+require the use of acids, alkalis or other chemicals, every trace of
+which should be removed from the finished product by expensive purifying
+processes. The failure of such washing and purifying means a product of
+inferior quality, which necessarily reduces the durability of any paint
+in which it is used.
+
+=Basic Sulphate-White Lead (Sublimed White Lead).= By the action of the
+oxygen of the air on the fume produced by the roasting and subsequent
+volatilization of galena, this fine, white, amorphous pigment is made.
+On analysis, its composition shows approximately 75% of lead sulphate,
+20% of lead oxide, and 5% of zinc oxide. It has a specific gravity of
+6.2. Possessed of extreme stability, it finds wide use as a constituent
+of paints and as a base for tinting colors. The photomicrograph of this
+pigment shows its extremely fine, amorphous nature with complete absence
+of crystals. In fineness it closely approaches zinc oxide. On account of
+its non-poisonous properties it is replacing corroded lead in many
+places. Unified paints containing sublimed white lead are of great
+value, showing upon long exposure very little decay.
+
+[Illustration: View of Furnace for Making Sublimed White Lead]
+
+[Illustration: View of Goosenecks Used for Collecting Sublimed White
+Lead Fume]
+
+[Illustration: Bag Room Where Sublimed White Lead is Deposited
+
+_Photographs courtesy of Picher Lead Co._]
+
+[Illustration: Sublimed White Lead]
+
+[Illustration: View of largest Zinc Oxide Works in America, at Hazards,
+Pa.]
+
+
+=Sublimed Blue Lead.= Sublimed blue lead is made by burning coarsely
+broken lumps of galena, admixed with bituminous coal, in a special form
+of furnace. The fumes which are volatilized from this mixture are very
+complex in their chemical make-up, and in color are white, blue, and
+black. After being drawn through the cooling pipes by the suction of
+huge fans, whereby the fumes are cooled, the pigment is deposited in
+bags. This pigment is bluish black in color, and has been highly
+recommended for use on iron and steel. Its composition runs
+approximately as follows:
+
+  Lead sulphate      50%
+  Lead oxide         35%
+  Lead sulphide       5%
+  Lead sulphite       5%
+  Zinc oxide          2%
+  Carbon              3%
+
+[Illustration: View of Zinc Oxide Furnaces]
+
+[Illustration: _Photographs courtesy Geo. B. Heckel and N. J. Zinc Co._
+
+View of Zinc Oxide Fume Pipes with electrically driven Suction Fans]
+
+The color of the pigment is largely due to the carbon and the lead
+sulphide. Its specific gravity is 6.4, and it grinds in 10% of oil to a
+stiff paste, 100 lbs. of which may be thinned with about 26 lbs. of oil
+to working consistency. Paint manufacturers use it in mixture with iron
+oxide and other pigments for the production of paints for metal
+surfaces. Wood and others have found it of great value for this purpose.
+It has a tendency to chalk, but this may be overcome by admixture with
+other pigments such as zinc oxide and iron oxide. Lane has found it to
+be very durable when admixed with lampblack.
+
+[Illustration: View of Bag Room receiving Zinc Oxide]
+
+=Zinc Oxide.= This extremely white and fine pigment is prepared by the
+roasting and sublimation of franklinite, zincite, and other zinc-bearing
+ores largely found in New Jersey. Its purity approaches in most
+instances 99.5 or more. It has a specific gravity of 5.2. On account of
+its stability, whiteness, and opacity, it is invaluable as a pigment
+when a constituent in a combination formula. Its extreme hardness
+renders it less resistant to temperature changes, when used alone. Under
+the microscope the fineness and structure of the particles are clearly
+evident. The French-process zinc oxide produced in America by the
+sublimation and oxidation of spelter is the purest made, and superior to
+imported grades which often contain ultramarine blue as a whitening
+agent.
+
+[Illustration: Zinc Oxide]
+
+[Illustration: Zinc Lead White]
+
+[Illustration: Zinc Lead. By transmitted light
+
+(_The Pigment shows black_)]
+
+[Illustration: Lithopone]
+
+[Illustration: Magnesium Silicate (Asbestine)]
+
+=Zinc Lead White.= This extremely fine pigment, consisting of about
+equal parts of zinc oxide and lead sulphate, results from the reduction,
+volatilization and subsequent oxidation of sulphur-bearing lead and zinc
+ores. It has a specific gravity of 4.4. Its slightly yellowish tint bars
+it from being used alone very extensively, but when mixed with white
+lead, zinc oxide and inert pigments, or used as a base for colored
+paints, it is of considerable value. The magnification of the particles
+shows the peculiar way in which the pigment agglomerates, and the
+characteristics of a fine, uniform pigment.
+
+[Illustration: Asbestine Mine at Easton, Pa.]
+
+[Illustration: American Barytes. Transmitted light
+
+(_The Pigment shows black_)]
+
+[Illustration: German Barytes. Mag. 250 Diam.
+
+(_The Pigment shows white_)]
+
+=Lithopone.= Lithopone, probably the whitest of pigments, results from
+the double decomposition of zinc sulphate and barium sulphide, thereby
+forming a molecular combination of zinc sulphide and barium sulphate.
+The peculiar property which it possesses, of darkening under the actinic
+rays of the sun, makes it essential that it be combined with other, more
+stable pigments to prolong its life when exposed to weather. Lithopone
+contains approximately 70% barium sulphate, 25 to 28% zinc sulphide, and
+as high as 5% of zinc oxide. Its specific gravity is about 4.25. It is
+excellently suited for interior use in the manufacture of enamels and
+wall finishes. When properly mixed with other pigments, such as zinc
+oxide and calcium carbonate, fair results are obtained as a pigment for
+outside work. Lead pigments are never used with lithopone, as lead
+sulphide results, giving a black appearance. Its characteristic
+flocculent, non-crystalline nature is plainly evident when examined
+under the microscope.
+
+[Illustration: By Polarized Light
+
+By Transmitted Light
+
+Barium Sulphate (Barytes)]
+
+=Magnesium Silicate (Asbestine and Talcose).= This pigment comes in two
+forms: as asbestine and as talcose (talc, etc.). The former is very
+fibrous in nature and is a very stable pigment to use in the manufacture
+of paint, on account of its inert nature and tendency to hold up heavier
+pigments, and prevent settling. It also has the property of
+strengthening a paint coat in which it is used. The talcose variety is
+very tabular in form. Both varieties are transparent in oil, and very
+inert. They have a gravity of about 2.7 and grind in about 32% of oil.
+
+[Illustration: Barium Carbonate. Mag. 250 Diam.
+
+(_The Pigment shows white_)]
+
+[Illustration: Barium Sulphate (Blanc Fixe)]
+
+[Illustration: Calcium Carbonate (Whiting)]
+
+[Illustration: Calcium Carbonate. By transmitted light
+
+(_The Pigment shows black_)]
+
+[Illustration: Calcium Sulphate. By transmitted light
+
+(_The Pigment shows black_)]
+
+[Illustration: Calcium Sulfate]
+
+[Illustration: Calcium Sulphate (Gypsum)]
+
+[Illustration: Silica (Silex)]
+
+[Illustration: Silex. Mag. 250 Diam.
+
+(_The Pigment shows white_)]
+
+[Illustration: China Clay. By transmitted light
+
+(_The Pigment shows black_)]
+
+=Barium Sulphate (Barytes).= By grinding the crude ore, treating with
+acid to remove the iron, and finally washing, floating, and drying,
+there is produced the commercial form of this valuable pigment. It is
+used in large quantity as a base upon which to precipitate colors, and
+also together with other white pigments in the manufacture of
+ready-mixed paints. It renders the paint coating more resistant to
+abrasion, and gives to the paint certain very important brushing
+qualities. It is a very stable pigment, not being materially affected by
+either acid or alkali, and can be used with the most delicate colors. In
+oil it is transparent and must be mixed with opaque pigments when used
+in ready-mixed paints. It is generally used with lighter pigments, such
+as asbestine, in order to prevent settling. Under the microscope, both
+by polarized and transmitted light, the sharp angles of the particles
+appear distinctly, with no tendency to mass into a compact form.
+Although transparent in oil, it is valuable in moderate percentage in a
+ready-mixed paint.
+
+=Barium Sulphate (Blanc Fixe).= Blanc fixe is the precipitated form of
+barium sulphate, resulting from the action of soluble barium salts on
+soluble sulphates. The specific gravity (4.2) of this compound is lower
+than that of barytes. Possessing greater opacity in oil, it is of more
+value as a paint pigment for some purposes. It comes in for its greatest
+use as a base on which to precipitate lake colors. The very fine
+particles show a slight tendency to agglomerate.
+
+=Calcium Carbonate (Whiting).= The natural form of calcium carbonate,
+prepared from chalk, has a much higher specific gravity (2.74) than that
+of the artificial form (2.5) prepared by the precipitation of calcium
+carbonate. The latter, however, possesses greater hiding properties.
+Both grades find a wide use in distemper work and in the manufacture of
+putty. It is often used in small percentage in many ready-mixed paints.
+The photomicrograph of the pigment shows the presence of many large
+particles.
+
+=Calcium Sulphate (Gypsum).= The mineral gypsum, consisting of calcium
+sulphate and about 21% of water of combination, is sometimes used as a
+paint pigment after grinding and dehydration. Being slightly soluble in
+water it has a tendency to pass into solution when exposed to
+atmospheric agencies. It lacks hiding power in oil. Its specific gravity
+is 2.3. As in the case of all pigments prepared directly from mineral
+substances, the many-sized and shaped particles appear clearly when
+enlarged. Partially and wholly dehydrated forms of gypsum are also used
+in paint.
+
+=Silica (Silex.)= This white pigment possesses great tooth and spreading
+properties. It is of use as a wood filler and as a constituent in
+combination paints. It wears especially well when used in combination
+with zinc oxide and white lead. Its purity often approaches 97%. The
+particles when enlarged are seen to have sharp angles and are not
+uniform in size, which accounts for its marked tooth and properties.
+
+[Illustration: Aluminum Silicate (China Clay)]
+
+[Illustration: Ochre]
+
+[Illustration: Raw
+
+Burnt
+
+Sienna]
+
+[Illustration: Raw
+
+Burnt
+
+Umber]
+
+=Aluminum Silicate (China Clay).= China clay, or aluminum silicate, is a
+permanent and valuable white pigment showing very little hiding power in
+oil. It is found widely distributed in granitic formations. It is very
+stable, with a gravity of 2.6. Particles are found in many shapes and
+sizes, showing sharp and definite angles.
+
+=Ochre.= Ochre is a hydrated ferric oxide permeating a clay base,
+largely used as a tinting material. It has a specific gravity of about
+3.5, and a decidedly golden yellow color. A good quality should contain
+20% or over of iron oxide. The particles of this pigment are flocculent
+and very uniform in appearance.
+
+=Sienna.= Sienna, like umber, is essentially a silicate of iron and
+alumina, containing manganic oxide. It contains, however, a lower
+percentage of the latter than in the case of umbers. The photomicrograph
+of the burnt variety shows clearly the fine condition of the pigment,
+while large particles are shown in the raw variety.
+
+=Umber.= Umber, another naturally occurring pigment, consists of iron
+and aluminum silicates, containing varying proportions of manganic
+oxide, its color and tone varying according to the percentage of the
+latter. The raw variety is drab in color, which in burning changes to
+reddish brown. A marked percentage of large-sized particles exist in
+this pigment.
+
+=Indian Red.= Indian red is the term applied to natural hematite ore
+pigments and to those produced by the roasting of copperas (iron
+sulphate). They generally contain 95% or more of iron oxide, with
+varying percentages of silica. The pigment is heavier (specific gravity
+5.2) than that of Metallic Brown. The crystalline, mineral-like
+structure of the particles differ greatly from the amorphous particles
+of Metallic Brown.
+
+=Metallic Brown.= The natural hydrated iron oxide or carbonate as mined
+largely in Pennsylvania, yields, when roasted, a sesquioxide of iron
+known as Metallic Brown. It contains a high percentage of alumina and
+silica, and has a characteristic brown color with a gravity of 3.1. It
+finds wide application as a pigment for protective purposes. The
+particles when enlarged show the usual appearance of a natural compound
+which has been roasted and ground.
+
+  ==========+=====+===========+==========+=============+=======+=========
+  No. Name  |Iron |   Calc.   | Alumina  |  Insoluble  | Color |
+            |Oxide|  Sulph.   |          |             |(Silica|
+            +-----+-----------+(CaSO_{4})|(Al_{2}O_{3})|  and  |
+            | FeO |Fe_{2}O_{3}|          |             | Sili- |
+            |     |           |          |             | cates)|
+  ----------+-----+-----------+----------+-------------+-------+---------
+            |   % |      %    |     %    |      %      |    %  |
+   0 Bright | 0.71|    96.52  |    --    |     --      |   .30 |Bright
+     Red    |     |           |          |             |       |Scarlet
+   1 Bright |  .71|    95.92  |    --    |     --      |   .30 |Scarlet
+     Red    |     |           |          |             |       |Tone
+   2 Indian |  .57|    96.00  |    .78   |    1.40     |   .90 |Indian
+     Red    |     |           |          |             |       |Red,
+            |     |           |          |             |       |Medium
+            |     |           |          |             |       |Shade
+   3 Indian | 0.29|    97.82  |    .85   |     --      |   .52 |Indian
+     Red    |     |           |          |             |       |Red,
+            |     |           |          |             |       |Dark
+            |     |           |          |             |       |Shade
+   4 Indian | 0.28|    95.72  |   1.21   |    1.26     |   .58 |Indian
+     Red    |     |           |          |             |       |Red,
+            |     |           |          |             |       |Light
+            |     |           |          |             |       |Shade
+   5 Persian| 4.53|    62.25  |   1.75   |     --      | 27.64 |Rich,
+     Gulf   |     |           |          |             |       |Medium
+     Mix    |     |           |          |             |       |Red
+   7 Native | 0.85|    89.00  |    --    |    0.91     |  6.09 |Medium
+     Red    |     |           |          |             |       |Red,
+     Oxide  |     |           |          |             |       |Brownish
+            |     |           |          |             |       |Tone
+   8 Special| 0.57|    43.87  |  50.88   |    2.03     |  1.30 |Scarlet
+     Red    |     |           |          |             |       |Tone
+  10 Red    | 1.44|    60.25  |    .78   |    5.41     | 15.78 |Brownish-
+     Oxide  |     |           |          |             |       |Red
+  11 Vene-  |  .30|    34.08  |  52.60   |    2.20     |  3.39 |Bright
+     tian   |     |           |          |             |       |Red-
+     Red    |     |           |          |             |       |Brown
+  12 B.     | 0.58|    67.68  |    --    |    2.48     |  1.97 |Dark Red
+     Oxide  |     |           |          |             |       |Brown
+  13 Vene-  | 0.29|    25.92  |  58.62   |    2.16     |  1.42 |Medium
+     tian   |     |           |          |             |       |Red
+     Red    |     |           |          |             |       |Tone
+  14 Vene-  | 0.57|    35.36  |    .99   |   12.06     | 47.97 |Brown
+     tian   |     |           |          |             |       |
+     Red    |     |           |          |             |       |
+  15 Metal- | 2.59|    64.00  |    .63   |    5.82     | 23.42 |Rich
+     lic    |     |           |          |             |       |Brown
+     Brown  |     |           |          |             |       |
+  16 Crimson| 0.57|    66.24  |   1.77   |    3.60     | 25.63 |Rich
+     Oxide  |     |           |          |             |       |Dark
+            |     |           |          |             |       |Red
+  17 Red    | 2.30|    80.39  |    .37   |     .03     |  9.63 |Medium
+     Oxide  |     |           |          |             |       |Brown
+  18 Red    | 0.57|    61.28  |    .97   |    2.68     | 15.94 |Light
+     Oxide  |     |           |          |             |       |Choco-
+            |     |           |          |             |       |late
+            |     |           |          |             |       |Brown
+  20 Red    | 7.78|    46.72  |   1.70   |    7.64     | 20.38 |Dark
+     Oxide  |     |           |          |             |       |Reddish
+            |     |           |          |             |       |Brown
+  23 Special| 0.58|    72.48  |    --    |    8.80     |  4.48 |Deep
+     French |     |           |          |             |       |Choco-
+     Oxide  |     |           |          |             |       |late
+            |     |           |          |             |       |Brown
+  24 Mica-  | 2.02|    86.27  |    --    |    2.04     |  9.50 |Dark
+     ceous  |     |           |          |             |       |Gray
+     Black  |     |           |          |             |       |Tone
+     Oxide  |     |           |          |             |       |
+  25 Black  |33.12|    57.12  |    --    |    1.44     |   --  |Jet
+     Oxide  |     |           |          |             |       |Black
+  26 Red    | 0.57|    84.16  |   5.00   |    2.00     |   .63 |Deep
+     Oxide  |     |           |          |             |       |Red
+  27 Special| 0.57|    38.40  |  55.62   |    2.12     |  1.53 |Medium
+     Red    |     |           |          |             |       |Red
+  28 Oxide C|  -- |    30.40  |    .94   |   13.60     | 42.30 |Brown
+  ==========+=====+===========+==========+=============+=======+=========
+
+=Analysis of Iron Oxide Pigments.= Because of the great consideration
+now being given to iron oxide paints, the writer secured a series of
+oxides widely used in this country, and has determined the most
+important constituents of each.
+
+=Basic Lead Chromate (American Vermilion).= By boiling white lead with
+chromate of soda and subsequently treating with small quantities of
+sulphuric acid, American vermilion, or basic lead chromate, is prepared.
+It contains 98% of lead compounds, frequently free chromates, and has a
+gravity of 6.8. The particles appear granular and large, frequently
+assuming a square structure.
+
+=Red Lead.= By the continued oxidation of litharge in reverberatory
+furnaces, red lead is produced as a brilliant red pigment with a
+specific gravity of 8.7. The pigment particles appear to be of many
+sizes, showing a slight tendency to form a compact mass.
+
+=Paranitraniline Red.= Paranitraniline red, a very bright red material
+largely used in tinting paints, is prepared by diazotizing
+paranitraniline in hydrochloric acid by means of sodium nitrite in the
+cold. This compound is rendered insoluble when precipitated directly on
+barytes, by acting on it with an alkaline solution of beta naphthol. It
+is the most stable and permanent bright red organic pigment which the
+paint manufacturer uses. The particles of this pigment appear in various
+sizes, due, no doubt, to a massing of the particles in the precipitation
+process.
+
+=Chrome Yellow.= The neutral chromate of lead, made from either the
+nitrate or acetate of lead and chromate of soda, finds wide use as a
+tinting pigment. When precipitated on a white pigment base, various
+trade names are given to it. The microscope shows clearly the physical
+character of this pigment.
+
+=Zinc Chromate.= This pigment is made either from zinc salts and
+bichromate of potash or zinc oxide heated with chrome salts, frequently
+in the presence of acid. Like the rest of the chromate pigments, it is a
+very slow-drying material, often requiring over a week to set up, unless
+considerable drier is added. In spite of the impurities which it
+carries, it has shown itself to be one of the most inhibitive pigments
+known and has demonstrated its value in even small percentages in paints
+for iron and steel. It dries to a hard adherent film that tends to
+protect metal from corrosion.
+
+[Illustration: Indian Red]
+
+[Illustration: Metallic Brown]
+
+[Illustration: Basic Lead Chromate (American Vermilion)]
+
+[Illustration: Red Lead]
+
+[Illustration: Paranitraniline]
+
+[Illustration: Chrome Yellow]
+
+=Prussian Blue.= On oxidizing the precipitate resulting from the
+interaction of solutions of prussiate of potash and copperas (iron
+sulphate), Prussian blue as used in the paint trade is prepared. It has
+a specific gravity of 1.9. The pigment shows an amorphous structure, the
+particles varying greatly in size.
+
+=Ultramarine Blue.= This bright blue pigment is prepared by burning
+silica, china clay, soda ash and sulphur in pots or furnaces. It has a
+specific gravity of 2.4. It is of little value as a paint pigment on
+account of its sulphur content, which causes darkening when mixed with
+lead pigments, and corrosion when applied to iron or steel. The darkness
+of the photograph is due to the massing of the pigment particles.
+
+=Chrome Green.= Chrome green is prepared as a paint pigment from nitrate
+of lead, Chinese blue, and bichromate of soda. It has a gravity of 4 and
+is liable to contain slight traces of lead salts. The particles when
+magnified appear very fine and flocculent. This color is often
+precipitated on pigments, such as barytes, which do not reduce its tone.
+
+=Bone Black.= By grinding the carbonaceous matter resulting from the
+charring of bones, in iron retorts, the pigment bone black is prepared.
+It contains about 15% of carbon and 85% of calcium phosphate. It has a
+gravity of 2.7. Comparatively large particles of charred bone can be
+seen scattered throughout the mass, resulting from the difficulty of
+grinding to a uniform size.
+
+=Carbon Black.= This form of very pure carbon results from the
+combustion of gas. Its gravity, 1.09, is lower than that of lampblack,
+which shows a gravity of 1.8. It is used in much the same way and for
+the same purposes as lampblack. In physical appearance it shows great
+similarity to the particles of lampblack.
+
+=Lampblack.= This pigment, made from the combustion of oils, consists
+very often of more than 99% carbon. It has wonderful tinting value. The
+particles show a fine, fibrous structure with a tendency toward
+agglomeration. They differ greatly in physical appearance from those of
+either graphite or bone black, being exceedingly more uniform than the
+latter.
+
+[Illustration: Zinc Chromate]
+
+[Illustration: Prussian Blue]
+
+[Illustration: Ultramarine Blue]
+
+[Illustration: Chrome Green]
+
+[Illustration: Bone Black]
+
+[Illustration: Carbon Black]
+
+=Graphite.= Graphite, both in the natural and artificial form, contains
+impurities such as silica, iron oxide and alumina, but the natural form
+has a much greater percentage of these foreign materials, in some cases
+as high as 40%. Graphite is usually mixed with other pigments, such as
+red lead and sublimed blue lead, thus serving better as a paint coating.
+The difference in physical appearance of the various carbon pigments is
+interesting, as each pigment has characteristics of its own. In graphite
+we find a great tendency toward agglomeration or massing of particles.
+
+=Mineral Black.= Mineral black is a pigment made by grinding a black
+form of slate. It contains a comparatively low percentage of carbon and
+consequently has low tinting value. It finds use as an inert pigment in
+compounded paints, especially for machine fillers. The pigment has a
+flocculent appearance, the particles showing a strong tendency to mass.
+
+Photomicrographs of two combination paint pigments are here given, to
+show the various pigments as they appear under the microscope, when in
+combination.
+
+PERCENTAGES OF OIL REQUIRED FOR GRINDING VARIOUS DRY PIGMENTS INTO
+AVERAGE PASTE FORM
+
+  White lead (corroded)                           9%
+  White lead (sublimed)                          10%
+  Zinc lead (American)                           12%
+  French process zinc oxide                      17%
+  American process zinc oxide                    16%
+  Blanc fixe                                     30%
+  Barytes (natural)                               9%
+  Paris white (whiting)                          20%
+  Terra alba (gypsum)                            22%
+  Floated silica or Silex                        26%
+  Kaolin (China clay)                            28%
+  Asbestine                                      32%
+  Blue, ultramarine                              27%
+  Blue, Chinese or Prussian                      50%
+  Black, gas carbon                              82%
+  Black, lamp                                    72%
+  Black, drop                                    60%
+  Black, bone                                    50%
+  Brown, mineral                                 24%
+  Brown, vandyke                                 50%
+  Chrome yellow, lemon                           23%
+  Chrome yellow, medium                          30%
+  Chrome yellow, orange                          20%
+  Chrome yellow, dark orange                     15%
+  Chrome green, Chem. pure light                 21%
+  Chrome green, Chem. pure extra dark            25%
+  Chrome green, 25%, color light                 13%
+  Chrome green, 25%, color extra dark            17%
+  Graphite (pure)                                40%
+  Indian red, (98%)                              20%
+  Ochre, yellow, American                        26%
+  Ochre, yellow, French                          28%
+  Ochre, golden                                  28%
+  Red, Venetian                                  23%
+  Red, Oxide                                     25%
+  Red, Tuscan                                    27%
+  Red, Turkey                                    28%
+  Red, lead                                      12%
+  Red, lake                                      55%
+  Sienna, Italian, raw                           52%
+  Sienna, Italian, burnt                         45%
+  Sienna, American, burnt                        38%
+  Sienna, American, raw                          40%
+  Ultramarine green                              28%
+  Umber, Turkey, raw                             48%
+  Umber, Turkey, burnt                           47%
+  Umber, American, burnt                         36%
+  Umber, American, raw                           38%
+  Verona green (terra verte or green earth)      32%
+  Vermilion, English (quicksilver)               14%
+  Vermilion, American (chrome red)               16%
+  Paris green, American                          23%
+  Zinc chromate (permanent yellow)               15%
+
+[Illustration: Lampblack]
+
+[Illustration: Graphite]
+
+[Illustration: Mineral Black]
+
+[Illustration: Asbestine and Whiting]
+
+[Illustration: Silica and Asbestine]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+PHYSICAL LABORATORY PAINT TESTS
+
+
+For the paint chemist who desires to familiarize himself with the more
+recent analytical methods worked out in American laboratories, reference
+may be had to treatises on the analysis of paints, by Gardner and
+Schaeffer,[16] and Holley and Ladd.[17] Analytical methods are not
+included in this chapter, the writer's desire being to treat the subject
+from the standpoint of the physical properties of painting materials.
+The work outlined herein is of a nature that affords a wide field of
+research, and a brief study will doubtless suggest similar work to the
+student of paint.
+
+  [16] The Analysis of Paints and Painting Materials. McGraw-Hill Book
+       Co., New York, 1910.
+
+  [17] Mixed Paints, Color Pigments and Varnishes. John Wiley & Sons,
+       New York, 1908.
+
+=Preparation of Paint Films.= The study of paint films is one that has
+become of vital importance, and is receiving at the present time great
+attention. Among the many methods which have been suggested and
+attempted for securing paint films, a few already well known may be
+mentioned.
+
+By painting upon zinc and eating away the zinc with acid: The objection
+to this method is very evident, namely, the action of the acid upon the
+paint coating, which is likely to be very severe. Another method has
+been to spread paraffin on a glass plate, and painting upon this
+surface. When the paint is dried, the paraffin is melted off and thus
+the film is obtained. This method is open to objections, in that the
+paraffin surface is not a comparable one upon which to paint, and also
+that the complete removal of the paraffin is not assured.
+
+Another method consists in covering a piece of glass with tin foil,
+painting out the film upon the foil, and after drying properly, to
+remove the sheet of foil with its coating of paint and immerse in a bath
+of mercury which, by amalgamation of the tin, leaves the paint film.
+
+We now come to a method worked out in our laboratories, which can be
+recommended as being not only simple but efficient and practical. It has
+been found that a size from noodle glue, when painted upon ordinary
+fair-quality paper, makes a surface from which the paint may be
+subsequently stripped. The paint is applied in the ordinary way to the
+paper, which is held during the operation by thumb tacks, and allowed to
+dry. The paint may be separated by immersion in water kept at about 50
+degrees Centigrade. By this method large films may be obtained, but it
+has been found very unhandy to work with films exceeding an area of
+eight inches square. When the film of paint has been detached from the
+sized paper through the dissolving of the noodle glue, the paint film is
+then immersed in a fresh solution of water, in order to remove whatever
+excess of noodle glue there may be remaining. A glass rod is then
+introduced into the bath, in which the paint film is floated upon the
+glass rod, which is then hung up to dry in a suitable container to
+prevent the accumulation of dust, etc.
+
+[Illustration: Bottles Showing Relative Permeability of Films by Amount
+of Whiting Formed Within]
+
+=The Permeability of Paint Films.= A series of tests were made to
+determine the water-excluding values of various combinations of painting
+pigments ground in pure linseed oil. White pine boards, six inches long,
+four inches wide, and one inch thick, were carefully prepared and
+numbered and given three coats of a white paint formula of the
+corresponding number. After drying, the boards were carefully weighed
+and immersed in a tub of water for three weeks. After removal, the
+surfaces of the boards were dried with blotting paper and the boards
+weighed. The gain in weight, corresponding to the amount of water
+penetrating through the pores of the wood, was observed. The boards were
+again immersed and at the end of two months the following results were
+obtained:
+
+                                  Grammes of water
+  Formula                            absorbed
+    No.                            through paint
+
+   1. Soya bean oil                    120
+   2. Linseed oil                      102
+   3. Calcium sulphate                  93
+   4. Barytes                           88
+   5. Asbestine                         74
+   6. Corroded white lead               59
+      { Basic carb.--White lead  25% }
+      { Basic sulph.--White lead 20% }
+   7. { Zinc oxide               25% }  58
+      { Calcium sulphate         25% }
+      { Calcium carbonate         5% }
+   8. Sublimed white lead               56
+   9. Zinc oxide                        56
+       { Zinc lead white         30%  }
+  10.  { Zinc oxide              40%  } 42
+       { Basic carb.--White lead 20%  }
+       { Calcium carbonate       10%  }
+  11. { Basic carb.--White lead  50% }  42
+      { Zinc oxide               50% }
+       { Basic carb.--White lead 38%  }
+  12.  { Zinc oxide              48%  } 38
+       { Silica                  14%  }
+
+The test boards were then exposed, with their content of water, to the
+action of the sun's rays. Blistering of the painted surfaces took place
+in many cases, caused by the rapid withdrawal of the water and its
+consequent action on the paint film. The tests seem to indicate that a
+mixture of white lead and zinc oxide, with or without a small percentage
+of the inert pigments, is not as subject to the action of the water as
+the single pigment paints. In order, however, to corroborate these
+tests, it occurred to the writer to develop a more visible means of
+demonstrating the passage of moisture through paint films.
+
+[Illustration: Bell Jar Apparatus for Testing Permeability of Paint
+Films
+
+Paint films sealed over mouths of Bottles containing Lime Water.
+Carbonic Acid Gas generated under Bell Jar passes through Plate Films
+and precipitates Calcium Carbonate]
+
+Another series of white pine boards were therefore soaked in a solution
+of iron sulphate for several hours. After removal, the surface of each
+board was dried and coated with one coat of the paints previously
+tested. After thorough drying for forty-eight hours, there was placed on
+the surface of each board a few drops of a solution of potassium
+ferrocyanide. This solution has the effect of producing a blue
+coloration with iron sulphate, and in every case when it was placed on a
+paint of considerable porosity, the solution penetrated through and
+formed a blue coloration beneath the paint. The results corroborated the
+original tests referred to above.
+
+A series of sheets or films of paints were then prepared according to
+the method referred to on page 71. These films were placed over glass
+dialyzing cups, allowing the inner surfaces to sag so as to hold a small
+amount of dilute ammonium chloride solution. Distilled water was placed
+on the reverse side of the dialyzing apparatus and the tests started. At
+the end of six days the distilled water in each test was examined and
+the following results obtained:
+
+     Test No. 1 (corroded white lead and asbestine film) allowed the
+     passage of 0.002 gm. ammonium chloride. Test No. 2 (corroded
+     white lead and zinc oxide film) allowed the passage of 0.0003 gm.
+     ammonium chloride.
+
+Tests were also made with dilute solutions of other salts such as ferric
+chloride, having a dilute solution of potassium sulpho-cyanide on the
+reverse side of the apparatus. In the latter case the formation of a
+pink color, characteristic upon the mingling of these solutions, was
+obtained in a few hours.
+
+=Film-Testing Machine.= A film-testing apparatus, termed a "filmometer"
+by its originator, Mr. R. S. Perry, was constructed, with the following
+features: A graduated upright tube is fixed by means of sealing wax to
+two metallic plates which carry an evenly bored hole, exactly under the
+hole in the upright tube. This hole measures exactly one square
+centimeter in area, and is circular. The upright tube is graduated into
+lineal centimeters and is called the pressure tube.
+
+[Illustration: Gardner Accelerated Test Box]
+
+[Illustration: Perry Film Testing Machine]
+
+Attached to the lower end of this pressure tube, close to the metallic
+plates which serve as carriers for the paint film to be tested, is a
+side-neck, which is inclined at an angle of 45 degrees to the pressure
+tube, and serves the purpose of introducing the mercury, as will be
+described later. Immediately under the openings in the metallic plates
+which carry the film are arranged two pieces of iron inclined at a
+90-degree angle, so arranged that when the pressure of mercury is
+applied and causes rupture of the film, the falling mercury shall be
+caught between these two insulated plates and cause contact. These two
+plates are connected up by wire with a pair of magnets, thence to an
+electric bell, and from there to storage batteries which supply the
+current.
+
+A film of paint is tested in the following manner: A piece of film one
+inch square is cut out and placed between the two metallic plates which
+hold the film immediately under the pressure tube. Mercury is run in
+from a burette through the side-neck and applies pressure upon the film
+by gravity. As the mercury is run in it rises of course in the tubes
+until this pressure becomes so great as to finally break the film. At
+this point the mercury will run out, and, falling upon the two insulated
+iron plates immediately below, will cause contact and close the circuit
+which rings an electric bell, which is a signal for the operator to shut
+off the inflow of mercury through the side-neck from the burette.
+
+The pressure tube is also supplied with a piston which is made of a
+piece of thin iron wire having a disc attached to its lower end. As the
+mercury rises in the pressure tube this iron wire is pushed up, being
+very delicately counterpoised over a wheel. Upon the breaking of the
+film the mercury runs out, but upon falling upon the two iron plates
+underneath causes contact to be made, which causes the current to run
+through the pair of magnets before mentioned, which, becoming
+electrified, attract the piston in the pressure tube, giving a reading
+for the maximum height of the column of mercury.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram of Perry Filmometer]
+
+The supply of mercury being shut off, the operator is now in a position
+to determine the total sum of both the elasticity and ductility of the
+paint film, and also the pressure at which the film broke. The breaking
+pressure of course is read directly upon the pressure column, which is
+divided into centimeters as has been described above, the piston
+indicating the maximum height of the mercury column. What may be termed
+the elasticity of the film can now be calculated. As is perfectly
+evident, the film in stretching does so by distending from a flat
+surface to a curved or cup-like surface. If the pressure tube is
+calibrated in cubic centimeters reckoned from a flat surface where the
+film was introduced, the stretch of the paint film in distending from a
+flat surface to a curved surface may be determined. The cubic contents
+of the pressure tube and side-arm become increased, owing to the
+cup-like shape the paint film takes on. By subtracting the amount of
+mercury indicated by the piston in the pressure tube from the amount of
+mercury delivered from the burette, the amount contained in the
+distended paint film is obtained, which serves as a measure of
+elasticity. The temperature is a most important point to consider in
+running daily tests upon the filmometer. The tests made by the writer
+were conducted at 70 degrees Fahrenheit throughout.
+
+[Illustration: Gardner-de Horvath film testing apparatus]
+
+=Gardner-de Horvath Filmometer.= Another type of filmometer which gives
+very concordant results was recently devised by the writer and de
+Horvath. This apparatus is shown above.
+
+It consists of a three-necked Wolff bottle having provision at one of
+its necks for exhausting the air from the bottle. The reverse neck is
+provided with a gauged glass tube dipping into a porcelain crucible
+containing mercury, thus acting as a manometer. The middle neck is
+fitted to accommodate two ground glass plates. Both these plates are
+provided with a central orifice one millimeter in diameter. Between the
+plates is placed a small section of paint film. The plates may be
+pressed together or clamped together and placed over the middle neck of
+the bottle, a close contact being made with Canada balsam. As the air is
+exhausted from the bottle, the mercury in the tube will rise and
+continue in its ascent until the film, which is exposed to atmospheric
+pressure, has offered it maximum resistance, which is shown by the
+breaking point. This point is observed on the manometer and the result
+expressed in centimeters of mercury.
+
+=Table of Film Testing Results.= By means of the Perry film-testing
+apparatus, described in the above, interesting results have been
+obtained, which are embodied in the following table:
+
+COMPARATIVE STRENGTHS OF FILMS AS OBTAINED BY THE BREAKING MACHINE
+
+  ============================+=========+==========+===========+========
+                              |No. Coats| Pressure | Thickness | Stretch
+  ----------------------------+---------+----------+-----------+--------
+   1. Zinc oxide              |    3    |   33.2   |    0028   |  .30
+   2. Zinc lead               |    3    |   32.7   |    0034   |  .35
+   3. Asbestine               |    3    |   28.0   |    0045   |  .15
+   4. Sublimed white lead     |    3    |   17.9   |    0024   |  .38
+   5. Barytes                 |    3    |   13.3   |    0042   |  .33
+   6. Lithopone               |    3    |   13.1   |    0024   |  .49
+   7. Whiting                 |    3    |   13.0   |    0033   |  .32
+   8. Quick process white lead|    3    |   11.3   |    0025   |  .38
+   9. Gypsum                  |    3    |   10.8   |    0039   |  .29
+  10. China clay              |    3    |   10.8   |    0035   |  .16
+  11. Silex                   |    3    |    9.6   |    0032   |  .32
+  12. Blanc fixe              |    3    |    8.5   |    0030   |  .28
+  13. Corroded white lead     |    3    |    7.3   |    0020   |  .33
+  14. Barium carbonate        |    3    |    7.2   |    0028   |  .16
+  ============================+=========+==========+===========+========
+
+By means of this machine it is possible to obtain very valuable
+information concerning the effect of age upon a paint as influencing its
+strength and elasticity. These are two vital qualities in a paint, as it
+is through its strength that a paint resists abrasion, cracking,
+peeling, and blistering. That elasticity is a vital qualification of a
+paint may easily be seen through the checking of oil paintings, which,
+as Ostwalt has pointed out, is due to the unequal coefficients of
+expansion between the ground and the paint. This is particularly
+noticeable in the alligatoring of many enamels which contain large
+percentages of zinc.
+
+Curves have been prepared having pressure as an abscissa and elasticity
+as ordinate. These curves show remarkable differences in different
+pigments. For instance, in the case of white lead, the curve takes a
+steep upward trend when it apparently reaches a maximum, the curve then
+flattening out and finally taking another steep upward trend just before
+breaking. This may be construed as follows: That under low pressures the
+white lead film is perfectly elastic, when a maximum is obtained, beyond
+which elasticity does not extend. This point is the maximum point of the
+upward trend. From here on pressure may be applied without any increase
+in stretch, this being represented by the flat part of the curve, while
+the steep upward trend just before breaking shows where the paint begins
+to tear, finally culminating in breaking. In the case of asbestine,
+however, the curve is more of a straight line up to the breaking point,
+which would go to prove that elasticity is proportionate to pressure in
+the case of this pigment.
+
+=Moisture Absorption.= The structure of certain pigments is such that
+when they are ground in linseed oil and painted out, films are produced
+which are very water-resistant. This action is possibly due to the
+filling of the voids in the oil, thus making a compact and
+water-resistant film. Pigments which are coarse and which present an
+angular crystalline structure, often produce films which contain a
+relatively large number of voids and are less waterproof. Certain
+pigments are chemically active and tend to produce, when ground in oil,
+metallic soaps which act for a time more or less as varnish gums, in
+keeping out moisture. Later on, however, such films are apt to break
+down and admit moisture in quantity. The tests herein described were
+designed by the author to determine the water-excluding value of a
+number of typical pigments when ground in linseed oil and painted out
+into films. Unfortunately, no method has been devised by which films of
+the same gauge could be prepared. The variations in the thickness of the
+films used in these experiments, however, are not very great.
+
+[Illustration: Apparatus for Determining Excluding Properties of Paint
+Films]
+
+A series of small glass bottles with wide mouths, holding about two
+ounces, were half filled with concentrated sulphuric acid, and paint
+films were tightly sealed over the mouths of the bottles with Canada
+balsam. The bottles were then carefully labeled, numbered, and
+accurately weighed upon chemical balances. Later they were exposed under
+a large glass bell jar containing air saturated with moisture and kept
+at a constant temperature. The bottles were removed from the receptacle
+every week and reweighed. The increase in weight, due to the amount of
+moisture which had penetrated through the films, and absorbed by the
+sulphuric acid, owing to its hygroscopic nature, was thus determined. In
+another series of bottles, lumps of calcium chloride were substituted
+for the sulphuric acid. The results obtained from these tests correspond
+to those of the former tests, and led to the conclusion that the
+porosity of linseed oil films varied when different pigments were used
+in the oil.
+
+MOISTURE EXPERIMENTS
+
+Figures Given Express Percentage Gain in Weight, e.g., Water Absorbed
+
+  ==========================+=========+=========+=========
+                            |  7 days | 21 days | 49 days
+  --------------------------+---------+---------+---------
+  White lead and zinc oxide |  0.043% |  0.115% |  0.266%
+  Zinc lead white           |  0.049  |  0.130  |  0.284
+  Red lead                  |  0.049  |  0.130  |  0.295
+  Sublimed white lead       |  0.049  |  0.128  |  0.292
+  Zinc chromate             |  0.064  |  0.176  |  0.417
+  Zinc oxide                |  0.065  |  0.172  |  0.391
+  Barytes                   |  0.074  |  0.202  |  0.466
+  Willow charcoal           |  0.077  |  0.236  |  0.694
+  Lithopone                 |  0.083  |  0.228  |  0.550
+  Chinese blue              |  0.092  |  0.276  |  0.671
+  Natural graphite          |  0.104  |  0.350  |  0.951
+  Ultramarine               |  0.119  |  0.336  |  0.814
+  ==========================+=========+=========+=========
+
+Another series of tests was started, in which were used films prepared
+from various oils and varnishes made especially for the test from
+different gums. The results of this series are very interesting, as they
+indicate that certain gums are more powerful than others in making oils
+resistant to moisture. The reader should study with care the data on
+treated Chinese wood oil, most excellent results having been obtained
+when it was used in the proper percentage.
+
+EXCLUDING TESTS ON OIL VEHICLES AND VARNISHES SHOWING PERCENTAGE OF
+MOISTURE ABSORBED AT VARIOUS PERIODS
+
+  ===================================+=========+=========+=========
+                                     |  6 days | 18 days | 24 days
+  -----------------------------------+---------+---------+---------
+  Linseed oil, 100%                  |  .233   |  .686   |  .895
+  Soya bean oil, 100%                |  .340   | 1.06    | 1.39
+  Linseed oil, 80%  }                |  .250   |  .755   |  .987
+  Soya bean oil, 20%}                |         |         |
+  Linseed oil, 60%   }               |  .289   |  .857   | 1.125
+  Soya bean oil, 40% }               |         |         |
+  Linseed oil, 40%  }                |  .355   | 1.05    | 1.39
+  Soya bean oil, 60%}                |         |         |
+  Linseed oil, 20%   }               |  .260   |  .789   | 1.03
+  Soya bean oil, 80% }               |         |         |
+  China wood oil treated, 100%       |  .130   |  .297   |  .375
+  Linseed oil, 80%           }       |  .182   |  .559   |  .728
+  China wood oil treated, 20%}       |         |         |
+  Linseed oil, 60%            }      |  .173   |  .540   |  .708
+  China wood oil treated, 40% }      |         |         |
+  Linseed oil, 40%           }       |  .119   |  .348   |  .450
+  China wood oil treated, 60%}       |         |         |
+  Linseed oil, 20%            }      |  .127   |  .375   |  .494
+  China wood oil treated, 80% }      |         |         |
+  Kauri gum, 33%  }                  |         |         |
+  Linseed oil, 33%}                  |  .061   |  .191   |  .302
+  Turpentine, 33% }                  |         |         |
+  Kauri gum, 25%   }                 |         |         |
+  Linseed oil, 50% }                 |  .096   |  .266   |  .346
+  Turpentine, 25%  }                 |         |         |
+  Kauri gum, 20%  }                  |         |         |
+  Linseed oil, 60%}                  |  .122   |  .367   |  .449
+  Turpentine, 20% }                  |         |         |
+  Kauri gum, 15%   }                 |         |         |
+  Linseed oil, 70% }                 |  .187   |  .421   |  .601
+  Turpentine, 15%  }                 |         |         |
+  Congo copal gum, 20% }             |         |         |
+  Linseed oil, 50%     }             |  .228   |   --    |   --
+  Turpentine, 30%      }             |         |         |
+  Sierra Leone copal, 20% }          |         |         |
+  Linseed oil, 50%        }          |  .099   |   --    |   --
+  Turpentine, 30%         }          |         |         |
+  Zanzibar gum, 20% }                |         |         |
+  Linseed oil, 50%  }                |  .082   |   --    |   --
+  Turpentine, 30%   }                |         |         |
+  Amimi gum, 20%   }                 |         |         |
+  Linseed oil, 50% }                 |  .080   |   --    |   --
+  Turpentine, 30%  }                 |         |         |
+  Boiled linseed oil (linoleate type)|  .210   |   --    |   --
+  Collodion solution (6 oz.), 80% }  |  .201   |   --    |   --
+  Boiled linseed oil, 20%         }  |         |         |
+  ===================================+=========+=========+=========
+
+[Illustration: Microscopic view of section of cedar]
+
+[Illustration: Microscopic view of section of maple]
+
+[Illustration: Microscopic view of section of white pine]
+
+[Illustration: Gardner photomicroscope in position against painted
+surface]
+
+[Illustration: Inside White on White Pine]
+
+=Use of the Microscope.= 4. The microscope is a necessary adjunct of
+every well-ordered paint laboratory, as has been recognized throughout
+the whole paint industry. The writer has attempted to collect certain
+data which may materially assist those manufacturers who employ this
+instrument to judge of the quality of their raw and finished products.
+The fineness of grinding considerably affects the quality of the paint,
+and this can be easily controlled through the intelligent use of the
+microscope. This instrument may also be used to detect certain
+adulterations. Appended is a table giving the fineness of grinding of
+the various pigments, together with their characteristics under the
+microscope. In this table measurements are given both in millimeters and
+in inches, in order to accommodate itself to the use of those chemists
+employing a millimeter stage micrometer, or those employing the English
+or inch system. Although it is not yet certain that any and all
+combinations of pigments may be detected under the microscope the writer
+is working toward a method which will allow a manipulator to judge of
+the composition of the paint under observation.
+
+In order to properly prepare a paint for microscopic examination, the
+following method is recommended: A microscopic turn-table is a
+convenient accessory of the microscope, and its use is to be
+recommended. A glass slide being placed in position upon the turn-table,
+a very small amount of either the pigment rubbed up in oil, or the
+paint, is applied to the slide; a small drop of Canada balsam is then
+applied by means of a glass rod dipped in a solution of balsam in xylol,
+and dropped upon the slide. The rod is then used to thoroughly
+incorporate the pigment with the balsam, and a cleaned cover glass is
+dropped over the whole and pressed down tightly, so that a small amount
+of balsam will exude from under the edges and thus firmly seal the
+glass. In order to make permanent slides it has been found advisable to
+rim the cover glass with balsam and even follow this up with some
+suitable black varnish, the slide being then carefully labeled and
+placed in the collection. Following is a table of the characteristics of
+the fourteen chief pigments:
+
+TABLE OF THE SIZE OF PARTICLES OF THE CHIEF PIGMENTS WITH THEIR
+CHARACTERISTICS UNDER THE MICROSCOPE
+
+  ===+===================+======================+=======================
+     |                   |      Diameter in     |      Diameter in
+     |                   |      Millimeters     |        Inches
+     |                   +-------+-------+------+-------+------+--------
+  No.|Name               | Small | Aver. |Large | Small | Aver.| Large
+  ---+-------------------+-------+-------+------+-------+------+--------
+    1|Asbestine          |.002   | --    |.12   |.00015 | --   |.049
+    2|China clay         |.003   | --    |.065  |.00009 | --   |.025
+    3|Barium carbonate   |.00076 |.0055  |.0172 |.00003 |.00024|.0011
+    4|Blanc fixe         |.00073 |.0037  |.0073 |.00003 |.00014|.0003
+    5|Silex              |.0037  |.0092  |.03   |.00014 |.00036|.0012
+    6|Gypsum             |.0037  |.011   |.05   |.00014 |.00044|.0022
+    7|Amer.-Paris white  |.0015  |.0050  |.04   |.00006 |.00022|.0018
+    8|Barytes            |.0015  |.0092  |.05   |.00006 |.00036|.0021
+    9|Zinc lead          |.00037 |.0018  |.0037 |.000014|.00007|.00014
+   10|Sublimed white lead|.00037 |.0018  |.0037 |.000014|.00007|.00014
+   11|Lithopone          |.00076 |.0018  | --   |.00003 |.00007| --
+   12|Zinc oxide         |.00046 |.0018  |.00037|.00002 |.00007|.00014
+   13|Quick Pro. lead    |.00061 |.0030  |.0048 |.00002 |.00012|.00018
+   14|Dutch Pro. lead    |.00061 |.0018  |.0066 |.00002 |.00007|.00026
+  ===+===================+=======+=======+======+=======+======+========
+
+=Film Sectioning and Deductions to be Drawn Therefrom.= 5.
+Investigations were undertaken into the innermost structure of paint
+films as revealed under the microscope. Up to the present time, work has
+been done upon barytes, asbestine, blanc fixe, and white lead, painted
+upon wood, and a combination paint upon wood. The films, the preparation
+of which has been described in the foregoing, were sectioned and
+prepared for microscopic examination in the following manner:
+
+A solidifying dish was partly filled with low melting-point paraffin
+which was allowed to harden, when a small piece of paint was thrown upon
+it and then more paraffin poured over it. After hardening, sections were
+obtained of the paint film by means of a microtome.
+
+[Illustration: Section Barytes Film]
+
+A view of these sections of paint films under the microscope gave to the
+operator a better idea of the structure of a paint than had ever been
+afforded heretofore. It was easy to perceive the relative position of
+the pigment particles and the three coats. The penetration of one coat
+into another was easily discernible, and measurements were made upon the
+sections in order to determine the average thickness of coat and its
+general appearance.
+
+Sections were also made of Inside and Outside White upon wood. These
+sections revealed under the microscope the thickness of the coats and
+also the penetration of the priming coat into the wood. Appended is a
+table giving microscopic measurements.
+
+PAINT SECTION MEASUREMENTS UNDER MICROSCOPE
+
+  ======================+=============+===========+======
+                        |             |Millimeters|Inches
+  ----------------------+-------------+-----------+------
+  Barytes               |3 coats (sum)|  .1068    |.00421
+                        |Single coat  |  .0356    |.00140
+                        |             |           |
+  Inside. White on wood |3 coats (sum)|  .1624    |.00639
+                        |Outside coat |  .0230    |.00091
+                        |Next coat    |  .0443    |.00175
+  Field in photographs  |Next coat    |  .0620    |.00245
+                        |Penetration  |  .0294    |.00116
+  White lead            |Inside       |  .0215    |.00085
+                        |Middle       |  .0405    |.00159
+                        |Outside      |  .0184    |.00073
+                        |3 coats (sum)|  .0811    |.00319
+  Asbestine             |3 coats (sum)|  .1840    |.00725
+                        |             |           |
+  Blanc fixe            |3 coats (sum)|  .1068    |.0042
+                        |Single coat  |  .0356    |.00014
+                        |             |           |
+  Outside. White on wood|Outside coat |  .1329    |.00523
+                        |Inside       |  .1845    |.00727
+                        |Penetration  |  .0737    |.00290
+  ======================+=============+===========+======
+
+=Polar Micro-Examinations and Photomicrographs.= By Polar
+Micro-Examination is meant the examination of pigments under polarized
+light. A polarizing apparatus, though not an essential in the hands of
+the paint chemist, is nevertheless much to be desired, for by its help
+deductions may be drawn as to the contents of a paint, which by other
+means might not be possible. The polarizing apparatus as marketed by
+most manufacturers of the microscope is attached in the following
+manner:
+
+The diaphragm immediately under the sub-stage container is swung out and
+opened to its widest limit, allowing the insertion of the polarizer.
+This polarizer carries one of the pair of Nicols prisms and is
+countersunk to allow of the introduction of gypsum or selenite plates.
+The analyzer fits over the eyepiece on the tube.
+
+The use of polarized light upon paint is valuable on account of its
+action upon crystalline substances. The re-enforcing pigments, such as
+Asbestine, China Clay, Gypsum, Silex, Barytes, etc., are crystalline and
+consequently act upon the polarized light. In most cases these pigments
+are used in ready-mixed paints in small amounts, varying between 5 and
+25%. When a slide containing a small amount--for example, less than
+3%--of these crystalline pigments is examined under the microscope by
+ordinary transmitted light, they will often escape observation, owing to
+the small amount in which they are present. However, in the case of
+polarized light, this could hardly happen.
+
+[Illustration: Microscopic View of Barytes under Polarized Light]
+
+A slide of paint containing these re-enforcing pigments is prepared in
+the usual manner. On examining this under the microscope and using the
+polarizing apparatus, the crystalline pigments are at once detected by
+revolving the analyzer. At one position of the analyzer, one sees an
+ordinary field, as with transmitted light, but if one revolves the
+analyzer, the field gradually becomes darker until total darkness is
+obtained throughout, except in such places where crystalline substances
+are present, when the crystal is shown up with beautiful distinctness.
+Photomicrographs of various single pigments and pigment combinations are
+shown under Chapter III.
+
+=Effect of Pigments on Oil.= Certain pigments have the property of
+acting upon the linseed oil in which they are ground, forming metallic
+linoleates which accelerate the drying of oil. This is especially true
+of lead and zinc pigments. The inert crystalline pigments, when ground
+in linseed oil and painted out, distribute the oil so as to allow a
+great surface to be exposed to the air. Thus by physical action, and
+possibly catalytic or contact action, these inert pigments stimulate the
+drying of oil paints in which they are ground. Lead and zinc paints, of
+course, have the greatest drying values on account of the added effect
+of the linoleates formed, as outlined above. The writer has made a
+series of tests in which the action of various pigments upon linseed oil
+is shown. The tests were made in the following manner:
+
+Five grams of each of a series of commonly used paint pigments,
+including those of inert crystalline nature as well as the more valuable
+amorphous pigments which are considered more or less chemically active,
+were ground separately in an agate mortar, with 5 grams of raw linseed
+oil. The ground paste in each case was placed in a marked glass beaker,
+and allowed to stand in a dustless section of the laboratory for one
+month. The oil-pigment paste from each beaker was then separately
+extracted with benzine to remove the linseed oil from the pigment. The
+benzine solutions of oil were then heated to remove the benzine and the
+residue of oil burned to ash in crucibles. The ash from each test was
+weighed, and if it ran above the percentage of ash determined on a blank
+sample of linseed oil (namely, .003%), the ash was analyzed
+qualitatively for metallic constituents. The following table of results
+shows the percentage increase in ash, as well as the constituents of ash
+on the various samples tested:
+
+TABLE OF RESULTS
+
+  ===============================+==============+========================
+                                 | Per cent. of |
+                                 |  Ash in Oil  |
+  Pigment in Oil                 |Extracted from|Analysis of Ash
+                                 | Oil-Pigment  |
+                                 |    Paste     |
+  -------------------------------+--------------+------------------------
+  Raw linseed oil without pigment|    0.003     |      --
+  Barytes                        |    0.003     |      --
+  Blanc fixe                     |    0.003     |      --
+  Silica                         |    0.003     |      --
+  Asbestine                      |    0.005     |      --
+  China clay                     |    0.007     |      --
+  Whiting                        |    0.008     |      --
+  Chrome yellow                  |    0.025     |Lead oxide (PbO)
+  Lithopone                      |    0.031     |Zinc oxide (ZnO)
+  Prussian blue                  |    0.032     |Iron oxide (Fe_{2}O_{3})
+  Sublimed white lead            |    0.033     |Lead oxide (PbO)
+  Zinc oxide                     |    0.105     |Zinc oxide (ZnO)
+  Corroded white lead            |    0.116     |Lead oxide (PbO)
+  Red lead                       |    0.2112    |Lead oxide (PbO)
+  ===============================+==============+========================
+
+Observation of these results shows that pigments such as Barytes, Blanc
+Fixe, and Silica have no chemical action on the linseed oil. The results
+on Asbestine and China Clay also are negative, the extremely slight
+increase in amount of ash from these samples probably being due to
+traces carried over mechanically into the oil mixture; the last named
+pigments being more fluffy and difficult to separate from oil. Slight
+action seemed to be apparent in the case of whiting, a pigment somewhat
+alkaline in nature. A longer test might have shown this pigment to have
+possessed still greater action. Corroded white lead showed considerable
+action, resulting in the formation of lead linoleate or some other
+organic compound. Zinc oxide and lithopone, the latter pigment
+containing 30% of zinc sulphide, both indicated action on the oil.
+Chrome yellow (chromate of lead) showed some action, as did also
+Prussian blue, the ash from the last named pigment showing a heavy
+percentage of iron oxide.
+
+Red Lead showed a most astounding gain in these tests, chemical action
+of the pigment on the oil being apparent soon after the tests were
+started, as shown by the formation of a hard cake with the linseed oil.
+
+The Raw Linseed Oil which was used in these tests had an acid value of
+1.84%, which is very low. The neutralization of this free fatty acid by
+some of the alkaline pigments used, may account for part of the
+increased percentage of ash, but in most cases the pigments, and more
+especially the basic pigments, had a direct saponifying action upon the
+glycerides of the oil.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF SCIENTIFIC PAINT MAKING
+
+
+=Laws of Paint Making.= To secure a proper comprehension of the
+composition of paints, and to be able to interpret the functions of
+their various constituents, requires an understanding of the general
+physical principles involved. The modern grinder has accepted the Law of
+Minimum Voids, and upon this law he bases the design of paint formulae,
+aiming toward the production of what have been properly termed
+Scientifically Prepared Paints. Perry's formulation of the Law of
+Minimum Voids in a paint coating, and the analogy which he has drawn
+between a scientifically prepared paint and a well-proportioned
+concrete, was the result of genuine scientific thought following
+observation and experimentation. It must be admitted that analogies are
+not always safe to draw conclusions from, but it surely is no fallacy in
+reasoning to draw analogies between these two materials, when they
+resemble each other in so many ways. To carry out processes of
+reasoning, and to formulate laws from such close analogies, is certainly
+a step in the right direction.
+
+A graphic summary of the analogies between a properly proportioned
+concrete and a paint, are shown on next page.
+
+Although this table graphically summarizes the principles involved, the
+matter is presented with greater clearness in the following:
+
+Law No. 1--The law of minimum voids to be observed in constructing a
+paint formula--this law having already been accepted as mathematically
+correct and technically proved in the technology of concrete and cement.
+
+Corollary--The requisite thickness of a paint film together with the
+utmost attainable strength and impermeability can best be obtained by a
+properly proportioned blend of pigments of three or more determinate
+sizes.
+
+
+AN EXHIBITION OF CERTAIN ANALOGIES GOVERNING THE MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE
+AND OF PAINT
+
+  1 Concrete aggregate = solids + vehicle|Paint aggregate = solids + vehicle
+                                         |
+  2 Solids = coarse + medium + fine      |Solids = coarse +     medium  + fine
+             (stone) (gravel) (sand)     |        {pulverized }{precipi-}
+                                         |(pig-   {cryst'lline}{tated   }(fume)
+                                         |(ments  {(etc.)     }
+                                         |
+  3 Vehicle =                            |Vehicle =
+    = reactive binder + evapor'g thinner |= reactive binder+evaporating thinner
+     { cement and com- } (excess water)  |     (linseed oil)    (volatiles)
+     { bining water    }                 |
+                                         |
+  4 Solids + compacting =                |Solids + compacting =
+             (tamping)                   |         (brushing)
+    = elimination of accidental voids +  | = elimination of accidental voids +
+    + proper adhesive contact            | + proper adhesive contact
+                                         |
+  5 Vehicle + reaction = hydrosilicates, |Vehicle + reaction = linoxyn
+    etc.                                 |
+              (setting)                  |          (drying)
+                                         |
+  6 Solids + vehicle +                   |Solids + vehicle +
+    + lubrication + chemical reaction =  | + lubrication + chemical reaction =
+    = final product { solidified binder+}| = final product {solidified binder+}
+                    { + solids          }|                 {+ solids          }
+                                         |
+  7 Final product = concrete             |Final product = paint coating
+                       { shearing       }|              { strength       }
+    (of max. strength  { tensile        }| (of maximum  { impermeability }
+                       { crushing, etc. }|              { durability     }
+
+                         *       *       *       *       *
+
+  If we assume for both paint and concrete
+        proper lubrication
+        proper proportion of vehicle and solids
+  Then the _essential difference_ between a thin film of
+
+                        Concrete        and             Paint
+                                        is
+
+                      Cement Binder                     Linoxyn Binder
+
+                                  _Disadvantages_
+
+  Non-elastic and hence an impracticable |Slowly perishable from oxidation by
+  binder for a film to protect non-      |the air.
+  similar structural surfaces.           |
+
+                                    _Advantages_
+
+  Durable and with the qualities of a    |Semi-elastic and therefore a practic-
+  natural mineral.                       |able binder for a film to protect
+                                         |structural surfaces.
+
+  Postulate (def. Webster's Dictionary--A self-evident problem)
+
+     Postulate No. 1--The organic linoxyn or semi-elastic binder of the
+     paint vehicle (unlike the cement binder) is perishable and its purity,
+     strength and protection from attack means life to the paint coating,
+     and hence the _life_ of the oil is the _life_ of the paint.
+
+     Postulate No. 2--The inorganic or powdered mineral solids of a paint
+     coating will crumble unless held together by the binder, but the
+     imperishable pigments must be so ground and blended in the binder that
+     they will protect the binder and present the greatest possible solid
+     front to the atmospheric attack.
+
+                         *       *       *       *       *
+
+  A paint, to secure the greatest protection and life for the linoxyn,
+  together with the durable qualities of cement,
+
+                                    _Therefore_
+
+                            Should expose to air decay
+
+  within limits of physical strength     |within limits required for elasticity,
+  The greatest amount of pigm't material |etc. The least amount of exposed
+                                         |linoxyn
+              (which is)                 |                or
+  Durable and with the inert qualities of|Considering the linoxyn present be-
+  natural mineral                        |tween pigment particles as the void
+                                         |or point of attack,
+                                         |               Then
+                                         |the minimum exposure of linoxyn
+  or minimum voids obtainable by proportioned pigments of different particle
+  sizes.
+
+Law No. 2--The law of the flat arch in paint coatings--i.e., the fact
+that in studying the fundamental physical principles governing the
+strength and durability of a paint coating it is necessary to regard the
+coating as consisting of a series of flat arches, in which the pigment
+particles of largest characteristic size serve as the piers or supports
+for the flat arches of which the continuous film is composed.
+
+Corollary A--The strength and durability of a paint coating is
+determined by the strength and durability of the piers or supports
+(which consist of the characteristic pigment particles of the largest
+size).
+
+Corollary B--Owing to their inherent strength and durability the pigment
+particles of largest characteristic size which serve as supports for the
+paint coating should consist, in part at least, of chemically inert
+pigments, such as natural crystalline barium sulphate, calcium
+carbonate, magnesium silicate, etc.
+
+Corollary C--It follows directly that the thickness of a paint coating
+is determined by the particles of pigments having the largest
+characteristic size, even if that pigment be present only in moderate
+percentage. Upon this principle depends the comparatively great
+thickness of film and moderate spreading rate of paints composed of such
+pigments as basic carbonate--white lead, red lead, barytes, etc., and
+the strongly contrasted thinness of film and high spreading rate of
+paints composed of the sublimated pigments such as lamp black, zinc
+oxide, basic sulphate--white lead, zinc-lead white, leaded zinc, etc.
+
+In commenting upon the announced laws set forth above, Heckel says: "The
+recognition of these laws was an exercise of pure deduction. Paint
+manufacturers before Mr. Perry's announcement were producing paints
+containing three or more pigments with particles of varying
+characteristic sizes; but their procedure was based largely on empirical
+knowledge, the result of accumulated experience, due to a conscientious
+endeavor to produce the highest type of paints for economic service. In
+the absence of any law to govern or to limit the use of the reinforcing
+pigments, inexperienced manufacturers had brought upon the market paints
+which were badly proportioned as to the several pigments, or burdened
+beyond the limits of effectiveness with reinforcing pigments. To all
+paint manufacturers Perry rendered a substantial service in deducing for
+them the laws set forth in his address. In the results following a
+recognition of these laws there was nothing new or startling, but Perry
+was the first to give the principles from which it can be determined in
+advance whether a paint formula will prove to be physically good or bad
+in practice.
+
+[Illustration: Series of Paint Chasers, Mixers, and Grinders]
+
+[Illustration: Overhead Churn Mixer]
+
+[Illustration: Battery of Paint Mixers and Grinders of Modern
+Underdriven Type]
+
+[Illustration: _Photographs courtesy of Ernest Heath_
+
+View showing Shrinkage in Bulk of Paint Pigment after being ground in
+Oil. Filled Barrel on Right with the Oil forms one-third Barrel Paste as
+shown in Barrel on Left]
+
+[Illustration: View showing careful Dressing of Bull Stone Mill from
+Grinder]
+
+"As has been before stated, he was not the first to recognize the law
+governing minimum voids, but by that scientific use of the imagination
+which Tyndall so highly commends, he recognized, as by inspiration, the
+fundamental similarity existing between a film composed of solid
+particles cemented together by a semi-solid homogeneous menstruum and a
+layer of concrete composed of solid particles cemented together by a
+solid homogeneous medium. His application of the law permits the paint
+manufacturers to design a paint formula with full knowledge of the
+controlling conditions, so that it shall produce a coating neither too
+thick, and therefore uneconomical and subject to excessive internal
+strains, nor too thin, and thus weak and inefficient for protection.
+That Mr. Perry's contention was well-founded, other paint technologists
+have since demonstrated; notably Mr. Wirt Tassin, in his microscopic
+studies of paint films in situ, and Prof. G. W. Thompson who, in his
+address to the Penna. Association of Master Painters at Reading,
+said:--"I want to agree with Mr. Perry * * * where he says that a
+pigment should be made up of particles of different sizes. Mr. Perry
+also draws a further parallel between paint and concrete where he refers
+to the form of the reinforcing pigment particles and suggests that in
+paint coatings as in concrete a field can be found for the chemically
+inert pigments with rod-like or hair-like structure, to strengthen the
+film, just as the steel rods and iron mesh are used to reinforce
+concrete in structural work--a suggestion which, since the first
+publication of the address, has been widely accepted as a practical aid
+in the manufacture of good paints.""
+
+=Use of Inert Pigments.= There seems to be no reasonable doubt as to the
+efficiency of a small amount of inert pigments in paint, and the writer
+has often compared the manufacture of paint of the above type to the
+making of various alloys wherein zinc, copper, and other metals are
+added to gold in order to make a product possessed of greater
+durability, etc.
+
+[Illustration: Batteries of Color Grinding Mills]
+
+There has been considerable inquiry as to just what is meant by the
+statement that "a moderate percentage of inert pigments, combined with
+properly adjusted mixtures of white lead and zinc oxide, have given
+wonderful service in all the tests." The writer has been asked to define
+what "moderate" means. A "moderate percentage of inert pigments" should
+be defined as that amount of natural crystalline pigments that will,
+when mixed with white lead and zinc oxide, not materially detract from
+the hiding power of white lead and zinc oxide. It is possible to mix a
+certain percentage of these crystalline pigments with white lead and
+zinc oxide, and, by thorough grinding, incorporate them in such a manner
+that the mixture will show nearly as good a hiding power as the straight
+white lead and zinc oxide. When certain limits have been reached,
+however, and these limits must be determined by the manufacturer and
+painter in making practical tests, the further addition of inert
+pigments lowers the hiding power of the paint and therefore lowers the
+value of the paint. These remarks do not apply to artificial crystalline
+pigments, such as precipitated whiting, which possess greater hiding
+values than the natural pigments.
+
+=Perry's Principles of Paint Making.= Parts of the original paper[18] in
+which Perry so clearly set forth the principles from which the preceding
+laws were formed, follow:
+
+  [18] Physical Characteristics of a Paint Coating. R. S. Perry.
+       Michigan Chapter, Amer. Institute of Architects, 1907.
+
+=Sealing Quality or Imperviousness of the Coating.= "It has been
+emphasized that for durability and protection, the strength and
+imperviousness of a paint coating are vital factors. The protective
+value of the paint coating of course ceases with its chalking or
+disintegration, but, while it is true that the protecting or final life
+of the coating ceases with this disintegration, it is also true that a
+paint coating has always during its true life more or less porosity from
+the nature of the linoxin or oxidized linseed oil. Therefore during its
+protecting life the degree of its imperviousness influences its
+resistance to attack upon its own life and its protection of the
+underlying materials. The more impervious the paint coating without loss
+of strength, the slower the oxidation or disintegration of the paint
+coating itself and the greater protection to the underlying material.
+
+"A coating of linseed oil alone is not only weak, but the simplest and
+crudest experiments will show its porosity and this porosity increases
+rapidly with progressive oxidation, the porosity of course definitely
+hastening the over-oxidation or chalking. In proportion, therefore, to
+our success in filling the voids in the linseed oil film with proper
+pigment materials, we will in that degree succeed in excluding agencies
+of decay, not only from the mass of the paint coating itself, but also
+from the surface to be protected. These conditions are exactly parallel
+in the requirements and performance of the best-made concrete, and
+Taylor & Thompson in their work on concrete have clearly stated that to
+obtain imperviousness there must be freedom from voids, and that to
+obtain these conditions, the materials used must have at least three
+determining sizes.
+
+[Illustration: Equal Volume (One Cubic Centimetre) of Each Size of Shot
+Taken. Note that the Smaller Shot Cover more than Half as much again as
+the Larger Shot and the Voids are Smaller.]
+
+[Illustration: Diagram Illustrating Two Determining Sizes of Solid
+Particles in Concrete]
+
+[Illustration: Diagram Illustrating Three Determining Sizes of Solid
+Particles in Concrete]
+
+"'It is a fact that with particles of different sizes as against uniform
+size the densest mixture can be obtained. This is so evident as to
+require no proof.' It follows that the least density and hence the
+largest percentage of voids occur when the grains are all of the same
+size, and it is shown that the most voids occur in a mass of large
+particles. The least voids occur when the voids between the large
+particles are filled with smaller particles and when these smaller voids
+between the smaller particles are in turn filled with still finer
+particles. In other words--particles with three determining sizes will
+fill up a given space more completely than particles of two determining
+sizes and very much more completely than particles of one size.
+
+=Elasticity and Strength.= "The paint coating here again is governed by
+many of the laws which govern the similar material, i.e., concrete. We
+find, by again referring to Taylor & Thompson, on Concrete, page 275,
+that tests at the Watertown Arsenal on concrete convinced the
+investigators that the ultimate strength of a concrete is identical with
+the shearing strength of particles of stone making up the aggregate.
+
+"This means that in its ultimate form the good concrete will crack or
+shear through the broken rock contained therein, and resistance to
+shearing is directly proportionate to the strength of the broken rock
+chosen for the mixture. The film of semi-liquid linseed oil when fresh
+is extremely weak, but as it hardens, its characteristics and physical
+properties will obviously be those qualities which are a composite of
+the qualities of the solid particles and of the semi-solid linolein
+incorporated together in the paint coating. These physical properties of
+the suspended and incorporated pigments profoundly modify the film in
+this respect.
+
+"The dried vehicle, linoxin, is notable for its elasticity, and it is
+weak in crushing and tensile strength, and in hardness or resistance to
+surface wear. The fact that it is a semi-solid furnishes an opportunity
+to modify and improve those characteristics of a solid in which it is
+deficient. The semi-solid, rubber-like linoxin between the coarser
+particles of the pigment obviously uses these coarser particles as
+supporting points. The medium sized particles of the second group of
+alteration products serve the same purpose as the broken rock in
+concrete. The coarser particles absolutely do not, and can not, serve
+the purpose of stiffening or of reinforcing or modifying the consistency
+and qualities of the semi-solid linoxin, for a number of reasons, one
+of which may be mentioned, namely, that particles of the first, or
+coarse, class have a determining size which is a large fraction--a heavy
+percentage--of the total thickness of coating, and are in some instances
+thicker in diameter than the thickness of an oil coating not reinforced
+with the fine or fire group.
+
+"We must think of the coarser particles as piers. The mixture of linoxin
+with the other two groups of particles in the spaces between these
+coarser particles, or piers, is the true paint body and consists of flat
+reinforced arches which have the extra support of falsework, in the
+shape of the structural material on which the coating rests. Asbestine
+pulp, a natural product and one of our most important natural
+reinforcing pigments, serves not only in the coarse group as supporting
+particles for the linoxin arch, but also because of its peculiar
+properties serves the more important purposes of reinforcement. It
+retains, no matter how finely ground, its peculiar needle-like, or
+rod-like, form of particles, and obviously serves the purpose of
+reinforcing the flat arch of linoxin, exactly as iron bars or iron
+netting serve in reinforced concrete arches. The medium sized particles
+of the second group of pigments produced by chemical alteration or
+precipitation, serve the purpose of the broken rock in concrete, and
+together with the coarser supporting particles and the finest
+reinforcing particles, give minimum voids and a maximum imperviousness
+to agencies of internal decay.
+
+"It goes without saying that the pigments of any one group contain
+particles of dimensions which fall into the other two groups, but no one
+pigment supplies the correct proportion of each of the three required
+dimensions, and each pigment has so large a percentage of approximate
+dimensions as to bar it from exclusive use in the other two groups.
+Given similar homogeneous coatings under identical conditions, we
+recognize the law that elasticity will vary directly with thickness.
+Direct deduction from this law teaches us that of two paint coatings
+equal in wear, in strength, opaqueness, and in all other qualities
+except thickness, we should choose the thinner coating. Therefore if we
+have two paint coatings fulfilling every requirement, the first
+compounded with pigments giving a thicker coating and the second with
+pigments yielding a thinner coating, we must choose the second formula
+and obtain the thinner coating.
+
+=Adhesive Power.= "The adhesion of the linoxin to the coarse group of
+particles and to the underlying material is vital to the life of the
+paint coating. If the coating parts from the surface beneath, we have
+scaling or peeling. It is universally admitted that this will result
+from use of zinc oxide as the sole pigment. We have only to conceive of
+our flat arch of reinforced linoxin and leave out our points of support,
+to realize that this is the inevitable result if the coating be subject
+to extreme exposure, although good results may be obtained from zinc
+oxide used alone, as, for instance, in interior house painting where
+extreme changes of temperature and exposure are avoided.
+
+"Three major lines of force hold our linoxin in place--adhesion toward
+the underneath surface, adhesion to the coarse particles, and cohesion
+within the linoxin itself. These lines must be represented by a flat
+arch of linoxin with a downward pointing magnet therefrom, to represent
+adhesion to the surface. Magnets on each side of the arch pointing
+toward the supporting coarse particles, and two magnets within the arch
+and pointing toward each other, or to the centre of the arch, these
+latter to represent the force of cohesion."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE SCOPE OF PRACTICAL PAINT TESTS
+
+
+=The Pigment Contention.= During the year 1906 officials of the North
+Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station examined a number of paints on
+sale in the northwestern States. The presence of large quantities of
+inert pigments as well as water, in some of these paints, prompted
+agitation for State laws requiring the formula-labeling of paints.
+Certain paints made of white opaque pigments such as white lead and zinc
+oxide were exempted from the statute. The white opaque pigments used in
+these paints were believed by certain manufacturers as well as by many
+prominent paint authorities of high standing to be benefited in their
+wearing value by the addition of small percentages of inert crystalline
+pigments, such as barytes, silica, China clay, etc. Laboratory
+experiments had already determined that these inert crystalline pigments
+had a certain definite action in increasing the life of paints, but it
+had become evident that they should be used with discretion, in
+moderation, and with a proper understanding of their limitations, if the
+best results were to be obtained. The addition of very large quantities
+of such pigments was not indulged in by discriminating manufacturers,
+but the exact percentage to use was a matter of great doubt, even to the
+most experienced. In order to determine just what percentage of
+crystalline pigments, admixed with white opaque paint pigments, would
+give the best service and results, it seemed imperative that practical
+paint tests should be made. A series of paint tests on commercial brands
+of paint had already been started at the Fargo Agricultural College,
+and, at the suggestion of the Paint Manufacturers' Association of the
+United States, another series of practical paint tests were instituted,
+and carried out under the supervision of Dr. E. F. Ladd, Director of the
+North Dakota Experiment Station.
+
+=Test Fences to Solve the Problem.= It was apparent that the pigment
+question could be solved only through field tests made on a
+comprehensive basis and placed under the control of scientific and
+technical societies of renown, so that they might be fair and unbiased
+from every standpoint. In order to secure a comparison of the wearing of
+different paint formulas in various sections of the country and under
+differing climatic conditions, another series of tests was started in
+the East soon after the North Dakota tests had been started.
+Simultaneously fences were erected at Atlantic City, N. J., and
+Pittsburg, Pa. The site of the Atlantic City fence is a strip of land
+running due north from Atlantic and Savannah Avenues and within a short
+distance from the Atlantic Ocean, the exposure being a severe one. The
+site of the Pittsburg fence is back of the athletic field of the
+Carnegie Technical Schools, the fence running east and west and being
+exposed to the heavily charged sooty atmosphere coming from the many
+industrial plants near by.
+
+=Construction of Framework of Fences.= At these two locations framework
+fences were built, upon which were placed a series of painted panels.
+Heavy yellow pine posts six inches square were set in the ground about
+six feet apart and to the depth of about four feet, upon a concrete
+base. The posts were solidly tamped and then braced at the top with
+supplementary studding braces two inches thick. Connecting the posts was
+a line of studding six inches by two inches, forming a solid framework,
+the bottom of which was approximately fifteen inches from the ground.
+The bottoms and tops of the fences were protected by heavy boards two
+inches thick, so that the moisture and rain might be prevented from
+working itself up into the wood. The whole fence was sheathed with
+twelve-inch planed white pine, thus forming a solid background for the
+test panels.
+
+=Lumber for Panels.= The lumber for the test panels was most carefully
+selected, being of three grades--white pine, yellow pine, and cypress. A
+large amount of each grade of lumber was secured, and after the best
+portion had been made up into panels, the panels were inspected by an
+expert lumber classer; nearly 40% being rejected on account of the
+presence of knots or sappy places which appeared upon the surface. Each
+of the panels finally passed upon as suitable for the test was branded
+with a hot iron with consecutive numbers running from 1 to 186. The
+grade of wood used for each panel was indicated by an abbreviated
+mark--W for white pine, C for cypress, and Y for yellow pine. In order
+that a record of each panel might be kept on file, previous to the
+application of paint to the panels, a complete series of photographs was
+taken of the panels in sets of four. This work seemed advisable so that
+the future failure of paint on any one panel, which might be thought due
+to faulty wood, could be either verified or refuted by a reference to
+the series of photographs made of the bare panels.
+
+[Illustration: View of Atlantic City Test Fence]
+
+=Construction of Panels.= The panels were constructed of Dutch weather
+boarding, tongued and grooved together in strips of three pieces and
+capped at the top with a weather strip, forming a finished surface three
+feet long and fifteen and a half inches high. They were firmly braced
+together at their backs and nailed in such a manner that no portion of
+the nails would appear on the surface of the panel, thus preventing the
+staining of the panel from rust. The construction of the framework of
+the fences at Atlantic City and Pittsburg was of such a nature that they
+would each accommodate 560 panels of this type.
+
+=Starting of Tests.= On account of the lateness of the season, it was
+found necessary to do the painting of the tests within a building, so
+that each formula might be subjected to fair and equal conditions of
+application, thus excluding the blowing of dust or rain upon the painted
+surfaces, which would have taken place had the panels been painted upon
+the fence. The painting of the panels began in January, 1908, the
+temperature within the buildings in which the work was done averaging 50
+degrees Fahrenheit throughout the work.
+
+It was decided to test each formula in three colors, in duplicate, and
+on each grade of wood, exposing the duplicates on either side of the
+fence. Thus for one paint formula there were required 18 panels, or 6
+painted in each color and on 3 grades of wood.
+
+=Paints for Tests.= The mixed paints received for the tests were in
+quart cans, having been especially prepared from the formulas submitted
+to manufacturers by the technical committee in charge of the work. They
+were properly labeled with their number and color, in each case. The
+formulas decided upon for the test are described later. The various
+white leads and other single pigment paints which were used were
+received in kegs weighing 12-1/2 pounds each, having been bought in the
+open market and then given a formula number. The formulas of the paints
+designed for both the Atlantic City and Pittsburg tests, as well as the
+numbers of the panels upon which the paints were applied, are shown on
+pages 131-133-145. The analysis of one of the combination paints applied
+is herewith given, to show the correct method of stating the composition
+of a paint.
+
+FORMULA NO. 20, ATLANTIC CITY TEST FENCE
+
+Percentage Composition
+
+  ===================+=======+=======+=======+=======
+                     |Pigment|Vehicle| Total |
+  -------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------
+  Corroded white lead| 67.01 |   --  | 42.84 |
+  Zinc oxide         | 19.89 |   --  | 12.71 |
+  Asbestine          |  3.86 |   --  |  2.47 |
+  Calcium carbonate  |  9.24 |   --  |  5.91 |
+  Raw oil            |   --  | 94.30 | 34.02 |
+  Japan drier        |   --  |  3.89 |  1.40 |
+  Turpentine         |   --  |  1.81 |  0.65 |
+  -------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------
+                     |100.00 |100.00 |100.00 |
+  ===================+=======+=======+=======+=======
+
+=Brushes.= Heavy 7-O round bristle brushes were used for the priming
+coat so that the paint might be well worked into the wood, while for the
+second and third coats three-inch chisel edge brushes were used. These
+brushes were, of course, washed several times with turpentine after
+painting each panel, so that pigments from one paint could not be
+carried over into a paint containing other pigments.
+
+[Illustration: Cypress Panels]
+
+=Shellacking Panels.= The shellacking of any bad places of minor nature
+which may have been present on the surfaces of some of the panels, was
+done with the highest grade orange shellac. It was thought advisable to
+determine whether shellacking over the priming coat of paint or on the
+bare wood previous to the application of the priming coat, was the
+better method. Panels Nos. 1 to 8 in each test were therefore shellacked
+over the priming coat, while on all other panels the shellacking was
+done directly on the bare wood previous to the application of the
+priming coat of paint.
+
+=Application of Paints.= In order to determine just how much paint was
+applied to each panel and to reckon the spreading rate therefrom,
+careful weighings were made during the application of every paint. This
+was carried out by placing a quart can of paint as received, upon a
+laboratory balance, the gross weight being taken and recorded. The can
+was shaken and its contents transferred to a quart-size enameled cup
+where with the aid of a paddle it was broken up into a mixture of even
+consistency. A portion of this paint was then transferred to two small
+sample cans carefully numbered with the formula number, for future
+reference and analysis. The reduction of the paint was then made. The
+brush used on the priming coat was placed with the pot and the paint on
+the balance and the weight taken by the official weigher. The pot was
+then given to the painter who applied the priming coat to one panel. The
+brush, pot, and paint were then handed back to the official weigher and
+the difference in weight recorded. From these data could be reckoned the
+spreading rate of the formula applied.
+
+The drying of the panels was noted every few hours and observations made
+to determine whether the paints were penetrating properly into the
+surface of the wood. A period of eight days was allowed between each
+coat in order that thoroughly hard setting might take place.
+
+During the application of the second coat of paint to the panels, fresh
+cans of paint were used in every case so that fresh reductions could be
+made of the proper consistency. Full data were also recorded on the ease
+of application, working, and nature of drying shown, as well as
+appearance presented by each paint after each coat had been applied. New
+packages of paint were also used for the third coat, and, as a rule, the
+paint was applied without reduction or with full oil reduction,
+turpentine being eliminated in nearly every case for the third coat
+work.
+
+=Reductions.= The single pigment paints, such as white leads, were
+reduced by the so-called ounce system, each ounce of oil added to 12-1/2
+ounces of paste pigment representing one gallon of vehicle to one
+hundred pounds of lead. A complete report of the reductions, spreading
+rates, etc., used in the tests would take up three or four hundred pages
+of printed matter. The reductions shown on the following formulas are,
+however, fairly representative of the reductions used on the combination
+and single pigment paints.
+
+REDUCTIONS ON FORMULA NO. 2
+
+_White and Yellow_
+
+     1st Coat Condition when opened--good. Consistency when broken
+     up--heavy. Reduction recommended by manufacturer--none. Reduction
+     used--3 pints raw oil, 1 pint turps, 1 gallon paint. Consistency after
+     reducing--good, stiff. Working--fair. Drying--fair on pines;
+     cypress--poor. Penetration, pines--good; cypress--poor.
+
+     2nd Coat Consistency when broken up--heavy. Reduction used--1-1/2
+     pints turpentine, 1 pint boiled oil. Consistency after reducing--good.
+     Working--good. Hiding--medium. Drying on pines--good; cypress--poor.
+     One-half pint japan added to gallon of paint. Penetration--fair.
+
+     3rd Coat Reduction used--1-1/2 pints oil, 1/2 pint turpentine.
+
+     _Reductions for Lead Pastes_ Calculated on 100 lb. keg.
+
+     Formulas Nos. 37-38. (Corroded White Lead.)
+
+     1st Coat 6-1/2 gallons oil, 1/2 gallon turpentine, 1 pint turpentine
+     japan.
+
+     2nd Coat 3-1/2 gallons oil, 1 gallon turpentine, 1 pint japan.
+
+     3rd Coat 3 gallons oil, 1 pint turpentine, 1/2 pint japan.
+
+=Hiding Power of Paints.= When the priming coat had thoroughly dried on
+each panel, the painter carefully stencilled a black Geneva cross over
+the priming coat with lampblack in oil. The object of this black cross
+was to make a determination of the comparative opacity or hiding power
+of the different paints applied. It is well known that various pigments
+when ground in oil differ in their hiding power in direct proportion to
+the difference in the refractive indices of the pigments and oils used,
+those containing high percentages of pigments such as white lead and
+zinc oxide being superior in hiding power. After the second and third
+coat of paint had been applied to each panel, there was evident a
+remarkable difference in the hiding power, as the black cross showed
+through in some cases quite clearly, while in other cases it was almost
+completely hidden. The hiding power of a paint is one of the properties
+which the master painter looks upon as most essential, but it should, of
+course, be accompanied in a satisfactory paint by good spreading power
+and longevity.
+
+=Actinic Light Tests.= After the drying of all the paints, it was
+decided that it would be of extreme interest to conduct a test on the
+resistance of certain paints to actinic light. It is well known that the
+ultraviolet or chemical rays of the sun are most energetic in causing
+chemical reactions that result in the early decay of certain types of
+paint. It was thought that the disintegrating effect of these rays, as
+well as their effect in the bleaching out of colors, might be prevented
+by placing upon certain panels small orange colored glass slides which
+would prevent the passing of these rays to the painted surface. The
+slides used were five inches long and three inches wide and were placed
+upon the middle board of certain panels, with picture framing, putty,
+and galvanized iron tacks. The preservation of the underlying surface
+from the sun's rays would, it was thought, prevent the deterioration of
+the paint, and at the same time preserve its original color so that it
+might be compared to the color of the exposed portion at the time of
+inspection.
+
+=Supervision of Tests.= The Atlantic City tests were under the constant
+supervision of Committee E of the American Society for Testing
+Materials, this committee having accepted the inspection of the fence. A
+representative was constantly present throughout the work in order to
+see that each formula received fair treatment. The actual painting work
+was under the supervision of the writer, together with a master painter
+representing George Butler who was chosen by the Master Painters'
+Association of Philadelphia as the official painter of the Atlantic
+City test fence. Mr. J. B. Campbell of Chicago also acted as an official
+of the Paint Manufacturers' Association in the application of the
+formulas to both the Atlantic City and Pittsburg fences.
+
+At Pittsburg the fence was placed directly under the supervision and
+control of the Carnegie Technical Schools, who chose for the fence work
+a committee of their technical force. Drs. James and Schaeffer of this
+institution were present throughout most of the work and were constantly
+represented during the test. The Pittsburg Master Painters' Association
+appointed a committee consisting of Messrs. Dewar, Rapp, and Cluley, for
+the actual painting work, and they were represented with the writer
+throughout the tests.
+
+Great interest was exhibited in the work by the committees in charge,
+and the skill of the practical painters, combined with the care of the
+inspectors, made the treatment of each formula fair and satisfactory.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+CONDITIONS NOTED AT INSPECTION OF TESTS
+
+
+=Inspection of Atlantic City Tests.= During the month of March, just one
+year after the placing of the painted panels on the Atlantic City fence,
+an inspection was made jointly by a committee representing the Master
+Painters' Association of Pennsylvania, the Scientific Section of the
+Paint Manufacturers' Association of the United States, and certain
+members of sub-Committee E of the American Society for Testing
+Materials.
+
+=Methods Used at Inspection.= One of the most important tests made when
+inspecting paint is the determination of the chalking taking place.[19]
+There was developed during the inspection of the Atlantic City panels a
+new method for determining the comparative chalking of the various
+paints. It was thought desirable to secure a method, if possible, that
+would show results which might be photographed and even tabulated in
+percentage form, if desired. The apparatus for the new test consisted of
+a small strip of black felt three inches wide by five inches long,
+placed across a small block of wood which would fit in the palm of the
+inspector's hand. This outfit resembled a blackboard eraser and was used
+in a similar way. By holding the apparatus firmly against the panel and
+drawing it half-way across the panel in a straight line toward the
+operator, there was obtained on the black cloth a white mark
+proportional in intensity to the amount of chalking which had taken
+place on the given area. When a series of these cloths were made, they
+were assembled and photographed for comparison. It should be noted that
+the above chalking test is useful only where the painted panels under
+examination have been exposed over a period of one to two years, during
+which period the chalking of paints has been shown to be greatest and
+the chalked surface of a fairly adherent nature. Where longer exposures
+have been made and where rains have removed from the painted panels a
+considerable amount of the chalked pigment which has formed, such a test
+would not be fairly representative of the amount of chalking which had
+taken place.
+
+  [19] Mr. Macgregor of the Picher Lead Co. has just developed a new
+       test to determine the relative imperviousness of paints which
+       have begun to chalk. He draws a mark about two inches long upon
+       the painted surface with a fountain pen. The ink mark will spread
+       rapidly to a wide area if the chalking is of a bad order. If the
+       chalking is slight and the film in good condition, the ink mark
+       will not spread.
+
+[Illustration: Series of Black Felt Cloths used in making the Chalk
+Tests on the Various Formulas. Numbers over Cloths represent Panels]
+
+[Illustration: CHALKING.--Type of Decay Exhibited by Improperly Made
+Paint (magnified view)]
+
+[Illustration: CHECKING.--Type of Decay Exhibited by Improperly Made
+Paint (magnified view)]
+
+[Illustration: BLISTERING.--Type of Decay Exhibited by Improperly Made
+Paint (magnified view)]
+
+[Illustration: CRACKING.--Type of Decay Exhibited by Improperly Made
+Paint (magnified view)]
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL DISINTEGRATION.--Type of Decay Exhibited by
+Improperly Made Paint (magnified view)]
+
+[Illustration: SCALING.--Type of Decay Exhibited by Improperly Made
+Paint (magnified view)]
+
+=Gloss.= The gloss of the various panels was a condition which was also
+reported upon, the middle board of each panel being washed with a wet
+sponge one day before the inspection so that any surface dirt might be
+removed. By looking at a panel from the side, a day after the washing,
+the inspector was enabled to get a fair idea of the degree of gloss
+exhibited by each formula.
+
+=Hiding Power.= The hiding power of each paint was determined, as before
+described, by observing the degree to which the stencilled lampblack
+cross on the priming coat was visible through the second and third
+coats. Single pigment paints such as white lead possessed very great
+hiding power and obscured the black cross almost completely, while the
+cross was quite visible through paints containing high percentages of
+crystalline pigments.
+
+=Checking.= The checking of each panel was determined by examining with
+a small high-power hand glass magnifying fifteen diameters. It is well
+known that examinations with such a hand glass will not determine
+whether so-called fine matt checking is taking place, but it will
+determine whether checking has appeared to any marked extent. Fine matt
+checking is the first sign of the decomposition of a paint, and is
+preliminary to the visible checking seen by the naked eye, which is
+often followed by alligatoring. Examination of some formulas disclosed
+this so-called alligatoring and even the exposed wood between the
+fissured surface which had developed from what were at first fine hair
+checks. It is, in the opinion of the writer, possible to predict with a
+fair degree of accuracy by examination of a painted surface, one year
+after exposure, how the paint will wear in the future and what its
+appearance will be at the end of another year.
+
+=Hardness.= The hardness of each panel could not be determined with any
+degree of accuracy, but the inspectors were able to roughly determine
+this condition by very close inspection. From practical experience of
+the wearing of white lead and zinc oxide, and the comparative hardness
+of these two pigments, zinc oxide was selected as the maximum for
+hardness and termed number 10, while white lead was selected as the
+minimum and termed number 1. The varying degrees of hardness exhibited
+by the formulas were recorded in terms from one to ten. This comparison
+of course was only an approximate one.
+
+=General Condition.= The so-called general conditions of the panels was,
+as a rule, the consensus of the judgment held by the various inspectors,
+with due regard to such properties as chalking, checking, gloss, hiding
+power, color maintenance, condition of surface, etc.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+RESULTS OF ATLANTIC CITY TESTS
+
+
+=Results on Various Woods.= On the Atlantic City Fence all the tests
+made on yellow pine and cypress were found to be in an unsatisfactory
+condition for a report, for in every case the sap and small knots
+contained in such wood had a very bad effect upon the paint, causing
+peeling and scaling. The white pine panels were in very much better
+condition, and it was therefore decided to make the inspection entirely
+from the white pine panels and in the future to remove the yellow pine
+and the cypress panels from the fence and from the test. The Committee
+advised that all future tests be made on white pine, as it is obviously
+unfair to use anything but the highest grade wood for a paint test in
+which the desire is to determine the comparative wearing value of
+pigments.
+
+     NOTE.--Recent tests have shown that Cypress may be successfully
+     painted when the priming coat of paint is thinned with Benzol
+     (Solvent Naphtha).
+
+[Illustration: Panels on Atlantic City Fence Two Lower Sets of Panels
+are painted with Lithopone Paints. Rapid Failure shown]
+
+[Illustration: Panels on Atlantic City Fence]
+
+[Illustration: Panels on Atlantic City Fence
+
+Two Lower Sets of Panels are Painted with Combination Pigment Paints.
+Excellent Results shown]
+
+=Paints Containing Lithopone.= One of the most striking exhibitions of
+paint disintegration in the whole test was the failure of nearly all the
+lithopone formulas tested. At the time these formulas were suggested for
+the test, various European technical journals had advocated the use of
+lithopone in large percentage for paints to be used on exterior
+surfaces. Good results had been obtained in the northwestern section of
+Europe, with this pigment in certain mixtures, and the object of these
+lithopone tests at Atlantic City and Pittsburg was to determine whether
+satisfactory paints could be made of this pigment for exposure in this
+country. Failure of the tests, however, in nearly every case except
+where zinc oxide and whiting were mixed with the lithopone, indicated
+that pigments such as zinc and whiting are necessary in order to prevent
+the decomposition of lithopone pigment paints. The decay of lithopone
+paints after they are applied seems to start with rapid oxidation of the
+linseed oil, and this oxidation seems to continue in a progressive and
+even accelerated way; after six months' exposure the surface of the
+paint being chalked to a great extent and showing rapid decomposition of
+the binder or vehicle. Inasmuch as lithopone is really an inert pigment,
+this rapid decomposition of its vehicle cannot be explained in the same
+way as the decomposition of the vehicle of pure white lead paints, where
+the alkaline nature of the lead is probably responsible for the
+formation of easily destroyed compounds. As complete failure had taken
+place in nearly every case where lithopone had been used, it was decided
+to condemn the lithopone panels on the fence, consisting of formulas 21
+to 27, including panels 151 to 164 in white, panels 131 to 144 in
+yellow, and 109 to 122 in gray. These lithopone tests were later on
+replaced by new tests in 1909, which will be reported upon later in this
+book.
+
+=General Results.= From these tests, the inspectors reached the
+unanimous conclusion that a paint made from any mixture of more than one
+white opaque pigment, either when used alone or in combination with
+small percentages of inert pigments, is far superior to any one single
+pigment paint. It was found that the straight white lead paints failed
+in every case, and this failure was so marked as to make it a conclusive
+demonstration of the unfitness of white lead along the Atlantic coast,
+when used without other pigments. Paints made with large percentages of
+white lead, however, gave excellent results.
+
+Gypsum was found unsafe to use in any large proportion in a paint,
+because of its solubility and liability to percolate through the coating
+of linoxyn or dried film, thus destroying the surface of the paint.
+Whiting, or calcium carbonate, demonstrated that it could be used in
+moderate percentage with some efficiency, but it was evident that any
+great excess of this pigment must also be avoided on account of its
+tendency towards rapid chalking. Magnesium silicate, aluminum silicate,
+and silica are three inert pigments which proved to be of great value in
+strengthening and reinforcing paints, especially when they were used in
+small percentage. In the same way, black fixe and barytes, or barium
+sulphate, also appeared to be useful in strengthening a paint. As these
+two last named pigments are chemically the same but physically
+different, the use of both in a paint formula is considered
+advantageous, because of the differences in size and form of their
+particles.
+
+=Color Tests.= It was the unanimous conclusion of all the inspectors
+that panels of all formulas which were tinted either gray or yellow were
+showing far superior wear and less chalking and checking than those
+which were painted in plain white. The reinforcing action of the tinting
+materials must be credited for this lengthening of the wear of such
+paints. Formulas 5, 6, 9, and 16, for instance, in the gray, were in
+most excellent condition, and in these formulas were used ochre, umber,
+bone-black, carbon-black, Venetian red and other inert bases. On the
+yellow panels, formulas 5, 6, 9, and 16 were also in very superior
+condition, and in these formulas chrome yellow and inert pigments were
+also used.
+
+Some of the color tests included the priming of boards with white lead,
+zinc oxide, sublimed white lead, lithopone, and other single pigment
+paints. Over these priming coats was placed a high grade brilliant
+paranitraniline red. Fairly good results were obtained in every case,
+but especially when lithopone or zinc oxide was used as a priming base.
+These pigments seemed to have no effect upon the constitution of the
+para red.
+
+Prussian blue, a colored pigment largely used, but one liable to react
+with certain paint pigments, was admixed with various paints applied to
+certain panels. This color was found in some cases to have faded
+materially, especially when mixed with alkaline pigments such as white
+lead. Sublimed white lead and zinc oxide, which are more inert in
+nature, did not have such action on Prussian blue, and the tinted bases
+of these pigments stood up in a remarkable manner. The greens which were
+tested were all in very good condition, with absence of fading, and
+showing only slight mildew.
+
+=Condensed Results of Inspection.= The results of inspection as obtained
+by the fence committee[20] having in charge the inspection of the test,
+have been condensed into table form, and are presented on pages 130-131.
+
+  [20] R. S. Perry, Director Scientific Section, Paint Manufacturers'
+       Association of the U. S.; George Butler, Official Painter,
+       representing Master House Painters' & Decorators' Association, H.
+       A. Gardner, Asst. Director.
+
+=Second Annual Inspection of the Atlantic City Test Fence.= After the
+original paints which had been applied to the Atlantic City Fence had
+been exposed for over two years, another inspection was made by a
+committee representing the Master Painters' Association of Philadelphia
+and the Scientific Section of the Paint Manufacturers' Association of
+the United States. A digest of the report of this committee[21] follows:
+
+  [21] George Butler, Official Painter Atlantic City Test Fence,
+       representing Philadelphia Master Painters' Association; Charles
+       Macnichol, Master Painter; Henry A. Gardner, Director Scientific
+       Section, Paint Manufacturers' Association of the U. S.
+
+"The painted panels were all carefully inspected by the inspectors in
+the usual manner. With the aid of high-power magnifying glasses,
+checking was determined. The degree of chalking exhibited by the various
+paints was ascertained by rubbing a piece of black cloth across the
+surface of each paint. Close observance was made to determine scaling,
+peeling, cracking, gloss, color, and the other factors to be considered
+when examining a painted surface. From these observations it was
+possible for the inspectors to state whether a panel exhibited general
+good condition, general fair condition, or general poor condition.
+
+CHART OF RESULTS--FIRST INSPECTION--ATLANTIC CITY TEST FENCE
+
+  ==============================+=================================+
+  Formula                       |         INERT PIGMENTS          |
+  No.                           |---------------------------------|
+    |Carbonate                  |Calcium                          |
+    |Lead                       |Carbonate                        |
+    |      |Zinc                |     |Calcium                    |
+    |      |Oxide               |     |Sulphate                   |
+    |      |      |Sublimed     |     |     |Magnesium            |
+    |      |      |White        |     |     |Silicate             |
+    |      |      |Lead         |     |     |     |Barium         |
+    |      |      |      |Zinc  |     |     |     |Sulphate       |
+    |      |      |      |Lead  |     |     |     |    |Silica    |
+    |      |      |      |White |     |     |     |    |    |Blanc|
+    |      |      |      |      |     |     |     |    |    |Fixe |
+  --+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+----+----+-----+
+    |   %  |   %  |   %  |   %  |  %  |  %  |  %  |  % |  % |  %  |
+   1| 30.0 | 70.0 |      |      |     |     |     |    |    |     |
+   2| 50.0 | 50.0 |      |      |     |     |     |    |    |     |
+   3| 20.0 | 50.0 | 20.0 |      |10.0 |     |     |    |    |     |
+   4| 48.5 | 48.5 |      |      | 3.0 |     |     |    |    |     |
+   5| 22.0 | 50.0 |      |      | 2.0 |     |26.0 |    |    |     |
+   6|      | 64.0 |      |      |     |     |     |36.0|    |     |
+   7| 37.0 | 63.0 |      |      |     |     |     |    |    |     |
+   8| 38.0 | 48.0 |      |      |     |     |     |    |14.0|     |
+   9|      | 73.0 |      |      |     |     | 2.0 |    |25.0|     |
+  10| 44.0 | 46.0 |      |      | 5.0 |     | 5.0 |    |    |     |
+  11| 50.0 | 50.0 |      |      |     |     |     |    |    |     |
+  12| 60.0 | 34.0 |      |      |       6% Inert  Pigments        |
+  13|      | 27.0 | 60.0 |      | 3.0 |     |10.0 |    |    |     |
+  14| 25.0 | 25.0 | 20.0 |      | 5.0 |25.0 |     |    |    |     |
+  15| 20.0 | 40.0 |      | 30.0 |10.0 |     |     |    |    |     |
+  16| 33.0 | 33.0 |      |      |     |     |     |34.0|    |     |
+  17| 40.0 | 40.0 |      |      |     |     | 3.0 |13.0|    | 4.0 |
+  18| 75.0 | 25.0 |      |      |     |     |     |    |    |     |
+  19|      | 25.0 | 75.0 |      |     |     |     |    |    |     |
+  20| 67.0 | 19.5 |      |      |10.0 |     | 3.5 |    |    |     |
+  33| 15.0 | 30.0 | 25.0 |      |     |     |     |    |30.0|     |
+  34| 38.95| 33.58|  4.81|      |19.48|     | 3.18|    |    |     |
+  35| 37.51| 25.87|  7.84|      |20.36|     | 8.42|    |    |     |
+  36|100.0 |      |      |      |     |     |     |    |    |     |
+  37|100.0 |      |      |      |     |     |     |    |    |     |
+  38|100.0 |      |      |      |     |     |     |    |    |     |
+  39|      |      |      |100.0 |     |     |     |    |    |     |
+  40|      |      |100.0 |      |     |     |     |    |    |     |
+  45|      |100.0 |      |      |     |     |     |    |    |     |
+  46|      | 61.0 |      |      |     |     |     |39.0|    |     |
+  47|      |100.0 |      |      |     |     |     |    |    |     |
+  ==+======+======+======+======+=====+=====+=====+====+====+=====+
+
+  ======================+==========+======+=========+======+
+  Formula               |Panel     |Hiding|Color    |Hard- |
+  No.                   |No.       |Power |         | ness |
+    |First              |   |Condi-|      |         |      |
+    |Coat               |   | tion |      |         |      |
+    |   |Second         |   |      |      |         |      |
+    |   |Coat           |   |      |      |         |      |
+    |   |    |Third     |   |      |      |         |      |
+    |   |    |Coat      |   |      |      |         |      |
+    |   |    |    |Aver-|   |      |      |         |      |
+    |   |    |    | age |   |      |      |         |      |
+  --+---+----+----+-----+---+------+------+---------+------+
+    |   |    |    |     |   |      |      |         |      |
+   1|610| 987| 664|  754|  1|Good  |Good  |Excellent| 8    |
+   2|913|1066| 948|  976|  3|Good  |Good  |Good     | 5    |
+   3|912| 914| 786|  871|  5|Good  |Fair  |Good     | 4    |
+   4|759| 939|1047|  915|  7|Good  |Good  |Good     | 5    |
+   5|714|1000| 709|  808|  9|Good  |Weak  |Good     | 8-1/2|
+   6|928|1189| 863|  993| 11|Fairly|Weak  |Good     | 8    |
+    |   |    |    |     |   |Good  |      |         |      |
+   7|763| 972| 891|  875| 13|Good  |Good  |Off Color| 7    |
+   8|786| 910| 767|  821| 15|Good  |Good  |Good     | 8-1/2|
+   9|716|1081| 812|  870| 17|Fair  |Poor  |Good     | 9    |
+  10|861|1014| 862|  912| 19|Good  |Fair  |Good     | 5    |
+  11|822| 959| 918|  900| 21|Good  |Good  |Excellent| 7-1/2|
+  12|862| 965| 734|  854| 23|Good  |Medium|Good     | 4    |
+  13|916|1031|1121| 1073| 25|Good  |Good  |Good     | 4    |
+  14|564| 806| 785|  718| 27|Bad   |Medium|Good     | 5    |
+  15|935|1044|1359| 1113| 29|Good  |Medium|Good     | 8-1/2|
+  16|799| 903| 994|  899| 31|Fair  |Fair  |Good     | 7-1/2|
+  17|806|1016| 884|  902| 33|Good  |Fair  |Good     | 4    |
+  18|788|1257| 973| 1006|145|Good  |Good  |Excellent| 3    |
+  19|700|1183|1400| 1094|147|Good  |Good  |Excellent| 2    |
+  20|776|1063| 877|  905|149|Good  |Good  |Good     | 5    |
+  33|512| 836| 689|  679|176|      |Fair  |         |      |
+  34|523| 800| 810|  711|175|Good  |Medium|Good     | 4    |
+  35|450| 893| 724|  689|180|Good  |Good  |Good     | 4    |
+  36|408| 711| 861|  660|181|Bad   |Good  |Good     | 1    |
+  37|524|1065| 828|  806|182|Bad   |Good  |Good     | 1    |
+  38|555| 888| 794|  746|177|Bad   |Good  |Good     | 1    |
+  39|550| 941| 916|  802|178|Good  |Fair  |Good     | 6    |
+  40|643| 810| 998|  817|168|Good  |Good  |Good     | 2    |
+  45|850|    |    |     |170|Fair  |Fair  |Good     | 9    |
+  46|783|    |    |     |169|Fair  |Good  |Good     | 9    |
+  47|730|    |    |     |172|      |Good  |Good     |10    |
+  ==+===+====+====+=====+===+======+======+=========+======+
+
+  ==============+===========+===========+===============================
+  Formula       |           |           |
+  No.           |           |           |
+    |Checking   |Chalking   |Gloss      |Remarks
+  --+-----------+-----------+-----------+-------------------------------
+    |           |           |           |
+   1|           |Very Slight|High       |Like rubbed varnish work.
+   2|Hard Matt  |Moderate   |Med. High  |
+   3|           |Medium     |Slight     |
+   4|           |Very Slight|Med. High  |
+   5|           |Slight     |High       |Hard surface.
+   6|Matt       |           |Good       |Surface rough.
+   7|           |Slight     |High       |
+   8|           |Slight     |High       |
+   9|Heavy Matt |Medium     |High       |Peeling started.
+  10|           |Some       | Med. High |
+  11|Med. Matt  |Some       |Med. High  |Some washing and discoloration.
+  12|Heavy Matt |Bad        |Medium     |
+  13|           |Medium     |Fair       |
+  14|Evident    |Some       |Medium     |Dead, spongy, surface. White
+    |           |           |           |incrustations.
+  15|Coarse Matt|Slight     |High       |
+  16|Bad        |Slight     |Good       |White incrustations.
+  17|           |Some       |Fair       |
+  18|Hard Matt  |Moderate   |Medium     |
+  19|Hard Matt  |Slight     |Very Little|
+  20|           |Very Little|Medium     |
+  33|           |           |Good       |Rough surface.
+  34|Evident    |Slight     |Egg Shell  |
+  35|Matt       |           |Egg Shell  |
+  36|Very       |Bad        |Egg Shell  |Same as 177, but
+    |Apparent   |           |           |checking not so bad.
+  37|Very       |Bad        |Egg Shell  |Same as 177 but wood
+    |Apparent   |           |           |shows more plainly.
+  38|Bad        |Bad        |Egg Shell  |Cracking and perishing evident.
+  39|           |Some       |Good       |
+  40|           |Consider-  |Egg Shell  |
+    |           |able       |           |
+  45|Very Evi-  |           |High       |
+    |dent       |           |           |
+  46|Some       |           |Good       |
+  47|Apparent   |           |Good       |Indication of scaling.
+  ==+===========+===========+===========+===============================
+
+"An inspection of the white lead paints on the fence indicated in every
+instance a rough, chalked, and disintegrated surface that seemed to be
+well worn, in some cases nearly to the wood. The strongly oxidizing air
+of the seacoast is probably responsible for the early decay of this
+pigment.
+
+"It was observed that the combination type of paint showed better hiding
+power than white lead, over the black crosses placed on the priming coat
+of each panel, as a hiding power test.
+
+[Illustration: Front of Fence showing Present Rearrangement of Panels]
+
+TESTS INAUGURATED IN 1907
+
+CHART OF RESULTS OF SECOND ANNUAL INSPECTION OF ATLANTIC CITY TEST
+FENCE, MAY, 1910
+
+  =========================================================+
+                           FORMULAS                        |
+  --+------------------------+-----------------------------+
+  F |                        |        INERT PIGMENTS       |
+  o |                        +-----------------------------+
+  r |Basic Carbonate         |Calcium                      |
+  m |White Lead              |Carbonate                    |
+  u |      |Zinc Oxide       |     |Calcium                |
+  l |      |      |Basic     |     |Sulphate               |
+  a |      |      |Sulphate  |     |  |Magnesium           |
+    |      |      |White Lead|     |  |Silicate            |
+  N |      |      |    |Zinc |     |  |    |Barium         |
+  u |      |      |    |Lead |     |  |    |Sulphate       |
+  m |      |      |    |White|     |  |    |     |Silica   |
+  b |      |      |    --+   |     |  |    |     |   |Blanc|
+  e |      |      |      |   |     |  |    |     |   | Fixe|
+  r |      |      |      |   |     |  |    |     |   --+   |
+  --+------+------+------+---+-----+--+----+-----+-----+---+
+    |  %   |  %   |  %   |  %|  %  | %| %  | %   | %   |  %|
+   1| 30   | 70   | --   | --| --  |--|--  |--   |--   | --|
+   2| 50   | 50   | --   | --| --  |--|--  |--   |--   | --|
+   3| 20   | 50   | 20   | --|10   |--|--  |--   |--   | --|
+   4| 48.5 | 48.5 | --   | --| 3.0 |--|--  |--   |--   | --|
+   5| 22   | 50   | --   | --| 2   |--|26  |--   |--   | --|
+   6| --   | 64   | --   | --| --  |--|--  |36   |--   | --|
+   7| 37   | 63   | --   | --| --  |--|--  |--   |--   | --|
+   8| 38   | 48   | --   | --| --  |--|--  |--   |14   | --|
+   9| --   | 73   | --   | --| 2   |--|--  |--   |25   | --|
+  10| 44   | 46   | --   | --| 5   |--| 5  |--   |--   | --|
+  11| 50   | 50   | --   | --| --  |--|--  |--   |--   | --|
+  12| 60   | 34   | --   | --| --  |  6% Inert Pigment | --|
+  13| --   | 27   | 60   | --| 3   |--|10  |--   |--   | --|
+  14| 25   | 25   | 20   | --| 5   |25|--  |--   |--   | --|
+  15| 20   | 40   | --   | 30|10   |--|--  |--   |--   | --|
+  16| 33   | 33   | --   | --| --  |--|--  |34   |--   | --|
+  17| 40   | 40   | --   | --| --  |--| 3  |13   |--   |  4|
+  18| 75   | 25   | --   | --| --  |--|--  |--   |--   | --|
+  19| --   | 25   | 75   | --| --  |--|--  |--   |--   | --|
+  20| 67.0 | 19.5 | --   | --|10.0 |--| 3.5|--   |--   | --|
+  33| 15   | 30   | 25   | --| --  |--|--  |--   |30   | --|
+  34| 38.95| 33.58|  4.81| --|19.48|--|--  | 1.59| 1.59| --|
+  35| 37.51| 25.87|  7.84| --|20.36|--|--  | 4.21| 4.21| --|
+  36|100   | --   | --   | --|--   |--|--  |--   |--   | --|
+  37|100   | --   | --   | --|--   |--|--  |--   |--   | --|
+  38|100   | --   | --   | --| --  |--|--  |--   |--   | --|
+  39| --   | --   | --   |100| --  |--|--  |--   |--   | --|
+  40| --   | --   |100   | --| --  |--|--  |--   |--   | --|
+  45| --   | 90   | --   | --|10   |--|--  |--   |--   | --|
+  46| --   | 61   | --   | --| --  |--|--  |39   |--   | --|
+  47| --   |100   | --   | --| --  |--|--  |--   |--   | --|
+  ==+======+======+======+===+=====+==+====+=====+=====+===+
+
+  ==+========================================+===
+  F |                                        |
+  o |                                        |
+  r |                                        | P
+  m |                                        | a
+  u |                                        | n
+  l |                                        | e
+  a |                                        | l
+    |          REPORT OF INSPECTION          |
+  N +-----------+------------+------+--------+ N
+  u |           |            |GENE- |        | u
+  m |           |            |RAL   |        | m
+  b |           |            |CON-  |        | b
+  e |           |            |DI-   |        | e
+  r |CHALKING   |CHECKING    |TION  |REMARKS | r
+  --+-----------+------------+------+--------+---
+   1|Very slight|Very slight |Good  |--      |  1
+   2|Medium     |Slight      |Very  |--      |  3
+    |           |            |good  |        |
+   3|Medium     |Slight      |Good  |--      |  5
+   4|Very slight|Slight      |Good  |--      |  7
+   5|Slight     |Slight      |Good  |--      |  9
+   6|Very slight|Slight      |Good  |--      | 11
+   7|Medium     |Slight      |Good  |--      | 13
+   8|Slight     |Very slight |Good  |--      | 15
+   9|Very bad   |Deep, with  |Poor  |--      | 17
+    |           |scaling     |      |        |
+  10|Heavy      |Deep        |Medium|--      | 19
+  11|Medium     |Medium      |Fair  |--      | 21
+  12|Medium     |Deep        |Fair  |--      | 23
+  13|Medium     |Slight      |Very  |--      | 25
+    |           |            |good  |        |
+  14|Medium     |Lateral     |Fair  |--      | 27
+  15|Slight     |Visible with|Poor  |--      | 29
+    |           |naked eye   |      |        |
+  16|Slight     |Slight      |Good  |--      | 31
+  17|Medium     |Slight      |Good  |--      | 33
+  18|Medium     |Slight      |Very  |--      |145
+    |           |            |good  |        |
+  19|Consider-  |Deep        |Good  |--      |147
+    |able       |            |      |        |
+  20|Medium     |Slight      |Good  |--      |149
+  33|Medium     |Slight      |Very  |--      |176
+    |           |            |good  |        |
+  34|Slight     |Slight      |Good  |--      |175
+    |           |lateral     |      |        |
+  35|Slight     |Lateral     |Good  |--      |180
+  36|Consider-  |Heavy       |Fair  |Rough   |181
+    |able       |            |      |surface |
+  37|Consider-  |Heavy and   |Poor  |Rough   |182
+    |able       |deep        |      |surface |
+  38|More than  |Very deep   |Poor  |--      |177
+    |Panel no.  |            |      |        |
+    |182        |            |      |        |
+  39|Consider-  |Very slight |Good  |--      |178
+    |able       |            |      |        |
+  40|Heavy      |Slight      |Good  |--      |168
+  45|Slight     |Slight      |Good  |--      |170
+  46|Slight     |Medium      |Fair  |--      |169
+  47|None       |Very deep   |Poor  |--      |172
+  ==+===========+============+======+========+===
+
+"There are no pigments possessing greater hiding properties when first
+used than white leads, but the lack of hiding power on the white lead
+panels after two years' exposure was caused by the chalking away of the
+lead. The superior hiding power of the composite paints was due to the
+action of the other pigments in these combination paints in preventing
+the lead from chalking away.
+
+"The Committee finds that the addition of a reasonable percentage of
+zinc oxide to white lead increases its durability and retards its
+chalking, renders it whiter, and forms a surface that presents a much
+better repainting condition. The combinations of white lead and zinc
+oxide on the Atlantic City Test Fence were in general good condition
+throughout.
+
+"Corroded white lead, sublimed white lead, zinc oxide, and zinc lead are
+the standard white opaque pigments. They were all tested on the Atlantic
+City Fence and it was found that to use any one alone results in
+inferior protection to the wood. Barium sulphate, silica, asbestine,
+china clay, and calcium carbonate are the standard crystalline pigments.
+In the past, the overloading of paints with these crystalline or inert
+pigments has been the cause of the prejudice that painters have had
+against their use. It has been established beyond controversy, however,
+that the use of these pigments, in moderate percentage, combined with
+any of the standard opaque white pigments, such as white leads, zinc
+oxide, etc., undoubtedly results in better service from every standpoint
+and forms the most satisfactory white paint for general outside use.
+Some of the most perfect painted surfaces on the fence were those made
+on the above basis as reference to the charted report will show."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+RESULTS OF PITTSBURG TESTS
+
+
+The First Annual Inspection of the Pittsburg Test Fence took place
+during May, 1909, a little over one year after the painted panels had
+been placed in position. The inspectors found that in Pittsburg a heavy
+deposit of soot had formed on the panels, and they considered it
+therefore inadvisable to make a detailed report of the inspection until
+the second year of the exposure. The general results of the Pittsburg
+inspection as reported by the three committees[22] having supervision
+over the work, is, however, given herewith.
+
+  [22] J. H. James, Chairman Test Fence Committee, Carnegie Technical
+       Schools.
+       A. C. Rapp, Chairman Fence Committee, Pittsburg Branch
+       Pennsylvania State Association of Master Painters.
+       R. S. Perry, Director Scientific Section, Paint Manufacturers'
+       Association of the U. S.; H. A. Gardner, Asst. Director.
+
+[Illustration: Pittsburg Test Fence]
+
+During the inspection of the Pittsburg tests it was decided to condemn
+the lithopone panels on the fence, which consisted of formulas 21 to 27,
+including panels 151 to 164 in white, 131 to 144 in yellow, 109 to 122
+in gray. Almost complete failure had taken place in every case where
+lithopone had been used. These lithopone tests were later on replaced by
+new tests which are described later in this book.
+
+"=Wood Most Valuable for Test.= As on the Atlantic City Fence, the white
+pine panels afforded the best results and gives the best indication of
+the comparative wearing of the paints and affords no unfair condition,
+such as other woods might offer, to interfere with the test.
+
+"=Condition of Cypress.= Cypress showed inferior conditions, except that
+it was more pronounced and more discoloration of the panels was noticed
+on this grade of wood, which seems to be extremely greasy in nature and
+difficult to properly prime, even when the paint used upon this wood
+contains a large percentage of volatile diluent.
+
+"=Removal of Lithopone Panels.= The Joint Committees confirmed the
+previous recommendation to remove all the lithopone formulas, and they
+decided to remove the cypress and the yellow pine panels in every
+formula except in the white paints.
+
+"It was decided to reassemble all the white pine panels and group them
+together for purposes of comparison, and in place of the panels
+condemned and removed, to substitute a series of new formulas, to
+further widen the scope of the tests.
+
+"=Ultimate Value of Mixed Paints.= The results of the inspection
+conclusively show that a mixture of more than one prime white pigment,
+whether this mixture be alone or in combination with a small percentage
+of inert pigment, produces a paint far superior to a paint manufactured
+from one pigment alone.
+
+"As a general statement of the comparative wearing of the paints, it
+might be said that the composite formulas are less advanced toward
+destruction than the paints made from single pigments such as
+lithopones, white leads and zinc oxides. It is not to be understood from
+this statement that it is the opinion of the committee that all of the
+composite formulas are of equal value or that all of them are to be
+recommended, but it is meant that the higher types, as evidenced by the
+appearance of the panels, are in the above relation to the single
+pigment paints.
+
+[Illustration: Panels on Pittsburg Test Fence]
+
+"=Lithopone Destroyed Rapidly at Pittsburg.= It was evident some time
+ago that the formulas containing large percentages of lithopone were
+rapidly failing, and their appearance was very much the same as those
+formulas of a similar type at Atlantic City. There seems, however, to be
+some difference in the way these formulas broke down; those on the
+Pittsburg Fence having shown the quicker destruction, possibly due to
+the action of the acid gases in the air upon the paint coating. This
+further confirms the statement that paint compositions containing such
+heavy percentages of lithopone and intended for outside use must be
+designed with relation to the particular uses of the product and to the
+climate in which they are to be used. It will also be necessary to
+consider more carefully the vehicle of the paints which are to be made
+of this pigment.
+
+"=Possible Value of Excluding Vehicle for Lithopone.= It was the belief
+of the committee that much better paints containing lithopone could be
+designed by varying the percentages of the materials contained in the
+formulas, and it was suggested that a less penetrable vehicle, made more
+on the line of a varnish, and not as easily affected as straight
+linoxyn, should be experimented with in connection with these lithopone
+formulas.
+
+"The success of certain European countries in using lithopone as a
+pigment, even in a very high percentage, may be due to the use of a
+special vehicle, and, if it is found in future tests that this material,
+which has been reported as well suited in Northern European climates,
+may be benefited and made of service by the addition of special oils and
+special vehicles, then this test would be of great value to the whole
+paint trade at large.
+
+"Preliminary inspections were made on October 6th and later on December
+12th, 1908, and a marked difference was observed at the two inspections
+in the wearing of the various formulas.
+
+"The lapse of the two months between these inspections gave opportunity
+during which cold weather caused contraction of the paint film which had
+been previously subjected to the hot summer sun, and caused marked
+chalking of the white lead formulas. On October 6th this chalking was
+just commencing, while in the December inspection it was well advanced,
+and at the annual inspection, had proceeded to such an extent that the
+pigment had been washed from the panels representing those paints which
+had started early chalking.
+
+"Panel 177, representing Zinc Lead, was found to be extremely dark in
+color throughout the coating and was more on the order of a grayish
+tint. It resisted all attempts to wash it down to a white surface. The
+panel, however, in other respects, was in fairly good condition.
+
+"=Condition of Corroded White Lead Panels.= Panel 174, representing Type
+B Pure Basic Carbonate-White Lead, was very badly perished and
+discolored, and an examination of the surface showed very bad checking.
+Long continued washing with a sponge removed a discolored surface and
+showed but a rather thin coating. Panel 175, representing Type C Pure
+Basic Carbonate-White Lead, showed most marked checking and was in very
+much the same condition as 174 and 176. Panel 176, representing Type A
+Pure Basic Carbonate-White Lead, was in the same condition as the Type B
+and C Basic Carbonate-White Leads.
+
+"=Condition of Sublimed White Lead.= Panel 178, representing Sublimed
+White Lead (Basic Sulphate-White Lead,) was chalking, and the paint coat
+was somewhat disintegrated. The chalking present on this formula,
+however, showed that the disintegration of the paint coat had not taken
+place for several months after the Basic Carbonate-White Leads. This
+panel maintained good color, not being acted upon by sulphur gases.
+
+"=Blackening of Corroded White Lead.= The black and gray formation on
+all the Basic Carbonate-White Lead panels was probably due to the action
+of sulphur gases which are present in the district immediate to
+Pittsburg, and which may cause the formation of black sulphide of lead.
+
+"Possibly a general conclusion from all these panels might be described
+as a perishing of the paint coating, with the formation of sulphide of
+lead which to a certain extent protects the coating beneath it, but the
+perishing has proceeded to such an extent that the unaltered paint
+coating left is but a slight protection to the wood, being extremely
+thin.
+
+"The committee resolved that the detailed observations of the panels
+could not be made and that they would not be justified in making
+detailed comparisons between the various formulas, giving the gloss,
+hardness, general condition, checking, etc. Precision in this work at
+such a time was impossible, and it was decided that a further period
+would have to elapse before such a detailed comparison could be made
+between the various blended or composite formulas on the fence.
+
+"=Report on Colors.= It was resolved that at the next inspection of the
+Pittsburg Fence, portions of the original samples of the original paints
+used for the yellows and grays should be on hand, previously painted out
+on small panels for comparison for the deterioration of the colors on
+these same panels on the fence.
+
+"An examination of the combination formula grays by the committee led to
+the general conclusion that those grays which did not contain a very
+large percentage of white lead were superior in their maintenance of
+tone and tint and general condition to any of the other grays upon the
+fence. However, the presence of umber, ochre, and red oxide in some of
+the grays which showed to the best advantage may account for their
+permanence of tone. Some of these grays were the so-called warm grays
+and were much darker in tone and tint than the ordinary drab which is
+generally applied.
+
+"The straight pure Basic Carbonate-White Lead paints were not painted
+out in grays or yellow, the test upon this material being only in white.
+
+"On Panels 120 and 126, which represent formulas 6 and 9 respectively,
+the grays are in most excellent condition, and it will be found, by
+reference to formulas 6 and 9, that there is an absence of white lead in
+their composition. These formulas, however, contained a small percentage
+of umber and ochre. Formulas 5 and 16 contained over 20% White Lead and
+the gray of these formulas maintained their blue tone very well. These
+formulas were tinted solely with lampblack.
+
+"An inspection of Panel 138, which represents Formula 15, showed good
+maintenance of color in the gray, and was in much better condition as
+regards permanence of color than the other grays containing white lead.
+
+"A study of the yellow panels on the fence led to the unanimous
+conclusion that a liberal amount of Basic Carbonate-White Lead seemed to
+have a beneficial result in preserving the bright tone of the chrome
+yellow in tints so strong as those used on the fence. It was noted that
+Panel 108, which represents Formula 28, and in which zinc yellow was
+used, showed great permanence of tone and tint. Unfortunately this zinc
+chromate was added to a formula containing a large percentage of
+lithopone, and the destruction of the lithopone to a great extent
+affected the value of this test.
+
+[Illustration: Whiteness of Sublimed White Lead
+
+Darkness of Corroded White Lead
+
+On Pittsburg Test Fence]
+
+"=Maintenance of Para Reds.= A study of the paranitraniline or azo reds
+painted over the various pigments as priming coats demonstrated that the
+reds on this fence are in better condition than the reds at Atlantic
+City. As is well known, para red is manufactured by precipitation in an
+acid solution and is best maintained under acid conditions. The acidity
+of the Pittsburg atmosphere, caused by the large amount of acid gases
+which are being poured into the air, day in and day out, and which are
+constantly condensing on the surface of structures, may account for the
+better preservation of these reds.
+
+"It was noted that the para reds which were applied to panels prime
+coated with white lead seemed to be brightening in color and seemed to
+be gradually working over toward a lightening which may in the future
+show a pinkish tint.
+
+"=Report on Greens.= The bronze green is in most excellent condition and
+shows an absence of the mildew appearance which was observed at Atlantic
+City.
+
+"The chrome green is standing up exceedingly well, there being
+practically no change whatsoever in the color since it was exposed.
+
+"=Best Base for Blues.= An inspection of the blues showed that those
+which gave the greatest permanence and the least amount of fading were
+applied in combination with either Sublimed White Lead (Basic
+Sulphate-White Lead), or zinc oxide, while those blues which were
+applied in combination with Basic Carbonate-White Lead showed marked
+failure and were completely bleached out, due, of course, to the
+alkaline nature of the corroded white lead; Prussian blues being
+transformed by alkalies to a white compound.
+
+"=Superior Value of Composite Formulas.= Some of the mixed leads, or
+so-called graded leads, which are combinations of white leads with other
+high-grade pigments and containing some inert pigments, were not
+deteriorated so far as the white lead formulas, and the general
+conclusion was that they were upward of six months behind the
+deterioration of the straight white leads, and this was confirmed by the
+presence of moderate chalking, showing an excellent repainting surface
+and a better thickness and condition of the paint coating.
+
+"The same conclusions which were reached at Atlantic City, as to the
+best method of shellacking, obtained also on the Pittsburg Fence,
+namely, that application of the shellac to the wood previous to the
+first coat is the better method.
+
+"=Analysis of Paints.= At the time of the painting of the fence a sample
+of each paint was placed in small friction top cans, carefully labeled,
+and sent to the Carnegie Technical Schools' laboratory for analysis.
+The analyses of these paints were made by members of the Test Fence
+Committee, representing the schools, and appear in this bulletin. The
+results obtained conform very closely to the formulas which were applied
+to the fence, a variance of only one or two per cent. being shown in the
+amount of the different pigments."
+
+=Second Annual Inspection of Pittsburg Test Fence.= The second annual
+inspection of the Pittsburg Test Fence was made on Thursday, May 7th,
+1910. The panels in Pittsburg after having weathered for over two years
+presented an appearance which allowed the making of a detailed
+inspection, this having been found impossible during the first annual
+inspection. The inspection party[23] included those master painters who
+represented the Pittsburg Master Painters' Association, who were in
+charge of the application of the paints in 1907, 1908, and 1909,
+together with the test fence committee from the faculty of the Carnegie
+Technical Schools, and representatives of the Scientific Section. A
+summary of the report issued by this committee follows:
+
+  [23] A. C. Rapp, Chairman, Test Fence Committee, Pittsburg Branch,
+       Master Painters' Association; John Dewar, member Fence Committee,
+       Pittsburg Branch, Pennsylvania State Association of Master
+       Painters; J. H. James, Chairman, Carnegie Technical Schools' Test
+       Fence Committee; John A. Schaeffer, member Test Fence Committee,
+       Carnegie Technical Schools; Henry A. Gardner, Director Scientific
+       Section, Paint Manufacturers' Association of the U. S.
+
+"Two of the members of the inspection party have been impressed with the
+lumber lottery existing in some field tests, which have been conducted,
+and feel that when the object of a test is to determine the relative
+value of paints, such tests should be conducted on a standard grade of
+wood, such as white pine. The use of cypress, pitch pine, and other
+faulty woods, is often the cause of the failure of a paint, which on
+good wood would show up well. For this reason, only the white pine
+panels painted with white paints were considered in the inspection, the
+yellow pine panels and cypress panels having been thrown out of the test
+at last year's inspection.
+
+"Checking, cracking, and alligatoring on the painted surfaces were
+determined by using a magnifying glass. The degree of chalking existing
+was decided upon by using small pieces of black felt cloth, rubbing
+them against the surface of the panel; the degree of whiteness removed
+upon the cloth being indicative of the amount of chalking taking place.
+General condition was decided upon after carefully weighing the opinion
+of each member of the inspection party, as regards the general
+characteristics shown by each paint, such as checking, chalking,
+scaling, condition for repainting, hiding power, etc. The results have
+been charted and presented in this manner:[24]
+
+  [24] An endeavor was made to use uniform terms in reporting on each
+       formula. In some cases it was necessary to bring out more
+       forcibly the condition by the insertion of qualifying remarks.
+
+[Illustration: Panel on Left Painted with Single Pigment Paint; Panel on
+Right Painted with Combination Pigment Paint. Photograph taken after Two
+Years' Exposure on Pittsburg Test Fence]
+
+"=Conclusions Reached from the Test.= The primary object of the test
+made at Pittsburg was to determine whether a combination paint, made of
+two or more pigments, would be equal or superior to single pigment
+paints. After one year's exposure, the combination type of paint proved
+more durable than the single pigment paints.
+
+"It was early apparent that the combination type of paints, that is,
+those paints made of more than one pigment, indicated in most cases very
+excellent wear, with a minimum of blackness and a general good condition
+of surface.
+
+TESTS INAUGURATED IN 1907
+
+CHART OF RESULTS OF SECOND ANNUAL INSPECTION OF PITTSBURG TEST FENCE,
+MAY, 1910
+
+  =========================================================+
+                            FORMULAS                       |
+  --+------------------------+-----------------------------+
+  F |                        |        INERT PIGMENTS       |
+  o |                        +-----------------------------+
+  r |Basic Carbonate         |Calcium                      |
+  m |Wh. L'd                 |Carbonate                    |
+  u |      |Zinc Oxide       |     |Calcium                |
+  l |      |      |Basic     |     |Sulphate               |
+  a |      |      |Sulphate  |     |  |Magnesium           |
+    |      |      |Wh. L'd   |     |  |Silicate            |
+  N |      |      |    |Zinc |     |  |    |Barium         |
+  u |      |      |    |Lead |     |  |    |Sulphate       |
+  m |      |      |    |White|     |  |    |     |Silica   |
+  b |      |      |    --+   |     |  |    |     |   |Blanc|
+  e |      |      |      |   |     |  |    |     |   | Fixe|
+  r |      |      |      |   |     |  |    |     |   --+   |
+  --+------+------+------+---+-----+--+----+-----+-----+---+
+    |  %   |  %   |  %   |  %| %   | %| %  | %   | %   | % |
+   1| 30   | 70   | --   | --|--   |--|--  |--   |--   |-- |
+   2| 50   | 50   | --   | --|--   |--|--  |--   |--   |-- |
+   3| 20   | 50   | 20   | --|10   |--|--  |--   |--   |-- |
+   4| 48.5 | 48.5 | --   | --| 3.0 |--|--  |--   |--   |-- |
+   5| 22   | 50   | --   | --| 2   |--|26  |--   |--   |-- |
+   6| --   | 64   | --   | --|--   |--|--  |36   |--   |-- |
+   7| 37   | 63   | --   | --|--   |--|--  |--   |--   |-- |
+   8| 38   | 48   | --   | --|--   |--|--  |--   |14   |-- |
+   9| --   | 73   | --   | --| 2   |--|--  |--   |25   |-- |
+  10| 44   | 46   | --   | --| 5   |--| 5  |--   |--   |-- |
+  11| 50   | 50   | --   | --|--   |--|--  |--   |--   |-- |
+  12| 60   | 34   | --   | --|--   |   6% Inert Pigment    |
+  13| --   | 27   | 60   | --| 3   |--|10  |--   |--   |-- |
+  14| 25   | 25   | 20   | --| 5   |25|--  |--   |--   |-- |
+  15| 20   | 40   | --   | 30|10   |--|--  |--   |--   |-- |
+  16| 33   | 33   | --   | --|--   |--|--  |34   |--   |-- |
+  17| 40   | 40   | --   | --|--   |--| 3  |13   |--   | 4 |
+  18| 75   | 25   | --   | --|--   |--|--  |--   |--   |-- |
+  19| --   | 25   | 75   | --|--   |--|--  |--   |--   |-- |
+  20| 67.0 | 19.5 | --   | --|10.0 |--| 3.5|--   |--   |-- |
+  33| 15   | 30   | 25   | --|--   |--|--  |--   |30   |-- |
+  34| 38.95| 33.58|  4.81| --|19.48|--|--  | 1.59| 1.59|-- |
+  35| 37.51| 25.87|  7.84| --|20.36|--|--  | 4.21| 4.21|-- |
+  36|100   | --   | --   | --|--   |--|--  |--   |--   |-- |
+  37|100   | --   | --   | --|--   |--|--  |--   |--   |-- |
+  38|100   | --   | --   | --|--   |--|--  |--   |--   |-- |
+  39| --   | --   | --   |100|--   |--|--  |--   |--   |-- |
+  40| --   | --   |100   | --|--   |--|--  |--   |--   |-- |
+  45| --   | 90   |--    | --|10   |--|--  |--   |--   |-- |
+  46| --   | 61   |--    | --|--   |--|--  |--   |39   |-- |
+  47| --   |100   |--    | --|--   |--|--  |--   |--   |-- |
+  ==+======+======+======+===+=====+==+====+=====+=====+===+
+
+  ==+========================================+===
+  F |                                        |
+  o |                                        |
+  r |                                        | P
+  m |                                        | a
+  u |                                        | n
+  l |                                        | e
+  a |                                        | l
+    |          REPORT OF INSPECTION          |
+  N +-----------+------------+------+--------+ N
+  u |           |            |GENE- |        | u
+  m |           |            |RAL   |        | m
+  b |           |            |CON-  |        | b
+  e |           |            |DI-   |        | e
+  r |CHALKING   |CHECKING    |TION  |REMARKS | r
+  --+-----------+------------+------+--------+---
+   1|Slight     |None        |Good  |Slight  |  2
+    |           |            |      |scaling;|
+    |           |            |      |fairly  |
+    |           |            |      |white   |
+    |           |            |      |surface |
+   2|Medium     |Very slight |Fair  |Panels  |  4
+    |           |            |      |quite   |
+    |           |            |      |dark and|
+    |           |            |      |some    |
+    |           |            |      |scaling |
+   3|Consider-  |None        |Good  |Fairly  |  6
+    |able       |            |      |white   |
+   4|Consider-  |Lateral and |Fair  |White   |  8
+    |able       |irregular   |      |surface |
+   5|Medium     |Very        |Very  |Extreme-| 10
+    |           |slight      |good  |ly white|
+    |           |            |      |surface |
+   6|Very slight|Very bad;   |Poor  |Black   | 12
+    |           |rough sur-  |      |surface |
+    |           |face        |      |        |
+   7|Slight     |Slight      |Good  |Medium  | 14
+    |           |            |      |white   |
+    |           |            |      |surface |
+   8|Slight     |Slight      |Good  |White   | 16
+    |           |            |      |surface;|
+    |           |            |      |slight  |
+    |           |            |      |scaling |
+   9|None       |Deep;       |Very  |Film    | 18
+    |           |peeling in  |poor  |brittle |
+    |           |places      |      |and sur-|
+    |           |            |      |face    |
+    |           |            |      |dark    |
+  10|Medium     |Slight la-  |Good  |Surface | 20
+    |           |teral in    |      |very    |
+    |           |places      |      |white   |
+  11|Consider-  |Deep matt   |Fair  |Consi-  | 22
+    |able       |checking    |      |derable |
+    |           |            |      |scaling;|
+    |           |            |      |forma-  |
+    |           |            |      |tion of |
+    |           |            |      |black   |
+    |           |            |      |coating |
+    |           |            |      |shat-   |
+    |           |            |      |tered   |
+    |           |            |      |off     |
+  12|Medium     |Slight      |Fairly|Surface | 24
+    |           |            |good  |white   |
+  13| Medium    |None        |Excel-|Very    | 26
+    |           |            |lent  |white   |
+  14|Consider-  |Medium      |Fair  |Panel   | 28
+    |able       |            |      |fairly  |
+    |           |            |      |white   |
+  15|Slight     |Medium      |Good  |Surface | 30
+    |           |            |      |quite   |
+    |           |            |      |dark    |
+  16|Medium     |Very slight |Good  |Quite   | 32
+    |           |            |      |white   |
+  17|Consider-  |Slight,     |Fair  |Surface | 34
+    |able       |along       |      |fairly  |
+    |           |lateral     |      |white   |
+    |           |lines       |      |        |
+  18|Medium     |Slight, with|Good  |Surface | 36
+    |           |some scaling|      |has be- |
+    |           |            |      |come    |
+    |           |            |      |quite   |
+    |           |            |      |dark    |
+  19|Consider-  |None        |Excel-|No black| 38
+    |able       |            |lent  |coating;|
+    |           |            |      |surface |
+    |           |            |      |very    |
+    |           |            |      |white,  |
+    |           |            |      |due to  |
+    |           |            |      |inert-  |
+    |           |            |      |ness of |
+    |           |            |      |pigment |
+    |           |            |      |or pro- |
+    |           |            |      |gressive|
+    |           |            |      |chalking|
+  20|Medium     |Medium      |Good  |        | 40
+  33|Heavy      |None        |Fair  |White   |168
+    |           |            |      |surface |
+  34|Consider-  |Very slight |Good  |Surface |172
+    |able       |            |      |is very |
+    |           |            |      |white;  |
+    |           |            |      |progres-|
+    |           |            |      |sive    |
+    |           |            |      |chalking|
+    |           |            |      |may have|
+    |           |            |      |prevent-|
+    |           |            |      |ed for- |
+    |           |            |      |mation  |
+    |           |            |      |of black|
+    |           |            |      |coating |
+  35|Bad        |None        |Good  |Very    |173
+    |           |            |      |white;  |
+    |           |            |      |no black|
+    |           |            |      |coating |
+    |           |            |      |evident |
+  36|Bad        |Bad         |Fair  |Surface |174
+    |           |            |      |is dead |
+    |           |            |      |black;  |
+    |           |            |      |shatter-|
+    |           |            |      |ed in   |
+    |           |            |      |places  |
+  37|Extremely  |Medium      |Fair  |Very    |175
+    |bad        |            |      |black   |
+    |           |            |      |surface |
+    |           |            |      |and     |
+    |           |            |      |mottled |
+    |           |            |      |in      |
+    |           |            |      |places  |
+  38|Very bad   |Very bad,   |Poor  |Black   |176
+    |and quite  |with scaling|      |surface |
+    |dusty      |            |      |is loose|
+    |           |            |      |and     |
+    |           |            |      |shatter-|
+    |           |            |      |ed      |
+  39|Consider-  |Slight      |Good  |Panel   |177
+    |able       |            |      |surface |
+    |           |            |      |quite   |
+    |           |            |      |white   |
+  40|Very bad   |Slight      |Good  |Surface |178
+    |           |            |      |very    |
+    |           |            |      |white,  |
+    |           |            |      |possibly|
+    |           |            |      |due to  |
+    |           |            |      |progres-|
+    |           |            |      |sive    |
+    |           |            |      |chalking|
+    |           |            |      |or in-  |
+    |           |            |      |ertness |
+    |           |            |      |of pig- |
+    |           |            |      |ment    |
+  45|Slight     |Considerable|Fair  |White   |169
+    |           |            |      |surface |
+  46|Slight     |Slight      |Fair  |Consi-  |170
+    |           |            |      |derable |
+    |           |            |      |scaling |
+    |           |            |      |present;|
+    |           |            |      |surface |
+    |           |            |      |fairly  |
+    |           |            |      |white   |
+  47|Bad        |Bad         |Bad   |Bad con-|171
+    |           |            |      |dition  |
+    |           |            |      |through-|
+    |           |            |      |out     |
+  ==+===========+============+======+========+===
+
+[Illustration: Middle white panel is painted with a combination pigment
+formula
+
+Middle white panel is painted with pure Corroded White Lead
+
+Notice Difference in Color after Two Years' Wear]
+
+"=Recommendation.= On account of the peculiar conditions which obtain in
+and around Pittsburg, as exemplified by these tests, the committee
+finds, as a result thereof, that the best white paint for general
+exterior use is made of white lead combined with zinc oxide and a
+moderate percentage of inert pigments, such as silica, asbestine, or
+barytes.
+
+"=Some Peculiar Conditions Affecting the Tests.= The inspectors were
+most impressed during the inspection by the blackness exhibited to such
+a high degree by certain panels, and the fair degree of whiteness by
+others. It is well known that in Pittsburg nearly all paints become
+darkened by the deposition on their surface of carbon particles
+emanating from the combustion of soft coal. Certain of the paints,
+however, presented fairly white surfaces, and it would thus appear that
+the extreme darkness shown by other paints was due to their composition.
+Corroded white lead when used alone was uniformly covered by black
+particles, and the higher the percentage of corroded white lead in a
+paint the darker was the surface. It was at first thought that this
+darkness was due to the softness of the white lead pigment or to its
+roughened surface, in causing adherence of soot particles. Sublimed
+white lead, however, which is also a soft pigment, chalked even more
+progressively than corroded white lead, but its surface was not rough,
+and presented a very white appearance. Scrapings from the different
+panels are being taken, and after a careful analysis the findings from
+the investigations will be reported by a member of the Inspection
+Committee."
+
+  A. C. RAPP.        _Chairman Test Fence Committee, Pittsburg Branch,
+                     Master Painters' Association_
+
+  JOHN DEWAR.        _Member Fence Committee, Pittsburg Branch, Penna. State
+                     Association of Master Painters_
+
+  J. H. JAMES.       _Chairman Carnegie Technical Schools' Fence Committee_
+
+  J. A. SCHAEFFER.   _Instructor in Chemical Practice, Carnegie Technical
+                     Schools Pittsburg, Pa._
+
+  H. A. GARDNER.     _Director Scientific Section, Paint Mfrs. Asso. of U. S._
+
+_May 31, 1910_
+
+
+PITTSBURG TEST FENCE
+
+COMPARATIVE SPREADING RATES OF WHITE PAINT ON WHITE PINE PANELS
+
+_Average Spreading Rate 266 Square Feet_
+
+  =======+===========+===========+===========+==========+==============
+  Formula|First Coat |Second Coat|Third Coat | Average  |Spreading Rate
+  Number | (sq. ft.) |(sq. feet) | (sq. ft.) |Spreading |    Rate
+         |           |           |           |  Rate    | 3-Coat Work
+         |           |           |           |(sq. feet)| (sq. feet)
+  -------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+--------------
+    1    |   759     |  1020     |    768    |   849    |   283
+    2    |   694     |   975     |   1229    |   966    |   322
+    3    |   743     |   873     |    770    |   795    |   265
+    4    |   537     |   987     |   1019    |   848    |   283
+    5    |   509     |   896     |    886    |   764    |   255
+    6    |   765     |  1045     |    994    |   935    |   312
+    7    |   734     |   922     |    996    |   884    |   295
+    8    |   565     |   862     |    854    |   760    |   253
+    9    |   622     |   926     |   1160    |   903    |   301
+   10    |   610     |  1013     |   1070    |   900    |   300
+   11    |   651     |   933     |   1010    |   865    |   288
+   12    |   675     |  1027     |    623    |   775    |   258
+   13    |   663     |   892     |    981    |   845    |   282
+   14    |   498     |   785     |    807    |   697    |   232
+   15    |   688     |  1000     |    984    |   891    |   297
+   16    |   669     |   880     |    860    |   803    |   268
+   17    |   635     |   982     |   1077    |   900    |   300
+   18    |   636     |   959     |   1031    |   875    |   292
+   19    |   626     |  1076     |   1037    |   913    |   304
+   20    |   591     |  1015     |    929    |   845    |   282
+   21    |   595     |   948     |    910    |   818    |   273
+   22    |   617     |   868     |    810    |   765    |   255
+   23    |   549     |  1002     |    986    |   846    |   282
+   24    |   539     |   918     |    783    |   747    |   249
+   25    |   530     |   929     |    850    |   770    |   257
+   26    |   532     |   916     |   1011    |   820    |   273
+   27    |   520     |   850     |    656    |   675    |   225
+   33    |   600     |  1340     |    810    |   917    |   306
+   34    |   471     |   743     |    690    |   635    |   212
+   35    |   402     |   598     |    645    |   548    |   183
+   36    |   398     |   668     |    838    |   635    |   212
+   37    |   579     |   653     |    838    |   690    |   230
+   38    |   463     |   615     |    704    |   594    |   198
+   39    |   474     |   954     |    849    |   759    |   253
+   40    |   446     |   815     |    871    |   711    |   237
+   45    |   527     |   841     |    916    |   761    |   254
+   46    |   605     |   740     |    818    |   721    |   240
+   47    |   735     |   961     |    993    |   896    |   299
+  =======+===========+===========+===========+==========+==============
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+A LABORATORY STUDY OF TEST PANELS
+
+
+=Panel Sections for Laboratory Test.= In order to make a laboratory
+study of the painted panels on the Atlantic City and Pittsburg fences,
+it was thought advisable to remove small sections from representative
+areas and transfer them to the laboratory for such work. The fences were
+visited by the official inspection committees soon after the first
+annual inspection, and the panels were carefully looked over. Upon each
+was marked out a representative portion, care being exercised to select
+areas where previous inspections had not disturbed the surface of the
+film in any manner. The inspectors then placed the number of the panel
+upon the areas which had been marked off, as well as their initials. The
+marked sections were sawed out, wrapped in tissue paper, and then
+transferred to the laboratory where they were placed upon models of the
+respective fences from which they had been removed. The illustration
+shows the model test fences set up together. It is very apparent that
+the Pittsburg panels are much the darker in color, due to the soot, and
+in some cases lead sulphide formed upon their surfaces. This difference
+was undoubtedly due to the atmospheric conditions prevailing where the
+tests were made. One would be led to suppose that a paint film exposed
+to an atmosphere such as is found in Pittsburg would show deterioration
+more rapidly than one exposed in Atlantic City. In all the tests and
+experiments, however, the Atlantic City panels appeared broken down to a
+much greater extent; though it is true that the Pittsburg panels had
+darkened considerably and presented a rather mottled appearance. The
+deposit of soot on the Pittsburg panel seemed to act as a preservative
+coating for the film beneath, and prevented marked disintegration.
+
+[Illustration: Sections of Atlantic City and Pittsburg Fences Arranged
+for Laboratory Examination]
+
+[Illustration: Sections of Atlantic City and Pittsburg Fences]
+
+[Illustration: Upper set of tests made on Panels from Atlantic City
+Fence
+
+Lower set of tests made on Panels from Pittsburg Fence
+
+Figures at left indicate Formula Number
+
+Figures at right indicate Degree of Chalking]
+
+[Illustration: Color Standard used in Comparison of Panel Section]
+
+=Chalking Test.= Small strips of black felt, about one inch square, were
+firmly attached to a block of wood, and by a clamp having the same
+pressure in each case, the wood with its surface of black felt was fixed
+to the panel. This apparatus, which resembles a blackboard eraser, is
+firmly drawn across the panel in one direction for a certain definite
+distance, during which time it gathers all the chalked surface presented
+by the painted wood. Upon detaching the apparatus from the panel it is
+observed that the black cloth becomes whitened to an extent
+proportionate to the chalking that has taken place on the given area.
+
+After each one of the panels had been treated in the same manner by the
+same operator, the black cloths were assembled on one large board and
+photographed. A definite standard of chalking was made up, and the
+operator was enabled to put down opposite the report on each panel the
+degree of chalking which had taken place, No. 1 representing the least
+amount and No. 10 the greatest amount of chalking.
+
+=Degree of Whiteness Shown by Panels.= It was a very simple matter to
+gauge the whiteness of the various panels, by comparing them with a
+series of standard boards painted with three coats of white paint.
+Florence Brand, New Jersey zinc oxide, was used as the standard for
+whiteness and termed "No. 1." In making "No. 2" standard, to the zinc
+oxide was added .01% of lampblack. By adding .02% of lampblack to the
+zinc, standard "No. 3" was obtained, and so on, increasing the amount of
+lampblack in each case by .01%. These standards were run up to "No. 30,"
+and the various panels on the different fences compared with them. The
+degrees of whiteness are recorded in progressive numbers, No. 1 being
+the standard for whiteness and No. 30 the darkest. The Atlantic City
+panels ranged from 3 to 8 in the scale of whiteness, while the Pittsburg
+panels required the use of the entire range of standards.
+
+=Resistance to Abrasion.= The apparatus used for determining the
+abrasion resistance of a paint was made of a glass tube about six feet
+long, having an internal bore of 7/8 inch. This was supported in an
+upright position over a dish which held the panel under test at an angle
+of 45 degrees. The abrasive material consisted of No. 00 emery, which
+was dropped into the tube through a funnel having a bore of 5 mm. When
+the emery reached the bottom of the long tube it scattered itself so as
+to strike a surface on the panel about an inch in diameter. The emery
+was constantly poured in until the paint coating had worn away, showing
+the bare wood. The weight in pounds of emery powder required to show the
+disruption of the coating is recorded and reported as the measure of the
+"abrasion resist." The panel requiring the greatest weight of emery to
+cause abrasion is evidently the most resistant to abrasion. Paint is
+often subjected to serious abrasion, through the blowing of sand,
+especially at the seashore, and to withstand such action should contain
+a proportion of pigments especially resistant to abrasion, such as
+silica, zinc oxide, asbestine, and barytes.
+
+[Illustration: Apparatus for Determining the Abrasion Resistance of
+Paints]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 1, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 2, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 3, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 4, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 5, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 6, A. C.]
+
+     NOTE: The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance of Dr. J.
+     A. Schaeffer in the preparation of the photomicrographs herewith
+     shown.
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 7, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 8, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 9, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 10, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 11, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 12, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 13, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 14, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 15, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 16, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 17, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 18, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 19, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 20, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 33, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 34, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 35, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 36, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 37, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 38, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 39, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 40, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 45, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 46, A. C.]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 47, A. C.]
+
+=Making Photomicrographs.= The photomicrographs which are herewith shown
+were made in the following manner: A part of a panel was placed upon the
+stage of the microscope and held firmly in place with clips. By varying
+the adjustment and carefully running over the field the condition of the
+surface was readily given, using the same eye-piece and objective
+throughout the tests, and obtaining a magnification of thirty-three.
+Great care was exercised to secure an average field showing the general
+and typical appearance of every panel. Little difficulty was experienced
+in so doing, as the laboratory panels gave very representative surfaces
+of the large panels on the fence. The instrument was then inclined
+horizontally and the eye-piece was fitted into the camera nose. In the
+back of the bellows of the camera was placed the ground glass for
+focusing. To secure illumination the light from an electric arc lamp
+was reflected from a mirror directly upon the painted surface of the
+panel, which in turn was reflected through the camera on to the ground
+glass. The plate-holder was then put in position and six-second
+exposures were made, afterward developing and printing.
+
+=Checking and Cracking.= What was termed "fine matt checking" at the
+First Annual Inspection was not visible at the time to certain members
+of the Inspection Committee, but it is an established fact that the
+checking was an existing condition, as the photomicrographs have shown.
+This checking has a very peculiar characteristic in that the lines are
+very narrow and hair-like, being somewhat interlaced and peculiarly
+forked. That this hair matt checking is a preliminary condition which
+afterwards develops into matt checking and into marked or heavy checking
+seems to be indicated.
+
+It appears from an examination of the photomicrographs of the paint
+films that a paint coating closely resembles the surface of the earth,
+and is subject to the same basic laws that have caused the various
+geodetic changes in the earth's crust. Observation of a dried pond or
+lake bed will disclose types of fissuring and cracking similar to those
+shown by dried paint coatings in which the oil has been fully oxidized,
+and especially in the case of paints containing pigments which act upon
+the oil to produce compounds brittle in nature.
+
+At Atlantic City the panels were all clean and free from dirt,
+presenting continuous exposure of the films, and thus maintaining
+conditions for active checking. At Pittsburg, soon after the panels
+began to chalk, the large amount of dust and black soot in the
+atmosphere completely covered the panels with a very thick, resistant
+coating of carbon, which acted as a seal or protector, preventing
+disintegration to a great extent. This coating was extremely hard to
+remove, and photomicrographs, before and after removal of this coating
+by rubbing with a damp cloth, failed to reveal marked checking on any of
+the formulas except those made of strictly pure basic carbonate-white
+lead. The checking, even on these, was not as marked as at Atlantic
+City. It is presumed that after the chalking had taken place and the
+chalked pigment had been washed from the panels, the gradually
+increasing coat of carbon and lead sulphide had protected the panels
+from checking, or possibly the atmosphere of Pittsburg, which in other
+respects had deteriorated the panels to a greater extent than at
+Atlantic City, did not have the extreme action in causing checking that
+the Atlantic City atmosphere seemed to have effected.
+
+[Illustration: Combination Formula No. 1, Pittsburg
+
+BEFORE WASHING
+
+Mottled surface due to external coating of impurities.]
+
+[Illustration: AFTER WASHING]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 4, Pittsburg
+
+BEFORE WASHING]
+
+[Illustration: AFTER WASHING]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 38, Pittsburg
+
+Basic Carbonate--White Lead Panels on Fence
+
+BEFORE WASHING
+
+Checking evident even through the outer covering of foreign matter.]
+
+[Illustration: AFTER WASHING]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 36, Pittsburg
+
+Basic Carbonate--White Lead Panels on Fence
+
+BEFORE WASHING
+
+Peculiar network-like checking appearing through outer coat of
+impurities.]
+
+[Illustration: AFTER WASHING]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 40, Pittsburg]
+
+[Illustration: Formula No. 45, Pittsburg]
+
+=Results on Combination Pigment Paints.= It will be noticed that the
+checking on most of the combination pigment paints made of lead, zinc,
+and inert pigments, was moderate, and in many cases of a fine order. It
+has been observed that the percentage of zinc oxide in a paint is not
+always a criterion upon which future checking may be judged. Nor could
+it be said that the checking is dependent upon the percentage of basic
+carbonate-white lead added to the paint. However, it appears that
+scientific blending of the various pigments, with regard to their
+physical properties in oil, such as their strength and elastic limit,
+develops the greatest resistance to both cracking and checking.
+Elasticity is vital, but strength must be combined therewith in order to
+prevent disruptions of the paint coating. Paint films made of certain
+inert pigments, when tested on the filmometer, were relatively high in
+strength, but relatively low in elasticity. Such pigments, when used in
+large percentage, form coatings which are hard and apt to crack. The
+use, however, of these pigments in moderate percentages seems very
+beneficial in overcoming the effect of using an excessive percentage of
+white lead, or of zinc oxide.
+
+=Results on White Lead Paints.= The maximum checking was observed on the
+basic carbonate-white lead panels, the size of the checks in some cases
+being several times larger than those on the other panels.
+
+On some of the basic carbonate-white leads the checking was of a very
+peculiar nature, consisting of very broad fissures in the paint coating,
+disclosing the wood surfaces beneath. The type of checking existing was
+also distinct in its structure, being hexagonal in shape. One of the
+most marked features shown by the basic carbonate-white lead films was
+the extreme roughness of their surfaces. This roughness is most likely
+due to the excessive chalking which had taken place.
+
+=Results on Silica and Barytes Paints.= The checking of paints very high
+in silica resolved itself into fine hair-like lines which are generally
+lateral to each other, and indicate a cracked appearance. The checking
+of paints containing very high percentages of barytes was also of a
+distinct nature, being generally forked in appearance and of no definite
+striation.
+
+=Surface Condition of Fume Pigment Paints.= The panels painted with
+basic sulphate-white lead (sublimed white lead) showed complete absence
+of checking. This was also true of the panels painted with zinc lead.
+These are both fume products and are extremely fine in their physical
+size, which may account for this condition. Although zinc oxide is made
+in a similar manner, it gives a much harder paint coating than either of
+the afore-mentioned pigments, and presents a surface which develops
+considerable checking, generally of a medium order. The past theories
+regarding zinc oxide, in which it has been maintained that zinc oxide
+gives the maximum checking, are evidently incorrect, as the checking
+found on the zinc oxide panels was not as marked or deep as the checking
+on the basic carbonate-white lead panels; in fact, the checking might be
+more in the line of a cracking, possibly due to the brittle nature of
+the coating composed of straight zinc. This is especially true of zinc
+paints containing insufficient oil.
+
+=The Importance of the Physical Nature of Pigments.= It appears that
+very fine grinding of materials, chosen for their characteristic
+fineness, with the absence of any unfavorable physical condition or
+chemical sensitiveness, are important factors in the making of a paint
+to resist cracking or checking. The purity of the essential materials,
+as well as the scientific compounding of these materials, with due
+regard to the law of minimum voids, are great factors which enhance the
+qualities of paints, greater, perhaps, than the variation of percentages
+of the various pigments which go to make up a paint.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+ADDITIONAL TESTS AT ATLANTIC CITY AND PITTSBURG
+
+
+A series of new test panels to take the place of those panels which were
+condemned and subsequently removed from the Atlantic City and Pittsburg
+fences, were painted and exposed during June, 1909. These new test
+panels are of white pine, this wood having been selected by the joint
+inspection committee as offering the best condition for future tests.
+The method used in painting these panels was the same as in the previous
+tests, together with the adoption of certain refinements in the
+reductions, application, etc. Thirty-six formulas were selected with
+careful regard to the percentage of components, including several paints
+containing lithopone combined with whiting and zinc oxide,[25] two
+pigments which gave promise of supporting the lithopone for outside use.
+Some of these lithopone paints contained special vehicles which it was
+thought would prevent the destructive action which lithopone seems to
+have upon linseed oil. In order to obtain a criterion of the value of
+the new formulas applied, as against the wearing of straight white
+leads, the original white leads used in the previous tests were
+included, and other brands were added. Each formula was painted out in
+white, yellow, and gray, upon panels of white pine wood arranged in
+sequence upon the fence, and properly identified. The customary opacity
+test, in the form of a small black square, was stencilled over the
+priming coat of each panel, as in the former tests. The composition of
+the vehicle in all the new tests was standard, using pure linseed oil
+with a small percentage of turpentine drier. The tints used in each
+formula were secured at the time of application by the use of standard
+colors, lampblack, and medium chrome yellow, using an approximate amount
+for each formula.
+
+  [25] A brief study of the theory of solutions (See Cushman and Gardner
+       on "Corrosion and Preservation of Iron and Steel"), involving the
+       modes of iron formation, will be invaluable to the student who is
+       inquiring into the cause of the peculiar fogging of lithopone,
+       with the idea in view of correcting this evil by physical or
+       chemical treatment. Inasmuch as our observations thus far have
+       led us to believe that the fogging of lithopone takes place in
+       the presence of moisture, with the contributory and necessary
+       action of chemically active rays from the sun or other source, it
+       is fair to assume that under these conditions the insoluble
+       molecule of zinc sulphide and barium sulphate reverts by
+       intricate molecular disturbance and ionization back to the
+       soluble barium sulphide and zinc sulphate from which the
+       lithopone is formed by metathesis. If this be true, then the acid
+       nature of these soluble salts is no doubt combated and overcome
+       at the moment of formation by the basic nature of zinc oxide and
+       calcium carbonate, which tend to ionize to an alkaline reaction.
+       The value of zinc oxide and calcium carbonate in lithopone paints
+       as detergents of blackness, has been demonstrated at both
+       Atlantic City and Pittsburg." H. A. G.
+
+[Illustration: Section of Fence Showing New Panels Recently Placed]
+
+[Illustration: Appearance of 1909 Tests]
+
+An inspection of these new tests was made during June, 1910, and the
+results of the inspection are shown on pages 178 to 181. The results of
+the inspection prove that it is unsafe to use lithopone in a paint
+containing white lead of any type, early darkening and failure being
+shown in every case where such a combination existed. The formulas in
+the new test, which were properly balanced and which had a low
+percentage of lithopone combined with zinc oxide and whiting, presented
+in some cases very good surfaces. A rough, sandy surface, however, was
+shown where lithopone was used in any great quantity.
+
+TESTS INAUGURATED IN 1909
+
+RESULTS OF INSPECTION OF ATLANTIC CITY TEST FENCE, MAY, 1910
+
+  ===============================================+
+                    FORMULAS                     |
+  --+-----------------------+--------------------+
+  F |                       |                    |
+  o |                       |                    |
+  r |Basic Carbonate        |                    |
+  m |White Lead             |                    |
+  u |    |Zinc Oxide        |                    |
+  l |    |  |Basic Sulphate |                    |
+  a |    |  |White Lead     |  INERT PIGMENTS    |
+    |    |  |   |Precipi-   +--------------------+
+  N |    |  |   |tated      |Calcium Carbonate   |
+  u |    |  |   |White Lead |  |Silica           |
+  m |    |  |   |   |Zinc   |  |   |Asbestine    |
+  b |    |  |   |   |Lead   |  |   |  |China Clay|
+  e |    |  |   |   |  |Li- |  |   |  |  |Barytes|
+  r |    |  |   |   |  |tho-|  |   |  |  | |Blanc|
+    |    |  |   |   |  -pone|  |   |  |  | +-Fixe|
+  --+----+--+---+---+---+---+--+---+--+--+--+----+
+    |  % | %|  %|  %|  %|  %| %|  %| %| %| %|  % |
+   1| -- |--| 45| --| --| 40|15| --|--|--|--| -- |
+   2| -- |--| 45| --| --| 40|--| 15|--|--|--| -- |
+   3| -- |45| --| --| --| 45|10| --|--|--|--| -- |
+   4| -- |--| 45| --| --| 45|10| --|--|--|--| -- |
+   5| -- |40| --| --| --| 40|20| --|--|--|--| -- |
+   6| -- |--| 45| --| --| 35|--| --|20|--|--| -- |
+   7| 50 |--| --| --| 36| --|--| --| 2| 8| 4| -- |
+   8| -- |--| 50| --| --| 36|--| --| 2| 8| 4| -- |
+   9| -- |--| 50| --| --| 36|--| --| 2|--|12| -- |
+  10| -- |36| 50| --| --| --|--| --| 2| 8| 4| -- |
+  11| 28 |55| --| --| --| --|--| --| 3|--| 7|  7 |
+  12| -- |55| 28| --| --| --|--| --| 3|--| 7|  7 |
+  13| -- |60| --| --| --| 30|10| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  14| -- |30| 30| --| --| 30|10| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  15| -- |--| 60| --| --| 30|--| --|10|--|--| -- |
+  16| -- |--| --| --| --|100|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  17| -- |--| --| --| --|100|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  18| 33 |33| --| --| --| --|--| 17|--|17|--| -- |
+  19| 34 |33| --| --| --| --|--| 33|--|--|--| -- |
+  20| 34 |33| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|33|--| -- |
+  21|100 |--| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+    |[26]|  |   |   |   |   |  |   |  |  |  |    |
+  22|100 |--| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  23|100 |--| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  24| -- |--|100| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  25| -- |--| --| --|100| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  26| -- |--| --|100| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  27|100 |--| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  28|100 |--| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  29| 24 |45| 13| --| --| --|--| --|18|--|--| -- |
+  30| 45 |--| --| --| --| 40|15| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  31| 45 |--| --| --| --| 40|--| 15|--|--|--| -- |
+  32| 45 |--| --| --| --| 35|--| --|20|--|--| -- |
+  33| 50 |--| --| --| --| 36|--| --| 2|--|12| -- |
+  34| 75 |--| 25| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  35| 50 |--| 50| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  36| -- |--| --| --| --| --|--|100|--|--|--| -- |
+  ==+====+==+===+===+===+===+==+===+==+==+==+====+
+
+  [26] This pigment on analysis proved to be zinc lead.
+
+  ==+===============================================+==
+  F |                                               |
+  o |                                               |
+  r |                                               | P
+  m |                                               | a
+  u |                                               | n
+  l |                                               | e
+  a |                                               | l
+    |                                               |
+  N |                                               | N
+  u |                                               | u
+  m |              REPORT OF INSPECTION             | m
+  b |---------+---------+----------------+----------+ b
+  e |CHALKING |CHECKING |GENERAL         |REMARKS   | e
+  r |         |         |CONDITION       |          | r
+  --+---------+---------+----------------+----------+--
+   1|None     |None     |Rough surface,  |          | 1
+    |         |         |but fair for re-|          |
+    |         |         |painting        |          |
+   2|None     |None     |Fair; rough sur-|          | 2
+    |         |         |face and slight-|          |
+    |         |         |ly dark         |          |
+   3|Very     |Very     |Good; very white|          | 3
+    |slight   |slight   |surface         |          |
+   4|None     |None     |Rough surface   |          | 4
+    |         |         |and slightly    |          |
+    |         |         |dark            |          |
+   5|Very     |Very     |Good; very white|          | 5
+    |slight   |slight   |surface         |          |
+   6|None     |None     |Rough surface;  |          | 6
+    |         |         |dark            |          |
+   7|None     |Very     |Good            |          | 7
+    |         |slight   |                |          |
+    |         |lateral  |                |          |
+    |         |checking |                |          |
+   8|Heavy    |Slight   |Excellent; very |          | 8
+    |         |         |white           |          |
+   9|Heavy    |Some     |Excellent; very |          | 9
+    |         |         |white           |          |
+  10|None     |Slight   |Good            |          |10
+  11|None     |Slight   |Good; slightly  |          |11
+    |         |         |dark            |          |
+  12|None     |Slight   |Good            |          |12
+    |         |lateral  |                |          |
+  13|Very     |Consider-|Fair            |          |13
+    |slight   |able     |                |          |
+    |         |lateral  |                |          |
+    |         |running  |                |          |
+    |         |along    |                |          |
+    |         |grain of |                |          |
+    |         |wood     |                |          |
+  14|Very     |Consider-|Fair            |          |14
+    |slight   |able     |                |          |
+    |         |lateral  |                |          |
+    |         |running  |                |          |
+    |         |along    |                |          |
+    |         |grain of |                |          |
+    |         |wood     |                |          |
+  15|Heavy    |Slight   |Fair            |          |15
+    |         |lateral  |                |          |
+    |         |checking |                |          |
+  16|Heavy    |Consider-|Dark color;     |          |16
+    |         |able     |rough surface   |          |
+  17|Consider-|Medium   |Better than No. |          |17
+    |able     |         |16; not as rough|          |
+    |         |         |or dark         |          |
+  18|Very     |None     |Good            |          |18
+    |slight   |         |                |          |
+  19|Very     |Slight   |Good            |          |19
+    |slight   |         |                |          |
+  20|Very     |None     |Good            |          |20
+    |slight   |         |                |          |
+  21|Slight   |Slight   |Fair; rough     |          |21
+    |         |         |surface         |          |
+  22|Very     |Lateral  |Fairly good     |          |22
+    |slight   |cracking |                |          |
+  23|Medium   |Lateral  |Fair            |          |23
+    |         |cracking |                |          |
+  24|Slight   |Slight   |Good for        |          |24
+    |         |cracking |repainting      |          |
+  25|Medium   |None     |Good surface    |          |25
+  26|Heavy    |Slight   |Fair; surface   |          |26
+    |         |cracking |rough & dark    |          |
+  27|Heavy    |Lateral  |Fair            |          |27
+    |         |cracking |                |          |
+  28|Medium   |Consider-|Poor; very      |          |28
+    |         |able     |rough, dark     |          |
+    |         |         |surface         |          |
+  29|Slight   |None     |Good            |          |29
+  30|Heavy    |Heavy    |Poor            |          |30
+    |         |checking |                |          |
+    |         |and alli-|                |          |
+    |         |gatoring |                |          |
+  31|None     |Alliga-  |Rough surface;  |          |31
+    |         |toring   |dark            |          |
+  32|Slight   |Medium   |Dark and rough  |          |32
+    |         |         |surface         |          |
+  33|Consider-|Slight   |Poor; dark      |          |33
+    |able     |         |surface         |          |
+  34|None     |None     |Fair; dark      |          |34
+    |         |         |surface         |          |
+  35|None     |Slight   |Fair; rough     |          |35
+    |         |         |surface         |          |
+  36|Extremely|Medium   |Fair            |Vehicle   |36
+    |bad      |         |                |disinte-  |
+    |         |         |                |grated;   |
+    |         |         |                |spotted in|
+    |         |         |                |places    |
+  ==+=========+=========+================+==========+==
+
+TESTS INAUGURATED IN 1909
+
+RESULTS OF INSPECTION OF PITTSBURG TEST FENCE, MAY, 1910
+
+  ===============================================+
+                    FORMULAS                     |
+  --+-----------------------+--------------------+
+  F |                       |                    |
+  o |                       |                    |
+  r |Basic Carbonate        |                    |
+  m |White Lead             |                    |
+  u |    |Zinc Oxide        |                    |
+  l |    |  |Basic Sulphate |                    |
+  a |    |  |White Lead     |   INERT PIGMENT    |
+    |    |  |   |Precipi-   +--------------------+
+  N |    |  |   |tated      |Calcium Carbonate   |
+  u |    |  |   |White Lead |  |Silica           |
+  m |    |  |   |   |Zinc   |  |   |Asbestine    |
+  b |    |  |   |   |Lead   |  |   |  |China Clay|
+  e |    |  |   |   |  |Li- |  |   |  |  |Barytes|
+  r |    |  |   |   |  |tho-|  |   |  |  | |Blanc|
+    |    |  |   |   |  -pone|  |   |  |  | --Fixe|
+  --+----+--+---+---+---+---+--+---+--+--+--+----+
+    |  % | %|  %|  %|  %|  %| %|  %| %| %| %|  % |
+   1| -- |--| 45| --| --| 40|15| --|--|--|--| -- |
+   2| -- |--| 45| --| --| 40|--| 15|--|--|--| -- |
+   3| -- |45| --| --| --| 45|10| --|--|--|--| -- |
+   4| -- |--| 45| --| --| 45|10| --|--|--|--| -- |
+   5| -- |40| --| --| --| 40|20| --|--|--|--| -- |
+   6| -- |--| 45| --| --| 35|--| --|20|--|--| -- |
+   7| 50 |--| --| --| 36| --|--| --| 2| 8| 4| -- |
+   8| -- |--| 50| --| --| 36|--| --| 2| 8| 4| -- |
+   9| -- |--| 50| --| --| 36|--| --| 2|--|12| -- |
+  10| -- |36| 50| --| --| --|--| --| 2| 8| 4| -- |
+  11| 28 |55| --| --| --| --|--| --| 3|--| 7|  7 |
+  12| -- |55| 28| --| --| --|--| --| 3|--| 7|  7 |
+  13| -- |60| --| --| --| 30|10| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  14| -- |30| 30| --| --| 30|10| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  15| -- |--| 60| --| --| 30|--| --|10|--|--| -- |
+  16| -- |--| --| --| --|100|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  17| -- |--| --| --| --|100|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  18| 33 |33| --| --| --| --|--| 17|--|17|--| -- |
+  19| 34 |33| --| --| --| --|--| 33|--|--|--| -- |
+  20| 34 |33| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|33|--| -- |
+  21|100 |--| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  22|100 |--| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+    |[27]|  |   |   |   |   |  |   |  |  |  |    |
+  23|100 |--| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  24| -- |--|100| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  25| -- |--| --| --|100| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  26| -- |--| --|100| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  27|100 |--| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  28|100 |--| --| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  29| 24 |45| 13| --| --| --|--| --|18|--|--| -- |
+  30| 45 |--| --| --| --| 40|15| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  31| 45 |--| --| --| --| 40|--| 15|--|--|--| -- |
+  32| 45 |--| --| --| --| 35|--| --|20|--|--| -- |
+  33| 50 |--| --| --| --| 36|--| --| 2|--|12| -- |
+  34| 75 |--| 25| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  35| 50 |--| 50| --| --| --|--| --|--|--|--| -- |
+  36| -- |--| --| --| --| --|--|100|--|--|--| -- |
+  ==+====+==+===+===+===+===+==+===+==+==+==+====+
+
+  [27] This pigment on analysis proved to be zinc lead.
+
+  ==+===============================================+==
+  F |                                               |
+  o |                                               |
+  r |                                               | P
+  m |                                               | a
+  u |                                               | n
+  l |                                               | e
+  a |                                               | l
+    |                                               |
+  N |                                               | n
+  u |                                               | u
+  m |              REPORT OF INSPECTION             | m
+  b +---------+---------+----------------+----------+ b
+  e |CHALKING |CHECKING |GENERAL         |REMARKS   | e
+  r |         |         |CONDITION       |          | r
+  --+---------+---------+----------------+----------+--
+    |         |         |                |          |
+   1|Consider-|Slight   |Fair            |Dark in   | 1
+    |able     |         |                |places.   |
+    |         |         |                |Diffused  |
+   2|Slight   |Bad      |Fair            |Dark in   | 2
+    |         |         |                |places    |
+   3|Medium   |None     |Good            |Darkening | 3
+    |         |         |                |shown in  |
+    |         |         |                |places    |
+   4|Consider-|None     |Good            |Medium    | 4
+    |able     |         |                |dark      |
+   5|Slight   |None     |Good            |No exces- | 5
+    |         |         |                |sive dark-|
+    |         |         |                |ness      |
+   6|Medium   |Slight   |Good            |Surface   | 6
+    |         |         |                |fairly    |
+    |         |         |                |white     |
+   7|Medium   |None     |Excellent       |Whitest   | 7
+    |         |         |                |surface of|
+    |         |         |                |new tests |
+   8|Extremely|Slight   |Fair            |Surface   | 8
+    |bad      |         |                |darkening |
+   9|Extremely|Slight   |Fair            |Not as bad| 9
+    |bad      |         |                |as No. 8  |
+  10|Slight   |None     |Good            |Excellent |10
+    |         |         |                |surface;  |
+    |         |         |                |very white|
+  11|Slight   |None     |Excellent       |Surface   |11
+    |         |         |                |fairly    |
+    |         |         |                |white;    |
+    |         |         |                |thin soot |
+  12|Medium   |None     |Good            |Surface   |12
+    |         |         |                |white     |
+  13|Medium   |Very bad |Fair            |Slight    |13
+    |         |in spots |                |darkening |
+  14|Heavy    |Consider-|Fair            |Slight    |14
+    |         |able     |                |darkening |
+  15|Extremely|Slight   |Fair            |Fairly    |15
+    |bad      |         |                |white     |
+  16|Extremely|Advanced |Bad             |Surface   |16
+    |bad      |and deep |                |rough with|
+    |         |         |                |consider- |
+    |         |         |                |able dis- |
+    |         |         |                |integra-  |
+    |         |         |                |tion and  |
+    |         |         |                |much dark-|
+    |         |         |                |ness      |
+  17|Not as   |Less ad- |Fair            |Not as    |17
+    |bad as   |vanced   |                |dark as   |
+    |No. 16   |than No. |                |No. 16;   |
+    |         |16       |                |slightly  |
+    |         |         |                |mottled in|
+    |         |         |                |places;   |
+    |         |         |                |buff color|
+  18|Very     |Practi-  |Fair            |Surface   |18
+    |slight   |cally    |                |white     |
+    |         |none     |                |          |
+  19|Very     |None     |Good            |Surface   |19
+    |slight   |         |                |fairly    |
+    |         |         |                |white     |
+  20|None     |None     |Good            |Surface   |20
+    |         |         |                |fairly    |
+    |         |         |                |white     |
+  21|Slight   |Slight   |Fair            |Surface   |21
+    |         |         |                |very rough|
+    |         |         |                |and dark  |
+  22|Medium   |Slight   |Fair            |Surface   |22
+    |         |         |                |fairly    |
+    |         |         |                |white     |
+  23|Slight   |Bad      |Fair            |Surface   |23
+    |         |         |                |rough and |
+    |         |         |                |darkest on|
+    |         |         |                |fence     |
+  24|Bad      |None     |Good            |Surface   |24
+    |         |         |                |white     |
+  25|Slight   |None     |Good            |Fairly    |25
+    |         |         |                |white     |
+    |         |         |                |surface   |
+  26|Medium   |Slight   |Fair            |Rough and |26
+    |         |         |                |very dark;|
+    |         |         |                |chalking  |
+    |         |         |                |is dis-   |
+    |         |         |                |rupting   |
+    |         |         |                |black     |
+    |         |         |                |coating   |
+  27|Medium   |Slight   |Good            |Surface   |27
+    |         |         |                |fairly    |
+    |         |         |                |white     |
+  28|Medium   |Deep;    |Poor            |Surface   |28
+    |         |evident  |                |rough and |
+    |         |without  |                |very dark |
+    |         |glass    |                |          |
+  29|Slight   |Slight   |Good            |Very white|29
+    |         |         |                |surface   |
+  30|None     |Slight   |Fair            |Color dark|30
+  31|Very     |Advanced |Fair            |Color very|31
+    |slight   |         |                |dark      |
+  32|Extremely|Consider-|Fair            |Color very|32
+    |slight   |able     |                |dark;     |
+    |         |         |                |rough     |
+    |         |         |                |surface   |
+  33|Extremely|Slight   |Fair            |Surface   |33
+    |slight   |         |                |dark and  |
+    |         |         |                |rough     |
+  34|Slight   |Deep     |Fair            |Surface   |34
+    |         |         |                |medium    |
+    |         |         |                |dark      |
+  35|Consider-|Slight   |Fair            |Surface   |35
+    |able     |         |                |medium    |
+    |         |         |                |dark      |
+  36|Extremely|None     |Fair            |Vehicle   |36
+    |bad      |         |                |disinte-  |
+    |         |         |                |grated,   |
+    |         |         |                |leaving   |
+    |         |         |                |very      |
+    |         |         |                |white,    |
+    |         |         |                |chalked   |
+    |         |         |                |surface of|
+    |         |         |                |pigment   |
+  ==+=========+=========+================+==========+==
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+NORTH DAKOTA PAINT TESTS
+
+
+An inspection of the original test fence, erected and painted by the
+North Dakota Agricultural College, on the grounds of the agricultural
+Experiment Station at Fargo, was made by the inspection committee[28]
+representing the Paint Manufacturers' Association of the United
+States, on the 19th and 20th of November, 1909. The fence was erected
+in 1906 and painted with commercial paints, procured in the open
+market. The east side of the fence was built of soft pine and cedar
+weather-boarding, such as is almost universally used on houses in that
+locality, presenting a very good surface for test purposes, while the
+west side was built largely of flat trimmed boards of hard pitch pine
+which, unfortunately, contained knots, pitch pockets, and uneven
+surfaces, causing to a greater or lesser extent cracking, scaling, and
+bad general results on all paints applied thereto.
+
+  [28] Henry A. Gardner, Director Scientific Section, Educational
+       Bureau, Paint Manufacturers' Association of U. S.; George Butler,
+       Master Painter; Charles Macnichol, Master Painter.
+
+The fences built in 1907 and 1908 at the suggestion of the Paint
+Manufacturers' Association, were inspected on the 20th, 21st, and 22nd
+of November, 1909, and the detailed results of the inspection of all
+these fences follow in this report. The same general conclusions as to
+the woods represented in the 1906 fence also apply to the 1907 and 1908
+fences, and because of the general bad quality of wood used on the
+western exposure of all fences, the detailed reports were made only from
+an examination of the eastern side of the fences, both on cedar and soft
+pine.
+
+The following general summary of the inspection and its results applies
+to all the test fences on the grounds of the college and is the
+unanimous conclusion drawn by the inspectors from this work:
+
+[Illustration: North Dakota Test Fences]
+
+[Illustration: Typical Sample of Hard Pine Trim Board Showing Knot and
+Sappy Grain]
+
+[Illustration: Test No. 13--1906 Fence
+
+Complete Disintegration and Failure of Cheap Paint]
+
+"Non-absorbent woods, difficult to penetrate, such as those on the west
+side of the fences, would undoubtedly have given much better results had
+they been painted with paints properly reduced to suit the nature of the
+wood. This treatment seems to have been overlooked in the North Dakota
+tests, and the painting of the hard pine boards was done with the same
+consistency of mixtures and the same reductions as upon soft pine.
+Scaling of course resulted. One of the chief purposes of the fences,
+however, was to study the different types of wood, and compliance with
+this desire resulted in the bad conditions herein noted. It has been
+shown in many other field tests that adherence of paints to hard wood
+surfaces can be obtained only by causing the priming coat to become
+amalgamated with the woody fibre, by the use of a large percentage of
+volatile diluent turpentine, benzole, asphaltum spirits, etc., to secure
+penetration. If such treatment is omitted, failure soon results, as was
+evidenced by the uniformly bad conditions presented by the paints on the
+hard pine panels.
+
+[Illustration: Pine Weatherboarding Showing Knots and Grain]
+
+[Illustration: Condition of Lumber Affecting Paint, West Side 1906
+Fence]
+
+[Illustration: Hail-stone Abrasions on House Repainting Tests]
+
+[Illustration: Hail-stone Effect, West Side of 1907 Test Fence]
+
+"During July, 1908, a violent hailstorm occurred in Fargo, and left its
+impression on nearly every wooden structure; in many cases deep dents
+being made into the wood. The west side of the test fences, which
+received the most injury from this storm, was covered with these dents
+over almost its entire surface, causing cracks in the form of concentric
+rings to appear on the abraded paint coatings. The bad condition of the
+wood, improper method of applying priming coat, combined with the
+hailstorm effect on the painted surfaces on the west side of the fences,
+were undoubtedly responsible for the universal failure of the paints
+thereon, and, for these reasons, the west side was eliminated from the
+detailed inspection, only general observations of these tests being
+made. These general observations, however, showed that paints Nos. 6 and
+8 on the 1906 fence, and paints Nos. 8, 10, and 13 on the 1907 fence,
+proved the most satisfactory on the western exposure.[29]
+
+  [29] These formulas were the same as those respectively numbered on
+       the Atlantic City and Pittsburg fences.
+
+[Illustration: Peculiar Crystallization Effect on Section 41. New
+Special Fence Paint Applied During Cold Weather]
+
+"Ochre was tried out as a priming coat on several formulas, but it was
+found to be most unsatisfactory, affecting the subsequent coats of paint
+and causing early failure, as evidenced by broad checking,
+discoloration, and general bad condition. These conditions also apply
+to those panels on the 1908 fence coated with shellac as a primer.
+
+"The colored formulas in every case showed a great superiority over the
+same paints in white untinted, and demonstrated that a percentage of
+color has a wonderful influence on the preservation of the paint
+coating, reducing chalking, checking, and general disintegration. This
+condition is probably due to the reinforcing value of the color pigments
+used.
+
+"It is safe to state that the combination formulas tinted yellow were of
+better appearance than the corroded white leads tinted yellow, the
+latter appearing quite dark in many cases.
+
+"The wearing of the paints made solely from white lead and zinc oxide
+seemed to indicate that a percentage of a third pigment, of an inert
+nature, would have been beneficial.
+
+"The high-type mixtures of pigments containing lead and zinc, with
+moderate percentages of inert pigments, on good wood, were in most
+excellent general condition; in fact, much superior to the single
+pigment paints. Their surface exhibited only minor checking and moderate
+chalking with good maintenance of color, and presenting surfaces well
+adapted to repainting.
+
+"The sublimed white lead was in fair condition, with very little
+checking, and offering a fair repainting surface. The corroded white
+lead was somewhat whiter than the sublimed white lead, but a careful
+observation of the surface of the corroded lead revealed deep checking.
+
+"It was clearly demonstrated, however, that in climates of the North
+Dakota type, white lead alone is not entirely satisfactory. The addition
+of zinc oxide to white lead forms paint that has proved much superior to
+the white lead alone.
+
+"It was conclusively demonstrated that mixtures of white lead and zinc
+oxide, properly blended with moderate percentages of reinforcing
+pigments, such as asbestine, barytes, silica and calcium carbonate, are
+most satisfactory from every standpoint, and are superior to mixtures of
+prime white pigments not reinforced with inert pigments.
+
+"The white leads painted out on the 1908 fence exhibited different
+degrees of checking, the mild-process lead and sublimed white lead which
+presented the best surfaces, being free from checking, while the
+old-process leads seemed to show very deep and marked checking, even
+after one year's wear.
+
+[Illustration: Corroded White Lead
+
+Sublimed White Lead
+
+Condition of Two White Leads on Two Grades of Wood]
+
+[Illustration: Photomicrographic Apparatus and Method of Use]
+
+CONDENSED REPORT OF INSPECTION OF "1906" TEST FENCE
+
+FARGO, N. D., NOV. 19-23, 1909
+
+_No gloss shown by any of the paints. Formulas in white on white pine
+only included here, on east side of fence_
+
+  ==+=========================================================================++
+   T|                                     FORMULAS                            ||
+   e+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------++
+   s|                   PIGMENT                  |          VEHICLE           ||
+   t+--------------------------------------------+----------------------------++
+    |Corroded                                    |Linseed Oil                 ||
+   N|White Lead                                  |    |Turp. and Drier        ||
+   o|     |Sublimed                              |    |    |Japan Drier       ||
+   .|     |White Lead                            |    |    |  |Water          ||
+    |     |     |Zinc Oxide                      |    |    |  |    |Benzine   ||
+    |     |     |    |Calcium                    |    |    |  |    |Drier     ||
+    |     |     |    |Carbonate                  |    |    |  |    |    |Vola-||
+    |     |     |    |    |Silica and            |    |    |  |    |    |tile ||
+    |     |     |    |    |Silicates             |    |    |  |    |    |Oil  ||
+    |     |     |    |    |   |Barium Sulphate   |    |    |  |    |    |     ||
+    |     |     |    |    |   |    |Magnesium    |    |    |  |    |    |     ||
+    |     |     |    |    |   |    |Silicate     |    |    |  |    |    |     ||
+    |     |     |    |    |   |    |   |Clay and |    |    |  |    |    |     ||
+    |     |     |    |    |   |    |   |Silica   |    |    |  |    |    |     ||
+    |     |     |    |    |   |    |   |   |Bary-|    |    |  |    |    |     ||
+    |     |     |    |    |   |    |   |   |tes  |    |    |  |    |    |     ||
+    |     |     |    |    |   |    |   |   |and  |    |    |  |    |    |     ||
+    |     |     |    |    |   |    |   |   |Sili-|    |    |  |    |    |     ||
+    |     |     |    |    |   |    |   |   |cate |    |    |  |    |    |     ||
+  --+-----+-----+----+----+---+----+---+---+-----+----+----+--+----+----+-----++
+    |  %  |  %  |  % |  % |  %|  % |  %|  %|  %  |  % |  % | %|  % |  % |  %  ||
+   1|100  | --  | -- | -- | --| -- | --| --|  -- | -- | -- |--| -- | -- | --  ||
+   2| --  |100  | -- | -- | --| -- | --| --|  -- | -- | -- |--| -- | -- | --  ||
+   3| 50  | --  |50  | -- | --| -- | --| --|  -- |90  |10  |--| -- | -- | --  ||
+   4| --  | 60  |40  | -- | --| -- | --| --|  -- |90  | -- |10| -- | -- | --  ||
+   5| 28.7| --  |71.3| -- | --| -- | --| --|  -- |93  | 7  |--| -- | -- | --  ||
+   6| 40.2| --  |50.3| 4.1|5.4| -- | --| --|  -- |90.7| 9.3|--| -- | -- | --  ||
+   7| 21.9| 21.9|45.8|10.4| --| -- | --| --|  -- |89.6| 9.7|--| 0.7| -- | --  ||
+   8| 44.1| --  |46.0| 4.6| --| -- |5.3| --|  -- |86.0|12.6|--| 1.4| -- | --  ||
+   9|                     In gray only   No report.                           ||
+  10| 13.9| --  |34.9|26.8| --| -- | --| --| 24.4|72.2| -- |--|24.0| 3.8| --  ||
+  11| 55.0| --  |15.2| -- | --| -- | --| --| 29.8|     Test not finished      ||
+  12| --  |  5.1|25.0| -- | --| -- | --| --| 69.9| -- | -- |--| -- | -- | --  ||
+  13| --  | --  |31.3|45.4| --|22.8| --|0.5|  -- |57.2| -- |--|16.1|26.7| --  ||
+  14| 34.8|  5.4|59.2| -- | --| -- | --| --|  -- |86.0|13.7|--| 0.3| -- | --  ||
+  15| --  | --  |64  | -- | --|36  | --| --|  -- |98  | -- |--| -- | -- |  2  ||
+  ==+=====+=====+====+====+===+====+===+===+=====+====+====+==+====+====+=====++
+
+  ==+==============================================
+    |              REPORT OF CONDITION
+    +--------+-----------+-------+-------+---------
+   T|        |           |       |       |
+   e|        |           |       |       |
+   s|        |           |       |       |
+   t|        |           |       |       |
+    |        |           |       |       |
+   N|        |           |       |       |CONDITION
+   o|CHALKING|CHECKING   |HIDING |COLOR  |FOR RE-
+   .|        |           |POWER  |       |PAINTING
+  --+--------+-----------+-------+-------+---------
+   1|Very bad|Extremely  |Good   |Good   |Only fair
+    |        |deep       |       |       |
+   2|Bad     |Very slight|Good   |Light  |Fair
+    |        |           |       |yellow-|
+    |        |           |       |ish    |
+    |        |           |       |tint   |
+   3|Medium  |Fine matt--|Good   |Fair   |Fair to
+    |        |deep in    |       |       |good
+    |        |places     |       |       |
+   4|Medium  |Surface    |Good   |Good   |Fair
+    |        |checking,  |       |       |
+    |        |very slight|       |       |
+   5|Slight  |Quite deep |Medium |Good   |Poor.
+    |        |           |       |       |Coating
+    |        |           |       |       |wrinkled
+    |        |           |       |       |and hard
+   6|Medium  |Slight     |Good   |Good   |Good
+    |        |surface    |       |       |
+    |        |checking   |       |       |
+   7|Medium  |Surface    |Fair   |Good   |Slight
+    |        |checking   |       |       |shelling
+    |        |with slight|       |       |from wood
+    |        |cracking   |       |       |
+   8|Medium  |Very slight|  Good |Good   |Good
+   9|        |           |       |       |
+  10|Slight  |Very bad   | Bad condition throughout.
+  11|        |           |       |       |
+  12|Medium  |Medium     |Defici-|Good   |Shelling
+    |        |           |ent    |       |from wood
+  13|  Worst looking surface in North Dakota tests.
+  14|Medium  |Slight     |Fair   |Good   |Good
+    |        |surface    |       |       |
+    |        |checking   |       |       |
+    |        |and peeling|       |       |
+  15|Slight  |Lateral    |Good   |Good   |Hard film
+    |        |cracking   |       |       |
+    |        |quite deep |       |       |
+  ==+========+===========+=======+=======+=========
+
+CONDENSED REPORT OF INSPECTION OF "1907" TEST FENCE
+
+FARGO, NORTH DAKOTA, NOV. 19-23, 1909
+
+  ===+==========================================================================
+   T |                                  FORMULAS
+   e +-------------------------------------------+------------------------------
+   s |                  PIGMENT                  |           VEHICLE
+   t +-------------------------------------------+------------------------------
+     |Corroded White Lead                        |Linseed Oil
+   N |    |Sublimed White Lead                   |    |Turpentine
+   o |    |   |Zinc Oxide                        |    |Drier
+   . |    |   |    |Calcium Carbonate            |    |    |Turpentine
+     |    |   |    |   |Aluminum and             |    |    |and
+     |    |   |    |   |Magnesium Silicate       |    |    |Japan
+     |    |   |    |   |  |Barytes               |    |    |  |Water
+     |    |   |    |   |  |  |Silica             |    |    |  |    |Turpentine
+     |    |   |    |   |  |  |    |Inert         |    |    |  |    |and Benzine
+     |    |   |    |   |  |  |    |  |Magnesium  |    |    |  |    |Japan Drier
+     |    |   |    |   |  |  |    |  |Silicate   |    |    |  |    |  |Drier
+     |    |   |    |   |  |  |    |  |   |Calcium|    |    |  |    |  |  |Vola-
+     |    |   |    |   |  |  |    |  |   |Sul-   |    |    |  |    |  |  |tile
+     |    |   |    |   |  |  |    |  |   |phate  |    |    |  |    |  |  |Oil
+     |    |   |    |   |  |  |    |  |   |  |Zinc|    |    |  |    |  |  |  |[B]
+     |    |   |    |   |  |  |    |  |   |  |Lead|    |    |  |    |  |  |  |
+  ---+----+---+----+---+--+--+----+--+---+--+----+----+----+--+----+--+--+--+---
+    1| 30 | --|70  |-- |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- |93  | 7  |--| -- |--|--|--|--
+    2| 50 | --|50  |-- |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- |86  | -- |10| 4  |--|--|--|--
+    3| 20 | 20|50  |10 |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- |90  | -- |--| -- |10|--|--|--
+    4|48.5| --|48.5| 3 |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- |83  | -- |--| -- |17|--|--|--
+    5| 22 | --|50  | 2 |26|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- |90  | -- |--| -- |--|10|--|--
+    6| -- | --|64  |-- |--|36| -- |--|-- |--| -- |98  | -- |--| -- |--|--| 2|--
+    7| 37 | --|63  |-- |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- |85  |13  |--| 2  |--|--|--|--
+    8| 38 | --|48  |-- |--|--|14  |--|-- |--| -- |91  | 9  |--| -- |--|--|--|--
+    9| -- | --|73  | 2 |--|--|25  |--|-- |--| -- |66  |--  |--|12  |22|--|--|--
+   10| 44 | --|46  | 5 |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- |86.0|12.5|--| 1.5|--|--|--|--
+   11| 50 | --|50  |-- |--|--| -- |--| 5 |--| -- |78  |22  |--| -- |--|--|--|--
+   12| 60 | --|34  |-- |--|--| -- | 6|-- |--| -- |91  | 7  |--| 2  |--|--|--|--
+   13| -- | 60|27  | 3 |--|--| -- |--|10 |--| -- |90  | -- |--| -- |--|10|--|--
+   14| 25 | 20|25  | 5 |--|--| -- |--|-- |25| -- |90  | -- | 6| -- |--|--|--| 4
+   15| -- | 20|40  |10 |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| 30 |90  | -- | 8| 2  |--|--|--|--
+   16| 33 | --|33  |-- |--|34| -- |--|-- |--| -- |90  | -- |10| -- |--|--|--|--
+   17|100 |(Type A)|-- |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- | -- | -- |--| -- |--|--|--|--
+   18|100 |(  "  B)|-- |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- | -- | -- |--| -- |--|--|--|--
+   19|100 |(  "  C)|-- |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- |   10 gal. oil   |--|--|--|--
+     |    |        |   |  |  |    |  |   |  |    |    reduction    |  |  |  |
+   20| -- |100| -- |-- |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- | -- | -- |--| -- |--|--|--|--
+   21| -- | --|100 |-- |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- | -- | -- |--| -- |--|--|--|--
+   22| -- | --| -- |-- |--|--| -- |--|-- |--|100 | -- | -- |--| -- |--|--|--|--
+   23|100 |(Type C)|-- |--|--| -- |--|-- |--| -- | 5-1/2 gal. oil reduction for
+     |    |   |    |   |  |  |    |  |   |  |    |           priming
+   24| 37.|7. |25. |20.|--|--|8.42|  (Michigan Seal   | -- |--| -- |--|--|--|--
+     | 51 |84 |87  |36 |  |  |    |   White Lead)     |    |  |    |  |  |  |
+   25| 38.|4. |33. |19.|--|--|3.18|(Railway White| -- | -- |--| -- |--|--|--|--
+     | 95 |81 |58  |48 |  |  |    |     Lead)    |    |    |  |    |  |  |  |
+  200|15. | --|--  | 1.|--|--| -- |--| 1.|--|43. |32. | 4. |--| 1. |--|--|--|--
+     |625 |   |    |875|  |  |    |  |250|  |750 |250 |000 |  |250 |  |  |  |
+  ===+====+===+====+===+==+==+====+==+===+==+===+====+=====+==+====+==+==+==+===
+
+  [B] = Benzine
+
+  ===+=========+=========================================
+   T |         |           REPORT OF CONDITION
+   e |         +------------+------+------+--------------
+   s |         |            |      |      |
+   t |         |            |      |      |
+     |         |            |      |      |
+   N |         |            |      |      |
+   o |         |            |      |      |
+   . |         |            |      |      |
+     |CHALKING |CHECKING    |HIDING|COLOR |CONDITION FOR
+     |         |            |POWER |      |REPAINTING
+  ---+---------+------------+------+------+--------------
+    1|Medium   |Considerable|Fair  |Fair  |Poor surface;
+     |         |with lateral|      |      |too hard
+     |         |cracking    |      |      |
+    2|Medium   |Considerable|Good  |Fair  |Rather poor
+     |         |with lateral|      |      |
+     |         |cracking    |      |      |
+    3|Bad      |Medium--    |Good  |Good  |Fair
+     |         |scaling some|      |      |
+    4|Medium   |Considerable|Good  |Good  |Medium
+     |         |with lateral|      |      |
+     |         |cracking    |      |      |
+    5|Slight   |Slight      |Good  |Good  |Good
+    6|Medium   |Considerable|Medium|Medium|Fair
+    7|Consider-|Present;    |Fair  |Fair  |Poor
+     |able     |long cracks |      |      |
+    8|Slight   |Surface     |Good  |Good  |Fair
+     |         |checking    |      |      |
+    9|Not      |Considerable|Medium|Good  |Medium
+     |evident  |with lateral|      |      |
+     |         |cracking    |      |      |
+   10|Medium   |Very slight |Good  |Good  |Good
+   11|Slight   |Lateral     |Fair  |Fair  |Fair
+     |         |cracking    |      |      |
+   12|Consider-|Present with|Fair  |Fair  |Not very good
+     |able     |slight      |      |      |
+     |         |cracking and|      |      |
+     |         |scaling     |      |      |
+   13|Medium   |Surface     |Good  |Good  |Good
+     |         |checking    |      |      |
+     |         |only        |      |      |
+   14|Consider-|Considerable|Medium|Fair  |Medium; some
+     |able     |with lateral|      |      |washing shown
+     |         |cracking    |      |      |
+   15|Medium   |Medium      |Good  |Good  |Medium
+   16|Medium   |Slight; some|Fair  |Good  |Medium
+     |         |shelling    |      |      |
+   17|Bad      |Alligator-  |Good  |Fair  |Poor
+     |         |ing; deep   |      |      |
+     |         |checking    |      |      |
+   18|Bad      |Alligator-  |Fair  |Fair  |Poor
+     |         |ing; deep   |      |      |
+     |         |checking    |      |      |
+   19|Bad      |Deep        |Good  |Fair  |Poor
+   20|Consider-|Slight      |Good  |Fair  |Fair
+     |able     |            |      |      |
+   21|Not      |Consider-   |Fair  |Good  |Poor
+     |evident  |able; slight|      |      |
+     |         |cracking;   |      |      |
+     |         |scaling     |      |      |
+   22|Medium   |Lateral     |Good  |Good  |Fair
+     |         |cracking;   |      |      |
+     |         |split       |      |      |
+   23|Bad      |Medium deep |Good  |Good  |Fair
+   24|Consider-|Slight;     |Fair  |Good  |Good
+     |able     |lateral     |      |      |
+     |         |cracking    |      |      |
+   25|Consider-|Some;       |Fair  |Good  |Excellent
+     |able     |lateral     |      |      |
+     |         |cracking    |      |      |
+  200|Medium   |Bad cracking|Good  |Good  |Fair
+  ===+=========+============+======+======+==============
+
+"As before stated, the committee believes that a serious mistake was
+made on the test fence in painting out the leads and other formulas on
+the various woods without any special attention to reduction to suit the
+nature of the wood, thus accounting largely for the difference of the
+wearing of the paints on the different woods.
+
+"The reduction of the white leads especially was to be criticised in
+these tests, in many cases too much oil and not sufficient turpentine
+being present to cause penetration.
+
+"The application of paint to cedar was satisfactory in most all cases,
+and this wood showed much better results than the other woods upon the
+fences. The exudation of resinous pitch on the hard pine was extremely
+serious, in some cases coming through the paint in large streaks,
+causing bad results.
+
+"It is to be regretted that the house repainting tests which were
+conducted are of no special value, inasmuch as no information is on file
+as to the composition of the old paints originally on the houses before
+the application of the test paints. Imperfections in the old coating,
+such as excessive chalking, deep checking, scaling, rosin exudations,
+etc., affected the subsequent coats in such a manner as to prevent any
+knowledge of where the new and old paint troubles began. The committee,
+therefore, omitted a detailed inspection of such tests.
+
+"Examination of the three houses which were painted over new wood showed
+results which correspond with the results obtained from the fence tests.
+That is, they showed the ultimate value of high type mixtures of several
+pigments over one pigment alone. These tests seem to indicate that very
+good results can be secured from most of the paints sold in North
+Dakota. If the consumer or householder would exercise more care in the
+selection of wood and preparation of surfaces, with due regard to the
+proper reduction for various coats, more satisfactory results would be
+obtained.
+
+"From an examination of certain paints on the 1908 fence containing
+petroleum spirits, it would appear that this paint thinner is of value,
+and in the face of conditions such as are presented by the present
+scarcity of turpentine, the use of petroleum spirits in moderate
+quantity would be justified."
+
+NORTH DAKOTA TESTS
+
+[Illustration: 1. Formula No. 21, Section 31, on 1907 Fence]
+
+[Illustration: 2. Section 80, on 1908 Fence]
+
+[Illustration: 3. Formula No. 6, Section 9, on 1907 Fence]
+
+[Illustration: 4. Formula No. 2, Section 3, on 1907 Fence]
+
+[Illustration: 5. Formula No. 1, Section 1, on 1907 Fence]
+
+[Illustration: 6. Formula No. 14, Section 21, on 1907 Fence]
+
+[Illustration: 7. Formula No. 13, Panel 19, on 1907 Fence]
+
+[Illustration: 8. Formula No. 19, Panel 28. Broad, Deep Checking on
+Corroded White Lead on 1907 Fence]
+
+[Illustration: 9. Formula No. 24, Panel 36, on 1907 Fence. Good
+Condition. Surface Checking Only]
+
+[Illustration: 10. Formula No. 25, Section 37, on 1907 Fence. Good
+Condition. Surface Checking Only]
+
+[Illustration: 11. Formula No. 8, Panel 12, on 1907 Fence]
+
+[Illustration: 12. Formula No. 10, Panel 15, on 1907 Fence]
+
+[Illustration: 13. Panel No. 34, Formula 23, on 1907 Fence. Deep
+Checking on Corroded White Lead]
+
+[Illustration: 14. Test No. 13 on 1906 Fence. White Spots Show Paint
+Left on Wood. Balance of Paint Split and Disintegrated from Surface]
+
+[Illustration: 15. Test No. 6 on 1906 Fence. Surface Checking Only]
+
+[Illustration: 16. Test No. 2, 1906 Fence. Sublimed White Lead]
+
+[Illustration: 17. Cracks in Test No. 15 on 1906 Fence]
+
+[Illustration: 18. Effect of Cracking on Hard Pine, Causing Splitting of
+Painting Coating]
+
+[Illustration: 19. Formula No. 22, Section 23, 1907 Fence. Cracks in
+Paint Coating, Caused by Cracks in Wood; Coating Otherwise in Good
+Condition]
+
+[Illustration: 20. Test No. 8, on 1906 Fence. Surface Checking Only]
+
+[Illustration: 21. Combination Cracking and Checking on Section 69, on
+1908 Fence]
+
+[Illustration: 22. Cracks in Paint Coating, Caused by Cracking of Hard
+Pine Wood]
+
+[Illustration: 23. Section 65 on 1908 Fence. Showing Early Breakdown of
+Corroded White Lead]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+TENNESSEE PAINT TESTS
+
+
+=Location and Object of Tests.= On September 15, 1910, the erection of a
+wooden test fence was completed on the State Fair Grounds at Nashville,
+Tenn. Upon this fence were exposed forty-two samples of white paint, the
+object of the test being to determine whether the combination type of
+formula is superior to the single pigment type in the southern plateau,
+of which Nashville is the centre.
+
+=Construction of Tests.= The construction and outline of these tests
+differ somewhat from those conducted at Atlantic City and elsewhere by
+the Scientific Section. The fence frame is 150 feet long, being made of
+6-inch bevelled girders supported three feet from the ground by 4-inch
+posts set six feet apart. Upon this girder were placed a series of
+forty-two test panels supported at top and bottom with weather strips
+and braces. The test panels used were 40 inches high, 30 inches wide,
+and one inch thick, being made of the highest grade white pine, tongued
+and grooved together, and protected on the edges by weather strips
+projecting from the surface of the panels. Each panel was painted on
+both sides with the same paint, thus giving an eastern and western
+exposure, the fence running north and south. The formulas used in the
+test vary in their percentage composition, being made up in some cases
+of single pigments, and again with combinations of the opaque white
+pigments, with and without certain percentages of the crystalline or
+inert pigments. The paints were applied under the supervision of
+prominent master painters and a committee representing the Scientific
+Section and other technical organizations.
+
+Other field tests have shown that the sap and knots in hard-grained
+woods, such as yellow pine, cypress, etc., have been the cause of the
+failure of even the best paints, and that all tests should be conducted
+upon soft woods, such as white pine and poplar, if definite results are
+to be obtained. Paints tinted with ochre, chrome yellow, lampblack,
+iron oxide, etc., have shown on the other field tests which have been
+conducted at Atlantic City, Pittsburg, and Fargo the value of these
+pigments in giving to the paints increased wearing properties. On the
+Southern Test Fence, therefore, all the formulas were ground in white
+only and placed upon white pine so as to make the test primarily one to
+determine the value of the various white pigments upon good wood.
+
+[Illustration: Tennessee Test Fences]
+
+=Oil and Thinner Tests.= Upon one series of panels on the fence was
+placed one of the formulas which had given universal satisfaction on the
+various test fences in the past, and this formula was made up with
+various oils other than linseed oil, in order to determine the value of
+these oils as painting materials. For instance, the vehicle part of the
+one formula referred to is made up of 50% linseed oil and 50% soya bean
+oil, and again 50% linseed oil and 50% rosin oil, etc., an effort being
+made to test out a few of the available semi-drying oils.
+
+The same formula referred to was ground in pure linseed oil and
+subjected to a series of tests where it has been thinned for application
+as priming and second coats with a series of wood turpentines obtained
+from the United States Forest Products Laboratory at Madison, Wis. These
+turpentines were made from southern pine stumps and sawdust, and they
+vary greatly in their properties. Some were objectionable in odor, while
+others were of excellent quality, having an odor almost equal to that of
+pure gum spirits.
+
+[Illustration: Views of Fence]
+
+One product under test on the Southern Test Fence is pine oil, a high
+boiling point product obtained from the manufacture of wood turpentine
+from sawdust. This oil has a boiling point of over 210 degrees
+Centigrade as against the 150 degrees of ordinary gum spirits. It is
+almost water white and has the same penetrating qualities as the pure
+gum spirits; when mixed with 50% linseed oil forming a paint oil of
+extremely light color, that produces a semi-flat paint of great
+whiteness.
+
+=Reductions and Application.= Formulas No. 1 to No. 37 were all ground
+in pure refined linseed oil. They were made in the form of semi-paste
+and then thinned down with sufficient refined linseed oil so that each
+would have a relative viscosity. To each formula was then added a
+sufficient amount of pure lead and manganese linoleate drier to give
+proper drying qualities. On thinning for the priming coat, one pint of
+turpentine was added to each gallon of paint. For the second coat,
+one-half pint turpentine and one-half pint refined linseed oil were
+added to each gallon. For the third coat work, reduction was made with
+one pint of refined linseed oil.
+
+In the case of formulas 31 to 37, reductions were the same, except that
+a series of specially prepared wood turpentines were used in place of
+the pure gum spirits used in formulas 1 to 31.
+
+Formulas 38 to 41, as will be shown, were ground in equal parts of the
+oils tested. These formulas, however, were all thinned for application
+with pure gum spirits of turpentine, and the respective vehicle in which
+they were ground.
+
+No inspection of the Tennessee Test Fence has yet been made. The
+formulas tested are as follows:
+
+FORMULAS FOR SOUTHERN TEST FENCE
+
+VEHICLE: _Bleached Linseed Oil with Lead and Manganese Linoleate Drier_.
+
+  Formula
+  No.
+
+  1 [30]Corroded white lead                100%
+  2 [30]Sublimed white lead                100%
+  3 Zinc oxide XX                          100%
+  4 Zinc lead white                        100%
+  5 Leaded zinc 65%, corroded white lead   35%
+  6 [30]Corroded white lead                100%
+  7 [30]Corroded white lead                100%
+
+  [30] Corroded White Lead is the Basic Carbonate of Lead. Sublimed
+       White Lead is the Basic Sulphate of Lead.
+
+No. 8
+
+  Corroded white lead   85%
+  Zinc oxide            15%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 9
+
+  Corroded white lead   65%
+  Zinc oxide            35%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 10
+
+  Corroded white lead   50%
+  Zinc oxide            50%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 11
+
+  Corroded white lead   40%
+  Zinc oxide            60%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 12
+
+  Corroded white lead   30%
+  Zinc oxide            70%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 13
+
+  Corroded white lead   45%
+  Zinc oxide            45%
+  Silica                10%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 14
+
+  Corroded white lead   45%
+  Zinc oxide            45%
+  Asbestine             10%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 15
+
+  Corroded white lead   45%
+  Zinc oxide            45%
+  China clay            10%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 16
+
+  Corroded white lead   45%
+  Zinc oxide            45%
+  Barytes               10%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 17
+
+  Corroded white lead   45%
+  Zinc oxide            40%
+  Silica                15%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 18
+
+  Corroded white lead   45%
+  Zinc oxide            40%
+  Asbestine             15%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 19
+
+  Corroded white lead   45%
+  Zinc oxide            40%
+  Barytes               15%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 20
+
+  Sublimed white lead   45%
+  Zinc oxide            40%
+  Silica                15%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 21
+
+  Sublimed white lead   45%
+  Zinc oxide            40%
+  Asbestine             15%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 22
+
+  Sublimed white lead   45%
+  Zinc oxide            40%
+  Barytes               15%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 23
+
+  Zinc oxide            90%
+  Calcium carbonate     10%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 24
+
+  Sublimed white lead   40%
+  Zinc oxide            45%
+  Calcium carbonate     15%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 25
+
+  Corroded white lead   35%
+  Zinc oxide            50%
+  Silica                15%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 26
+
+  Corroded white lead   20%
+  Sublimed white lead   30%
+  Zinc oxide            40%
+  Asbestine             10%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 27
+
+  Corroded white lead   20%
+  Sublimed white lead   20%
+  Zinc oxide            40%
+  Barytes               10%
+  Asbestine             10%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 28
+
+  Corroded white lead   20%
+  Sublimed white lead   20%
+  Zinc oxide            40%
+  Calcium carbonate     10%
+  Silica                10%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 29
+
+  Sublimed white lead   20%
+  Corroded white lead   20%
+  Zinc oxide            30%
+  Barytes               10%
+  Asbestine             10%
+  Calcium carbonate     10%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+No. 30
+
+  Corroded white lead   33%
+  Zinc oxide            33%
+  Barytes               33%
+                       ----
+                        99%
+
+No. 31
+
+  Corroded white lead   45%
+  Zinc oxide            45%
+  Asbestine              5%
+  Calcium carbonate      5%
+                       ----
+                       100%
+
+Formula No.
+
+32. Same as No. 31 but thinned with wood turpentine No. 1.
+
+33. Same as No. 31 but thinned with wood turpentine No. 2.
+
+34. Same as No. 31 but thinned with wood turpentine No. 3.
+
+35. Same as No. 31 but thinned with wood turpentine No. 4.
+
+36. Same as No. 31 but thinned with wood turpentine No. 5.
+
+37. Same as No. 31 but thinned with high-boiling-point petroleum spirits
+(turpentine substitute).
+
+38. Same as No. 31 but ground in 50% raw linseed oil, 50% soya bean oil.
+
+39. Same as No. 31 but ground in 50% raw linseed oil, 50% corn oil.
+
+40. Same as No. 31 but ground in 50% raw linseed oil, 50% cotton seed
+oil.
+
+41. Same as No. 31 but ground in 50% raw linseed oil, 50% rosin oil.
+
+42. Same as No. 31 but ground in 50% raw linseed oil, 50% pine oil.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+WASHINGTON PAINT TESTS
+
+
+The new vehicle test fence at Washington is fully described in the
+writer's paper[31] as presented before the American Society for Testing
+Materials, as follows:
+
+  [31] The Practical Testing of Drying and Semi-Drying Paint Oils, by
+       Henry A. Gardner. Paper presented at Fourteenth Annual Meeting,
+       Amer. Soc. for Test. Mater., Atlantic City, N.J., June, 1911.
+
+"The high price attained by linseed oil during the past two years of
+over a dollar a gallon, together with the unusual scarcity of this
+valuable oil, has led many investigators into the field of research,
+with a view of discovering some mixture of other oils to partly replace
+linseed oil. Many valuable contributions to oil technology have
+resulted, but the makers and users of paints have wisely demanded
+specific and authoritative information as to the practical value of
+proposed mixtures before adopting them. The Institute of Industrial
+Research, at the request of the Paint Manufacturers' Association of the
+United States, has recently started a series of practical paint vehicle
+tests designed to decide the question at issue.
+
+"Forty-eight white-pine panels have been placed upon a test frame on the
+grounds of the new laboratory building of the Institute, at Washington,
+D. C. They are painted with a standard white pigment formula reduced
+with a different oil formula for every panel. White-pine panels were
+selected for the test on account of the good painting surface which this
+type of lumber presents; the grade selected was free from knots or pitch
+pockets--defects which often ruin a paint test. Each panel was
+constructed of four tongued-and-grooved planed boards, 22 inches long, 1
+inch thick, and 9 inches wide. The boards were leaded together and
+capped at the sides with weather strips, making the finished panels
+about 2 feet wide and 3 feet high. The fence upon which the panels were
+placed was constructed of 4-inch squared yellow pine with open
+framework, allowing the panels a resting place upon which they were
+finally secured with sherardized screws.
+
+"Before erecting the panels, they were carefully painted in a paint
+laboratory especially fitted out for the tests. The work was done during
+the months of April and May, the temperature averaging from 60 degrees
+to 90 degrees Fahrenheit. This precaution was taken in order that the
+paint in each case might become thoroughly dry and hard before exposure,
+so that there would be no accumulation of dust or effect from exposure
+during the drying period. The actual painting of each panel was done
+personally by Mr. Charles Macnichol, master painter, of Washington, D.
+C., who has had a wide experience in the practical application and
+testing of paints.
+
+[Illustration: View of Panels on Washington Test Fence]
+
+"The viscous nature of several of the oils tested precluded the
+possibility of grinding each oil formula with the white pigment base
+selected; great heating of the paint mills and a paste of insufficient
+fineness was the result of an early attempt at this method. It was
+decided, therefore, to grind the standard pigment formula to a thick
+paste in the minimum amount of raw linseed oil. Subsequently a weighed
+amount of the white pigment base was thinned with the oil formula to be
+tested, to a standard viscosity, judged by the experienced master
+painter in charge of the practical application of the formulas as
+sufficiently heavy for third-coat work. When making the reductions with
+oil mixtures, an allowance was made for the amount of linseed oil
+already contained in the ground white pigment base.
+
+"During the application of the first coat an equal amount of turpentine
+was added to each formula, in the proportion of one-half pint to a
+gallon of paint; in the application of the second coat there was added
+to each formula a like amount of an equal mixture of turpentine and the
+oil formula under test. The third coat was applied without the addition
+of thinners of any kind.
+
+"It is well known that the time of drying and the condition of the dried
+film of any oil or mixture of drying or semi-drying oils will vary
+widely. It is for the purpose of causing oils to set up to a hard film
+in a short time that metallic driers in the form of salts of manganese
+and lead, soluble in oil, are added to a paint. Some oils require a
+large amount of drier, while others require only a very small amount.
+Those which require a large amount are apt, upon exposure, to be burned
+up by the drier, resulting in the formation of a powdered and
+disintegrated film. To add various types of drier or even differing
+amounts of a drier to the oils under test, seemed very unfair from every
+standpoint, and it was therefore decided to eliminate the drier question
+entirely, so as not to vitiate the results by bringing in a factor of
+this nature. The plan of omitting driers proved successful in the
+Atlantic City steel-panel paint tests, erected three years ago by the
+writer under the supervision of Committee A-5 of this Society.
+
+"The systematic methods which are necessary when making paint tests were
+carefully followed. A standard weighed amount of white pigment paste was
+placed in a clean paint cup and thinned to the proper consistency with a
+weighed amount of the oil under test. Proper reductions were made, as
+before stated. Weighings of the paint, cup, and brush were made before
+and after application to the panel, in order to determine the quantity
+of paint used and the spreading power. A period of fifteen days was
+allowed between the application of successive coats, in order to give
+each formula sufficient time to dry thoroughly. Although several of the
+formulas remained tacky for over a week, all dried thoroughly in the
+time allotted. (Oils which when used alone have slow drying properties,
+have been found to yield good firm films when used with drying pigments
+such as lead and zinc.) The backs and edges of each panel were painted
+with two coats of the paint used on the face of the panel, so as to
+prevent the admission of moisture. After erection, the panels were
+numbered with aluminum figures pressed into the surface. Frequent
+inspections will be made, and at the proper time reports will be issued
+giving the results of the tests.
+
+"During the painting of the panels considerable interesting data were
+collected, of which the following is a brief resume:
+
+"The hiding power of a paint is one of its most important requisites. It
+was found in the tests that some oils had the effect of lessening, while
+others had the effect of increasing the hiding power of the standard
+pigment formula. This may be due in part to the varying refractive
+indices of the oils used, as well as to the difference in the quantity
+of oil required in each test. Some oils were very viscous, while others
+were very light.
+
+"The stiff working of heavy-bodied, blown, or heat-oxidized oils,
+produced films which in some cases gave a very glossy surface, even on
+the priming coat. Some of these resembled varnished work when finished.
+It will be of importance to watch these tests carefully for any signs of
+early breakdown, which might come from too thick a film. The treated
+Chinese wood oil paints worked rather stiff but produced very smooth
+films. The rosin oil paints became slightly lumpy on standing, but
+worked out to a smooth finish somewhat yellowish in color. The marine
+animal oils, especially the menhaden oil mixtures, dried to a film
+slightly flatter than straight linseed oil. Any odor which was present
+in the paints made from the animal oils seemed to disappear a few hours
+after application. The cotton seed and corn oil mixtures made the
+slowest drying paints, but at the end of the second week of the drying
+period they set up rapidly to firm films. Soya bean and perilla oils
+behaved like straight linseed oil, the former being a little slower and
+the latter slightly more rapid in drying properties. The perilla oil was
+made from one of the first importations into this country, and was dark
+in appearance. It made, however, a very easy-working and hard-drying
+paint.
+
+"The oils used in the tests were obtained from reliable sources. After
+they were received, they were carefully analyzed. The results of the
+analyses appear in Table 1.
+
+TABLE 1. ANALYSES OF OILS USED IN THE VEHICLE TESTS
+
+  ===================================+=========+=========+========+========
+                                     |Specific |Saponifi-|Iodine  | Acid
+                                     |Gravity  | cation  |Number  |Number
+                                     |         | Number  |        |
+  -----------------------------------+---------+---------+--------+--------
+  Raw linseed oil                    |0.931    |  188    | 186    | 2.0
+  Boiled linseed oil (linoleate type)|0.941    |  187    | 172    | 2.7
+  Boiled linseed oil (resinate type) |0.930    |  186    | 176    | 2.2
+  Blown linseed oil                  |0.968    |  189    | 133    | 2.8
+  Lithographic linseed oil           |0.970    |  199    | 102    | 2.7
+  Soya bean oil                      |0.924    |  189    | 129    | 2.3
+  Menhaden oil                       |0.932    |  187    | 158    | 3.9
+  Perilla oil                        |0.94     |  188    | 180    | 2.0
+  Chinese wood oil (raw)             |0.944    |  183    | 166    | 3.8
+  Chinese wood oil (treated)[32]     |0.898[32]|  128[32]| 104[32]| 6.8[32]
+  Corn oil                           |0.925    |  191    | 118    | 9.5
+  Cottonseed oil                     |0.921    |  193    | 105    | 3.6
+  Rosin oil                          |0.966    |   27    |  41    |16.7
+  Whale oil                          |0.924    |  191    | 148    | --
+  Neutral petroleum oil[33]          |0.916    |    6    |  12    | --
+  ===================================+=========+=========+========+========
+
+  [32] Low constants due to presence of over 40% of volatile matter,
+       largely petroleum spirits.
+
+  [33] This oil contained over 20% of petroleum spirits.
+
+"The pigment formula selected for the tests had the following
+composition:
+
+  Basic carbonate-white lead    20%
+  Sublimed white lead           30%
+  Zinc oxide                    35%
+  Magnesium silicate            10%
+  Barytes                        5%
+
+100 lbs. of pigment base ground to a stiff paste in 16 lbs. of linseed
+oil.
+
+"While this pigment formula was not selected as being superior to
+certain other formulas, it is of a type that has given very fair service
+in paint tests throughout the country, and will no doubt serve admirably
+for the purpose designed in these tests.
+
+"The vehicle formulas in the finished paints are as follows:
+
+  No. 1
+  Raw linseed oil                 100%
+
+  No. 2[34]
+  Soya bean oil                   100%
+
+  [34] Dry pigment formula in soya bean oil.
+
+  No. 3[35]
+  Menhaden oil                    100%
+
+  [35] Dry pigment formula in menhaden oil.
+
+  No. 4
+  Raw linseed oil                  25%
+  Boiled linseed oil (resinate)    75%
+
+  No. 5
+  Raw linseed oil                  25%
+  Boiled linseed oil (linoleate)   75%
+
+  No. 6
+  Raw linseed oil                  50%
+  Boiled linseed oil (resinate)    50%
+
+  No. 7
+  Raw linseed oil                  50%
+  Boiled linseed oil (linoleate)   50%
+
+  No. 8
+  Raw linseed oil                  50%
+  Blown linseed oil                50%
+
+  No. 9
+  Raw linseed oil                  50%
+  Litho. linseed oil               50%
+
+  No. 10
+  Raw linseed oil                  50%
+  Soya bean oil                    50%
+
+  No. 11
+  Raw linseed oil                  50%
+  Menhaden oil                     50%
+
+  No. 12
+  Raw linseed oil                  50%
+  Perilla oil                      50%
+
+  No. 13
+  Raw linseed oil                  50%
+  Treated wood oil                 50%
+
+  No. 14
+  Raw linseed oil                  50%
+  Corn oil                         50%
+
+  No. 15
+  Raw linseed oil                  50%
+  Cottonseed oil                   50%
+
+  No. 16
+  Raw linseed oil                  50%
+  Rosin oil                        50%
+
+  No. 17
+  Raw linseed oil                  50%
+  Whale oil                        50%
+
+  No. 18
+  Raw linseed oil                  75%
+  Soya bean oil                    25%
+
+  No. 19
+  Raw linseed oil                  75%
+  Menhaden oil                     25%
+
+  No. 20
+  Raw linseed oil                  75%
+  Perilla oil                      25%
+
+  No. 21
+  Raw linseed oil                  75%
+  Treated wood oil                 25%
+
+  No. 22
+  Raw linseed oil                  75%
+  Corn oil                         25%
+
+  No. 23
+  Raw linseed oil                  75%
+  Cottonseed oil                   25%
+
+  No. 24
+  Raw linseed oil                  75%
+  Rosin oil                        25%
+
+  No. 25
+  Raw linseed oil                  50%
+  Soya bean oil                    25%
+  Menhaden oil                     25%
+
+  No. 26
+  Raw linseed oil                  50%
+  Soya bean oil                    25%
+  Treated wood oil                 25%
+
+  No. 27
+  Blown linseed oil                50%
+  Soya bean oil                    50%
+
+  No. 28
+  Raw linseed oil                  25%
+  Soya bean oil                    25%
+  Menhaden oil                     25%
+  Treated wood oil                 25%
+
+  No. 29
+  Raw linseed oil                  25%
+  Soya bean oil                    25%
+  Menhaden oil                     25%
+  Corn oil                         25%
+
+  No. 30
+  Raw linseed oil                  25%
+  Soya bean oil                    25%
+  Menhaden oil                     25%
+  Cottonseed oil                   25%
+
+  No. 31
+  Raw linseed oil                  25%
+  Soya bean oil                    25%
+  Menhaden oil                     25%
+  Rosin oil                        25%
+
+  No. 32
+  Raw linseed oil                  25%
+  Soya bean oil                    25%
+  Treated wood oil                 25%
+  Rosin oil                        25%
+
+  No. 33
+  Raw linseed oil                  20%
+  Soya bean oil                    20%
+  Treated wood oil                 20%
+  Menhaden oil                     20%
+  Cottonseed oil                   20%
+
+  No. 34
+  Raw linseed oil                  20%
+  Soya bean oil                    20%
+  Treated wood oil                 20%
+  Menhaden oil                     20%
+  Rosin oil                        20%
+
+  No. 35
+  Raw linseed oil                  40%
+  Soya bean oil                    20%
+  Corn oil                         20%
+  Cottonseed oil                   20%
+
+  No. 36
+  Whale oil                        33%
+  Treated wood oil                 33%
+  Raw linseed oil                  33%
+
+  No. 37
+  Raw linseed oil                  25%
+  L. O.[36]                        75%
+
+  No. 38
+  Raw linseed oil                  50%
+  Raw Chinese wood oil             50%
+
+  No. 39
+  Raw linseed oil                  75%
+  Reducing oil[37]                 25%
+
+  No. 40
+  Raw linseed oil                  50%
+  Soya bean oil                    35%
+  Neutral petroleum oil            15%
+
+  No. 41
+  Raw linseed oil                  50%
+  Soya bean oil                    25%
+  Neutral petroleum oil            15%
+  Tungate drier                    10%
+
+  No. 42
+  Linseed oil                      25%
+  Soya bean oil                    37%
+  Neutral petroleum oil            23%
+  Tungate drier                    15%
+
+  No. 43
+  Raw linseed oil                  25%
+  Soya bean oil                    37%
+  Whale oil                        19%
+  Tungate drier                    19%
+
+  [36] Mixture of boiled tung and soya bean oil, thinned with petroleum
+       and turpentine.
+
+  [37] 25% raw linseed oil. 73% petroleum oil. 2% drier--lead and
+       manganese linoleate."
+
+No. 44
+
+Special test on white base of the following composition, in pure linseed
+oil:
+
+  Asbestine                        10%
+  Corroded white lead              20%
+  Sublimed white lead              30%
+  Zinc oxide                       40%
+
+Upper board of panel reduced with straight turpentine on priming coat.
+Second board of panel reduced with wood turpentine on priming coat.
+Third board of panel reduced with pine oil on priming coat. Bottom board
+of panel reduced with petroleum spirits on priming coat.
+
+No. 45
+
+Same pigment formula as No. 44, reduced with:
+
+  Pine oil                         50%
+  Linseed oil                      50%
+
+No. 46
+
+Special test of white base of the following composition, in pure linseed
+oil:
+
+  Corroded white lead              20%
+  Sublimed white lead              30%
+  Zinc oxide                       35%
+  Asbestine                        15%
+
+No. 47
+
+Cypress panel unpainted.
+
+No. 48
+
+Cypress panel painted with formula No. 1, thinned with benzol on the
+priming coat.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+CEMENT AND CONCRETE PAINT TESTS
+
+
+=Damp-proofing and Waterproofing.= The decoration and preservation of
+cement and concrete is a subject which is being given the careful
+consideration of many technologists on account of the wide usage of
+cement for structural purposes, and the necessity of properly guarding
+it against the destructive effects of moisture.
+
+To obtain with various paints decorative effects, and, at the same time,
+provide a high degree of damp-proofing, is a process quite distinct from
+that of water-proofing cement and concrete superstructures. The use, in
+small percentage, of stearic acid solutions, aluminum stearate, marine
+animal soaps, and other lime-reacting materials, as a component of
+concrete while it is being mixed, has been in practice for some time,
+the resulting mixture being used largely upon base-work subjected to
+water under high pressure. Although some of the materials used for such
+purposes actually do give to the concrete a high power of water
+resistance, the degree of waterproofing to be obtained through the use
+of many such compounds varies to a wide extent, often interfering with
+the lime-silica reactions, and ultimately affecting the strength of the
+finished concrete.
+
+=Decorative and Preservative Coatings.= The necessity of obtaining
+suitable paint coatings for cement and concrete surfaces suggested to
+the writer a series of tests on paints designed to prevent the
+destructive action of the lime which, by seepage and other physical
+action, is brought to the surface, causing saponification of some oil
+coatings, as well as destruction of color. The tests referred to were
+carried out during 1908, and although great advances have been made
+since that time in the preparation of concrete paints, the tests have,
+nevertheless, afforded information of a valuable nature as indicating
+the proper methods to follow in the painting of cement, as well as
+suitable materials to use in the manufacture of cement paints. The
+tests, moreover, show the comparative durability of a number of paints
+typical of those prominent in the market at the time the tests were
+started.
+
+[Illustration: View of Concrete Paint Test Panels]
+
+=Acid Reacting Compounds.= A series of acid reacting washes were
+included in the tests, having been designed as prime coaters for use
+previous to the application of oil paints. The application of many of
+these washes has the effect of neutralizing the lime within cement and
+concrete surfaces, and often precipitate insoluble lime compounds which
+aid in filling up the outer voids, thus presenting a surface more
+suitable to receive oil coatings. To the writer who has since made a
+careful study of the painting of concrete, it would seem advisable for
+painters to avoid, when possible, the use of these lime neutralizing
+washes, as some of them have more or less disintegrating and weakening
+influences upon concrete. Recent laboratory experiments, however, have
+indicated that zinc sulphate, an acid reacting material used for many
+years as a wash for concrete surfaces by Macnichol, actually has a
+strengthening effect upon cement and concrete surfaces. The more
+successful coatings of to-day, however, are those which may be placed
+directly upon the cement and concrete surfaces without the aid of such
+washes. Several fairly successful paints of this type have recently
+appeared in the market; some of them being made of acid rosins
+compounded with vegetable oils. Probably one of the first mixtures of
+this sort was the so-called suction varnish which the master painter has
+for years used as a prime coating on plastered walls previous to
+painting. These suction varnishes generally contain a high percentage of
+rosin, a material having an exceptionally high acid value and thus
+lending itself successfully to the neutralization of free lime. It has
+been claimed, however, by certain practical painters that the lime-rosin
+compounds formed when such paints are applied to the exterior of
+buildings, are of a brittle nature and subject to early failure. If this
+is true, it would seem advisable to use in a concrete paint an oil of a
+relatively unsaponifiable nature, which would withstand successfully the
+action of the lime, and, at the same time, prevent disruption of the
+coating and failure of the color used in the paint.
+
+=Outline of Tests.= The tests referred to as carried out by the writer
+were made on a brick wall forty feet long, surface-coated with a
+four-inch coating of Portland cement mortar made of one part of Portland
+cement and three parts of sharp, clean sand. After the cement had
+hardened for three days, the solutions under test were applied.
+
+In many of the tests outlined above, one-coat, as well as two-coat work,
+was used on different sections of the test surfaces. It was shown that
+the two-coat work gave far better results than with the one-coat work,
+and the writer would recommend for the painting of concrete at least
+two-coat work. Whenever paints containing Prussian blue or chrome green
+are applied to concrete surfaces, immediate whitening in the case of the
+blue, and yellowing in the case of the green, will take place, if any
+degree of action has been exerted by the lime within the concrete. For
+this reason, green is an especially delicate color to test and should be
+utilized for this purpose.
+
+The materials used, and the results shown at an inspection made after
+two years' exposure, are given herewith.
+
+=Test No. 1.= Concrete primed with a 25% solution of zinc sulphate
+crystals dissolved in water. A wide brush was used for the application,
+and the spreading rate was approximately 200 square feet per gallon.
+Second and third coated on the second day with No. 119 blue paint of the
+following composition:
+
+NO. 119 BLUE PAINT
+
+  Sublimed white lead      50%
+  Zinc oxide               35%
+  Silica and barytes       12%
+  Prussian blue             3%
+
+Ground in linseed oil, turpentine and drier.
+
+This panel, after three years' exposure, is in good condition. Slight
+checking observed.
+
+=Test No. 2.= Concrete primed with a 20% solution of (alum) (aluminum
+sulphate). Second and third coated with No. 119 blue.
+
+In similar condition to Test No. 1.
+
+=Test No. 3.= Concrete primed with zinc sulphate followed by two coats
+of para red.
+
+PARA RED FORMULA
+
+  Blanc fixe               60%
+  Whiting                  25%
+  Zinc oxide                3%
+  Paranitraniline lake     12%
+
+Ground in linseed oil, turpentine and drier.
+
+Panel in fair condition with exception of slight crazing. Characteristic
+dullness of color after exposure shown. Bright red color restored upon
+washing.
+
+=Test No. 4.= Concrete primed with an 8% solution of stearic acid and
+rosin dissolved in benzine. Second and third coated with No. 119 blue.
+
+This panel is not in as good condition as Tests Nos. 1 and 2, and would
+indicate the inferiority of the priming liquid used. Color failing in
+spots and checking observed.
+
+=Test No. 5.= Concrete primed with mixture used in Test No. 4, and then
+given two coats of para red.
+
+Test is in about the same condition as No. 4.
+
+=Test No. 6.= Concrete primed with a 10% mixture of acid calcium
+phosphate, followed with two coats of No. 119 blue.
+
+The acid phosphate solution evidently had a neutralizing effect upon the
+lime in the concrete, as the paint is in fair condition.
+
+=Test No. 7.= Concrete primed with one coat of a soap emulsion of the
+following composition, then painted with two coats of No. 119 blue.
+
+  Water                    85%
+  Linseed oil              12%
+  Alkali                    3%
+
+Very poor results obtained. Destruction of color and peeling resulted.
+
+=Test No. 8.= Concrete primed with one coat of white paint of the
+following composition:
+
+PRIMER
+
+  Zinc oxide               25%
+  Silica                   35%
+  Corroded white lead      20%
+  Gypsum                   15%
+  Whiting, etc.             5%
+
+Ground in a vehicle of linseed oil and containing 35% of volatile
+hydrocarbon spirits and drier.
+
+This coat was followed by one of the following composition, tinted blue:
+
+  Zinc oxide               60%
+  Gypsum                   20%
+  Silica                   20%
+
+Ground in linseed oil with 12% of turpentine and drier.
+
+Fair results shown during first year, but a breakdown occurred during
+the second year, and cracking and scaling resulted.
+
+=Test No. 9.= This test was a duplicate of No. 8 with the addition of 5%
+of zinc sulphate solution emulsified into the primer.
+
+Slightly superior to Test No. 8.
+
+=Test No. 10.= Primed with a white paste paint thinned with turpentine.
+Second coated with same paint tinted blue.
+
+FORMULA OF PASTE
+
+  Zinc oxide              40%
+  Whiting                 30%
+  Silica                  20%
+  Alumina and gypsum      10%
+
+Ground in 16% of linseed oil vehicle.
+
+Scaling and peeling due to lack of binder and use of saponifiable oil
+resulted during the first six months' exposure. Entire destruction of
+coating at end of two years.
+
+=Test No. 11.= Primed with a white mixture, and second coated with the
+same mixture tinted blue.
+
+FORMULA OF MIXTURE
+
+  Whiting                  30%
+  Silica                   30%
+  Zinc oxide               40%
+
+Stirred into a 5% solution of glue in water, until a fairly thick paste
+was obtained.
+
+Much chalking was shown, and a bleaching of color. It is evident that
+this mixture would not serve to keep moisture out.
+
+=Test No. 12 A.= Primed with a 5% solution of soluble nitrated cotton
+and paraffin dissolved in equal parts of amyl acetate and benzine.
+Second coated with No. 119 blue.
+
+Not very good results were obtained, chalking and slight scaling
+resulting.
+
+=Test No. 12 B.= Primed with a heavy varnish containing Chinese wood oil
+and kauri gum. Second coated with No. 119 blue.
+
+Fair results obtained.
+
+=Tests Nos. 13, 14, 15, and 16.= Primed with a solution made by
+dissolving 10 parts of sodium oxalate in 100 parts of water. Second and
+third coated with linseed oil paints in red, brown, blue, and green.
+
+Very good results shown at end of test.
+
+=Test No. 20, Special.= Primed and second coated with a green paint
+containing zinc oxide and barytes, ground in an oil having a low
+saponification value. Very slow drying was shown. Excellent results. No
+failure of color. Extremely glossy, waterproof surface presented.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+STRUCTURAL STEEL PAINT TESTS
+
+
+=The Necessity of Protective Coatings.= Most painters have in the past
+considered of minor importance the painting of iron and steel; any paint
+that would properly hide the surface of the metal being accepted without
+much question. The demand, however, for structural steel for office
+buildings, factories, steel cars, railroad equipment, etc., has doubled
+the output of structural paints, and created a demand for painters
+having a knowledge of the proper materials to use in the painting of
+steel, so that its life may be preserved, and its strength maintained.
+Such knowledge is as important to the painter as a knowledge of how to
+properly select materials for the painting of wood, and how to temper
+these materials to suit the various conditions met with.
+
+=The Cause of Rust.= Everyone is familiar with the appearance of rust,
+but few actually understand what causes rust. No attempt will be made
+here to present even an outline of the many theories advanced to explain
+the phenomenon of the rusting of iron, for the subject is as diverse as
+it is interesting. A brief resume, however, will be given of the now
+generally accepted theory that explains the subject. This theory is
+called the electrolytic theory. "Auto-electrolysis" is the term used to
+define the peculiar tendency of iron to be transformed from a metal
+possessing a hard lustrous surface, high tensile strength, and other
+useful properties, to a crumbling oxide that falls to the ground and
+again becomes part of the earth from which it was originally taken by
+man.
+
+[Illustration: A Side View of Steel Test Fences]
+
+This "going back to nature" is more readily accomplished by most of the
+steel produced to-day than by the old hand-made irons produced many
+years ago. It seems to be a curious fact that the more quickly a product
+or an article is fashioned by man, the more quickly it tends to return
+again to its original oxidized condition. Some manufacturers of steel,
+however, through an understanding of the causes of rust, have progressed
+in the manufacture of slow rusting materials, either by the elimination,
+or by the proper distribution of impurities.
+
+When iron is brought into contact with moisture, currents of electricity
+flow over the surface of the iron between points that are relatively
+pure and points that contain impurities. These currents stimulate the
+natural tendency of the iron to go into solution, and the solution
+proceeds with vigor at the positive points. The air which the water
+contains oxidizes the iron which has gone into solution, and
+precipitates the familiar brown iron rust. Thus water, which acts as an
+acid, and air, which acts as an oxidizer, have combined together to
+accomplish the downfall of the metal.
+
+[Illustration: Three Photomicrographs of Corroding Steel]
+
+=Inhibition and Stimulation of Rust.= It is obvious that if means could
+be devised to stop the solution pressure of iron and make it resistant
+to the flow of surface electric currents, rust could be prevented. Such
+methods have been devised, and to better illustrate how they operate, an
+analogy may be drawn between iron in water and shellac in alcohol.
+
+It is common knowledge that when shellac is placed in alcohol, the
+shellac will force itself into solution in the alcohol, and form a
+clear, transparent lacquer. If, however, there should be mixed with the
+alcohol a quantity of water, it would be found that the shellac could no
+longer go into solution, and it would remain in its original condition.
+In the same way, if there be placed in water a small quantity of
+material, such as soluble chromates, or an alkaline substance like
+caustic soda or lime, it will be found that iron will no longer have a
+tendency to go into solution in this treated water, but will stay bright
+and clean. These materials which prevent the rusting of iron have been
+called by Cushman, who first advanced these explanations, "rust
+inhibitors," or materials which inhibit rusting. The paint maker,
+realizing the importance of these rust inhibitors, is incorporating them
+into paints designed for the protection of iron and steel, and the
+success which paints of this type have met with from a practical
+standpoint is a justification of what was first called the "electrolytic
+theory," which suggested their use.
+
+By placing small, brightly polished steel plates into a mush of paint
+pigment and water, a determination may be made of the pigment's effect
+upon the metal. Some pigments, under such conditions, cause rapid
+corrosion of the steel plates. Such pigments are stimulators of
+corrosion, on account of acid impurities which they contain, or because
+of their effect in stimulating galvanic currents. Many carbonaceous
+pigments are of this type. Other pigments have the effect of keeping
+bright the steel plates and preventing rust. Such pigments are of the
+inhibitive type, and their action is to check or retard the solution
+pressure of the iron.
+
+=The Effects of Moisture.= It might occur to the reader that although
+paint pigments, when mixed up with water and brought into contact with
+the surface of steel, might show either an inhibitive or stimulative
+action, that it is by no means certain that the same tendency will be
+exhibited by pigments when they are properly mixed with linseed oil and
+laid out as a film upon the surface of steel. In answer to this, it may
+be well to state that almost no material used by mankind is absolutely
+dry. Linseed oil, as it is pressed from the seed, comes from the cells,
+carrying with it a certain small definite percentage of water, and it is
+quite certain that even the best linseed oil that goes into use is not
+theoretically dry. Everyone knows, of course, that oil and water do not
+readily mix and are, in fact, more or less repellent to each other. It
+is, however, true that, in spite of this, oils can carry quite a
+percentage of water, without the admixture being apparent to the eye. In
+addition to this, careful experiments have proved very conclusively that
+linseed oil films, even after they have oxidized and hardened, have the
+power to a certain extent of absorbing water from the atmosphere. It is,
+therefore, safe to say that no linseed oil film in a paint coating is
+dry all the time. As a matter of fact, there is abundant evidence to
+show that in rainy weather, and, in fact, when the humidity in the air
+is high, paint films have absorbed water. As the sun comes out and warms
+the paint coating, and the humidity content of the atmosphere falls,
+this water to a large extent evaporates out of the film, only to be
+taken up again when the weather conditions change. This action may be
+likened to a breathing of the paint film, that is to say, an indrawing
+of water under humid conditions, followed by an exhaling of water under
+dry conditions. With these facts in mind, it must be apparent that
+pigments laid out in intimate contact with the surface of steel are
+subjected at all times either more or less to the reactions produced by
+water contact. Furthermore, as it is a property of water to become
+saturated with the gases of the atmosphere, such as oxygen, carbonic and
+sulphurous acids, and other impurities, there is present in a protective
+paint film at all times the elements necessary to carry on the corrosive
+process and reactions.
+
+An outline of Cushman's original research work, upon which has been
+based the classification of pigments as inhibitors, stimulators, and
+inerts, is clearly presented in his report[38] as Chairman of Committee
+U of the American Society for Testing Materials, of which the following
+is an excerpt:
+
+  [38] Page 73, 1910 Proceedings of the American Society for Testing
+       Materials.
+
+[Illustration: Ferroxyl Tests on Painted Steel Surfaces. Upper Row
+Painted with Stimulative Paints--Lower Row with Inhibitive Paints.]
+
+[Illustration: Water Test on Plates Painted--Except in Center Spot. Left
+Hand Plates Painted with Stimulative Paints, Right Hand Plates Painted
+with Inhibitive Paints.]
+
+[Illustration: View of Steel Plates Painted with Stimulative Paints,
+after Immersion in Ferroxyl Jelly.]
+
+"Three years ago the suggestion was made in a paper presented before the
+Tenth Annual Meeting of this Society that the various types of
+substances used as pigments in protective coatings might exert a
+stimulative or an inhibitive action on the rate and tendency to
+corrosion of the underlying metal. It was further suggested on a
+theoretical ground that slightly soluble chromates should exert a
+protective action when employed as pigments by maintaining the surface
+of the iron in a passive condition in case water and oxygen penetrated
+the paint film. In view also of the well-known fact that alkalies
+inhibit while acids stimulate the corrosion of iron, it was suggested
+that the action of more or less pure pigments on iron in the presence of
+water should be thoroughly investigated. Two years ago this Committee
+invited the co-operation of Committee D-1 (then known as Committee E) in
+the investigation, and a special sub-committee representing the two main
+committees was appointed.
+
+"The methods and results of the water-pigment tests have previously been
+reported and published, and need not be given in detail. Briefly, the
+method consisted in immersing samples of steel in water suspensions of
+the various pigments and blowing air through the containers for definite
+periods of time, the corrosion being measured by the loss in weight
+sustained by the test pieces. About fifty pigments which are in more or
+less common use for painting steel were purchased in the open market and
+distributed among a number of the members of the Committee, who agreed
+to carry out the work. Each investigator worked independently of the
+others, except that the same general method was followed; the time of
+exposure to the corroding action, however, varied in the different
+experiments. When the results were compared and analyzed by the
+sub-committee, it was felt that the general agreement of the results
+obtained by the several investigators was striking and merited further
+and more systematic work. As a result of these tests the sub-committee
+tentatively divided the pigments into inhibitors, stimulators, and
+indeterminates. The word 'indeterminate' was selected after considerable
+discussion, because the words 'neutral' or 'inert' already possess a
+special meaning as applied to paint technology. The Committee takes this
+occasion to emphatically state that in adopting this tentative
+classification, the words 'inhibitive' and 'stimulative' as used by them
+up to the present time apply only to the results obtained in the water
+tests, and the inference that the results obtained have decided which
+class the pigment will fall into when made into a paint with the usual
+vehicles and used as a protective coating on iron and steel, is not
+justified. In order to make this point quite clear, it has been agreed
+by the Committee to qualify the classification so as to speak of the
+various materials tested as 'water stimulative' or 'water inhibitive.'"
+
+[Illustration: Apparatus for Testing the Inhibitive Value of Pigments]
+
+=Importance of Field Tests.= Although the laboratory accelerated tests
+for the determination of the relative value of structural steel paints
+afford information of some import, there seems to be a general opinion
+that the best method to follow, if information of a reliable character
+is to be obtained, is to make actual field exposure tests upon large
+surfaces. The results of the above described water-pigment tests
+suggested the erection of a series of steel panels on which to test out
+the same pigments under practical service conditions. The Paint
+Manufacturers' Association of the United States erected and painted the
+panels, the work being under the constant supervision of the writer, and
+the inspection of the work under Committee U of the American Society for
+Testing Materials. A brief resume of the work[39] is herewith presented.
+
+  [39] Page 181, "Corrosion and Preservation of Iron and Steel"--Cushman
+       and Gardner--McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York City.
+
+=Pickling and Preparation of Plates.= The three types of metal[40]
+selected for the test were rolled to billets, the middle of which were
+selected, and worked up into plates 24 inches wide, 36 inches high, and
+1/8 inch in diameter--approximately 11 gauge. A number of plates of each
+of the metals selected, in all 450, were pickled in 10% sulphuric acid,
+kept at 180 to 200 degrees Fahrenheit, in order to remove the
+mill-scale. The plates were then washed in water, and later in 10%
+solution of caustic soda. Finally the plates were again washed in water
+and wiped dry. They were then packed in boxes containing dry lime, in
+order to prevent superficial corrosion. By this method the plates were
+secured in perfect condition, the surfaces being smooth and free from
+scale. Upon these pickled plates paints were applied with a definite
+spreading rate of 900 square feet per gallon. The unpickled plates,
+coated with mill-scale, were painted with the same paints, but without
+adopting any special spreading rate, thus following more closely the
+ordinary method of painting structural steel. A few extra plates of
+special Bessemer steel and Swedish charcoal iron were also included in
+the test, some of which were painted, while others were exposed without
+any protective coating. Plates of the three types of metal already
+mentioned were also exposed unpainted, both in the black and pickled
+condition.
+
+  [40] Bessemer Steel, Open Hearth Steel, and Pure Iron.
+
+[Illustration: Front View of Steel Test Fences]
+
+=Fence Erection and Preparation for Work.= The fences which were erected
+for the holding of the plates were constructed of yellow pine, the posts
+being set deeply in the ground and properly braced. The framework of the
+fence was open, with a ledge upon the lateral girders, upon which the
+plates might rest, and to which the plates were secured by the use of
+steel buttons. After the framework had been erected, painted, and made
+ready for the placement of the panels, a small shed was built upon the
+ground, and the materials for the field test placed therein. The steel
+plates were unpacked from the boxes in which they were shipped, brushed
+off, and stacked up ready for painting. Small benches were erected, and
+the accessories of the work, such as cans, brushes, pots, balances,
+etc., were placed in position.
+
+=Methods Followed in Painting Plates.= A frame resting upon the
+workbench served to hold the plates in a lateral position while being
+painted, room being allowed beneath the plate for the operator to place
+his hands in order to lift the plates from the under surface after the
+painting had been finished.
+
+A pickled plate having been placed upon the framework everything was in
+readiness for the work. The specific gravity and weight per gallon of
+the paint to be applied was determined, and the amount, in grams, to be
+applied to each individual panel was calculated according to the
+following formula:
+
+  Spreading rate       Sq. ft. in plate      Grams paint in gal.
+   900 sq. ft.     :          6          ::         5400           :  x
+
+The reciprocal of _x_ being the number of grams of paint to be applied
+to the panels.
+
+An enamel cup was then filled with the paint and a brush well stirred
+within. The cup, paint, and brush were placed upon the balances and
+accurately weighed in grams. After most of the paint had been applied to
+the panel, cross-brushing of the panel was continued until the pot with
+brush and paint exactly counterbalanced the deducted weight. The painted
+panel was then set in a rack, in a horizontal position to dry.
+
+A period of eight days elapsed between the drying of each coat. The
+greatest care was taken in the painting of the edges of the plates, and
+the racks for containing the plates after they were painted were so
+constructed that the paint would not be abraded while sliding the plates
+back and forth. The working properties of each paint, and the appearance
+of the surface of each plate after painting, were carefully noted and
+included in the report. No reductions were made to any of the paints
+applied except in three cases, where the viscosity was so great that it
+was necessary to add a small amount of pure spirits of turpentine. The
+amount of paint was proportionately increased in such cases, so that the
+evaporation of the turpentine would leave upon the plate the amount of
+paint originally intended.
+
+The appearance of the completed series of test panels is shown on page
+221.
+
+=Vehicles Used and Reasons for Avoidance of Japan Driers.= The pigments
+used were selected with the view to securing as nearly as possible
+purity and strength, and as already noted, were out of the same lots
+used in making the preliminary laboratory tests on inhibitives. They
+were ground in a vehicle composed of two parts of raw linseed oil and
+one part of pure boiled oil. Paint is generally caused to dry rapidly by
+the use of japan or driers. These materials contain a large amount of
+metallic oxides which might have some effect in either exciting or
+retarding corrosion. To prevent the introduction of such a factor, these
+materials were not used in the test. The boiled oil, with its small
+percentages of metallic oxides, was sufficient, however, to cause the
+paints to dry in a short time after they were spread.
+
+=Testing Effect of Various Prime Coats.= Some of the special tests made
+included a series of plates prime-coated with different inhibitive
+pigments, and these tests were designed to determine which pigments
+offer the best results for such work. These plates were all
+second-coated with the same paint. It is the opinion of the authors that
+any good excluding paint may be used whether it be inhibitive in action
+or not, provided the contact coat is inhibitive. If, however, both coats
+can be designed so as to have the maximum possible value from both these
+points of view, the best results would, of course, accrue. The only way
+such data can be obtained is by careful observation of the results of
+exposure tests.
+
+=Combination Formulas Tested.= By selecting a series of pigments which
+in the water tests showed inhibitive tendencies, and properly combining
+these pigments into a paint, it was thought possible that a more or less
+inhibitive paint would be produced. If this proved to be the case, it
+would follow that the selection and introduction into a paint of the
+stimulative pigments would inevitably produce a paint unfit for use on
+iron or steel.
+
+=Data on Application of Paints.= The recorded data on the application of
+the paint to the panels is voluminous. There is presented herewith,
+however, the data on two of the paints.
+
+  NO. 2, QUICK PROCESS WHITE LEAD:
+
+  Sp. Gr. of pigment                        6.78
+  Lbs. to gallon oil                       20.34
+  Sp. Gr. of paint as received              2.47
+  Wt. of paint per gallon                  20.56
+  Grams to panel                              62
+  Condition of paint                        Good
+  Working properties                  Works easy
+  Drying                       24 hrs. all coats
+
+  1 coat   Oct. 26   T 60   B 29.94   W. fair
+  2 coat   Nov.  3   T 54   B 30.23   W. clear
+  3 coat   Nov.  7   T 52   B 29.66   W. cloudy
+
+  NO. 9, ORANGE MINERAL (AMERICAN):
+
+  Sp. Gr. of pigment                        8.97
+  Lbs. to gallon oil                       26.91
+  Sp. Gr. of paint as received              2.97
+  Wt. of paint per gallon                  24.74
+  Grams to panel                            74.7
+  Condition of paint                        Good
+  Working properties      Smooth--no brush marks
+  Drying                                    Good
+
+  1 coat   Oct. 28   T 58   B 30.01   W. cloudy
+  2 coat   Nov.  4   T 65   B 29.61   W. cloudy
+  3 coat   Nov.  9   T 58   B 29.91   W. clear
+
+=Composition of Paints.= The following table gives data regarding the
+composition, etc., of paints applied to the steel panels.
+
+=Results of Inspection.= The results of an inspection of the steel test
+plates, made by Sub-committee D representing Committee D-1 of the
+American Society for Testing Materials, is herewith presented:
+
+"On Wednesday, June 28, 1911, the second inspection of the Atlantic City
+Steel Test Panels, erected in October, 1908, was made by Sub-committee D
+of Committee D-1, this Committee having agreed to report upon the
+condition of the painted surfaces, leaving any report on the comparative
+corrosion of the various types of metal used in the test to Committee
+A-5 on the corrosion of iron.
+
+  ===+=========================+=======+=======+======+=======+=========
+     |                         |       |       |      |       |Grams
+     |                         |       |       |      |       |Paint
+     |                         |       |Wt. of | Sp.  |Wt. of |to Panel
+     |           Name          |  Sp.  |Pigment| Gr.  | Paint |at 900
+     |                         |  Gr.  |to Gal.| of   |  per  |Sq. ft.
+  Pigment                      |of Pig-|of oil |Paint |  Gal. |spreading
+  No.|                         | ment  | Lbs.  |Rec'd |  Lbs. |rate
+  ---+-------------------------+-------+-------+------+-------+---------
+    1|Dutch process white lead | 6.83  | 20.49 | 2.45 | 20.49 |  61.0
+    2|Quick process white lead | 6.78  | 20.34 | 2.47 | 20.34 |  62.0
+    3|Zinc oxide               | 5.56  | 16.68 | 2.12 | 16.68 |  59.0
+    4|Sublimed white lead      | 6.45  | 19.17 | 2.36 | 19.17 |  59.0
+    5|Sublimed blue lead       | 6.39  | 19.17 | 2.42 | 19.17 |  61.0
+    6|Lithopone                | 4.26  | 12.78 | 1.80 | 12.78 |  45.3
+    7|Zinc lead white          | 4.42  | 13.26 | 1.96 | 13.26 |  49.4
+    9|American orange mineral  | 8.97  | 26.91 | 2.97 | 26.91 |  74.7
+   10|Red lead                 | 8.70  | 26.10 | 2.93 | 26.10 |  73.6
+   12|Bright red oxide         | 5.26  | 15.78 | 2.05 | 15.78 |  60.0
+   14|Venetian red             | 3.1   |  9.30 | 1.52 |  9.30 |  38.0
+   15|Prince's metallic brown  | 3.17  |  9.51 | 1.50 |  9.51 |  37.7
+   16|Natural graphite         | 2.60  |  7.80 | 1.37 |  7.80 |  34.4
+   17|Acheson graphite         | 2.21  |  6.63 | 1.22 |  6.63 |  30.8
+   19| {Lampblack              |       |  1.82}|      |  1.82 |
+     | {Barytes                | 1.82  |  8.92}| 1.60 |  8.92 |  40.2
+   20|Willow charcoal          | 1.49  |  4.47 | 1.08 |  4.47 |  27.0
+   21| {Gas carbon black       | 1.85  |  1.39}| 1.67 |  1.39 |
+     | {Natural barytes        |       | 10.03}|      | 10.03 |  50.7
+   24|French yellow ochre      | 2.94  |  8.82 | 1.46 |  8.82 |  37.0
+   27|Natural barytes          | 4.46  | 13.38 | 1.83 | 13.38 |  46.0
+   28|Precipitated barytes     | 4.23  | 12.69 | 1.84 | 12.69 |  46.0
+     |(blanc fixe)             |       |       |      |       |
+   29|Calcium carbonate        | 5.48  |  8.22 | 1.37 |  8.22 |  34.5
+     |(whiting)                |       |       |      |       |
+   30|Calcium carbonate        | 2.56  |  7.68 | 1.35 |  7.68 |  34.0
+     |precipitated             |       |       |      |       |
+   31|Calcium sulphate (gypsum)| 2.33  |  6.99 | 1.25 |  6.99 |  31.4
+   32|China clay (kaolin)      | 2.67  |  8.01 | 1.34 |  8.01 |  34.0
+   33|Asbestine (silicate of   | 2.75  |  8.25 | 1.38 |  8.25 |  34.7
+     |magnesium)               |       |       |      |       |
+   34|American vermilion       | 6.83  | 20.49 |      | 20.49 |  64.5
+     |(chrome scarlet)         |       |       |      |       |
+   36|Medium chrome yellow     | 5.88  | 17.64 |      | 17.64 |  67.1
+   39|Zinc chromate            | 3.57  | 10.71 | 1.57 | 10.71 |  39.2
+   40|Zinc and barium chromate | 3.45  | 10.35 | 1.58 | 10.35 |  40.0
+   41|Chrome green (blue tone) | 4.44  | 13.32 | 1.94 | 13.32 |  49.0
+   44|Prussian blue            | 1.96  |  5.88 |      |  5.88 |  30.0
+   45|Prussian blue            | 1.93  |  5.79 |      |  5.79 |  34.5
+   48|Ultramarine blue         | 2.40  |  7.20 | 1.29 |  7.20 |  32.5
+   49|Zinc and lead chromate   | 4.76  | 14.28 | 1.92 | 14.28 |  48.3
+   51|Magnetic black oxide     |       | 15.00 | 1.92 | 15    |  48.3
+     |                         |       |       |      |       |
+     |   _Composite Paints_    |       |       |      |       |
+     |                         |       |       |      |       |
+  111|Brown } Made from pig-   |       | 10.82 | 1.30 | 10.82 |  32.7
+  222|Black } ments that were  |       | 10.86 | 1.30 | 10.86 |  32.8
+  333|White } inhibitive in the|       | 14.52 | 1.74 | 14.52 |  43.8
+  444|Green } water test       |       | 12.77 | 1.53 | 12.77 |  38.6
+     |                         |       |       |      |       |
+  555|Black } Made from pig-   |       |  9.37 | 1.125|  9.37 |  28.
+  666|Brown } ments that were  |       | 11.74 | 1.41 | 11.74 |  35.5
+  777|White } stimulative in   |       | 14.55 | 1.75 | 14.55 |  44.
+  888|Green } the water test   |       | 14.57 | 1.75 | 14.57 |  14.57
+  ===+=========================+=======+=======+======+=======+=========
+
+"According to the amount of rust apparent on the painted surfaces of the
+panels, as well as the degree of checking, chalking, scaling, cracking,
+peeling, loss of color, and other signs of paint failure shown, ratings
+were given each panel. The system of rating which took into
+consideration all the above conditions, was similar to the system used
+at the first inspection during 1910, when 0 (zero) recorded the worst
+results and 10 (ten) the best results.
+
+"In Table No. 1 there is shown the rating accorded by each inspector to
+each panel, as well as an average for each panel.
+
+TABLE NO. 1.--SECOND INSPECTION OF STEEL PAINT TEST PANELS AT ATLANTIC
+CITY, N. J., BY SUB-COMMITTEE D OF COMMITTEE D-1
+
+  =======+========================+======+======+=======+=======+=======
+         |                        |      |      | H. A. |       |
+   Panel |                        |W. H. |P. H. |Gardner|  C.   |
+    No.  |         Pigment        |Walker|Walker|Chair- |Chapman|Average
+         |                        |      |      |  man  |       |
+  -------+------------------------+------+------+-------+-------+-------
+       1 |Dutch process white lead| 2    | 3    |  3    |  5    |  3.7
+       2 |Quick process white lead| 4    | 4    |  3    |  6    |  4.2
+       3 |Zinc oxide (XX)         | 1    | 1-1/2|  1    |  2-1/2|  1.5
+       4 |Sublimed white lead     | 9    | 9-1/2|  9    |  8-1/2|  9.0
+       5 |Sublimed blue lead      | 9    | 9-1/2|  9-1/2|  7-1/2|  8.8
+       6 |Lithopone               | 2    | 1-1/2|  2    |  3-1/2|  2.2
+       7 |Zinc lead white         | 3    | 4    |  5    |  7    |  4.7
+       9 |Orange mineral          | 9    | 9    |  9    |  6-1/2|  8.3
+      10 |Red lead                | 9    | 9    |  9    |  6-1/2|  8.3
+      12 |Bright red oxide        | 8-1/2| 9    |  8    |  7    |  8.1
+      14 |Venetian red            | 7    | 9    |  7    |  9    |  8.0
+      15 |Prince's metallic brown | 5    | 7-1/2|  6    |  8    |  6.3
+      16 |Natural graphite        | 6    | 8    |  4    |  9-1/2|  6.8
+      17 |Artificial graphite     | 5    | 7-1/2|  4    |  7    |  5.9
+      19 |Lampblack               | 5    | 7-1/2|  5    |  8    |  6.3
+      20 |Willow charcoal         | 9    | 8-1/2|  9    |  9    |  8.8
+      21 |Carbon black            | 7    | 8-1/2|  5    |  8-1/2|  7.2
+      24 |Yellow ochre (French)   | 5    | 7    |  2    |  8    |  5.5
+      27 |Barytes (natural)       | 1    | 1    |  1    |  0    |  0.7
+      28 |Barytes (precipitated)  | 2    | 1-1/2|  2    |  2    |  1.8
+      29 |Calcium carbonate       | 0    | 0    |  0    |  0    |  0.0
+         |(whiting)               |      |      |       |       |
+      30 |Calcium carbonate (pre- | 0    | 0    |  0    |  0    |  0.0
+         |cipitated)              |      |      |       |       |
+      31 |Calcium sulphate        | 1    | 1    |  1    |  3    |  1.7
+         |(gypsum)                |      |      |       |       |
+      32 |China clay (kaolin)     | 6    | 6    |  7    |  6-1/2|  6.3
+      33 |Asbestine (magnes. sili-| 5    | 4-1/2|  6    |  5    |  5.1
+         |cate)                   |      |      |       |       |
+      34 |American vermilion      |10    |10    | 10    | 10    | 10.0
+      36 |Lead chromate           | 7    | 7-1/2|  8-1/2|  8    |  7.7
+      39 |Zinc chromate           | 9    | 9    | 10    |  9-1/2|  9.5
+      40 |Zinc and barium chromate| 9    | 9-1/2| 10    |  9-1/2|  9.5
+      41 |Chrome green (blue tone)|10    |10    | 10    |  9-1/2|  9.8
+      44 |Prussian blue, W. S     | 9    | 9-1/2|  9-1/2|  9    |  9.0
+      45 |Prussian blue, W. I     | 8    | 9-1/2|  8-1/2|  8-1/2|  8.5
+      48 |Ultramarine blue        | 0    | 0    |  0    |  0    |  0.0
+      49 |Zinc and lead chromate  |10    | 9-1/2| 10    |  9-1/2|  9.7
+      51 |Magnetic black oxide    | 9    | 9-1/2| 10    |  9-1/2|  9.5
+     111 |Brown composite paint   | 7    | 9    |  9    |  9    |  8.5
+     222 |Black composite paint   | 9    | 9    |  9    |  8-1/2|  8.8
+    3333 |White composite paint   | 4    | 4    |  7    |  3    |  4.5
+     444 |Green composite paint   | 5    | 7    |  7    |  8    |  6.7
+     555 |Black composite paint   | 9    | 9    |  6    |  9    |  8.2
+     666 |Brown composite paint   | 8    | 8    |  6    |  9    |  7.7
+     777 |White composite paint   | 7    |10    |  5    |  7    |  7.2
+     888 |Green composite paint   | 7    | 8    |  8    |  9    |  8.0
+    2000 |1 coat zinc chromate   }| 8    | 8-1/2|  8    |  8    |  8.1
+         |1 coat iron oxide ex-  }|      |      |       |       |
+         |cluder                 }|      |      |       |       |
+    3000 |1 coat lead chromate    | 7    | 8    |  7    |  7-1/2|  7.3
+    4000 |1 coat red lead        }| 7    | 8-1/2|  8    |  7-1/2|  7.7
+         |1 coat iron oxide ex-  }|      |      |       |       |
+         |cluder                 }|      |      |       |       |
+     100 |Straight carbon black   | 5    | 8-1/2|  4    |  8-1/2|  6.5
+         |paint with turps and    |      |      |       |       |
+         |drier                   |      |      |       |       |
+      90 |Straight lampblack paint| 5    | 7    |  3    |  8    |  5.7
+         |with turps and drier    |      |      |       |       |
+    5555 |Coal tar paint over red | 4    | 8    |  2    |  7    |  5.2
+         |lead                    |      |      |       |       |
+    1000 |Chrome resinate in oil  | 1    | 0    |  0    |  2    |  0.7
+         |(1 coat)                |      |      |       |       |
+  1 plate|3 coats boiled linseed  | 1    | 0    |  1    |  4    |  1.5
+         |oil                     |      |      |       |       |
+  =======+========================+======+======+=======+=======+=======
+
+"In Table No. 2 there is shown the rating obtained by those panels which
+were considered by the committee as meriting from 8 to 10, and having
+given the best all-round service.
+
+TABLE NO. 2.--ANALYSIS OF AVERAGES. GRADE OF EXCELLENCE FROM 8 TO 10
+
+  =====+=============================================+=======
+  Plate| Pigment                                     |Average
+  -----+---------------------------------------------+-------
+    34 | American vermilion (basic chromate of lead) |  10.0
+    41 | Chrome green                                |   9.8
+    49 | Lead and zinc chromate                      |   9.7
+    39 | Zinc chromate                               |   9.5
+    40 | Zinc and barium chromate                    |   9.5
+    51 | Black oxide of iron                         |   9.5
+     4 | Sublimed white lead                         |   9.0
+    44 | Prussian blue                               |   9.0
+     5 | Sublimed blue lead                          |   8.8
+    20 | Willow charcoal                             |   8.8
+   222 | Composite paint                             |   8.8
+    45 |  Prussian blue                              |   8.5
+   111 | Composite formula                           |   8.5
+     9 | Orange mineral                              |   8.3
+    10 | Red lead                                    |   8.3
+   555 | Composite paint                             |   8.2
+    12 | Bright red oxide of iron                    |   8.1
+  2000 | 1 coat zinc chromate; 1 coat iron oxide     |   8.1
+    14 | Venetian red                                |   8.0
+   888 | Composite paint                             |   8.0
+  =====+=============================================+=======
+
+=Comparison of Results.= It is of interest to compare with Table 2 of
+the above report, Table 2 of the 1910 report of Committee U of the
+American Society for Testing Materials. Both charts show the highly
+inhibitive pigments to be in the lead.
+
+
+COMMITTEE U REPORT 1910
+
+TABLE II.--ANALYSIS OF AVERAGES. GRADE OF EXCELLENCE FROM 8 TO 10
+
+(_Only resistance to corrosion was considered, and only pigments which
+were common to both tests are included_)
+
+  ===+====================================+=======
+  No.| Pigment                            |Average
+  ---+------------------------------------+-------
+  34 | American vermilion (chrome scarlet)|  9.8
+  41 | Chrome green (blue tone)           |  9.7
+  40 | Zinc and barium chromate           |  9.7
+   5 | Sublimed blue lead                 |  9.6
+   4 | Sublimed white lead                |  9.5
+  49 | Zinc and lead chromate             |  9.5
+  39 | Zinc chromate                      |  9.4
+  12 | Bright red oxide                   |  9.3
+  44 | Prussian blue (water stimulative)  |  9.2
+  16 | Natural graphite                   |  9.1
+   9 | Orange mineral (American)          |  9.0
+  36 | Medium chrome yellow               |  9.0
+   2 | White lead (quick process)         |  8.9
+  20 | Willow charcoal                    |  8.8
+  45 | Prussian blue (water inhibitive)   |  8.8
+   1 | White lead (Dutch process)         |  8.7
+  10 | Red lead                           |  8.7
+  7  | Zinc lead white                    |  8.0
+  ===+====================================+=======
+
+The writer has recently made a careful inspection of the panels painted
+with single pigment paints, and has made the following brief summary of
+the characteristic appearance of each.
+
+=Panel No. 1--Dutch Process White Lead.= The excessive chalking which
+took place began to disappear at the end of a year, being washed away by
+the rains and carried away by the winds, so that there was left upon the
+surface but a thin coating of pigment, insufficient to give good
+protection. Slight corrosion was apparent beneath the film.
+
+=Panel No. 2--Quick Process White Lead.= In the same condition as Panel
+No. 1.
+
+=Panel No. 3--Zinc Oxide.= Panel covered with thin lateral streaks of
+rust, due to the admittance of moisture in cracks caused by brittleness
+of film. Result doubtless due to insufficient amount of oil used with
+pigment. Removal of film shows steel very bright except where cracks
+have formed.
+
+=Panel No. 4--Sublimed White Lead.= Although sublimed white lead chalked
+very heavily, the chalked pigment seemed to be tenacious and adhered to
+the plate, presenting an excellent surface with absence of rust. Film of
+good color and quite elastic.
+
+=Panel No. 5--Sublimed Blue Lead.= In same condition as Panel No. 4, but
+color has slightly faded.
+
+=Panel No. 6--Lithopones.= Lithopone was early destroyed, as is usual
+with this pigment when used alone on exterior surfaces. It became rough
+and discolored, presenting a very blotchy appearance and disclosed the
+formation of rust working through the film.
+
+=Panel No. 7--Zinc Lead White.= In general good condition with the
+exception of the color, which is slightly dark. Medium chalking was
+apparent but only very slight corrosion appeared.
+
+=Panel No. 9--Orange Mineral.= In excellent condition, showing a good
+firm surface with no checking or corrosion apparent. Shortly after
+exposure the film became covered with a white coating of carbonate of
+lead, which indicates action of the red lead with the carbonic acid of
+the atmosphere. Removal of this white coating with water discloses the
+brilliant color of the unaffected portion of the red lead.
+
+=Panel No. 10--Red Lead.= In same condition as Panel No. 9.
+
+=Panel No. 12--Bright Red Iron Oxide.= In general good condition. Film
+intact and unfading in color.
+
+=Panel No. 14--Venetian Red.= Similar to Panel No. 12, but slight
+corrosion apparent beneath, in localized spots, and film showing slight
+wart-like formations.
+
+=Panel No. 15--Prince's Metallic Brown.= Similar to Panel No. 14.
+
+=Panel No. 16--Natural Graphite.= Deeply pitted in spots, showing
+bulbous eruptions, indicating the stimulative nature of this pigment.
+
+=Panel No. 17--Artificial Graphite.= In same condition as Panel No. 16.
+
+=Panel No. 19--Lampblack and Barytes.= Although the film seems to be
+intact, there are apparent abrasions of the surface showing stimulative
+corrosion effects of a pronounced nature.
+
+=Panel No. 21--Carbon Black and Barytes.= In same condition as Panel No.
+19.
+
+[Illustration: Corrosion Pits on Graphite Panel]
+
+[Illustration: Rust on Stripped Graphite Film]
+
+[Illustration: Section of Wire Painted with a Stimulative Carbonaceous
+Paint]
+
+[Illustration: Corroded and Pitted Surface of Plate Painted with
+Stimulative Paint]
+
+The longevity of lampblack and carbon black paint films when applied to
+wood has been attributed to the slow drying nature of these pigments
+when mixed with oil. It is assumed that they have the property of
+keeping the oil in a semi-drying condition, which will not disintegrate
+as early as when the oil is thoroughly dried to linoxyn. If this is
+true, it would seem advisable to use with hard-drying pigments, a
+proportion of some oil that is semi-drying in nature or one which will
+leave a film not too hard. Soya bean oil, wood oil, and fish oil present
+themselves as candidates for such use. How they will work in practice,
+however, is a question not yet determined. On the other hand, it is well
+known that these pigments require enormous quantities of oil in order to
+grind to a working consistency, and it is possible that the life of
+such coatings is due rather to the property of these pigments, of taking
+up large quantities of oil, than to their effect upon the slow drying of
+oil. Excessive oil carrying, however, should be avoided, as shown by the
+early failure and pitting of those carbon black and lampblack paints
+ground with very large quantities of oil, as is the usual practice. When
+these carbon and lampblack pigments were ground with barytes (which is a
+heavy pigment and requires only about 9 pounds of oil to 100 pounds of
+pigment, as against 175 pounds of oil to 100 pounds of lampblack), it
+was found that the lampblack and carbon black paints were reinforced and
+made more suitable for actual practice. The stimulative nature of these
+black pigments, however, asserted itself in both cases, and large
+pittings and eruptions were evident at the end of a year. Carbon black,
+lampblack, graphite, or any other good conductor of electricity should
+never be placed next to the surface of iron. They are good as
+top-coatings, but not as prime-coaters. Some pigments are stimulators of
+corrosion, because they contain water-soluble impurities that hasten the
+rusting, while others, like graphite, hasten it simply because, being
+good conductors, they stimulate surface electrolysis.
+
+=Panel No. 20--Willow Charcoal.= In excellent condition throughout.
+Presence of small quantities of potash may be responsible for the
+inhibitive nature of this black pigment.
+
+=Panel No. 24--Ochre.= While the film seems intact, it has a very
+mottled appearance and examination shows eruptions of rust through the
+film, in several places.
+
+=Panel No. 27--Natural Barytes.= Within a year the film became
+pin-holed, and corrosion was apparent. At the end of three years very
+little of the pigment was left upon the plate, having chalked and scaled
+off. Barytes has proved its usefulness as a constituent of a combination
+type of paint, but it should not be used alone.
+
+=Panel No. 28--Blanc Fixe.= In the same condition as Panel No. 27, but
+slightly more chalking and disintegration was shown.
+
+[Illustration: Panel Painted with Blanc Fixe. Right Side Stripped of
+Paint to Show Corrosion]
+
+[Illustration: Scaled Whiting Films
+
+Chemically Active Pigments and Their Effect After Eighteen Months'
+Wear]
+
+[Illustration: Plate Showing Effect of Chemically Active Pigments on Oil
+after One Year's Wear]
+
+=Panel No. 29--Whiting.= Plates coated with calcium carbonate or whiting
+in oil presented a very fair appearance at the start of the test, but
+they soon began to chalk and disintegrate. It is well known that
+whiting, being alkaline, has the property of acting on oil and causing
+its early disintegration by saponification. As a matter of fact, six
+months after the whiting plates were exposed, crumbling of the surface
+appeared, and twelve months was sufficient for the total destruction of
+the paint. At this time the rusted surface of the plates which had been
+painted with calcium carbonate, seemed not to rust as fast as those
+plates which were exposed without paint coatings, and the rust which had
+formed appeared to be of an even, fine texture. On the lower left-hand
+corner of these plates had been lettered the figures "29" and "30,"
+using lampblack in oil. One of the most remarkable things which appears
+on the fence to-day is the perfect condition of these lampblack letters
+over their priming coat of calcium carbonate, standing out in clear
+relief against the rusted metal. This test would suggest, therefore,
+that if the surface of metal is properly protected with a pigment which
+is slightly alkaline or inhibitive in nature, and then topped with a
+good weather-resisting material, such as lampblack, graphite or carbon
+black, good results would be obtained. Further tests will be made to
+determine the value of this suggestion.
+
+=Panel No. 30--Precipitated Calcium Carbonate.= Showed more rapid
+destruction than Panel No. 29.
+
+[Illustration: Corrosion Adhering to Film Stripped from Panel Painted
+with Gypsum (Calcium Sulphate)]
+
+=Panel No. 31--Calcium Sulphate.= Under the paint film of gypsum, rust
+soon appeared, showing that the film was not a good excluder of
+moisture. Although the film remained intact, rusting progressed
+throughout the test and considerably darkened the color of the paint.
+
+=Panel No. 32--China Clay.= This pigment gave excellent service for
+eighteen months. Afterwards indications of corrosion were shown, and
+apparent breakdown of the film was indicated.
+
+[Illustration: China Clay
+
+Asbestine
+
+Gypsum]
+
+=Panel No. 33--Asbestine.= In the same condition as Panel No. 32.
+
+[Illustration: Excellent Surface shown by American Vermilion after
+nearly Four Years' Exposure]
+
+=Panel No. 34--American Vermilion.= This pigment has given perfect
+protection to the plates. The film is strong and elastic, and upon
+removal reveals the bright steel. No chalking, checking, discoloration,
+or other signs of paint failure are shown. It would appear that the
+inhibitive characteristics of this pigment are pronounced, and it
+promises to give efficient service for several years more.
+
+=Panel No. 36--Lead Chromate.= This panel is in generally fair
+condition, but slight checking is shown.
+
+[Illustration: Perfect Condition of Plate Painted with Zinc Chromate;
+One Half Stripped. (_Negative cracked_)]
+
+=Panel No. 39--Zinc Chromate.= This panel is in condition similar to
+Panel No. 34, presenting a perfect appearance, with decided maintenance
+of color, elasticity of film, and freedom from any bad characteristics.
+It has proved to be one of the highest type rust inhibitive pigments.
+
+=Panel No. 40--Zinc-and-Barium-Chromate.= Although the color of this
+pigment is not very pleasing, it has proved itself to be the equal of
+zinc chromate in its protective value.
+
+=Panel No. 41--Chrome Green.= In excellent condition. Presents an
+appearance similar to Panels Nos. 34 and 39. Its surface is perfect and
+will doubtless give service for many years.
+
+=Panel No. 44--Prussian Blue.= This panel stands forth as the most
+wonderful moisture-excluder in the whole test, its surface presenting an
+appearance similar to a varnished plate, even after three years'
+exposure. Action between the pigment and the oil, resulting in the
+formation of iron linoleate, may account for this property.
+
+=Panel No. 45--Prussian Blue.= In same condition as Panel No. 44.
+
+=Panel No. 48--Ultramarine Blue.= Soon after this test was exposed,
+early vehicle decay and excessive chalking were observed. The admittance
+of moisture may have caused the formation of acid with the sulphur
+content of the pigment, which would account for the rapid corrosion
+which followed. It is of a pronounced stimulative type. The effect of
+stimulative under-coatings is well shown on some special plates on the
+fence, which when received were not pickled before painting, but had
+upon their surfaces the ordinary coating of mill scale. Over this had
+been stencilled in a triangular form the trade mark of the manufacturer.
+The stencilling material was made of ultramarine blue. When these plates
+were painted with some of the special paints, and exposed, the
+stimulative nature of the ultramarine blue began to assert itself, and
+within a short time, wherever the stencil marks were located, signs of
+rust began to appear through the coatings of top paint which had been
+applied. Corrosion under these stencil marks became so great that the
+trade mark was plainly outlined in letters of rust. This would seem to
+be final proof that pigments of a stimulative nature should never be
+used for the priming of iron and steel.
+
+=Panel No. 49--Zinc-Lead Chromate.= In excellent condition throughout,
+with a smooth surface and showing no corrosion. Stands in the same class
+as Panels Nos. 34 and 39.
+
+[Illustration: Effect of Stimulative Paint. Manufacturer's Trade Mark
+Stencilled on Bare Metal in Triangular Form, showing Through Subsequent
+Paint Coating]
+
+=Panel No. 51--Black Magnetic Oxide of Iron.= In excellent condition.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+THE SANITARY VALUE OF WALL PAINTS
+
+
+=Decoration and Sanitation.= The proper decoration of the interior of
+dwellings and public buildings has become of even greater importance
+than the protection and decoration of exteriors. There is, moreover, an
+increasing demand for harmonious effects and the production of more
+sanitary conditions than have prevailed in the past. Up until a few
+years ago a great variety of wall papers of more or less pleasing
+appearance were almost exclusively used for the decoration of walls in
+the interior of buildings, and their application was commonly considered
+the most effective means of wall decoration. There seems to be no
+question, however, that the use of wall paper is steadily decreasing,
+and that the art of interior decoration is undergoing a transition to
+the almost universal use of paint.
+
+Modern progress demands the maintenance of sanitary conditions for the
+benefit of the public welfare, and there is no doubt that from the
+standpoint of sanitation and hygiene, properly painted wall surfaces are
+far superior to papered walls. There is an abundance of evidence which
+shows that dust germs may easily be harbored, and thus disease
+transmitted from wall paper. In the tenement houses, which are common to
+the larger cities, and to a lesser extent in the dwellings found in
+smaller communities, where tenants are more or less transient, the
+continued maintenance of sanitary conditions presents a difficult
+problem. Infectious and epidemic illnesses generally leave behind
+bacilli of different types, which may find a culture medium in the
+fibrous and porous surfaces presented by wall paper, backed up as they
+invariably must be by starch, casein, or other organic pastes.
+Occasionally the restrictions of local boards of health provide in such
+events for proper fumigation, but too often no precautions are taken to
+destroy the disease germs which are caught in the dust which collects on
+wall paper. As a rule, both tenant and landlord are oblivious to all
+conditions which cannot be readily seen or detected. Burning sulphur,
+one of the most effective means of fumigation, will generally cause
+bleaching and consequent fading of the delicate colors used in printing
+the designs upon wall paper. Washing of the paper with antiseptic
+solutions will destroy its adhesiveness to the plaster and often cause
+bulging and general destruction.
+
+[Illustration: Heavy Colonies of Bacteria Developing in Agar Jelly
+Treated with Washings from Wall Paper
+
+Practically no Development of Bacterial Colonies in Agar Jelly Treated
+with Washings from Sanitary Wall Paint]
+
+=Hospital Practice.= In hospitals, where it is necessary to maintain
+sanitary conditions, the walls are invariably painted, and requirements
+should demand the use of paints which can be washed frequently, so that
+there will be no possibility of uncleanliness. Inquiry made of a
+prominent surgeon[41] connected with one of the large metropolitan
+hospitals substantiated the writer's findings regarding the greater
+sanitary value of wall paints, and brought forth the information that in
+hospitals under construction provision had been made for the finishing
+of walls so that a hard, non-absorbent, and washable surface might be
+obtained. The same authority stated that the common practice, in
+apartments and tenements, of covering the old wall paper over with a
+layer of new each time a tenant moved in, should be condemned, and that
+from a hygienic standpoint the use of sanitary wall paints should be
+advocated in all dwellings as well as public buildings.
+
+  [41] Dr. F. F. Gwyer, Cornell Uni. Med. Col., New York City.
+
+If such conditions are maintained in hospitals, where special attention
+is paid to sanitation, it would appear that similar precautions should
+be equally as necessary in public buildings and in dwellings--wherever,
+in fact, people congregate or live.
+
+=Sanitary Wall Paints.= There have recently appeared in trade a number
+of wall paints composed of non-poisonous pigments ground in paint
+vehicles having valuable waterproofing and binding properties, and of a
+nature to produce the flat or semi-flat finish that has become so
+popular. Such paints produce a sanitary, waterproof surface, which
+permits of frequent washing. By their use it is possible to secure a
+more permanent and a wider range of tints than can be obtained with wall
+paper, as they are produced in a myriad of shades, tints and solid
+colors, from which any desired combination may be selected. On the
+border or on the body of walls decorated with such paints, attractive
+stencil designs, which bring out in relief the color combinations, may
+be applied.
+
+For the decoration of chambers and living rooms, delicate French grays,
+light buffs, cream tints and ivory whites may be used, while in the
+library and other rooms richer and more solid colors, such as greens,
+reds, and blues, may be harmoniously combined.
+
+=Defects of Wall Paper.= It recently occurred to the writer to
+investigate the conditions which obtain in many apartment houses in the
+larger cities. Inspection of a number of such places, in which wall
+paper had been exclusively used on the walls, showed generally bad
+conditions; bulging of the surfaces, caused by dampness in the walls,
+which had loosened up the binder, as well as peeling and dropping of the
+paper from the ceilings, were frequently observed. In many cases a
+shabby appearance was shown, accompanied by an odor which suggested
+decomposition of the paste binder used on the paper. The writer was
+impressed with the fact that such conditions could easily be avoided by
+the very simple expedient of using properly manufactured wall paints,
+which are so easily made dustproof and waterproof.
+
+Samples of wall paper, which had been applied to plastered walls for a
+year or more, were obtained, and examination under the microscope showed
+a most uncleanly surface. Cultures were made of these samples, and
+bacilli of different types were developed in the culture medium in a
+short time.
+
+=Experimental Evidence.= That the above conditions could not have
+existed, had proper wall paints been used, seemed doubtless, and
+suggested a carefully conducted experiment to prove the relative
+sanitary values of wall paper and wall paints. A large sheet of fibre
+board, such as is occasionally used to replace plastered walls, was
+painted on one side with a high-grade wall paint, three-coat work. A
+similar sheet was papered on one side with a clean, new wall paper.
+These test panels were placed where unsanitary conditions, such as
+dampness, foul odors, and a scarcity of air were present. After a short
+period of exposure, the panels were taken to the bacteriological
+laboratory and a small section of the painted surface, about two inches
+square, as well as a small section of the papered surface of similar
+size, were removed and used for making cultures. In each case the
+surface of the section under test was washed with 100 c.c. of distilled,
+sterilized water. The washings which dripped from the surface were
+collected in a graduated flask. One c.c. of the washings was used in
+each case, admixed with bouillon and again with agar-agar. The enormous
+development of bacteria in the bouillon, treated with the washings from
+the wall-papered surface, was sufficient evidence to convince one of the
+greater sanitary value of the wall paint, the washings from which gave a
+culture practically free from bacteria. The colonies of bacteria shown
+in the petri-dish test made of the washings from wall paper further
+supports these findings. It will be noticed that the tests made from the
+washings of the wall paint show practical absence of bacteria, and was
+clear, as was the bouillon-solution test of the paint. The washings from
+the wall paper showed active development of bacteria, both in the
+bouillon and agar tests.
+
+[Illustration: DEVELOPMENT OF BACTERIA IN BOUILLON SOLUTIONS
+
+Note Practical Freedom of Bacteria in Clear Bouillon Solution Treated
+with Washings from Sanitary Wall Paint
+
+Note Milky Appearance of Solution Due to Heavy Development of Bacteria
+in Bouillon Treated with Washings from Wall Paper]
+
+_From the Conservation Standpoint_: It would be of interest to sum up in
+figures the acreage and cordage of wood that annually is transformed
+into pulp for the manufacture of wall paper. Unfortunately, there are no
+available statistics on this subject. It is clear, however, that from
+the standpoint of conservation the use of wall paints should take
+precedence over the use of wall paper.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+                                                               PAGE
+
+  Abrasion, apparatus for determining resistance to,            153
+  Acid reacting compounds,                                      215
+  Actinic light tests,                                          112
+  Adhesive power of Paint Coating,                              104
+  Aluminum Silicate,                                             62
+  American Vermilion,                                            64
+  Analogies of Paint and Concrete manufacture,                   94
+  Analyses of Averages in Atlantic City steel paint test,  235, 236
+    Corn Oil,                                                    16
+    Cottonseed Oil,                                              15
+    Debloomed Mineral Paint Oil,                                 18
+    Iron Oxide Pigments, table,                                  63
+    Linseed Oil,                                                  7
+    Menhaden Oil,                                                14
+    Oils used in Washington tests,                              211
+    Petroleum Spirits,                                           20
+    Rosin Oil,                                                   16
+    Soya Bean Oil,                                                8
+    Sunflower Oil,                                               15
+    Tung Oil,                                                    12
+    Whale Oil,                                                   14
+    Wood Turpentine,                                             19
+  Asbestine,                                                     55
+  Atlantic City fence tests,                                    107
+    steel paint tests,                                      228-235
+    Checking,                                                   122
+    Gloss,                                                      122
+    Hiding power,                                               122
+    inspection of,                                              114
+    Methods used,                                               114
+    Results,                                                    124
+  Auto-electrolysis,                                            220
+
+  Bacteria in wall paper,                                       256
+  Barium Sulphate,                                               55
+  Barytes,                                                       55
+    and Silica Paints in Pittsburg tests,                       172
+  Basic Carbonate-White Lead,                                    42
+  Benzine,                                                       20
+  Benzol,                                                        20
+  Blanc Fixe,                                                    60
+  Blue Lead, Sublimed,                                           47
+  Blue Paint for concrete wall, formula,                        215
+  Blue paints in Pittsburg tests,                               142
+  Boiled Linseed Oil,                                             2
+    Driers in,                                                   28
+  Bone Black,                                                    66
+
+  Calcium Carbonate,                                             60
+  Calcium Sulphate,                                              60
+  Carbon Black,                                                  66
+  Cause of rust in steel work,                                  220
+  Chalking test for laboratory,                                 149
+  Checking and cracking in Pittsburg tests,                     166
+  Checking, in Atlantic City tests,                             122
+  China Clay,                                                    62
+  Chrome Green,                                                  66
+  Chrome Yellow,                                                 64
+  Coatings for cement and concrete,                             214
+  Colored formulas in North Dakota tests,                       190
+  Colors, report of, in Pittsburg tests,                        139
+  Combination formulas in inhibitive paints,                    231
+  Composite formulas in North Dakota tests,                     190
+    in Pittsburg tests,                                         142
+  Composition of paints, in steel test,                         232
+  Conclusion from Pittsburg tests,                              144
+  Concrete primer formula,                                      218
+  Constants of Pine Oil,                                         18
+    Pure Gum Turpentine,                                         19
+  Co-operative tests of Driers,                               29-41
+  Corn Oil,                                                      16
+  Cottonseed Oil,                                                15
+
+  Damp-proofing and Waterproofing,                              214
+  Decay of Lithopone paints,                                    124
+  Decomposition of Paint,                                       122
+  Driers, Co-operative tests of,                              29-41
+    in Boiled Oil,                                               28
+    Tests of Manganese, Lead and Combination, tables,         24-25
+  Drying Properties of Oil,                               1, 26, 27
+
+  Elasticity and Strength of Paint Coating,                     102
+
+  Fence tests of paints,                                        105
+    Supervision of,                                             112
+  Film sectioning,                                               87
+  Film testing results, table,                                   80
+  Filmometers,                                                74-79
+  Formula for Blue Paint for concrete wall,                     215
+    Concrete primer,                                            218
+    Para Red Paint for concrete wall,                           217
+  Formulas of Atlantic City fence test,                         108
+    Tennessee tests,                                       202, 204
+    Washington tests,                                      208, 211
+  Fume Pigments Paints in Pittsburg tests,                      173
+
+  General results of Atlantic City tests,                       128
+  Gloss, in Atlantic City tests,                                122
+  Graphite,                                                      66
+  Green paints in Pittsburg tests,                              142
+  Grinding Pigments,                                             87
+  Gums as moisture resisters,                                    84
+  Gypsum,                                                        60
+
+  Hailstorm, effects of in North Dakota tests,                  185
+  Hospital, painting practice,                                  254
+  House paint tests in North Dakota,                            196
+  Hydrocarbon Oils,                                              16
+
+  Imperviousness of paint coating,                              100
+  Indian Red,                                                    62
+  Inert Pigments, use of,                                        99
+  Inhibition of rust,                                           222
+  Iodine Values of Linseed and Mixed Oils, table,                 8
+  Iron Oxide Paints,                                             64
+
+  Japan driers in tests on steel,                               231
+
+  Laboratory tests, panels for,                                 149
+  Lampblack,                                                     66
+  Laws of Paint Making,                                          93
+  Lime action on paint,                                         214
+  Linoxyn,                                                       21
+  Linseed Oil, boiled,                                            2
+    Chemical action of pigments upon,                            91
+    Table of Analyses of Various Types of,                        7
+    tests of Driers with,                                    24, 25
+  Lithopone,                                                     53
+    paint in Pittsburg tests,                                   136
+    tests at Atlantic City,                                     124
+  Lumbang Oil,                                                   12
+
+  Magnesium Silicate,                                            55
+  Manufacturing Barytes,                                         55
+    Blue Lead,                                                   47
+    Bone Black,                                                  66
+    Paint Pigments,                                           42-68
+    White Lead,                                                  42
+  Menhaden Oil,                                                  12
+    Constants of, table,                                         14
+  Metallic Brown,                                                62
+  Microscope, use of in paint laboratory,                        86
+  Microscopic examination of paint, preparation for,             86
+    measurements of paint sections,                              89
+  Mineral Black,                                                 68
+    Oils,                                                        17
+  Moisture Absorption, tests in,                                 84
+    experiments with various Pigments,                           83
+
+  North Dakota Paints tests,                                    182
+    test fence,                                                 105
+    report of, table,                                       193-195
+
+  Ochre,                                                         62
+  Oil and Thinner tests,                                        202
+  Oil, Corn,                                                     16
+    Cottonseed,                                                  15
+    Effects of Pigments on,                                      90
+    Linseed,                                                      1
+    Linseed, Analyses of Various Types of, table,                 7
+    Linseed, Iodine Values of, table,                             8
+    Linseed, Tests of Driers with,                           24, 25
+    Lumbang,                                                     12
+    Menhaden,                                                    12
+    Menhaden, Constants of, table,                               14
+    Perilla,                                                     21
+    Pine,                                                        18
+    Rosin,                                                       16
+    Soya Bean, and Driers, table,                                 9
+    Soya Bean,                                                    7
+    Chemical Characteristics of, table,                           8
+    Sunflower,                                                   14
+    Tung,                                                         9
+    Whale,                                                       14
+  Oils, Constants and Characteristics of,                         1
+    Drying properties of,                                     1, 26
+    Hydrocarbon,                                                 16
+    In Washington paint tests,                                  210
+    Iodine Value of Linseed and Mixed, table,                     8
+    Mineral,                                                     17
+    Moisture resistance of,                                      84
+    Oxygen Absorbing qualities,                                  21
+    Outline of tests of paints on concrete walls,               216
+  Oxygen Absorption in Oils,                                     21
+
+  Paint Coating, Adhesive power of,                             104
+    Elasticity and Strength of,                                 102
+    imperviousness of,                                          100
+    decomposition of,                                           122
+    films, action of water upon,                                223
+    permeability of,                                             71
+    Testing machine,                                             74
+    preparation of,                                              70
+    in Hospitals,                                               254
+    making, Laws of,                                             93
+    Perry's Principles of,                                      100
+    pigments,                                                 42-69
+    pigments, properties of,                                     42
+    preparation for microscopic examination of,                  86
+    tests at North Dakota Experiment Station,                   105
+    at Washington,                                          207-213
+    supervisors of,                                             113
+    woods used on,                                         124, 135
+  Painting steel plates for tests,                              230
+  Paints for cement and concrete surfaces,                      214
+    composition of in steel test,                               233
+    hiding power of,                                            111
+    sanitary value of,                                          252
+  Panels for laboratory tests,                                  149
+  Para Red formula for concrete wall,                           217
+  Paranitraniline paints in Pittsburg tests,                    140
+  Paranitraniline Red,                                           64
+  Perilla Oil,                                                   21
+  Perry's analogies of paint and concrete manufacture,           99
+    principles of Paint Making,                                 100
+  Petroleum Spirits,                                             20
+  Photomicrographs,                                         89, 165
+  Pigment contention, the,                                      105
+    grinding,                                                    87
+  Pigments,                                                   42-69
+    as stimulators of rust,                                     223
+    Chemical action of upon Linseed Oil, table,                  91
+    Effects of on Oil,                                           90
+    inert, use of,                                               99
+    moisture experiments with, table,                            83
+    percentages of Oil required for grinding,                    68
+    re-enforcing,                                                89
+    report of results of steel paint tests,                 236-251
+    Water resistance of,                                         81
+  Pine Oil,                                                      18
+  Pittsburg fence tests,                                        107
+  Polar Micro-Examinations and Photomicrographs,                 89
+  Primer for concrete,                                          218
+  Properties of Paint Pigments,                                  42
+  Prussian Blue,                                                 66
+
+  Red Lead,                                                      64
+  Reductions used in fence tests,                               111
+  Re-enforcing Pigments,                                         89
+  Results of new test at Atlantic City test fence in 1910,
+    table,                                                  178-181
+    Pittsburg tests,                                            135
+    steel test plates,                                          232
+  Rosin Oil,                                                     16
+  Rust, cause of in steel work,                                 220
+    inhibition of,                                              222
+    stimulation of,                                             223
+
+  Sanitary value of paints,                                     252
+    wall paints,                                                254
+  Sienna,                                                        62
+  Silex,                                                         60
+  Silica,                                                        60
+  Silica and Barytes Paints in Pittsburg tests,                 172
+  Solvent Naphtha,                                               20
+  Soya Bean Oil and Driers, table,                                9
+    Chemical Characteristics of, table,                           8
+  Steel Paint test, rating report,                              234
+    reports on pigments used,                               236-251
+  Steel paint, result of tests at Atlantic City,           234, 235
+  Steel, preparation of for paint tests,                        228
+    water contact and paint,                                    224
+  Structural steel paint tests,                                 220
+  Sublimed Blue Lead,                                            47
+  Sublimated White Lead,                                         46
+  Suction varnish,                                              215
+  Sunflower Oil,                                                 14
+    Constants of, table,                                         15
+  Supervisors of paint tests,                                   113
+
+  Table Analysis of Averages in Atlantic City Steel Paint
+    test,                                                  235, 236
+    Analyses of Corn Oil,                                        16
+    Analyses of Debloomed Mineral Paint Oil,                     18
+    Analysis of Iron Oxide Pigments,                             63
+    Analyses of Oils used in Washington tests,                  211
+    Analyses of Petroleum Spirits,                               20
+    Analyses of Rosin Oil,                                       16
+    Analyses of various types of Linseed Oil,                     7
+    Analyses of wood Turpentine,                                 19
+    Atlantic City test fence formula,                           108
+    Chemical Characteristics of Soya Bean Oil,                    8
+    Comparative spreading rates of White Paint in Pittsburg
+      tests,                                                    148
+    Composition of Blue Lead,                                    49
+    Composition of paints in Atlantic City Steel test,          233
+    Constants of Cottonseed Oil, table,                          15
+    Constants of Menhaden Oil,                                   14
+    Constants of Pine Oil,                                       18
+    Constants of Sunflower Oil,                                  15
+    Constants of Whale Oil,                                      14
+    Co-operative drying tests,                                32-41
+    Excluding tests for moisture absorbed,                       84
+    Fineness for grinding pigments,                              87
+    Formulas in Tennessee tests,                                204
+    Iodine Value of Linseed Oil and Mixed Oils,                  84
+    Moisture experiments with various pigments,                  83
+    Paint section measurements under microscope,                 89
+    Percentages of Oil required for grinding various dry
+      pigments,                                                  68
+    Permeability of Paints,                                      72
+    Ratings of Atlantic City Steel Paint test,                  234
+    Report of North Dakota test fence,                      193-195
+    Results of Atlantic City test fence,                   130, 131
+    Results of new tests at Atlantic City test fence in
+      1910,                                                 178-181
+    Results of second annual inspection Atlantic City test
+      fence,                                                    133
+    Results of second annual inspection in Pittsburg tests,     145
+    Showing action of various pigments upon Linseed Oil,         91
+    Soya Bean Oil and Driers,                                     9
+    Tests of Linseed Oil and Manganese, Lead and Combination
+      Driers,                                                24, 25
+  Talcose,                                                       55
+  Tennessee Paint tests,                                    201-206
+  Test Fences in Paint Experiments,                             105
+    at Atlantic City,                                       114-134
+    at Pittsburg,                                           135-148
+    at Washington,                                          207-213
+    Cement and concrete,                                        214
+    in Tennessee,                                           201-206
+    laboratory, chalking,                                       149
+    North Dakota,                                               182
+    of Oil and Thinners,                                        202
+    of various pigments in steel paint,                     236-251
+    panel sections for,                                         149
+    Structural steel paints,                                    220
+    Water pigment,                                              226
+  Thinner, Wood Turpentine as a,                                202
+  Tung Oil,                                                       9
+  Tung Varnishes,                                                11
+  Turpentine,                                                    18
+
+  Ultramarine Blue,                                              66
+  Umber,                                                         62
+
+  Varnishes from Tung Oil,                                       11
+  Vermilion, American,                                           64
+
+  Wall paints,                                                  252
+  Wall paper, defects of,                                       255
+  Washington Paint tests,                                   207-213
+  Water, action of upon paint films,                            223
+    contact with steel and paint,                               224
+    resistance of Pigments,                                      81
+    tests,                                                      226
+  Water-pigment tests,                                          226
+  Waterproofing and damp-proofing,                              214
+  Whale Oil,                                                     14
+  White Lead, Basic Carbonate,                                   42
+    Basic Sulphate,                                              46
+    Mild Process,                                                46
+    Quick Process,                                               45
+    in Pittsburg tests,                                         139
+    in North Dakota tests,                                      190
+    Paints, checking in Pittsburg tests,                        172
+    processes of manufacture of,                              43-46
+  Whiting,                                                       60
+  Wood Turpentine,                                               19
+    experiments with as a thinner,                              202
+  Woods used in paint tests,                               124, 135
+
+  Zinc Chromate,                                                 64
+  Zinc Lead White,                                               51
+  Zinc Oxide,                                                    51
+
+
+
+
+  +------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                     TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:                         |
+  |                                                                  |
+  | * Page 25, Table VIII: the table header row contains duplicate   |
+  |   values which may be a typographical error.                     |
+  | * Pages 86 and 87: two section titles are followed by numbers    |
+  |   without any obvious reason. These have not been deleted.       |
+  | * The original spelling (including hyphenation) has been         |
+  |   preserved, except as indicated below. Some minor inconsisten-  |
+  |   cies and typographical errors have been corrected silently.    |
+  | * Changes made to the text:                                      |
+  |   * Page 26: 'as discolored and turned brown' changed to 'was    |
+  |     discolored and turned brown'.                                |
+  |   * Page 87, table 3rd row: '0.00067--' changed to '0.00067'.    |
+  |   * Page 94, exposition: some elements re-arranged for better    |
+  |     readability.                                                 |
+  |   * Page 124: the note at the bottom of the page has been moved  |
+  |     to directly underneath the first paragraph.                  |
+  |   * Page 130: 'MacNichol' changed to 'Macnichol' as elsewhere.   |
+  |   * Page 137 (caption): 'Pittsburgh' changed to 'Pittsburg' as   |
+  |     elsewhere in text (and in illustration itself).              |
+  |   * Page 142: 'prussian blues' changed to 'Prussian blues'.      |
+  |   * Page 177: 'pages 174 to 177' changed to 'pages 178 to 181'.  |
+  |   * Page 211: one footnote anchor changed from '*' to '[32]' as  |
+  |     others in row.                                               |
+  |   * Page 230, formula: '4500' changed to '5400'.                 |
+  |   * Page 234, table: row for Panel No. 2000: '}' inserted for    |
+  |     combined rows.                                               |
+  |   * Index: changed to agree with text: 'determinating' to        |
+  |     'determining', 'Derbloomed' to 'Debloomed', 'Filometers' to  |
+  |     'Filmometers', 'Parilla Oil' to 'Perilla Oil'. 'Grinding     |
+  |     Pigments' moved to proper alphabetic location.               |
+  |                                                                  |
+  +------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Paint Technology and Tests, by Henry A. Gardner
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