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diff --git a/37282-8.txt b/37282-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..33a69de --- /dev/null +++ b/37282-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,16393 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 11, Slice 5, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 11, Slice 5 + "Gassendi, Pierre" to "Geocentric" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: August 31, 2011 [EBook #37282] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 11 SL 5 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE GAUDEN, JOHN: "... and on the fact that it was admitted by + Clarendon, who should have had means of being acquainted with the + truth." 'should' amended from 'sould'. + + ARTICLE GAWAIN: "In the later Historia of Geoffrey of Monmouth, and + its French translation by Wace, Gawain plays an important and + 'pseudo-historic' rôle." 'Geoffrey' amended from 'Goeffrey'. + + ARTICLE GAYA: "... and at which a religious fair is held each + September, attended by 10,000 to 20,000 pilgrims." '20,000' amended + from '20,0000'. + + ARTICLE GECKO: "The arrangement of the lamellae and pads differs + much in the various genera and is used for classificatory + purposes." 'classificatory' amended from 'classificactory'. + + ARTICLE GEDDES, ALEXANDER: "Although under ecclesiastical censures, + he had never swerved from a consistent profession of faith as a + Catholic; and on his death-bed he duly received the last rites of + his communion." 'Although' amended from 'Athough'. + + ARTICLE GELSEMIUM: "It was first described in 1640 by John + Parkinson, who grew it in his garden from seed sent by Tradescant + from Virginia; at the present time it is but rarely seen, even in + botanical gardens, in Great Britain." 'Britain' amended from + 'Britian'. + + ARTICLE GEM: "From the Byzantine period downward one peculiarity of + gem-engraving becomes noticeable." 'peculiarity' amended from + 'peculiarty'. + + ARTICLE GENEALOGY: "... or that Bilhan points to an old clan + associated with Reuben (Gen. xxxv. 22) or Edom (Bilhan, Gen. xxxvi. + 27), ..." 'Bilhan' amended from 'Bilhah'. + + ARTICLE GENTIANACEAE: "... bright blue corolla, is visited by + bumble bees; and G. verna, with a still longer narrower tube, is + visited by Lepidoptera." 'bumble' amended from 'humble'. + + ARTICLE GENTZ, FRIEDRICH VON: "... but partly supplemented in + Österreichs Teilnahme an den Befreiungskriegen (Vienna, 1887) ..." + 'Österreichs' amended from 'Öesterreichs'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XI, SLICE V + + Gassendi, Pierre to Geocentric + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + GASSENDI, PIERRE GEFLE + GASTEIN GEGENBAUR, CARL + GASTRIC ULCER GEGENSCHEIN + GASTRITIS GEIBEL, EMANUEL + GASTROPODA GEIGE + GASTROTRICHA GEIGER, ABRAHAM + GATAKER, THOMAS GEIJER, ERIK GUSTAF + GATCHINA GEIKIE, SIR ARCHIBALD + GATE GEIKIE, JAMES + GATEHOUSE GEIKIE, WALTER + GATES, HORATIO GEILER VON KAISERSBERG, JOHANN + GATESHEAD GEINITZ, HANS BRUNO + GATH GEISHA + GATLING, RICHARD JORDAN GEISLINGEN + GATTY, MARGARET GEISSLER, HEINRICH + GAU, JOHN GELA + GAUDEN, JOHN GELADA + GAUDICHAUD-BEAUPRÉ, CHARLES GELASIUS + GAUDRY, JEAN ALBERT GELATI + GAUDY GELATIN + GAUERMANN, FRIEDRICH GELDERLAND (duchy) + GAUGE GELDERLAND (province of Holland) + GAUHATI GELDERN + GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM GELL, SIR WILLIAM + GAUL GELLERT, CHRISTIAN FÜRCHTEGOTT + GAULT GELLERT + GAUNTLET GELLIUS, AULUS + GAUR (ruined city of India) GELLIVARA + GAUR (wild ox) GELNHAUSEN + GAUSS, KARL FRIEDRICH GELO + GAUSSEN, FRANÇOIS SAMUEL LOUIS GELSEMIUM + GAUTIER, ÉMILE THÉODORE LÉON GELSENKIRCHEN + GAUTIER, THÉOPHILE GEM + GAUTIER D'ARRAS GEM, ARTIFICIAL + GAUZE GEMBLOUX + GAVARNI GEMINI + GAVAZZI, ALESSANDRO GEMINIANI, FRANCESCO + GAVELKIND GEMISTUS PLETHO, GEORGIUS + GAVESTON, PIERS GEMMI PASS + GAVOTTE GENDARMERIE + GAWAIN GENEALOGY + GAWLER GENELLI, GIOVANNI BUONAVENTURA + GAY, JOHN GENERAL + GAY, MARIE FRANÇOISE SOPHIE GENERATION + GAY, WALTER GENESIS + GAYA GENET + GAYAL GENEVA (New York, U.S.A.) + GAYANGOS Y ARCE, PASCUAL DE GENEVA (Switzerland) + GAYARRÉ, CHARLES ÉTIENNE ARTHUR GENEVA CONVENTION + GAY-LUSSAC, JOSEPH LOUIS GENEVA, LAKE OF + GAZA, THEODORUS GENEVIÈVE, ST + GAZA GENEVIÈVE, OF BRABANT + GAZALAND GENGA, GIROLAMO + GAZEBO GENISTA + GAZETTE GENIUS + GEAR GENUS, STÉPHANIE DE SAINT-AUBIN + GEBER GENNA + GEBHARD TRUCHSESS VON WALDBURG GENNADIUS II. + GEBWEILER GENOA + GECKO GENOVESI, ANTONIO + GED, WILLIAM GENSONNÉ, ARMAND + GEDDES, ALEXANDER GENTIAN + GEDDES, ANDREW GENTIANACEAE + GEDDES, JAMES LORRAINE GENTILE + GEDDES, SIR WILLIAM DUGUID GENTILE DA FABRIANO + GEDYMIN GENTILESCHI, ARTEMISIA and ORAZIO DE' + GEE, THOMAS GENTILI, ALBERICO + GEEL, JACOB GENTLE + GEELONG GENTLEMAN + GEESTEMÜNDE GENTZ, FRIEDRICH VON + GEFFCKEN, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH GEOCENTRIC + GEFFROY, MATHIEU AUGUSTE + + + + +GASSENDI[1] [GASSEND], PIERRE (1592-1655), French philosopher, scientist +and mathematician, was born of poor parents at Champtercier, near Digne, +in Provence, on the 22nd of January 1592. At a very early age he gave +indications of remarkable mental powers and was sent to the college at +Digne. He showed particular aptitude for languages and mathematics, and +it is said that at the age of sixteen he was invited to lecture on +rhetoric at the college. Soon afterwards he entered the university of +Aix, to study philosophy under P. Fesaye. In 1612 he was called to the +college of Digne to lecture on theology. Four years later he received +the degree of doctor of theology at Avignon, and in 1617 he took holy +orders. In the same year he was called to the chair of philosophy at +Aix, and seems gradually to have withdrawn from theology. He lectured +principally on the Aristotelian philosophy, conforming as far as +possible to the orthodox methods. At the same time, however, he followed +with interest the discoveries of Galileo and Kepler, and became more and +more dissatisfied with the Peripatetic system. It was the period of +revolt against the Aristotelianism of the schools, and Gassendi shared +to the full the empirical tendencies of the age. He, too, began to draw +up objections to the Aristotelian philosophy, but did not at first +venture to publish them. In 1624, however, after he had left Aix for a +canonry at Grenoble, he printed the first part of his _Exercitationes +paradoxicae adversus Aristoteleos_. A fragment of the second book was +published later at La Haye (1659), but the remaining five were never +composed, Gassendi apparently thinking that after the _Discussiones +Peripateticae_ of Francesco Patrizzi little field was left for his +labours. + +After 1628 Gassendi travelled in Flanders and Holland. During this time +he wrote, at the instance of Mersenne, his examination of the mystical +philosophy of Robert Fludd (_Epistolica dissertatio in qua praecipua +principia philosophiae Ro. Fluddi deteguntur_, 1631), an essay on +parhelia (_Epistola de parheliis_), and some valuable observations on +the transit of Mercury which had been foretold by Kepler. He returned to +France in 1631, and two years later became provost of the cathedral +church at Digne. Some years were then spent in travelling through +Provence with the duke of Angoulême, governor of the department. The +only literary work of this period is the _Life of Peiresc_, which has +been frequently reprinted, and was translated into English. In 1642 he +was engaged by Mersenne in controversy with Descartes. His objections to +the fundamental propositions of Descartes were published in 1642; they +appear as the fifth in the series contained in the works of Descartes. +In these objections Gassendi's tendency towards the empirical school of +speculation appears more pronounced than in any of his other writings. +In 1645 he accepted the chair of mathematics in the Collège Royal at +Paris, and lectured for many years with great success. In addition to +controversial writings on physical questions, there appeared during this +period the first of the works by which he is known in the history of +philosophy. In 1647 he published the treatise _De vita, moribus, et +doctrina Epicuri libri octo_. The work was well received, and two years +later appeared his commentary on the tenth book of Diogenes Laërtius, +_De vita, moribus, et placitis Epicuri, seu Animadversiones in X. librum +Diog. Laër_. (Lyons, 1649; last edition, 1675). In the same year the +more important _Syntagma philosophiae Epicuri_ (Lyons, 1649; Amsterdam, +1684) was published. + +In 1648 ill-health compelled him to give up his lectures at the Collège +Royal. He travelled in the south of France, spending nearly two years at +Toulon, the climate of which suited him. In 1653 he returned to Paris +and resumed his literary work, publishing in that year lives of +Copernicus and Tycho Brahe. The disease from which he suffered, lung +complaint, had, however, established a firm hold on him. His strength +gradually failed, and he died at Paris on the 24th of October 1655. A +bronze statue of him was erected by subscription at Digne in 1852. + +His collected works, of which the most important is the _Syntagma +philosophicum_ (_Opera_, i. and ii.), were published in 1658 by Montmort +(6 vols., Lyons). Another edition, also in 6 folio volumes, was +published by N. Averanius in 1727. The first two are occupied entirely +with his _Syntagma philosophicum_; the third contains his critical +writings on Epicurus, Aristotle, Descartes, Fludd and Lord Herbert, with +some occasional pieces on certain problems of physics; the fourth, his +_Institutio astronomica_, and his _Commentarii de rebus celestibus_; the +fifth, his commentary on the tenth book of Diogenes Laërtius, the +biographies of Epicurus, N.C.F. de Peiresc, Tycho Brahe, Copernicus, +Georg von Peuerbach, and Regiomontanus, with some tracts on the value of +ancient money, on the Roman calendar, and on the theory of music, to all +which is appended a large and prolix piece entitled _Notitia ecclesiae +Diniensis_; the sixth volume contains his correspondence. The _Lives_, +especially those of Copernicus, Tycho and Peiresc, have been justly +admired. That of Peiresc has been repeatedly printed; it has also been +translated into English. Gassendi was one of the first after the revival +of letters who treated the _literature_ of philosophy in a lively way. +His writings of this kind, though too laudatory and somewhat diffuse, +have great merit; they abound in those anecdotal details, natural yet +not obvious reflections, and vivacious turns of thought, which made +Gibbon style him, with some extravagance certainly, though it was true +enough up to Gassendi's time--"le meilleur philosophe des littérateurs, +et le meilleur littérateur des philosophes." + + Gassendi holds an honourable place in the history of physical science. + He certainly added little to the stock of human knowledge, but the + clearness of his exposition and the manner in which he, like Bacon, + urged the importance of experimental research, were of inestimable + service to the cause of science. To what extent any place can be + assigned him in the history of philosophy is more doubtful. The + _Exercitationes_ on the whole seem to have excited more attention than + they deserved. They contain little or nothing beyond what had been + already advanced against Aristotle. The first book expounds clearly, + and with much vigour, the evil effects of the blind acceptance of the + Aristotelian dicta on physical and philosophical study; but, as is the + case with so many of the anti-Aristotelian works of this period, the + objections show the usual ignorance of Aristotle's own writings. The + second book, which contains the review of Aristotle's dialectic or + logic, is throughout Ramist in tone and method. The objections to + Descartes--one of which at least, through Descartes's statement of it + in the appendix of objections in the _Meditationes_ has become + famous--have no speculative value, and in general are the outcome of + the crudest empiricism. His labours on Epicurus have a certain + historical value, but the want of consistency inherent in the + philosophical system raised on Epicureanism is such as to deprive it + of genuine worth. Along with strong expressions of empiricism we find + him holding doctrines absolutely irreconcilable with empiricism in any + form. For while he maintains constantly his favourite maxim "that + there is nothing in the intellect which has not been in the senses" + (_nihil in intellectu quod non prius fuerit in sensu_), while he + contends that the imaginative faculty (_phantasia_) is the counterpart + of sense--that, as it has to do with material images, it is itself, + like sense, material, and essentially the same both in men and brutes; + he at the same time admits that the intellect, which he affirms to be + immaterial and immortal--the most characteristic distinction of + humanity--attains notions and truths of which no effort of sensation + or imagination can give us the slightest apprehension (Op. ii. 383). + He instances the capacity of forming "general notions"; the very + conception of universality itself (_ib._ 384), to which he says + brutes, who partake as truly as men in the faculty called _phantasia_, + never attain; the notion of God, whom he says we may imagine to be + corporeal, but understand to be incorporeal; and lastly, the reflex + action by which the mind makes its own phenomena and operations the + objects of attention. + + The _Syntagma philosophicum_, in fact, is one of those eclectic + systems which unite, or rather place in juxtaposition, irreconcilable + dogmas from various schools of thought. It is divided, according to + the usual fashion of the Epicureans, into logic (which, with Gassendi + as with Epicurus, is truly _canonic_), physics and ethics. The logic, + which contains at least one praiseworthy portion, a sketch of the + history of the science, is divided into theory of right apprehension + (_bene imaginari_), theory of right judgment (_bene proponere_), + theory of right inference (_bene colligere_), theory of right method + (_bene ordinare_). The first part contains the specially empirical + positions which Gassendi afterwards neglects or leaves out of account. + The senses, the sole source of knowledge, are supposed to yield us + immediately cognition of individual things; phantasy (which Gassendi + takes to be material in nature) reproduces these ideas; understanding + compares these ideas, which are particular, and frames general ideas. + Nevertheless, he at the same time admits that the senses yield + knowledge--not of things--but of qualities only, and holds that we + arrive at the idea of thing or substance by induction. He holds that + the true method of research is the analytic, rising from lower to + higher notions; yet he sees clearly, and admits, that inductive + reasoning, as conceived by Bacon, rests on a general proposition not + itself proved by induction. He ought to hold, and in disputing with + Descartes he did apparently hold, that the evidence of the senses is + the only convincing evidence; yet he maintains, and from his special + mathematical training it was natural he should maintain, that the + evidence of reason is absolutely satisfactory. The whole doctrine of + judgment, syllogism and method is a mixture of Aristotelian and Ramist + notions. + + In the second part of the _Syntagma_, the physics, there is more that + deserves attention; but here, too, appears in the most glaring manner + the inner contradiction between Gassendi's fundamental principles. + While approving of the Epicurean physics, he rejects altogether the + Epicurean negation of God and particular providence. He states the + various proofs for the existence of an immaterial, infinite, supreme + Being, asserts that this Being is the author of the visible universe, + and strongly defends the doctrine of the foreknowledge and particular + providence of God. At the same time he holds, in opposition to + Epicureanism, the doctrine of an immaterial rational soul, endowed + with immortality and capable of free determination. It is altogether + impossible to assent to the supposition of Lange (_Gesch. des + Materialismus_, 3rd ed., i. 233), that all this portion of Gassendi's + system contains nothing of his own opinions, but is introduced solely + from motives of self-defence. The positive exposition of atomism has + much that is attractive, but the hypothesis of the _calor vitalis_ + (vital heat), a species of _anima mundi_ (world-soul) which is + introduced as physical explanation of physical phenomena, does not + seem to throw much light on the special problems which it is invoked + to solve. Nor is his theory of the weight essential to atoms as being + due to an inner force impelling them to motion in any way reconcilable + with his general doctrine of mechanical causes. + + In the third part, the ethics, over and above the discussion on + freedom, which on the whole is indefinite, there is little beyond a + milder statement of the Epicurean moral code. The final end of life is + happiness, and happiness is harmony of soul and body (_tranquillitas + animi et indolentia corporis_). Probably, Gassendi thinks, perfect + happiness is not attainable in this life, but it may be in the life to + come. + + The _Syntagma_ is thus an essentially unsystematic work, and clearly + exhibits the main characteristics of Gassendi's genius. He was + critical rather than constructive, widely read and trained thoroughly + both in languages and in science, but deficient in speculative power + and original force. Even in the department of natural science he shows + the same inability steadfastly to retain principles and to work from + them; he wavers between the systems of Brahe and Copernicus. That his + revival of Epicureanism had an important influence on the general + thinking of the 17th century may be admitted; that it has any real + importance in the history of philosophy cannot be granted. + + AUTHORITIES.--Gassendi's life is given by Sorbière in the first + collected edition of the works, by Bugerel, _Vie de Gassendi_ (1737; + 2nd ed., 1770), and by Damiron, _Mémoire sur Gassendi_ (1839). An + abridgment of his philosophy was given by his friend, the celebrated + traveller, Bernier (_Abrégé de la philosophie de Gassendi_, 8 vols., + 1678; 2nd ed., 7 vols., 1684). The most complete surveys of his work + are those of G.S. Brett (_Philosophy of Gassendi_, London, 1908), + Buhle (_Geschichte der neuern Philosophie_, iii. 1, 87-222), Damiron + (_Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire de philosophie au XVII^e siècle_), + and P.F. Thomas (_La Philosophie de Gassendi_, Paris, 1889). See also + Ritter, _Geschichte der Philosophie_, x. 543-571; Feuerbach, _Gesch. + d. neu. Phil. von Bacon bis Spinoza_, 127-150; F.X. Kiefl, _P. + Gassendis Erkenntnistheorie und seine Stellung zum Materialismus_ + (1893) and "Gassendi's Skepticismus" in _Philos. Jahrb._ vi. (1893); + C. Güttler, "Gassend oder Gassendi?" in _Archiv f. Gesch. d. Philos._ + x. (1897), pp. 238-242. (R. Ad.; X.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] It was formerly thought that _Gassendi_ was really the genitive + of the Latin form _Gassendus_. C. Güttler, however, holds that it is + a modernized form of the O. Fr. _Gassendy_ (see paper quoted in + bibliography). + + + + +GASTEIN, in the duchy of Salzburg, Austria, a side valley of the Pongau +or Upper Salzach, about 25 m. long and 1¼ m. broad, renowned for its +mineral springs. It has an elevation of between 3000 and 3500 ft. Behind +it, to the S., tower the mountains Mallnitz or Nassfeld-Tauern (7907 +ft.) and Ankogel (10,673 ft.), and from the right and left of these +mountains two smaller ranges run northwards forming its two side walls. +The river Ache traverses the valley, and near Wildbad-Gastein forms two +magnificent waterfalls, the upper, the Kesselfall (196 ft.), and the +lower, the Bärenfall (296 ft.). Near these falls is the Schleierfall +(250 ft.), formed by the stream which drains the Bockhart-see. The +valley is also traversed by the so-called Tauern railway (opened up to +Wildbad-Gastein in September 1905), which goes to Mallnitz, piercing the +Tauern range by a tunnel 9260 yds. in length. The principal villages of +the valley are Hof-Gastein, Wildbad-Gastein and Böckstein. + +HOF-GASTEIN, pop. (1900) 840, the capital of the valley, is also a +watering-place, the thermal waters being conveyed here from +Wildbad-Gastein by a conduit 5 m. long, constructed in 1828 by the +emperor Francis I. of Austria. Hof-Gastein was, after Salzburg, the +richest place in the duchy, owing to its gold and silver mines, which +were already worked during the Roman period. During the 16th century +these mines were yielding annually 1180 lb. of gold and 9500 lb. of +silver, but since the 17th century they have been much neglected and +many of them are now covered by glaciers. + +WILDBAD-GASTEIN, commonly called _Bad-Gastein_, one of the most +celebrated watering-places in Europe, is picturesquely situated in the +narrow valley of the Gasteiner Ache, at an altitude of 3480 ft. The +thermal springs, which issue from the granite mountains, have a +temperature of 77°-120° F., and yield about 880,000 gallons of water +daily. The water contains only 0.35 to 1000 of mineral ingredients and +is used for bathing purposes. The springs are resorted to in cases of +nervous affections, senile and general debility, skin diseases, gout and +rheumatism. Wildbad-Gastein is annually visited by over 8500 guests. The +springs were known as early as the 7th century, but first came into fame +by a successful visit paid to them by Duke Frederick of Austria in 1436. +Gastein was a favourite resort of William I. of Prussia and of the +Austrian imperial family, and it was here that, on the 14th of August +1865, was signed the agreement known as the Gastein Convention, which by +dividing the administration of the conquered provinces of Schleswig and +Holstein between Austria and Prussia postponed for a while the outbreak +of war between the two powers. It was also here (August-September 1879) +that Prince Bismarck negotiated with Count Julius Andrássy the +Austro-German treaty, which resulted in the formation of the Triple +Alliance. + + See Pröll, _Gastein, Its Springs and Climate_ (Vienna, 5th ed., 1893). + + + + +GASTRIC ULCER (ulcer of the stomach), a disease of much gravity, +commonest in females, and especially in anaemic domestic servants. It is +connected in many instances with impairment of the circulation in the +stomach and the formation of a clot in a small blood-vessel +(thrombosis). It may be due to an impoverished state of the blood +(anaemia), but it may also arise from disease of the blood-vessels, the +result of long-continued indigestion and gastric catarrh. + +When clotting takes place in a blood-vessel the nutrition of that +limited area of the stomach is cut off, and the patch undergoes +digestion by the unresisted action of the gastric juices, an ulcer being +formed. The ulcer is usually of the size of a silver threepence or +sixpence, round or oval, and, eating deeply, is apt to make a hole right +through the coats of the stomach. Its usual site is upon the posterior +wall of the upper curvature, near to the pyloric orifice. It may undergo +a healing process at any stage, in which case it may leave but little +trace of its existence; while, on the other hand, it may in the course +of cicatrizing produce such an amount of contraction as to lead to +stricture of the pylorus, or to a peculiar hour-glass deformity of the +stomach. Perforation is in most cases quickly fatal, unless previously +the stomach has become adherent to some neighbouring organ, by which the +dangerous effects of this occurrence may be averted, or unless the +condition has been promptly recognized and an operation has been quickly +done. Usually there is but one ulcer, but sometimes there are several +ulcers. + +The symptoms of ulcer of the stomach are often indefinite and obscure, +and in some cases the diagnosis has been first made on the occurrence of +a fatal perforation. First among the symptoms is pain, which is present +at all times, but is markedly increased after food. The pain is situated +either at the lower end of the breast-bone or about the middle of the +back. Sometimes it is felt in the sides. It is often extremely severe, +and is usually accompanied with localized tenderness and also with a +sense of oppression, and by an inability to wear tight clothing. The +pain is due to the movements of the stomach set up by the presence of +the food, as well as to the irritation of the inflamed nerve filaments +in the floor of the ulcer. Vomiting is a usual symptom. It occurs either +soon after the food is swallowed or at a later period, and generally +relieves the pain and discomfort. Vomiting of blood (haematemesis) is a +frequent and important symptom. The blood may show itself in the form of +a brown or coffee-like mixture, or as pure blood of dark colour and +containing clots. It comes from some vessel or vessels which the +ulcerative process has ruptured. Blood is also found mixed with the +discharges from the bowels, rendering them dark or tarry-looking. The +general condition of the patient with gastric ulcer is, as a rule, that +of extreme ill-health, with pallor, emaciation and debility. The tongue +is red, and there is usually constipation. In most of the cases the +disease is chronic, lasting for months or years; and in those cases +where the ulcers are large or multiple, incomplete healing may take +place, relapses occurring from time to time. But the ulcers may give +rise to no marked symptoms, and there have been instances where fatal +perforation suddenly took place, and where post-mortem examination +revealed the existence of long-standing ulcers which had given rise to +no suggestive symptoms. While gastric ulcer is to be regarded as +dangerous, its termination, in the great majority of cases, is in +recovery. It frequently, however, leaves the stomach in a delicate +condition, necessitating the utmost care as regards diet. Occasionally +the disease proves fatal by sudden haemorrhage, but a fatal result is +more frequently due to perforation and the escape of the contents of the +stomach into the peritoneal cavity, in which case death usually occurs +in from twelve to forty-eight hours, either from shock or from +peritonitis. Should the stomach become adherent to another organ, and +fatal perforation be thus prevented, chronic "indigestion" may persist, +owing to interference with the natural movements of the stomach. +Stricture of the pylorus and consequent dilatation of the stomach may be +caused by the cicatrization of an ulcer. + +The patient should at once be sent to bed and kept there, and allowed +for a while nothing stronger than milk and water or milk and lime water. +But if bleeding has recently taken place no food whatever should be +allowed by the stomach, and the feeding should be by nutrient enemata. +As the symptoms quiet down, eggs may be given beaten up with milk, and +later, bread and milk and home-made broths and soups. Thus the diet +advances to chicken and vegetables rubbed through a sieve, to custard +pudding and bread and butter. As regards medicines, iron is the most +useful, but no pills of any sort should be given. Under the influence of +rest and diet most gastric ulcers get well. The presence of +healthy-looking scars upon the surface of the stomach, which are +constantly found in operating upon the interior of the abdomen, or as +revealed in post-mortem examinations, are evidence of the truth of this +statement. It is unlikely that under the treatment just described +perforation of the stomach will take place, and if the surgeon is called +in to assist he will probably advise that operation is inadvisable. +Moreover, he knows that if he should open the abdomen to search for an +ulcer of the stomach he might fail to find it; more than that, his +search might also be in vain if he opened the stomach itself and +examined the interior. Serious haemorrhages, however, may make it +necessary that a prompt and thorough search should be made in order that +the surgeon may endeavour to locate the ulcer, and, having found it, +secure the damaged vessel and save the patient from death by bleeding. + +Perforation of a gastric ulcer having taken place, the septic germs, +which were harmless whilst in the stomach, escape with the rest of the +contents of the stomach into the general peritoneal cavity. The +immediate effects of this leakage are sudden and severe pain in the +upper part of the abdomen and a great shock to the system (collapse). +The muscles of the abdominal wall become hard and resisting, and as +peritonitis appears and the intestines are distended with gas, the +abdomen is distended and becomes greatly increased in size and ceases to +move, the respiratory movements being short and quick. At first, most +likely, the temperature drops below normal, and the pulse quickens. +Later, the temperature rises. If nothing is done, death from the septic +poisoning of peritonitis is almost certain. + +The treatment of ruptured gastric ulcer demands immediate operation. An +incision should be made in the upper part of the middle line of the +abdomen, and the perforation should be looked for. There is not, as a +rule, much difficulty in finding it, as there are generally deposits of +lymph near the spot, and other signs of local inflammation; moreover, +the contents of the stomach may be seen escaping from the opening. The +ulcer is to be closed by running a "purse-string" suture in the healthy +tissue around it, and the place is then buried in the stomach by picking +up small folds of the stomach-wall above and below it and fixing them +together by suturing. This being done, the surface of the stomach, and +the neighbouring viscera which have been soiled by the leakage, are +wiped clean and the abdominal wound is closed, provision being made for +efficient drainage. A large proportion of cases of perforated gastric +ulcer thus treated recover. (E. O.*) + + + + +GASTRITIS (Gr. [Greek: gastêr], stomach), an inflammatory affection of +the stomach, of which the condition of catarrh, or irritation of its +mucous membrane, is the most frequent and most readily recognized. This +may exist in an acute or a chronic form, and depends upon some +condition, either local or general, which produces a congested state of +the circulation in the walls of the stomach (see DIGESTIVE ORGANS: +_Pathology_). + +_Acute Gastritis_ may arise from various causes. The most intense forms +of inflammation of the stomach are the toxic conditions which follow the +swallowing of corrosive poisons, such as strong mineral acids of alkalis +which may extensively destroy the mucous membrane. Other non-corrosive +poisons cause acute degeneration of the stomach wall (see POISONS). +Acute inflammatory conditions may be secondary to zymotic diseases such +as diphtheria, pyaemia, typhus fever and others. Gastritis is also +caused by the ingestion of food which has begun to decompose, or may +result from eating unsuitable articles which themselves remain +undigested and so excite acute catarrhal conditions. These give rise to +the symptoms well known as characterizing an acute "bilious attack," +consisting in loss of appetite, sickness or nausea, and headache, +frontal or occipital, often accompanied with giddiness. The tongue is +furred, the breath foetid, and there is pain or discomfort in the region +of the stomach, with sour eructations, and frequently vomiting, first of +food and then of bilious matter. An attack of this kind tends to subside +in a few days, especially if the exciting cause be removed. Sometimes, +however, the symptoms recur with such frequency as to lead to the more +serious chronic form of the disease. + +The treatment bears reference, in the first place, to any known source +of irritation, which, if it exist, may be expelled by an emetic or +purgative (except in cases due to poisoning). This, however, is seldom +necessary, since vomiting is usually present. For the relief of sickness +and pain the sucking of ice and counter-irritation over the region of +the stomach are of service. Further, remedies which exercise a soothing +effect upon an irritable mucous membrane, such as bismuth or weak +alkaline fluids, and along with these the use of a light milk diet, are +usually sufficient to remove the symptoms. + +_Chronic Gastric Catarrh_ may result from the acute or may arise +independently. It is not infrequently connected with antecedent disease +in other organs, such as the lungs, heart, liver or kidneys, and it is +especially common in persons addicted to alcoholic excess. In this form +the texture of the stomach is more altered than in the acute form, +except in the toxic and febrile forms above referred to. It is +permanently in a state of congestion, and its mucous membrane and +muscular coat undergo thickening and other changes, which markedly +affect the function of digestion. The symptoms are those of dyspepsia in +an aggravated form (see DYSPEPSIA), of which discomfort and pain after +food, with distension and frequently vomiting, are the chief; and the +treatment must be conducted in reference to the causes giving rise to +it. The careful regulation of the diet, alike as to the amount, the +quality, and the intervals between meals, demands special attention. +Feeding on artificially soured milk may in many cases be useful. Lavage +or washing out of the stomach with weak alkaline solutions has been used +with marked success in the treatment of chronic gastritis. Of medicinal +agents, bismuth, arsenic, nux vomica, and the mineral acids are all of +acknowledged efficacy, as are also preparations of pepsin. + + + + +GASTROPODA, the second of the five classes of animals constituting the +phylum Mollusca. For a discussion of the relationship of the Gastropoda +to the remaining classes of the phylum, see MOLLUSCA. + + The Gastropoda are mainly characterized by a loss of symmetry, + produced by torsion of the visceral sac. This torsion may be resolved + into two successive movements. The first is a ventral flexure in the + antero-posterior or sagittal plane; the result of this is to + approximate the two ends of the alimentary canal. In development, the + openings of the mantle-cavity and the anus are always originally + posterior; later they are brought forward ventrally. During this first + movement flexure is also produced by the coiling of the visceral sac + and shell; primitively the latter was bowl-shaped; but the ventral + flexure, which brings together the two extremities of the digestive + tube, gives the visceral sac the outline of a more or less acute cone. + The shell necessarily takes this form also, and then becomes coiled in + a dorsal or anterior plane--that is to say, it becomes exogastric. + This condition may be seen in embryonic _Patellidae, Fissurellidae_ + and _Trochidae_ (fig. 1, A), and agrees with the method of coiling of + a mollusc without lateral torsion, such as _Nautilus_. But ultimately + the coil becomes ventral or endogastric, in consequence of the second + torsion movement then apparent. + + [Illustration: From Lankester's Treatise on Zoology. + + FIG. 1.--Three stages in the development of Trochus, during the + process of torsion. (After Robert.) + + A, Nearly symmetrical larva (veliger). + B, A stage 1½ hours later than A. + C, A stage 3½ hours later than B. + f, Foot. + op, Operculum. + pac, Pallial cavity. + ve, Velum.] + + The shell is represented as fixed, while the head and foot rotate from + left to right. In reality the head and foot are fixed and the shell + rotates from right to left. + + The second movement is a lateral torsion of the visceral mass, the + foot remaining a fixed point; this torsion occurs in a plane + approximately at right angles to that of the first movement, and + carries the pallial aperture and the anus from behind forwards. If, at + this moment, the animal were placed with mouth and ventral surface + turned towards the observer, this torsion carries the circumanal + complex in a clockwise direction (along the right side in dextral + forms) through 180° as compared with its primitive condition. The + (primitively) right-hand organs of the complex thus become left-hand, + and vice versa. The visceral commissure, while still surrounding the + digestive tract, becomes looped; its right half, with its proper + ganglion, passes to the left side over the dorsal face of the + alimentary canal (whence the name supra-intestinal), while the left + half passes below towards the right side, thus originating the name + infra-intestinal given to this half and to its ganglion. Next, the + shell, the coil of which was at first exogastric, being also included + in this rotation through 180°, exhibits an endogastric coiling (fig. + 1, B, C). This, however, is not generally retained in one plane, and + the spire projects, little by little, on the side which was originally + left, but finally becomes right (in dextral forms, with a clockwise + direction, if viewed from the side of the spire; but counter-clockwise + in sinistral forms). Finally, the original symmetry of the circumanal + complex vanishes; the anus leaves the centre of the pallial cavity and + passes towards the right side (left side in sinistral forms); the + organs of this side become atrophied and disappear. The essential + feature of the asymmetry of Gastropoda is the atrophy or disappearance + of the primitively left half of the circumanal complex (the right half + in sinistral forms), including the gill, the auricle, the osphradium, + the hypobranchial gland and the kidney. + + In dextral Gastropods the only structure found on the topographically + right side of the rectum is the genital duct. But this is not part of + the primitive complex. It is absent in the most primitive and + symmetrical forms, such as _Haliotis_ and _Pleurotomaria_. Originally + the gonads opened into the kidneys. In the most primitive existing + Gastropods the gonad opens into the right kidney (_Patellidae, + Trochidae, Fissurellidae_). The gonaduct, therefore, is derived from + the topographically right kidney. The transformation has been + actually shown to take place in the development of Paludina. In a + dextral Gastropod the shell is coiled in a right-handed spiral from + apex to mouth, and the spiral also projects to the right of the median + plane of the animal. + + [Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_. + + FIG. 2.--Four stages in the development of a Gastropod showing the + process of body torsion. (After Robert.) + + A, Embryo without flexure. + B, Embryo with ventral flexure of the intestine. + C, Embryo with ventral flexure and exogastric shell. + D, Embryo with lateral torsion and an endogastric shell. + a, Anus. + f, Foot. + m, Mouth. + pa, Mantle. + pac, Pallial cavity. + ve, Velum.] + + When the shell is sinistral the asymmetry of the organs is usually + reversed, and there is a complete situs _inversus viscerum_, the + direction of the spiral of the shell corresponding to the position of + the organs of the body. _Triforis, Physa, Clausilia_ are examples + of sinistral Gastropods, but reversal also occurs as an individual + variation among forms normally dextral. But there are forms in which + the involution is "hyperstrophic," that is to say, the turns of the + spire projecting but slightly, the spire, after flattening out + gradually, finally becomes re-entrant and transformed into a false + umbilicus; at the same time that part which corresponds to the + umbilicus of forms with a normal coil projects and constitutes a false + spire; the coil thus appears to be sinistral, although the asymmetry + remains dextral, and the coil of the operculum (always the opposite to + that of the shell) sinistral (e.g. _Lanistes_ among Streptoneura, + _Limacinidae_ among Opisthobranchia). The same, _mutatis mutandis_, + may occur in sinistral shells. + + [Illustration: FIG 3.--Sketch of a model designed so as to show the + effect of torsion or rotation of the visceral hump in Streptoneurous + Gastropoda. + + A, Unrotated ancestral condition. + B, Quarter-rotation. + C, Complete semi-rotation (the limit). + an, Anus. + ln, rn, Primarily left nephridium and primarily right nephridium. + lvg, Primarily left (subsequently the sub-intestinal) visceral + ganglion. + rvg, Primarily right (subsequently the sub-intestinal) visceral + ganglion. + cerg, Cerebral ganglion. + plg, Pleural ganglion. + pedg, Pedal ganglion. + abg, Abdominal ganglion. + bucc, Buccal mass. + W, Wooden arc representing the base-line of the wall of the visceral + hump. + x, 'x, Pins fastening the elastic cord (representing the visceral + nerve loop) to W.] + + The problem of the causes of the torsion of the Gastropod body has + been much discussed. E.R. Lankester in the ninth edition of this work + attributed it to the pressure of the shell and visceral hump towards + the right side. He referred also to the nautiloid shell of the larva + falling to one side. But these are two distinct processes. In the + larva a nautiloid shell is developed which is coiled exogastrically, + that is, dorsally, and the pallial cavity is posterior or ventral + (fig. 2, C): the larva therefore resembles _Nautilus_ in the relations + of body and shell. The shell then rotates towards the left side + through 180°, so that it becomes ventral or endogastric (fig. 2, D). + The pallial cavity, with its organs, is by this torsion moved up the + _right_ side of the larva to the dorsal surface, and thus the left + organs become right and vice versa. In the subsequent growth of the + shell the spire comes to project on the right side, which was + originally the left. Neither the rotation of the shell as a whole nor + its helicoid spiral coiling is the immediate cause of the torsion of + the body in the individual, for the direction of the torsion is + indicated in the segmentation of the ovum, in which there is a + complete reversal of the cleavage planes in sinistral as compared + with dextral forms. The facts, however, strongly suggest that the + original cause of the torsion was the weight of the exogastric shell + and visceral hump, which in an animal creeping on its ventral surface + necessarily fell over to one side. It is not certain that the + projection of the spire to the originally left side of the shell has + anything to do with the falling over of the shell to that side. The + facts do not support such a suggestion. In the larva there is no + projection at the time the torsion takes place. In some forms the + coiling disappears in the adult, leaving the shell simply conical as + in _Patellidae, Fissurellidae_, &c., and in some cases the shell is + coiled in one plane, e.g. _Planorbis_. In all these cases the torsion + and asymmetry of the body are unaffected. + + The characteristic torsion attains its maximum effect among the + majority of the Streptoneura. It is followed in some specialized + Heteropoda and in the Euthyneura by a torsion in the opposite + direction, or detorsion, which brings the anus farther back and + untwists the visceral commissure (see Euthyneura, below). This + conclusion has shown that the Euthyneura do not represent an archaic + form of Gastropoda, but are themselves derived from streptoneurous + forms. The difference between the two sub-classes has been shown to be + slight; certain of the more archaic Tectibranchia (_Actaeon_) and + Pulmonata (_Chilina_) still have the visceral commissure long and not + untwisted. The fact that all the Euthyneura are hermaphrodite is not a + fundamental difference; several Streptoneura are so, likewise + _Valvata, Oncidiopsis, Marsenina, Odostomia, Bathysciadium, + Entoconcha_. + + _Classification._--The class Gastropoda is subdivided as follows: + + Sub-class I. Streptoneura. + Order 1. Aspidobranchia. + Sub-order 1. Docoglossa. + " 2. Rhipidoglossa. + Order 2. Pectinibranchia. + Sub-order 1. Taenioglossa. + Tribe 1. Platypoda. + " 2. Heteropoda. + Sub-order 2. Stenoglossa. + Tribe 1. Rachiglossa. + " 2. Toxiglossa. + + Sub-class II. Euthyneura. + Order 1. Opisthobranchia. + Sub-order 1. Tectibranchia. + Tribe 1. Bullomorpha. + " 2. Aplysiomorpha. + " 3. Pleurobranchomorpha. + Sub-order 2. Nudibranchia. + Tribe 1. Tritoniomorpha. + " 2. Doridomorpha. + " 3. Eolidomorpha. + " 4. Elysiomorpha. + Order 2. Pulmonata. + Sub-order 1. Basommatophora. + " 2. Stylommatophora. + Tribe 1. Holognatha. + " 2. Agnatha. + " 3. Elasmognatha. + " 4. Ditremata. + + +Sub-Class I.--STREPTONEURA + +In this division the torsion of the visceral mass and visceral +commissure is at its maximum, the latter being twisted into a figure of +eight. The right half of the commissure with its ganglion is +supra-intestinal, the left half with its ganglion infra-intestinal. In +some cases each pleural ganglion is connected with the opposite branch +of the visceral commissure by anastomosis with the pallial nerve, a +condition which is called dialyneury; or there may be a direct +connective from the pleural ganglion to the visceral ganglion of the +opposite side, which is called zygoneury. The head bears only one pair +of tentacles. The radular teeth are of several different kinds in each +transverse row. The heart is usually posterior to the branchia +(proso-branchiate). The sexes are usually separate. + +The old division into Zygobranchia and Azygobranchia must be abandoned, +for the Azygobranchiate Rhipidoglossa have much greater affinity to the +Zygobranchiate _Haliotidae_ and _Fissurellidae_ than to the +Azygobranchia in general. This is shown by the labial commissure and +pedal cords of the nervous system, by the opening of the gonad into the +right kidney, and by other points. Further, the _Pleurotomariidae_ have +been discovered to possess two branchiae. The sub-class is now divided +into two orders: the Aspidobranchia in which the branchia or ctenidium +is bipectinate and attached only at its base, and the Pectinibranchia in +which the ctenidium is monopectinate and attached to the mantle +throughout its length. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.--The Common Limpet (_Patella vulgata_) in its + shell, seen from the pedal surface. (Lankester.) + + x, y, The median antero-posterior axis. + a, Cephalic tentacle. + b, Plantar surface of the foot. + c, Free edge of the shell. + d, The branchial efferent vessel carrying aerated blood to the + auricle, and here interrupting the circlet of gill lamellae. + e, Margin of the mantle-skirt. + f, Gill lamellae (_not_ ctenidia, but special pallial growths, + comparable with those of Pleurophyllidia). + g, The branchial efferent vessel. + h, Factor of the branchial advehent vessel. + i, Interspaces between the muscular bundles of the root of the foot, + causing the separate areae seen in fig. 5, c.] + + Order I. ASPIDOBRANCHIA.--These are the most primitive Gastropods, + retaining to a great degree the original symmetry of the organs of the + pallial complex, having two kidneys, in some cases two branchiae, and + two auricles. The gonad has no accessory organs and except in + _Neritidae_ no duct, but discharges into the right kidney. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Dorsal surface of the Limpet removed from its + shell and deprived of its black pigmented epithelium; the internal + organs are seen through the transparent body-wall. (Lankester.) + + c, Muscular bundles forming the root of the foot, and adherent to + the shell. + e, Free mantle-skirt. + em, Tentaculiferous margin of the same. + i, Smaller (left) nephridium. + k, Larger (right) nephridium. + l, Pericardium. + lx, Fibrous septum, behind the pericardium. + n, Liver. + int, Intestine. + ecr, Anterior area of the mantle-skirt over-hanging the head + (cephalic hood).] + + Forms adapted to terrestrial life and to aerial respiration occur in + various divisions of Gastropods, and do not constitute a single + homogeneous group. Thus the _Helicinidae_, which are terrestrial, are + now placed among the Aspidobranchia. In these there are neither + branchia nor osphradium, and the pallial chamber which retains its + large opening serves as a lung. Degeneration of the shell occurs in + some members of the order. It is largely covered by the mantle in some + _Fissurellidae_, is entirely internal in _Pupilia_ and absent in + _Titiscaniidae_. + + The common limpet is a specially interesting and abundant example of + the more primitive Aspidobranchia. The foot of the limpet is a nearly + circular disk of muscular tissue; in front, projecting from and raised + above it, are the head and neck (figs. 4, 13). The visceral hump forms + a low conical dome above the sub-circular foot, and standing out all + round the base of this dome so as completely to overlap the head and + foot, is the circular mantle-skirt. The depth of free mantle-skirt is + greatest in front, where the head and neck are covered in by it. Upon + the surface of the visceral dome, and extending to the edge of the + free mantle-skirt, is the conical shell. When the shell is taken away + (best effected by immersion in hot water) the surface of the visceral + dome is found to be covered by a black-coloured epithelium, which may + be removed, enabling the observer to note the position of some organs + lying below the transparent integument (fig. 5). The muscular columns + (c) attaching the foot to the shell form a ring incomplete in front, + external to which is the free mantle-skirt. The limits of the large + area formed by the flap over the head and neck (ecr) can be traced, + and we note the anal papilla showing through and opening on the right + shoulder, so to speak, of the animal into the large anterior region of + the sub-pallial space. Close to this the small renal organ (i, mediad) + and the larger renal organ (k, to the right and posteriorly) are seen, + also the pericardium (l) and a coil of the intestine (int) embedded + in the compact liver. + + [Illustration: Fig. 6.--Anterior portion of the same Limpet, with the + overhanging cephalic hood removed. (Lankester.) + + a, Cephalic tentacle. + b, Foot. + c, Muscular substance forming the root of the foot. + d, The capito-pedal organs of Lankester (= rudimentary ctenidia). + e, Mantle-skirt. + f, Papilla of the larger nephridium. + g, Anus. + h, Papilla of the smaller nephridium. + i, Smaller nephridium. + k, Larger nephridium. + l, Pericardium. + m, Cut edge of the mantle-skirt. + n, Liver. + p, Snout.] + + On cutting away the anterior part of the mantle-skirt so as to expose + the sub-pallial chamber in the region of the neck, we find the right + and left renal papillae (discovered by Lankester in 1867) on either + side of the anal papilla (fig. 6), but no gills. If a similar + examination be made of the allied genus _Fissurella_ (fig. 17, d), we + find right and left of the two renal apertures a right and left + gill-plume or ctenidium, which here as in _Haliotis_ and + _Pleurotomaria_ retain their original paired condition. In _Patella_ + no such plumes exist, but right and left of the neck are seen a pair + of minute oblong yellow bodies (fig. 6, d), which were originally + described by Lankester as orifices possibly connected with the + evacuation of the generative products. On account of their position + they were termed by him the "capito-pedal orifices," being placed near + the junction of head and foot. J.W. Spengel has, however, in a most + ingenious way shown that these bodies are the representatives of the + typical pair of ctenidia, here reduced to a mere rudiment. Near to + each rudimentary ctenidium Spengel has discovered an olfactory patch + or osphradium (consisting of modified epithelium) and an olfactory + nerve-ganglion (fig. 8). It will be remembered that, according to + Spengel, the osphradium of mollusca is definitely and intimately + related to the gill-plume or ctenidium, being always placed near the + base of that organ; further, Spengel has shown that the nerve-supply + of this olfactory organ is always derived from the visceral loop. + Accordingly, the nerve-supply affords a means of testing the + conclusion that we have in Lankester's capito-pedal bodies the + rudimentary ctenidia. The accompanying diagrams (figs. 9, 10) of the + nervous systems of _Patella_ and of _Haliotis_, as determined by + Spengel, show the identity in the origin of the nerves passing from + the visceral loop to Spengel's olfactory ganglion of the Limpet, and + that of the nerves which pass from the visceral loop of _Haliotis_ to + the olfactory patch or osphradium, which lies in immediate relation on + the right and on the left side to the right and left gill-plumes + (ctenidia) respectively. The same diagrams serve to demonstrate the + streptoneurous condition of the visceral loop in Aspidobranchia. + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.--The same specimen viewed from the left front, + so as to show the sub-anal tract (ff) of the larger nephridium, by + which it communicates with the pericardium. o, Mouth; other letters as + in fig. 6.] + + Thus, then, we find that the limpet possesses a symmetrically disposed + pair of ctenidia in a rudimentary condition, and justifies its + position among Aspidobranchia. At the same time it possesses a + totally distinct series of _functional_ gills, which are not derived + from the modification of the typical molluscan ctenidium. These gills + are in the form of delicate lamellae (fig. 4, f), which form a series + extending completely round the inner face of the depending + mantle-skirt. This circlet of gill-lamellae led Cuvier to class the + limpets as Cyclobranchiata, and, by erroneous identification of them + with the series of metamerically repeated ctenidia of _Chiton_, to + associate the latter mollusc with the former. The gill-lamellae of + _Patella_ are processes of the mantle comparable with the plait-like + folds often observed on the roof of the branchial chamber in other + Gastropoda (e.g. _Buccinum_ and _Haliotis_). They are termed pallial + gills. The only other molluscs in which they are exactly represented + are the curious Opisthobranchs _Phyllidia_ and _Pleurophyllidia_ (fig. + 55). In these, as in _Patella_, the typical ctenidia are aborted, and + the branchial function is assumed by close-set lamelliform processes + arranged in a series beneath the mantle-skirt on either side of the + foot. In fig. 4, d, the large branchial vein of _Patella_ bringing + blood from the gill-series to the heart is seen; where it crosses the + series of lamellae there is a short interval devoid of lamellae. + + [Illustration: Fig. 8.--A, Section in a plane vertical to the surface + of the neck of _Patella_ through a, the rudimentary ctenidium + (Lankester's organ), and b, the olfactory epithelium (osphradium); c, + the olfactory (osphradial) ganglion. (After Spengel.) + + B, Surface view of a rudimentary ctenidium of _Patella_ excised and + viewed as a transparent object. (Lankester.)] + + [Illustration: Fig. 9.--Nervous system of _Patella_; the visceral loop + is lightly shaded; the buccal ganglia are omitted. (After Spengel.) + + ce, Cerebral ganglia. + c'e, Cerebral commissure. + pl, Pleural ganglion. + pe, Pedal ganglion. p'e, Pedal nerve. + s, s', Nerves (right and left) to the mantle. + o, Olfactory ganglion, connected by nerve to the streptoneurous + visceral loop.] + + The heart in _Patella_ consists of a single auricle (not two as in + _Haliotis_ and _Fissurella_) and a ventricle; the former receives the + blood from the branchial vein, the latter distributes it through a + large aorta which soon leads into irregular blood-lacunae. + + The existence of two renal organs in _Patella_, and their relation to + the pericardium (a portion of the coelom), is important. Each renal + organ is a sac lined with glandular epithelium (ciliated cell, with + concretions) communicating with the exterior by its papilla, and by a + narrow passage with the pericardium. The connexion with the + pericardium of the smaller of the two renal organs was demonstrated by + Lankester in 1867, at a time when the fact that the renal organ of the + Mollusca, as a rule, opens into the pericardium, and is therefore a + typical nephridium, was not known. Subsequent investigations carried + on under the direction of the same naturalist have shown that the + larger as well as the smaller renal sac is in communication with the + pericardium. The walls of the renal sacs are deeply plaited and thrown + into ridges. Below the surface these walls are excavated with + blood-vessels, so that the sac is practically a series of + blood-vessels covered with renal epithelium, and forming a meshwork + within a space communicating with the exterior. The larger renal sac + (remarkably enough, that which is aborted in other Anisopleura) + extends between the liver and the integument of the visceral dome very + widely. It also bends round the liver as shown in fig. 12, and forms + a large sac on half of the upper surface of the muscular mass of the + foot. Here it lies close upon the genital body (ovary or testis), and + in such intimate relationship with it that, when ripe, the gonad + bursts into the renal sac, and its products are carried to the + exterior by the papilla on the right side of the anus (Robin, Dall). + This fact led Cuvier erroneously to the belief that a duct existed + leading from the gonad to this papilla. The position of the gonad, + best seen in the diagrammatic section (fig. 13), is, as in other + Aspidobranchia, devoid of a special duct communicating with the + exterior. This condition, probably an archaic one, distinguishes the + Aspidobranchia from other Gastropoda. + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Nervous system of _Haliotis_; the visceral + loop is lightly shaded; the buccal ganglia are omitted. (After + Spengel.) + + ce, Cerebral ganglion. + pl.pe, The fused pleural and pedal ganglia. + pe, The right pedal nerve. + ce.pl, The cerebro-pleural connective. + ce.pe, The cerebro-pedal connective. + s, s', Right and left mantle nerves. + ab, Abdominal ganglion or site of same. + o, o, Right and left olfactory ganglia and osphardia receiving nerve + from visceral loop.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Nervous system of _Fissurella_. (From + Gegenbaur, after Jhering.) + + pl, Pallial nerve. + p, Pedal nerve. + A, Abdominal ganglia in the streptoneurous visceral commissure, with + supra- and sub-intestine ganglion on each side. + B, Buccal ganglia. + C, C, Cerebral ganglia. + es, Cerebral commissure. + o, Otocysts attached to the cerebro-pedal connectives.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Diagram of the two renal organs (nephridia), + to show their relation to the rectum and to the pericardium. + (Lankester.) + + f, Papilla of the larger nephridium. + g, Anal papilla with rectum leading from it. + h, Papilla of the smaller nephridium, which is only represented by + dotted outlines. + l, Pericardium indicated by a dotted outline--at its right side are + seen the two reno-pericardial pores. + ff, The sub-anal tract of the large nephridium given off near its + papilla and seen through the unshaded smaller nephridium. + ks.a, Anterior superior lobe of the large nephridium. + ks.l, Left lobe of same. + ks.p, Posterior lobe of same. + ks.i, Inferior sub-visceral lobe of same.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Diagram of a vertical antero-postero median + section of a Limpet. Letters as in figs. 6, 7, with following + additions. (Lankester.) + + q, Intestine in transverse section. + r, Lingual sac (radular sac). + rd, Radula. + s, Lamellated stomach. + t, Salivary gland. + u, Duct of same. + v, Buccal cavity + w, Gonad. + br.a, Branchial advehent vessel (artery). + br.v, Branchial efferent vessel (vein). + bv, Blood-vessel. + odm, Muscles and cartilage of the odontophore. + cor, Heart within the pericardium.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Vertical section in a plane running right and + left through the anterior part of the visceral hump of _Patella_ to + show the two renal organs and their openings into the pericardium. + (J.T. Cunningham.) + + a, Large or external or right renal organ. + ab, Narrow process of the same running _below_ the intestine and + leading by k into the pericardium. + b, Small or median renal organ. + c, Pericardium. + d, Rectum. + e, Liver. + f, Manyplies. + g, Epithelium of the dorsal surface. + h, Renal epithelium lining the renal sacs. + i, Aperture connecting the small sac with the pericardium. + k, Aperture connecting the large sac with the pericardium.] + + The digestive tract of _Patella_ offers some interesting features. The + odontophore is powerfully developed; the radular sac is + extraordinarily long, lying coiled in a space between the mass of the + liver and the muscular foot. The radula has 160 rows of teeth with + twelve teeth in each row. Two pairs of salivary ducts, each leading + from a salivary gland, open into the buccal chamber. The oesophagus + leads into a remarkable stomach, plaited like the manyplies of a + sheep, and after this the intestine takes a very large number of turns + embedded in the yellow liver, until at last it passes between the two + renal sacs to the anal papilla. A curious ridge (spiral? valve) which + secretes a slimy cord is found upon the inner wall of the intestine. + The general structure of the Molluscan intestine has not been + sufficiently investigated to render any comparison of this structure + of _Patella_ with that of other Mollusca possible. The eyes of the + limpet deserve mention as examples of the most primitive kind of eye + in the Molluscan series. They are found one on each cephalic tentacle, + and are simply minute open pits or depressions of the epidermis, the + epidermic cells lining them being pigmented and connected with nerves + (compare fig. 14, art. CEPHALOPODA). The limpet breeds upon the + southern English coast in the early part of April, but its development + has not been followed. It has simply been traced as far as the + formation of a diblastula which acquires a ciliated band, and becomes + a nearly spherical trochosphere. It is probable that the limpet takes + several years to attain full growth, and during that period it + frequents the same spot, which becomes gradually sunk below the + surrounding surface, especially if the rock be carbonate of lime. At + low tide the limpet (being a strictly intertidal organism) is exposed + to the air, and (according to trustworthy observers) quits its + attachment and walks away in search of food (minute encrusting algae), + and then once more returns to the identical spot, not an inch in + diameter, which belongs, as it were, to it. Several million + limpets--twelve million in Berwickshire alone--are annually used on + the east coast of Britain as bait. + + Sub-order 1. _Docoglossa._--Nervous system without dialyneury. Eyes + are open invaginations without crystalline lens. Two osphradia present + but no hypobranchial glands nor operculum. Teeth of radula beam-like, + and at most three marginal teeth on each side. Heart has only a single + auricle, neither heart nor pericardium traversed by rectum. Shell + conical without spire. + + Fam. 1.--_Acmaeidae._ A single bipectinate ctenidium on left side. + Acmaea, without pallial branchiae, British. Scurria, with pallial + branchiae in a circle beneath the mantle. + + Fam. 2.--_Tryblidiidae._ Muscle scar divided into numerous + impressions. _Tryblidium_, Silurian. + + Fam. 3.--_Patellidae_. No ctenidia but pallial branchiae in a circle + between mantle and foot. _Patella_, pallial branchiae forming a + complete circle, no epipodial tentacles, British. _Ancistromesus_, + radula with median central tooth. _Nacella_, epipodial tentacles + present. _Helcion_, circlet of branchiae interrupted anteriorly, + British. + + Fam. 4.--_Lepetidae._ Neither ctenidia nor pallial branchiae. + _Lepeta_, without eyes. _Pilidium. Propilidium._ + + Fam. 5.--_Bathysciadidae._ Hermaphrodite; head with appendage on + right side; radula without central tooth. _Bathysciadium_, abyssal. + + Sub-order 2. RHIPIDOGLOSSA.--Aspidobranchia with a palliovisceral + anastomosis (dialyneurous); eye-vesicle closed, with crystalline lens; + ctenidia, osphradia and hypobranchial glands paired or single. Radula + with very numerous marginal teeth arranged like the rays of a fan. + Heart with two auricles; ventricle traversed by the rectum, except in + the _Helicinidae_. An epipodial ridge on each side of the foot and + cephalic expansions between the tentacles often present. + + Fam. 1.--_Pleurotomariidae_. Shell spiral; mantle and shell with an + anterior fissure; two ctenidia; a horny operculum. _Pleurotomaria_, + epipodium without tentacles. Genus includes several hundred extinct + species ranging from the Silurian to the Tertiary. Five living + species from the Antilles, Japan and the Moluccas. Moluccan species + is 19 cm. in height. + + Fam. 2.--_Bellerophontidae._ 300 species, all fossil, from Cambrian + to Trias. + + Fam. 3.--_Euomphalidae._ Also extinct, from Cambrian to Cretaceous. + + Fam. 4.--_Haliotidae._ Spire of shell much reduced; two bipectinate + ctenidia, the right being the smaller; no operculum. Haliotis. + + Fam. 5.--_Velainiellidae_, an extinct family from the Eocene. + + [Illustration: FIG. 15.--_Halio tistuberculata._ d, Foot; i, + tentacular processes of the mantle. (From Owen, after Cuvier.)] + + Fam. 6.--_Fissurellidae._ Shell conical; slit or hole in anterior + part of mantle; two symmetrical ctenidia; no operculum. + _Emarginula_, mantle and shell with a slit, British. _Scutum_, + mantle split anteriorly and reflected over shell, which has no slit. + _Puncturella_, mantle and shell with a foramen in front of the apex, + British. _Fissurella_, mantle and shell perforated at apex, British. + + Fam. 7.--_Cocculinidae._ Shell conical, symmetrical, without slit or + perforation. _Cocculina_, abyssal. + + Fam. 8.--_Trochidae._ Shell spirally coiled; a single ctenidium; + eyes perforated; a horny operculum; lobes between the tentacles. + _Trochus_, shell umbilicated, spire pointed and prominent, British. + _Monodonta_, no jaws, spire not prominent, no umbilicus, columella + toothed. _Gibbula_, with jaws, three pairs of epipodial cirri + without pigment spots at their bases, British. _Margarita_, five to + seven pairs of epipodial cirri with a pigment spot at base of each. + + [Illustration: FIG. 16.--_Scutum_, seen from the pedal surface. + (Lankester.) + + o, Mouth. + T, Cephalic tentacle. + br, One of the two symmetrical gills placed on the neck.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Dorsal aspect of a specimen of _Fissurella_ + from which the shell has been removed, whilst the anterior area of the + mantle-skirt has been longitudinally slit and its sides reflected. + (Lankester.) + + a, Cephalic tentacle. + b, Foot. + d, Left (archaic right) gill-plume. + e, Reflected mantle-flap. + fi, The fissure or hole in the mantle-flap traversed by the + longitudinal incision. + f, Right (archaic left) nephridium's aperture. + g, Anus. + h, Left (archaic right) aperture of nephridium. + p, Snout.] + + Fam. 9.--_Stomatellidae._ Spire of shell much reduced; a single + ctenidium. _Stomatella_, foot truncated posteriorly, an operculum + present, no epipodial tentacles. _Gena_, foot elongated posteriorly, + no operculum. + + Fam. 10.--_Delphinulidae._ Shell spirally coiled; operculum horny; + intertentacular lobes absent. _Delphinula._ + + Fam. 11.--_Liotiidae_, shell globular, margin of aperture thickened. + _Liotia_. + + Fam. 12.--_Cyclostrematidae._ Shell flattened, umbilicated; foot + anteriorly truncated with angles produced into lobes. _Cyclostrema._ + _Teinostoma._ + + Fam. 13.--_Trochonematidae._ All extinct, Cambrian to Cretaceous. + + Fam. 14.--_Turbinidae._ Shell spirally coiled; epipodial tentacles + present; operculum thick and calcareous. _Turbo. Astralium. Molleria. + Cyclonema._ + + Fam. 15.--_Phasianellidae._ Shell not nacreous, without umbilicus, + with prominent spire and polished surface. _Phasianella._ + + Fam. 16.--_Umboniidae._ Shell flattened, not umbilicated, generally + smooth; operculum horny. _Umbonium. Isanda._ + + Fam. 17.--_Neritopsidae._ Shell semi-globular, with short spire; + operculum calcareous, not spiral. _Neritopsis. Naticopsis_, + extinct. + + Fam. 18.--_Macluritidae._ Extinct, Cambrian and Silurian. + + Fam. 19.--_Neritidae._ Shell with very low spire, without umbilicus, + internal partitions frequently absorbed; a single ctenidium; a + cephalic penis present. _Nerita_, marine. _Neritina_, freshwater, + British. _Septaria_, shell boat-shaped. + + Fam. 20.--_Titiscaniidae._ Without shell and operculum, but with + pallial cavity and ctenidium. _Titiscania_, Pacific. + + Fam. 21.--_Helicinidae._ No ctenidium, but a pulmonary cavity; heart + with a single auricle, not traversed by the rectum. _Helicina. + Eutrochatella. Stoastoma. Bourceria._ + + Fam. 22.--_Hydrocenidae._ No ctenidium, but a pulmonary cavity; + operculum with an apophysis. _Hydrocena_, Dalmatia. + + Fam. 23.--_Proserpinidae._ No operculum. _Proserpina_, Central + America. + + Order 2. PECTINIBRANCHIA.--In this order there is no longer any trace + of bilateral symmetry in the circulatory, respiratory and excretory + organs, the topographically right half of the pallial complex having + completely disappeared, except the right kidney, which is represented + by the genital duct. There is usually a penis in the male. The + ctenidium is monopectinate and attached to the mantle along its whole + length, except in _Adeorbis_ and _Valvata_; in the latter alone it is + bipectinate. There is a single well-developed, often pectinated + osphradium. The eye is always a closed vesicle, and the internal + cornea is extensive. In the radula there is a single central tooth or + none. + + [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Animal and shell of _Pyrula laevigata_. (From + Owen.) + + a, Siphon. + b, Head-tentacles. + C, Head, the letter placed near the right eye. + d, The foot, expanded as in crawling. + h, The mantle-skirt reflected over the sides of the shell.] + + The former classification into Holochlamyda, Pneumochlamyda and + Siphonochlamyda has been abandoned, as it was founded on adaptive + characters not always indicative of true affinities. The order is now + divided into two sub-orders: the Taenioglossa, in which there are + three teeth on each side of the median tooth of the radula, and the + Stenoglossa, in which there is only one tooth on each side of the + median tooth. In the latter a pallial siphon, a well-developed + proboscis and an unpaired oesophageal gland are always present, in the + former they are usually absent. The siphon is an incompletely tubular + outgrowth of the mantle margin on the left side, contained in a + corresponding outgrowth of the edge of the shell-mouth, and serving to + conduct water to the respiratory cavity. + + The condition usually spoken of as a "proboscis" appears to be derived + from the condition of a simple rostrum (having the mouth at its + extremity) by the process of _incomplete introversion_ of that simple + rostrum. There is no reason in the actual significance of the word why + the term "proboscis" should be applied to an alternately introversible + and eversible tube connected with an animal's body, and yet such is a + very customary use of the term. The introversible tube may be + completely closed, as in the "proboscis" of Nemertine worms, or it may + have a passage in it leading into a non-eversible oesophagus, as in + the present case, and in the case of the eversible pharynx of the + predatory Chaetopod worms. The diagrams here introduced (fig. 19) are + intended to show certain important distinctions which obtain amongst + the various "introverts," or intro- and e-versible tubes so frequently + met with in animal bodies. Supposing the tube to be completely + introverted and to commence its eversion, we then find that eversion + may take place, either by a forward movement of the side of the tube + near its attached base, as in the proboscis of the Nemertine worms, + the pharynx of Chaetopods and the eye-tentacle of Gastropods, or by a + forward movement of the inverted apex of the tube, as in the proboscis + of the Rhabdocoel Planarians, and in that of Gastropods here under + consideration. The former case we call "pleurecbolic" (fig. 19, A, B, + C, H, I, K), the latter "acrecbolic" tubes or introverts (fig. 19, D, + E, F, G). It is clear that, if we start from the condition of full + eversion of the tube and watch the process of introversion, we shall + find that the pleurecbolic variety is introverted by the apex of the + tube sinking inwards; it may be called acrembolic, whilst conversely + the acrecbolic tubes are pleurembolic. Further, it is obvious enough + that the process either of introversion or of eversion of the tube may + be arrested at any point, by the development of fibres connecting the + wall of the introverted tube with the wall of the body, or with an + axial structure such as the oesophagus; on the other hand, the range + of movement of the tubular introvert may be unlimited or complete. The + acrembolic proboscis or frontal introvert of the Nemertine worms has a + complete range. So has the acrembolic pharynx of Chaetopods, if we + consider the organ as terminating at that point where the jaws are + placed and the oesophagus commences. So too the acrembolic + eye-tentacle of the snail has a complete range of movement, and also + the pleurembolic proboscis of the Rhabdocoel prostoma. The introverted + rostrum of the Pectinibranch Gastropods presents in contrast to these + a limited range of movement. The "introvert" in these Gastropods is + not the pharynx as in the Chaetopod worms, but a prae-oral structure, + its apical limit being formed by the true lips and jaws, whilst the + apical limit of the Chaetopod's introvert is formed by the jaws placed + at the junction of pharynx and oesophagus, so that the Chaetopod's + introvert is part of the stomodaeum or fore-gut, whilst that of the + Gastropod is external to the alimentary canal altogether, being in + front of the mouth, not behind it, as is the Chaetopod's. Further, the + Gastropod's introvert is pleurembolic (and therefore acrecbolic), and + is limited both in eversion and in introversion; it cannot be + completely everted owing to the muscular bands (fig. 19, G), nor can + it be fully introverted owing to the bands (fig. 19, F) which tie the + axial pharynx to the adjacent wall of the apical part of the + introvert. As in all such intro- and e-versible organs, eversion of + the Gastropod proboscis is effected by pressure communicated by the + muscular body-wall to the liquid contents (blood) of the body-space, + accompanied by the relaxation of the muscles which directly pull upon + either the sides or the apex of the tubular organ. The inversion of + the proboscis is effected directly by the contraction of these + muscles. In various members of the Pectinibranchia the mouth-bearing + cylinder is introversible (i.e. is a _proboscis_)--with rare + exceptions these forms have a siphonate mantle-skirt. On the other + hand, many which have a siphonate mantle-skirt are not provided with + an introversible mouth-bearing cylinder, but have a simple + non-introversible rostrum, as it has been termed, which is also the + condition presented by the mouth-bearing region in nearly all other + Gastropoda. One of the best examples of the introversible + mouth-cylinder or proboscis which can be found is that of the common + whelk (_Buccinum undatum_) and its immediate allies. In fig. 23 the + proboscis is seen in an everted state; it is only so carried when + feeding, being withdrawn when the animal is at rest. Probably its use + is to enable the animal to introduce its rasping and licking apparatus + into very narrow apertures for the purposes of feeding, e.g. into a + small hole bored in the shell of another mollusc. + + [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Diagrams explanatory of the nature of + so-called proboscides or "introverts." (Lankester.) + + A, Simple introvert completely introverted. + + B, The same, partially everted by eversion of the sides, as in the + Nemertine proboscis and Gastropod eye-tentacle = pleurecbolic. + + C, The same, fully everted. + + D, E, A similar simple introvert in course of eversion by the + forward movement, not of its sides, but of its apex, as in the + proboscidean Rhabdocoels = acrecbolic. + + F, Acrecbolic (= pleurembolic) introvert, formed by the snout of the + proboscidiferous Gastropod. al, alimentary canal; d, the true mouth. + The introvert is not a simple one with complete range both in + eversion and introversion, but is arrested in introversion by the + fibrous bands at c, and similarly in eversion by the fibrous bands + at b. + + G, The acrecbolic snout of a proboscidiferous Gastropod, arrested + short of complete eversion by the fibrous band b. + + H, The acrembolic (= pleurecbolic) pharynx of a Chaetopod fully + introverted. al, alimentary canal; at d, the jaws; at a, the mouth; + therefore a to d is stomodaeum, whereas in the Gastropod (F) a to d + is inverted body-surface. + + I, Partial eversion of H. + + K, Complete eversion of H.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Male of _Littorina littoralis_, Lin., removed + from its shell; the mantle-skirt cut along its right line of + attachment and thrown over to the left side of the animal so as to + expose the organs on its inner face. + + a, Anus. + i, Intestine. + r, Nephridium (kidney). + r', Aperture of the nephridium. + c, Heart. + br, Ctenidium (gill-plume). + pbr, Parabranchia (= the osphradium or olfactory patch). + x, Glandular lamellae of the inner face of the mantle-skirt. + y, Adrectal (purpuriparous) gland. + t, Testis. + vd, Vas deferens. + p, Penis. + mc, Columella muscle (muscular process grasping the shell). + v, Stomach. + h, Liver. + + N.B.--Note the simple snout or rostrum not introverted as a + "proboscis."] + + [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Nervous system of _Paludina_ as a type of the + streptoneurous condition. (From Gegenbaur, after Jhering.) + + B, Buccal (suboesophageal) ganglion. + C, Cerebral ganglion. + Co, Pleural ganglion. + P, Pedal ganglion with otocyst attached. + p, Pedal nerve. + A, Abdominal ganglion at the extremity of the twisted visceral + "loop." + sp, Supra-intestinal visceral ganglion on the course of the right + visceral cord. + sb, Sub-intestinal ganglion on the course of the left visceral + cord.] + + The very large assemblage of forms coming under this order comprises + the most highly developed predaceous sea-snails, numerous vegetarian + species, a considerable number of freshwater and some terrestrial + forms. The partial dissection of a male specimen of the common + periwinkle, _Littorina littoralis_, drawn in fig. 20, will serve to + exhibit the disposition of viscera which prevails in the group. The + branchial chamber formed by the mantle-skirt overhanging the head has + been exposed by cutting along a line extending backward from the + letters vd to the base of the columella muscle mc, and the whole roof + of the chamber thus detached from the right side of the animal's neck + has been thrown over to the left, showing the organs which lie upon + the roof. No opening into the body-cavity has been made; the organs + which lie in the coiled visceral hump show through its transparent + walls. The head is seen in front resting on the foot and carrying a + median non-retractile snout or rostrum, and a pair of cephalic + tentacles at the base of each of which is an eye. In many Gastropoda + the eyes are not thus sessile but raised upon special eye-tentacles + (figs. 25, 56). To the right of the head is seen the muscular penis p, + close to the termination of the vas deferens (spermatic duct) vd. The + testis t occupies a median position in the coiled visceral mass. + Behind the penis on the same side is the hook-like columella muscle, a + development of the retractor muscle of the foot, which clings to the + spiral column or columella of the shell (see fig. 33). This columella + muscle is the same thing as the muscles adhering to the shell in + _Patella_, and the posterior adductor of Lamellibranchs. + + The surface of the neck is covered by integument forming the floor of + the branchial cavity. It has not been cut into. Of the organs lying on + the reflected mantle-skirt, that which in the natural state lay + nearest to the vas deferens on the right side of the median line of + the roof of the branchial chamber is the rectum i', ending in the anus + a. It can be traced back to the intestine i near the surface of the + visceral hump, and it is found that the apex of the coil formed by the + hump is occupied by the liver h and the stomach v. Pharynx and + oesophagus are concealed in the head. The enlarged glandular structure + of the walls of the rectum is frequent in the Pectinibranchia, as is + also though not universal the gland marked y, next to the rectum. It + is the adrectal gland, and in the genera _Murex_ and _Purpura_ + secretes a colourless liquid which turns purple upon exposure to the + atmosphere, and was used by the ancients as a dye. Near this and less + advanced into the branchial chamber is the single renal organ or + nephridium r with its opening to the exterior r'. Internally this + glandular sac presents a second slit or aperture which leads into the + pericardium (as is now found to be the case in all Mollusca). The + heart c lying in the pericardium is seen in close proximity to the + renal organ, and consists of a single auricle receiving blood from the + gill, and of a single ventricle which pumps it through the body by an + anterior and posterior aorta. The surface x of the mantle between the + rectum and the gill-plume is thrown into folds which in many + sea-snails (whelks or _Buccinidae_, &c.) are very strongly developed. + The whole of this surface appears to be active in the secretion of a + mucous-like substance. The single gill-plume br lies to the left of + the median line in natural position. It corresponds to the right of + the two primitive ctenidia in the untwisted archaic condition of the + molluscan body, and does not project freely into the branchial cavity, + but its axis is attached (by concrescence) to the mantle-skirt (roof + of the branchial chamber). It is rare for the gill-plume of a + Pectinibranch Gastropod to stand out freely as a plume, but + occasionally this more archaic condition is exhibited as in _Valvata_ + (fig. 30). Next beyond (to the left of) the gill-plume we find the + so-called parabranchia, which is here simple, but sometimes lamellated + as in _Purpura_ (fig. 22). This organ has, without reason, been + supposed to represent the second ctenidium of the typical mollusc, + which it cannot do on account of its position. It should be to the + right of the anus were this the case. Spengel showed that the + parabranchia of Gastropods is the typical olfactory organ or + osphradium in a highly developed condition. The minute structure of + the epithelium which clothes it, as well as the origin of the nerve + which is distributed to the parabranchia, proves it to be the same + organ which is found universally in molluscs at the base of each + gill-plume, and tests the indrawn current of water by the sense of + smell. The nerve to this organ is given off from the superior + (original right, see fig. 3) visceral ganglion. + + [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Female of _Purpura lapillus_ removed from its + shell; the mantle-skirt cut along its left line of attachment and + thrown over to the right side of the animal so as to expose the organs + on its inner face. + + a, Anus. + vg, Vagina. + gp, Adrectal purpuriparous gland. + r', Aperture of the nephridium (kidney). + br, Ctenidium (branchial plume). + br', Parabranchia (= the comb-like osphradium or olfactory organ).] + + The figures which are given here of various Pectinibranchia are in + most cases sufficiently explained by the references attached to them. + As an excellent general type of the nervous system, attention may be + directed to that of _Paludina_ drawn in fig. 21. On the whole the + ganglia are strongly individualized in the Pectinibranchia, nerve-cell + tissue being concentrated in the ganglia and absent from the cords. At + the same time, the junction of the visceral loop above the intestine + prevents in all Streptoneura the shortening of the visceral loop, and + it is rare to find a fusion of the visceral ganglia with either + pleural, pedal or cerebral--a fusion which can and does take place + where the visceral loop is not above but below the intestine, e.g. in + the Euthyneura (fig. 48), Cephalopoda and Lamellibranchia. As + contrasted with the Aspidobranchia, we find that in the + Pectinibranchia the pedal nerves are distinctly nerves given off from + the pedal ganglia, rather than cord-like nerve-tracts containing both + nerve-cells or ganglionic elements and nerve-fibres. Yet in some + Pectinibranchia (_Paludina_) a ladder-like arrangement of the two + pedal nerves and their lateral branches has been detected. The + histology of the nervous system of Mollusca has yet to be seriously + inquired into. + + The alimentary canal of the Pectinibranchia presents little diversity + of character, except in so far as the buccal region is concerned. + Salivary glands are present, and in some carnivorous forms (_Dolium_) + these secrete free sulphuric acid (as much as 2% is present in the + secretion), which assists the animal in boring holes by means of its + rasping tongue through the shells of other molluscs upon which it + preys. A crop-like dilatation of the gut and a recurved intestine, + embedded in the compact yellowish-brown liver, the ducts of which open + into it, form the rest of the digestive tract and occupy a large bulk + of the visceral hump. The buccal region presents a pair of shelly jaws + placed laterally upon the lips, and a wide range of variation in the + form of the denticles of the lingual ribbon or radula. + + Well-developed glandular invaginations occur in different positions on + the foot in Pectinibranchia. The most important of these opens by the + ventral pedal pore, situated in the median line in the anterior half + of the foot. This organ is probably homologous with the byssogenous + gland of Lamellibranchs. The aperture, which was formerly supposed to + be an aquiferous pore, leads into an extensive and often ramified + cavity surrounded by glandular tubules. The gland has been found in + both sub-orders of the Pectinibranchia, in _Cyclostoma_ and _Cypraea_ + among the Taenioglossa, in _Hemifusus, Cassis, Nassa, Murex, + Fasciolariidae, Turbinellidae, Olividae, Marginellidae_ and _Conidae_ + among the Stenoglossa. It was discovered by J.T. Cunningham that in + _Buccinum_ the egg-capsules are formed by this pedal gland and not by + any accessory organ of the generative system. Such horny egg-capsules + doubtless have the same origin in all other species in which they + occur, e.g. _Fusus, Pyrula, Purpura, Murex, Nassa, Trophon, Voluta_, + &c. The float of the pelagic _Janthina_, to which the egg-capsules are + attached, probably is also formed by the secretion of the pedal gland. + + [Illustration: FIG. 23.--A, _Triton variegatum_, to show the proboscis + or buccal introvert (e) in a state of eversion. + + a, Siphonal notch of the shell occupied by the siphonal fold of the + mantle-skirt (Siphonochlamyda). + b, Edge of the mantle-skirt resting on the shell. + c, Cephalic eye. + d, Cephalic tentacle. + e, Everted buccal introvert (proboscis). + f, Foot. + g, Operculum. + h, Penis. + i, Under surface of the mantle-skirt forming the roof of the + sub-pallial chamber. + B, Sole of the foot of _Pyrula tuba_, to show a, the pore usually + said to be "aquiferous" but probably the orifice of a gland; b, + median line of foot.] + + Other glands opening on or near the foot are: (1) The suprapedal gland + opening in the middle line between the snout and the anterior border + of the foot. It is most commonly found in sessile forms and in + terrestrial genera such as _Cyclostoma_; (2) the anterior pedal gland + opening into the anterior groove of the foot, generally present in + aquatic species; (3) dorsal posterior mucous glands in certain + _Cyclostomatidae_. + + The foot of the Pectinibranchia, unlike the simple muscular disk of + the Isopleura and Aspidobranchia, is very often divided into lobes, a + fore, middle and hind lobe (pro-, meso- and meta-podium, see figs. 24 + and 25). Very usually, but not universally, the metapodium carries an + operculum. The division of the foot into lobes is a simple case of + that much greater elaboration or breaking up into processes and + regions which it undergoes in the class Cephalopoda. Even among some + Gastropoda (viz. the Opisthobranchia) we find the lobation of the foot + still further carried out by the development of lateral lobes, the + parapodia, whilst there are many Pectinibranchia, on the other hand, + in which the foot has a simple oblong form without any trace of lobes. + + The development of the Pectinibranchia has been followed in several + examples, e.g. _Paludina, Purpura, Nassa, Vermetus, Neritina_. As in + other Molluscan groups, we find a wide variation in the early process + of the formation of the first embryonic cells, and their arrangement + as a diblastula, dependent on the greater or less amount of food-yolk + which is present in the egg-cell when it commences its embryonic + changes. In fig. 26 the early stages of _Paludina vivipara_ are + represented. There is but very little food-material in the egg of this + Pectinibranch, and consequently the diblastula forms by invagination; + the blastopore or orifice of invagination coincides with the anus, and + never closes entirely. A well-marked trochosphere is formed by the + development of an equatorial ciliated band; and subsequently, by the + disproportionate growth of the lower hemisphere, the trochosphere + becomes a veliger. The primitive shell-sac or shell-gland is well + marked at this stage, and the pharynx is seen as a new ingrowth (the + stomodaeum), about to fuse with and open into the primitively + invaginated arch-enteron (fig. 26, F). + + [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Animal and shell of _Phorus exutus_. + + a, Snout (not introversible). + b, Cephalic tentacles. + c, Right eye. + d, Pro- and meso-podium; to the right of this is seen the metapodium + bearing the sculptured operculum.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 25.--Animal and shell of _Rostellaria + rectirostris_. (From Owen.) + + a, Snout or rostrum. + b, Cephalic tentacle. + c, Eye. + d, Propodium and mesopodium. + e, Metapodium. + f, Operculum. + h', Prolonged siphonal notch of the shell occupied by the siphon, or + trough-like process of the mantle-skirt.] + + In other Pectinibranchia (and such variations are representative for + all Mollusca, and not characteristic only of Pectinibranchia) we find + that there is a very unequal division of the egg-cell at the + commencement of embryonic development, as in _Nassa_. Consequently + there is, strictly speaking, no invagination (emboly), but an + overgrowth (epiboly) of the smaller cells to enclose the larger. The + general features of this process and of the relation of the blastopore + to mouth and anus have been explained in treating of the development + of Mollusca generally. In such cases the blastopore may entirely + close, and both mouth and anus develop as new ingrowths (stomodaeum + and proctodaeum), whilst, according to the observations of N. + Bobretzky, the closed blastopore may coincide in position with the + mouth in some instances (_Nassa_, &c.), instead of with the anus. But + in these epibolic forms, just as in the embolic _Paludina_, the embryo + proceeds to develop its ciliated band and shell-gland, passing through + the earlier condition of a trochosphere to that of the veliger. In the + veliger stage many Pectinibranchia (_Purpura, Nassa_, &c.) exhibit, in + the dorsal region behind the head, a contractile area of the + body-wall. This acts as a larval heart, but ceases to pulsate after a + time. Similar rhythmically contractile areas are found on the foot of + the embryo Pulmonate _Limax_ and on the yolk-sac (distended + foot-surface) of the Cephalopod _Loligo_. The preconchylian + invagination or shell-gland is formed in the embryo behind the velum, + on the surface opposite the blastopore. It is surrounded by a ridge of + cells which gradually extends over the visceral sac and secretes the + shell. In forms which are naked in the adult state, the shell falls + off soon after the reduction of the velum, but in _Cenia, Runcina_ and + _Vaginula_ the shell-gland and shell are not developed, and the young + animal when hatched has already the naked form of the adult. + + [Illustration: FIG. 26.--Development of the River-Snail, _Paludina + vivipara_. (After Lankester, 17.) + + dc, Directive corpuscle (outcast cell). + ae, Arch-enteron or cavity lined by the enteric cell-layer or + endoderm. + bl, Blastopore. + vr, Velum or circlet of ciliated cells. + dv, Velar area or cephalic dome. + sm, Site of the as yet unformed mouth. + f, Foot. + mes, Rudiments of the skeleto-trophic tissues. + pi, The pedicle of invagination, the future rectum. + shgl, The primitive shell-sac or shell-gland. + m, Mouth. + an, Anus. + A, Diblastula phase (optical section). + B, The diblastula has become a trochosphere by the development of + the ciliated ring vr (optical section). + C, Side view of the trochosphere with commencing formation of the + foot. + D, Further advanced trochosphere (optical section). + E, The trochosphere passing to the veliger stage, dorsal view + showing the formation of the primitive shell-sac. + F, Side view of the same, showing foot, shell-sac (shgl), velum + (vr), mouth and anus. + N.B.--In this development the blastopore is not elongated; it + persists as the anus. The mouth and stomodaeum form independently + of the blastopore.] + + One further feature of the development of the Pectinibranchia deserves + special mention. Many Gastropoda deposit their eggs, after + fertilization, enclosed in capsules; others, as _Paludina_, are + viviparous; others, again, as the Zygobranchia, agree with the + Lamellibranch Conchifera (the bivalves) in having simple exits for the + ova without glandular walls, and therefore discharge their eggs + unenclosed in capsules freely into the sea-water; such unencapsuled + eggs are merely enclosed each in its own delicate chorion. When + egg-capsules are formed they are often of large size, have tough + walls, and in each capsule are several eggs floating in a viscid + fluid. In some cases all the eggs in a capsule develop; in other cases + one egg only in a capsule (_Neritina_), or a small proportion + (_Purpura, Buccinum_), advance in development; the rest are arrested + either after the first process of cell-division (cleavage) or before + that process. The arrested embryos or eggs are then swallowed and + digested by those in the same capsule which have advanced in + development. This is clearly the same process in essence as that of + the formation of a vitellogenous gland from part of the primitive + ovary, or of the feeding of an ovarian egg by the absorption of + neighbouring potential eggs; but here the period at which the + sacrifice of one egg to another takes place is somewhat late. What it + is that determines the arrest of some eggs and the progressive + development of others in the same capsule is at present unknown. + + [Illustration: FIG. 27.--_Oxygyrus Keraudrenii_. (From Owen.) + + a, Mouth and odontophore. + b, Cephalic tentacles. + c, Eye. + d, Propodium (B) and mesopodium. + e, Metapodium. + f, Operculum. + h, Mantle-chamber. + i, Ctenidium (gill-plume). + k, Retractor muscle of foot. + l, Optic tentacle. + m, Stomach. + n, Dorsal surface overhung by the mantle-skirt; the letter is close + to the salivary gland. + o, Rectum and anus. + p, Liver. + q, Renal organ (nephridium). + s, Ventricle. + u, The otocyst attached to the cerebral ganglion. + w, Testis. + x, Auricle of the heart. + y, Vesicle on genital duct. + z, Penis.] + + In the tribe of Pectinibranchia called Heteropoda the foot takes the + form of a swimming organ. The nervous system and sense organs are + highly developed. The odontophore also is remarkably developed, its + lateral teeth being mobile, and it serves as an efficient organ for + attacking the other pelagic forms on which the Heteropoda prey. The + sexes are distinct, as in all Streptoneura; and genital ducts and + accessory glands and pouches are present, as in all Pectinibranchia. + The Heteropoda exhibit a series of modifications in the form and + proportions of the visceral mass and foot, leading from a condition + readily comparable with that of a typical Pectinibranch such as + _Rostellaria_, with the three regions of the foot strongly marked and + a coiled visceral hump of the usual proportions, up to a condition in + which the whole body is of a tapering cylindrical shape, the foot a + plate-like vertical fin, and the visceral hump almost completely + atrophied. Three steps of this modification may be distinguished as + three families:--_Atlantidae, Carinariidae_ and _Pterotrachaeidae_. + They are true Pectinibranchia which have taken to a pelagic life, and + the peculiarities of structure which they exhibit are strictly + adaptations consequent upon their changed mode of life. Such + adaptations are the transparency and colourlessness of the tissues, + and the modifications of the foot, which still shows in _Atlanta_ the + form common in Pectinibranchia (compare fig. 27 and fig. 24). The + cylindrical body of _Pterotrachaea_ is paralleled by the slug-like + forms of Euthyneura. J.W. Spengel has shown that the visceral loop of + the Heteropoda is streptoneurous. Special to the Heteropoda is the + high elaboration of the lingual ribbon, and, as an agreement with some + of the opisthobranchiate Euthyneura, but as a difference from the + Pectinibranchia, we find the otocysts closely attached to the cerebral + ganglia. This is, however, less of a difference than it was at one + time supposed to be, for it has been shown by H. Lacaze-Duthiers, and + also by F. Leydig, that the otocysts of Pectinibranchia even when + lying close upon the pedal ganglion (as in fig. 21) yet receive their + special nerve (which can sometimes be readily isolated) from the + cerebral ganglion (see fig. 11). Accordingly the difference is one of + position of the otocyst and not of its nerve-supply. The Heteropoda + are further remarkable for the high development of their cephalic + eyes, and for the typical character of their osphradium (Spengel's + olfactory organ). This is a groove, the edges of which are raised and + ciliated, lying near the branchial plume in the genera which possess + that organ, whilst in _Firoloida_, which has no branchial plume, the + osphradium occupies a corresponding position. Beneath the ciliated + groove is placed an elongated ganglion (olfactory ganglion) connected + by a nerve to the supra-intestinal (therefore the primitively dextral) + ganglion of the long visceral nerve-loop, the strands of which cross + one another--this being characteristic of Streptoneura (Spengel). + + [Illustration: FIG. 28.--_Carinaria mediterranea_. (From Owen.) + + A, The animal. B, The shell removed. C, D, Two views of the shell of + _Cardiopoda_. + a, Mouth and odontophore. + b, Cephalic tentacles. + c, Eye. + d, The fin-like mesopodium. + d', Its sucker. + e, Metapodium. + f, Salivary glands. + h, Border of the mantle-flap. + i, Ctenidium (gill-plume). + m, Stomach. + n, Intestine. + o, Anus. + p, Liver. + t, Aorta, springing from the ventricle. + u, Cerebral ganglion. + v, Pleural and pedal ganglion. + w, Testis. + x, Visceral ganglion. + y, Vesicula seminalis. + z, Penis.] + + The Heteropoda belong to the "pelagic fauna" occurring near the + surface in the Mediterranean and great oceans in company with the + Pteropoda, the Siphonophorous Hydrozoa, Salpae, Leptocephali, and + other specially-modified transparent swimming representatives of + various groups of the animal kingdom. In development they pass through + the typical trochosphere and veliger stages provided with boat-like + shell. + + Sub-order 1.--TAENIOGLOSSA. Radula with a median tooth and three teeth + on each side of it. Formula 3 : 1 : 3. + + Tribe 1.--PLATYPODA. Normal Taenioglossa of creeping habit. The foot + is flattened ventrally, at all events in its anterior part + (_Strombidae_). Otocysts situated close to the pedal nerve-centres. + Accessory organs are rarely found on the genital ducts, but occur in + _Paludina, Cyclostoma, Naticidae, Calyptraeidae_, &c. Mandibles + usually present. This is the largest group of Mollusca, including + nearly sixty families, some of which are insufficiently known from the + anatomical point of view. + + Fam. 1.--_Paludinidae_. Pedal centres in the form of ganglionated + cords; kidney provided with a ureter; viviparous; fluviatile. + _Paludina_. _Neothauma_, from Lake Tanganyika. _Tylopoma_, extinct, + Tertiary. + + [Illustration: FIG. 29.--_Pterotrachea mutica_ seen from the right + side. (After Keferstein.) + + a, Pouch for reception of the snout when retracted. + c, Pericardium. + ph, Pharynx. + oc, Cephalic eye. + g, Cerebral ganglion. + g', Pleuro-pedal ganglion. + pr, Foot (mesopodium). + v, Stomach. + i, Intestine. + n, So-called nucleus. + br, Branchial plume (ctenidium). + w, Osphradium. + mt, Foot (metapodium). + z, Caudal appendage.] + + Fam. 2.--_Cyclophoridae_. No ctenidium, pallial cavity transformed + into a lung; aperture of shell circular; terrestrial. _Pomatias_, + shell turriculated. _Diplommatina. Hybocystis. Cyclophorus_, shell + umbilicated, with a short spire and horny operculum. Cyclosurus, + shell uncoiled. _Dermatocera_, foot with a horn-shaped protuberance + at its posterior end. Spiraculum. + + Fam. 3.--_Ampullariidae_. To the left of the ctenidium a pulmonary + sac, separated from it by an incomplete septum, amphibious. + _Ampullaria_, shell dextral, coiled. _Lanistes_, shell sinistral, + spire short or obsolete. _Meladomus._ + + Fam. 4.--_Littorinidae._ Oesophageal pouches present; pedal + nerve-centres concentrated; a pedal penis near the right tentacle. + _Littorina_, shell not umbilicated, littoral habit. _Lacuna_, foot + with two posterior appendages, marine, entirely aquatic. + _Cremnoconchus_, entirely aerial, Indian. _Risella. Tectarius._ + + Fam. 5.--_Fossaridae._ Head with two lobes in some Rhipidoglossa. + _Fossaria._ + + Fam. 6.--_Purpurinidae_, extinct. + + Fam. 7.--_Planaxidae._ Shell with pointed spire; a short pallial + siphon. Planaxis. + + Fam. 8.--_Cyclostomatidae._ Pallial cavity transformed into a lung; + pedal centres concentrated; a deep pedal groove. _Cyclostoma_, shell + turbinated, operculum calcareous, British. _Omphalotropis._ + + Fam. 9.--_Aciculidae._ Pallial cavity transformed into a lung; + operculum horny; shell narrow and elongated. _Acicula._ + + Fam. 10.--_Valvatidae._ Ctenidium bipectinate, free; hermaphrodite; + fluviatile. _Valvata_, British. + + Fam. 11.--_Rissoidae._ Epipodial filaments present; one or two + pallial tentacles. _Rissoa. Rissoina. Stiva._ + + Fam. 12.--_Litiopidae._ An epipodium bearing three pairs of + tentacles and an operculigerous lobe with two appendages; + inhabitants of the Sargasso weed. _Litiopa._ + + Fam. 13.--_Adeorbiidae._ Mantle with two posterior appendages; + ctenidium large and capable of protrusion from pallial cavity. + _Adeorbis_, British. + + Fam. 14.--_Jeffreysiidae._ Head with two long labial palps; shell + ovoid; operculum horny, semicircular, carinated. _Jeffreysia._ + + Fam. 15.--_Homalogyridae._ Shell flattened; no cephalic tentacles. + _Homalogyra_, British. _Ammoniceras._ + + Fam. 16.--_Skeneidae._ Shell depressed, with rounded aperture; + cephalic tentacles long. _Skenea_, British. + + Fam. 17.--_Choristidae._ Shell spiral; four cephalic tentacles; eyes + absent; two pedal appendages. _Choristes._ + + Fam. 18.--_Assimineidae._ Eyes at free extremities of tentacles. + Assiminea, estuarine, British. + + Fam. 19.--_Truncatellidae._ Snout very long, bilobed; foot short. + _Truncatella._ + + [Illustration: FIG. 30.--_Valvata cristata_, Müll. + + o, Mouth. + op, Operculum. + br, Ctenidium (branchial plume). + x, Filiform appendage (? rudimentary ctenidium). + + The freely projecting ctenidium of typical form not having its axis + fused to the roof of the branchial chamber is the notable + character of this genus.] + + Fam. 20.--_Hydrobiidae._ Shell with prominent spire; penis distant + from right tentacle, generally appendiculated; brackish water or + fluviatile. _Hydrobia_, British. _Baikalia_, from Lake Baikal. + _Pomatiopsis. Bithynella. Lithoglyphus. Spekia_, viviparous, from + Lake Tanganyika. _Tanganyicia. Limnotrochus_, from Lake Tanganyika. + _Chytra. Littorinida. Bithynia_, British, fluviatile. _Stenothyra._ + + Fam. 21.--_Melaniidae._ Spire of shell somewhat elongated; + mantle-border fringed; viviparous; fluviatile. _Melania. Faunus. + Paludomus. Melanopsis. Nassopsis. Bythoceras_, from Lake + Tanganyika. + + Fam. 22.--_Typhobiidae._ Foot wide; shell turriculated, with + carinated whorls, the carinae tuberculated or spiny. _Typhobia. + Bathanalia_, from Lake Tanganyika. + + Fam. 23.--_Pleuroceridae._ Like _Melaniidae_, but mantle-border not + fringed and reproduction oviparous. _Pleurocera. Anculotus._ + + Fam. 24.--_Pseudomelaniidae._ All extinct. + + Fam. 25.--_Subulitidae._ All extinct. + + Fam. 26.--_Nerineidae._ All extinct. + + Fam. 27.--_Cerithiidae._ Shell with numerous tuberculated whorls; + aperture canaliculated anteriorly; short pallial siphon. _Cerithium. + Bittium. Potamides. Triforis. Laeocochlis. Cerithiopsis._ + + Fam. 28.--_Modulidae._ Shell with short spire; no siphon. + _Modulus._ + + Fam. 29.--_Vermetidae._ Animal fixed by the shell, the last whorls + of which are not in contact with each other; foot small; two + anterior pedal tentacles. _Vermetus. Siliquaria._ + + Fam. 30.--_Caecidae._ Shell almost completely uncoiled, in one + plane, with internal septa. _Caecum_, British. + + Fam. 31.--_Turritellidae._ Shell very long; head large; foot broad. + _Turritella_, British. _Mesalia. Mathilda._ + + Fam. 32.--_Struthiolariidae._ Shell conical; aperture slightly + canaliculated; siphon slightly developed. _Struthiolaria._ + + Fam. 33.--_Chenopodidae._ Shell elongated; aperture expanded; siphon + very short. _Chenopus_, British. _Alaria, Spinigera, Diartema_, + extinct. + + Fam. 34.--_Strombidae._ Foot narrow, compressed, without sole. + _Strombus. Pteroceras. Rostellaria. Terebellum._ + + Fam. 35.--_Xenophoridae._ Foot transversely divided into two parts. + _Xenophorus. Eotrochus_, Silurian. + + Fam. 36.--_Capulidae._ Shell conical, not coiled, but slightly + incurved posteriorly; a tongue-shaped projection between snout and + foot. _Capulus. Thyca_, parasitic on asterids. _Platyceras_, + extinct. + + [Illustration: FIG. 31.--Shell of _Crucibulum_, seen from below so as + to show the inner whorl b, concealed by the cap-like outer whorl a.] + + Fam. 37.--_Hipponycidae._ Shell conical; foot secreting a ventral + calcareous plate; animal fixed. _Hipponyx. Mitrularia._ + + Fam. 38.--_Calyptraeidae._ Shell with short spire; lateral cervical + lobes present; accessory genital glands. _Calyptraea_, British. + _Crepidula. Crucibulum._ + + Fam. 39.--_Naricidae._ Foot divided into two, posterior half bearing + the operculum; a wide epipodial velum; shell turbinated. Narica. + + Fam. 40.--_Naticidae._ Foot large, with aquiferous system; propodium + reflected over head; eyes degenerate; burrowing habit. _Natica_, + British. _Amaura. Sigaretus._ + + Fam. 41.--_Lamellariidae._ Shell thin, more or less covered by the + mantle; no operculum. _Lamellaria. Velutina. Marsenina_, + _Oncidiopsis_, hermaphrodite. + + Fam. 42.--_Trichotropidae._ Shell with short spire, carinate and + pointed. _Trichotropis._ + + Fam. 43.--_Seguenziidae._ Shell trochiform, with canaliculated + aperture and twisted columella. _Seguenzia_, abyssal. + + Fam. 44.--_Janthinidae._ Shell thin; operculum absent; tentacles + bifid; foot secretes a float; pelagic. _Janthina. Recluzia._ + + Fam. 45.--_Cypraeidae._ Shell inrolled, solid, polished, aperture + very narrow in adult; short siphon; anus posterior; osphradium with + three lobes; mantle reflected over shell. _Cypraea. Pustularia. + Ovula. Pedicularia_, attached to corals. _Erato_. + + [Illustration: FIG. 32.--Animal and shell of _Ovula_. + + b, Cephalic tentacles. + d, Foot. + h, Mantle-skirt, which is naturally carried in a reflected condition + so as to cover the sides of the shell.] + + Fam. 46.--_Tritonidae._ Shell turriculated and siphonated, thick, + each whorl with varices; foot broad and truncated anteriorly; + pallial siphon well developed; proboscis present. _Triton. Persona._ + _Ranella._ + + Fam. 47.--_Columbellinidae._ All extinct. + + Fam. 48.--_Cassididae._ Shell ventricose, with elongated aperture, + and short spire; proboscis and siphon long; operculum with marginal + nucleus. _Cassis. Cassidaria. Oniscia._ + + Fam. 49--_Oocorythidae._ Shell globular and ventricose; aperture + oval and canaliculated; operculum spiral. _Oocorys_, abyssal. + + Fam. 50.--_Doliidae._ Shell ventricose, with short spire, and wide + aperture; no varices and no operculum; foot very broad, with + projecting anterior angles; siphon long. _Dolium. Pyrula._ + + Fam. 51.--_Solariidae. Solarium. Torinia. Fluxina._ + + Fam. 52.--_Scalariidae._ Shell turriculated, with elongated spire; + proboscis short; siphon rudimentary. _Scalaria. Eglisia._ Crossea. + Aclis. + + The three following families have neither radula nor jaws, and are + therefore called _Aglossa_. They have a well-developed proboscis which + is used as a suctorial organ; some are abyssal, but the majority are + either commensals or parasites of Echinoderms. + + Fam. 53.--_Pyramidellidae._ Summit of spire heterostrophic; a + projection, the mentum, between head and foot; operculum present. + _Pyramidella. Turbonilla. Odostomia_, British. _Myxa._ + + [Illustration: FIG. 33.--Section of the shell of _Triton_, Cuv. (From + Owen.) + + a, Apex. + ac, Siphonal notch of the mouth of the shell. + ac to pc, Mouth of the shell. + w, w, Whorls of the shell. + s, s. Sutures. + + Occupying the axis, and exposed by the section, is seen the + "columella" or spiral pillar. The upper whorls of the shell are + seen to be divided into separate chambers by the formation of + successively formed "septa."] + + Fam. 54.--_Eulimidae._ Visceral mass still coiled spirally; shell + thin and shining. _Eulima_, foot well developed, with an operculum, + animal usually free, but some live in the digestive cavity of + Holothurians. _Mucronalia_, foot reduced, but still operculate, eyes + present, animal fixed by its very long proboscis which is deeply + buried in the tissues of an Echinoderm, no pseudopallium. + _Stylifer_, the operculum is lost, animal fixed by a large proboscis + which forms a pseudopallium covering the whole shell except the + extremity of the spire, parasitic on all groups of Echinoderms. + _Entosiphon_, visceral mass still coiled; shell much reduced, + proboscis very long forming a pseudopallium which covers the whole + body and projects beyond in the form of a siphon, foot and nervous + system present, eyes, branchia and anus absent, parasite in the + Holothurian _Deima blakei_ in the Indian Ocean. + + Fam. 55.--_Entoconchidae._ No shell; visceral mass not coiled; no + sensory organs, nervous system, branchia or anus; body reduced to a + more or less tubular sac; hermaphrodite and viviparous; parasitic in + Holothurians; larvae are veligers, with shell and operculum. + _Entocolax_, mouth at free extremity, animal fixed by aboral orifice + of pseudopallium, Pacific. _Entoconcha_, body elongated and tubular, + animal fixed by the oral extremity, protandric hermaphrodite, + parasitic in testes of Holothurians causing their abortion. + _Enteroxenos_, no pseudopallium and no intestine, hermaphrodite, + larvae with operculum. + + Tribe 2.--HETEROPODA. Pelagic Taenioglossa with foot large and + laterally compressed to form a fin. + + Fam. 1. _Atlantidae._ Visceral sac and shell coiled in one plane; + foot divided transversely into two parts, posterior part bearing an + operculum, anterior part forming a fin provided with a sucker. + _Atlanta. Oxygyrus._ + + Fam. 2.--_Carinariidae._ Visceral sac and shell small in proportion + to the rest of the body, which cannot be withdrawn into the shell; + foot elongated, fin-shaped, with sucker, but without operculum. + _Carinaria. Cardiopoda._ + + Fam. 3.--_Pterotrachaeidae._ Visceral sac very much reduced; without + shell or mantle; anus posterior; foot provided with sucker in male + only. _Pterotrachaea. Firoloida. Pterosoma._ + + Sub-order 2.--STENOGLOSSA. Radula narrow with one lateral tooth on + each side, and one median tooth or none. + + Tribe 1.--RACHIGLOSSA. Radula with a median tooth and a single tooth + on each side of it. Formula 1 : 1 : 1. Rudimentary jaws present. + + [Illustration: FIG. 34.--Female _Janthina_, with egg-float (a) + attached to the foot; b, egg-capsules; c, ctenidium (gill-plume); d, + cephalic tentacles.] + + Fam. 1.--_Turbinellidae._ Shell solid, piriform, with thick folded + columella; lateral teeth of radula bicuspidate. _Turbinella. + Cynodonta. Fulgur. Hemifusus. Tudicla. Strepsidura._ + + Fam. 2.--_Fasciolariidae._ Shell elongated, with long siphon; + lateral teeth of radula multicuspidate. _Fasciolaria. Fusus. + Clavella. Latirus._ + + Fam. 3.--_Mitridae._ Shell fusiform and solid, aperture elongated, + columella folded; no operculum; eyes on sides of tentacles. _Mitra. + Turricula. Cylindromitra. Imbricaria._ + + Fam. 4.--_Buccinidae._ Foot large and broad; eyes at base of + tentacles; operculum horny. _Buccinum. Chrysodomus. Liomesus. + Cominella. Tritonidea. Pisania. Euthria. Phos. Dipsacus._ + + Fam. 5.--_Nassidae._ Foot broad, with two slender posterior + appendages; operculum unguiculate. _Nassa_, marine, British. + _Canidia_, fluviatile. _Bullia._ + + Fam. 6.--_Muricidae._ Shell with moderately long spire and canal, + ornamented with ribs, often spiny; foot truncated anteriorly. + _Murex_, British. _Trophon_, British. _Typhis. Urosalpinx. + Lachesis._ + + Fam. 7.--_Purpuridae._ Shell thick, with short spire, last whorl + large and canal short; aperture wide; operculum horny. _Purpura_, + British. _Rapana. Monoceros. Sistrum. Concholepas._ + + Fam. 8.--_Haliidae._ Shell ventricose, thin and smooth, with wide + aperture; foot large and thick, without operculum. _Halia._ + + Fam. 9.--_Cancellariidae._ Shell ovoid, with short spire and folded + columella; foot small, no operculum; siphon short. _Cancellaria._ + + Fam. 10.--_Columbellidae._ Spire of shell prominent, aperture + narrow, canal very short, columella crenelated; foot large. + _Columbella._ + + Fam. 11.--_Coralliophilidae._ Shell irregular; radula absent; foot + and siphon short; sedentary animals, living in corals. + _Coralliophila. Rhizochilus. Leptoconchus. Magilus. Rapa._ + + Fam. 12.--_Volutidae._ Head much flattened and wide, with eyes on + sides; foot broad; siphon with internal appendages. _Valuta. + Guivillea. Cymba._ + + Fam. 13.--_Olividae._ Foot with anterior transverse groove; a + posterior pallial tentacle; generally burrowing. _Olivia. Olivella. + Ancillaria. Agaronia._ + + Fam. 14.--_Marginellidae._ Foot very large; mantle reflected over + shell. _Marginella. Pseudomarginella._ + + Fam. 15.--_Harpidae._ Foot very large; without operculum; shell with + short spire and longitudinal ribs; siphon long. _Harpa._ + + Tribe 2.--TOXIGLOSSA. No jaws. No median tooth in radula. Formula: 1 : + 0 : 1. Poison-gland present whose duct traverses the nerve-collar. + + Fam. 1.--_Pleurotomatidae._ Shell fusiform, with elongated spire; + margin of shell and mantle notched. _Pleurotoma. Clavatula. + Mangilia. Bela. Pusionella. Pontiothauma._ + + Fam. 2.--_Terebridae._ Shell turriculated, with numerous whorls; + aperture and operculum oval; eyes at summits of tentacles; siphon + long. _Terebra._ + + Fam. 3.--_Conidae._ Shell conical, with very short spire, and narrow + aperture with parallel borders; operculum unguiform _Conus._ + + +Sub-Class II.--EUTHYNEURA + +The most important general character of the Euthyneura is the absence of +torsion in the visceral commissure, and the more posterior position of +the anus and pallial organs. Comparative anatomy and embryology prove +that this condition is due, not as formerly supposed to a difference in +the relations of the visceral commissure which prevented it from being +included in the torsion of the visceral hump, but to an actual detorsion +which has taken place in evolution and is repeated to a great extent in +individual development. In several of the more primitive forms the same +torsion occurs as in Streptoneura, viz. in _Actaeon_ and _Limacina_ +among Opisthobranchia, and _Chilina_ among Pulmonata. _Actaeon_ is +proso-branchiate, the visceral commissure is twisted in _Actaeon_ and +_Chilina_, and even slightly still in _Bulla_ and _Scaphander_; in +_Actaeon_ and _Limacina_ the osphradium is to the left, innervated by +the supra-intestinal ganglion. But in the other members of the sub-class +the detorsion of the visceral mass has carried back the anus and +circumanal complex from the anterior dorsal region to the right side, as +in _Bulla_ and _Aplysia_, or even to the posterior end of the body, as +in _Philine, Oncidium, Doris_, &c. Different degrees of the same +process of detorsion are, as we have seen, exhibited by the Heteropoda +among the Streptoneura, and both in them and in the Euthyneura the +detorsion is associated with degeneration of the shell. Where the +modification is carried to its extreme degree, not only the shell but +the pallial cavity, ctenidium and visceral hump disappear, and the body +acquires a simple elongated form and a secondary external symmetry, as +in _Pterotrachaea_ and in _Doris, Eolis_, and other Nudibranchia. These +facts afford strong support to the hypothesis that the weight of the +shell is the original cause of the torsion of the dorsal visceral mass +in Gastropods. But this hypothesis leaves the elevation of the visceral +mass and the exogastric coiling of the shell in the ancestral form +unexplained. In those Euthyneura in which the shell is entirely absent +in the adult, it is, except in the three genera _Cenia, Runcina_ and +_Vaginula_, developed in the larva and then falls off. In other cases +(Tectibranchs) the reduced shell is enclosed by upgrowths of the edge of +the mantle and becomes internal, as in many Cephalopods. A few +Euthyneura in which the shell is not much reduced retain an operculum in +the adult state, e.g. _Actaeon, Limacina_, and the marine Pulmonate, +_Amphibola_. The detorted visceral commissure shows a tendency to the +concentration of all its elements round the oesophagus, so that except +in the Bullomorpha and in _Aplysia_ the whole nervous system is +aggregated in the cephalic region, either dorsally or ventrally. The +radula has a number of uniform teeth on each side of the median tooth in +each transverse row. The head in most cases bears two pairs of +tentacles. All the Euthyneura are hermaphrodite. + +[Illustration: FIG. 35.--_Acera bullata._ A single row of teeth of the +Radula. (Formula, x.l.x.)] + +In the most primitive condition the genital duct is single throughout +its length and has a single external aperture; it is therefore said to +be monaulic. The hermaphrodite aperture is on the right side near the +opening of the pallial cavity, and a ciliated groove conducts the +spermatozoa to the penis, which is situated more anteriorly. This is the +condition in the Bullomorpha, the Aplysiomorpha, and in one Pulmonate, +_Pythia_. In some cases while the original aperture remains undivided, +the seminal groove is closed and so converted into a canal. This is the +modification found in _Cavolinia longirostris_ among the Bullomorpha, +and in all the _Auriculidae_ except _Pythia_. A further degree of +modification occurs when the male duct takes its origin from the +hermaphrodite duct above the external opening, so that there are two +distinct apertures, one male and one female, the latter being the +original opening. The genital duct is now said to be diaulic, as in +_Valvata, Oncidiopsis, Actaeon_, and _Lobiger_ among the Bullomorpha, in +the _Pleurobranchidae_, in the Nudibranchia, except the Doridomorpha and +most of the Elysiomorpha, and in the Pulmonata. Originally in this +condition the female aperture is at some distance from the male, as in +the Basommatophora and in other cases; but in some forms the female +aperture itself has shifted and come to be contiguous with the male +opening and penis as in the Stylommatophora. In all these cases the +female duct bears a bursa copulatrix or receptaculum seminis. In some +forms this receptacle acquires a separate external opening remaining +connected with the oviduct internally. There are thus two female +openings, one for copulation, the other for oviposition, as well as a +male opening. The genital duct is now trifurcated or triaulic, a +condition which is confined to certain Nudibranchs, viz. the +Doridomorpha and most of the Elysiomorpha. + +The Pteropoda, formerly regarded as a distinct class of the Mollusca, +were interpreted by E.R. Lankester as a branch of the Cephalopoda, +chiefly on account of the protrusible sucker-bearing processes at the +anterior end of _Pneumonoderma_. These he considered to be homologous +with the arms of Cephalopods. He fully recognized, however, the +similarity of Pteropods to Gastropods in their general asymmetry and in +the torsion of the visceral mass in _Limacinidae_. It is now understood +that they are Euthyneurous Gastropods adapted to natatory locomotion and +pelagic life. The sucker-bearing processes of _Pneumonoderma_ are +outgrowths of the proboscis. The fins of Pteropods are now interpreted +as the expanded lateral margins of the foot, termed parapodia, not +homologous with the siphon of Cephalopods which is formed from epipodia. +The Thecosomatous Pteropoda are allied to _Bulla_, the Gymnosomatous +forms to _Aplysia_. The Euthyneura comprises two orders, Opisthobranchia +and Pulmonata. + + [Illustration: FIG. 36. + + A, Veliger-larva of an Opisthobranch (_Polycera_). f, Foot; op, + operculum; mn, anal papilla; ry, dry, two portions of unabsorbed + nutritive yolk on either side of the intestine. The right otocyst is + seen at the root of the foot. + + B, Trochosphere of an Opisthobranch (_Pleurobranchidium_) + showing--shgr, the shell-gland or primitive shell-sac; v, the cilia + of the velum; ph, the commencing stomodaeum or oral invagination; + ot, the left otocyst; pg, red-coloured pigment spot. + + C, Diblastula of an Opisthobranch (_Polycera_) with elongated + blastopore oi. + + (All from Lankester.)] + + Order 1.--OPISTHOBRANCHIA. Marine Euthyneura, the more archaic forms + of which have a relatively large foot and a small visceral hump, from + the base of which projects on the right side a short mantle-skirt. The + anus is placed in such forms far back beyond the mantle-skirt. In + front of the anus, and only partially covered by the mantle-skirt, is + the ctenidium with its free end turned backwards. The heart lies in + front of, instead of to the side of, the attachment of the + ctenidium--hence Opisthobranchia as opposed to "Prosobranchia," which + correspond to the Streptoneura. A shell is possessed in the adult + state by but few Opisthobranchia, but all pass through a veliger + larval stage with a nautiloid shell (fig. 36). Many Opisthobranchia + have by a process of atrophy lost the typical ctenidium and the + mantle-skirt, and have developed other organs in their place. As in + some Pectinibranchia, the free margin of the mantle-skirt is + frequently reflected over the shell when a shell exists; and, as in + some Pectinibranchia, broad lateral outgrowths of the foot (parapodia) + are often developed which may be thrown over the shell or naked dorsal + surface of the body. + + [Illustration: FIG. 37.--_Phyllirhoë bucephala_, twice the natural + size, a transparent pisciform pelagic Opisthobranch. The internal + organs are shown as seen by transmitted light. (After W. Keferstein.) + + a, Mouth. + b, Radular sac. + c, Oesophagus. + d, Stomach. + c', Intestine. + f', Anus. + g, g', g", g"', The four lobes of the liver. + h, The heart (auricle and ventricle). + l, The renal sac (nephridium). + l', The ciliated communication of the renal sac with the pericardium. + m, The external opening of the renal sac. + n, The cerebral ganglion. + o, The cephalic tentacles. + f, The genital pore. + y, The ovo-testes. + w, The parasitic hydromedusa Mnestra, usually found attached in this + position by the aboral pole of its umbrella.] + + The variety of special developments of structure accompanying the + atrophy of typical organs in the Opisthobranchia and general + degeneration of organization is very great. The members of the order + present the same wide range of superficial appearance as do the + Pectinibranchiate Streptoneura, forms carrying well-developed spiral + shells and large mantle-skirts being included in the group, together + with flattened or cylindrical slug-like forms. But in respect of the + substitution of other parts for the mantle-skirt and for the gill + which the more degenerate Opisthobranchia exhibit, this order stands + alone. Some Opisthobranchia are striking examples of degeneration + (some Nudibranchia), having none of those regions or processes of the + body developed which distinguish the archaic Mollusca from such + flat-worms as the Dendrocoel Planarians. Indeed, were it not for + their retention of the characteristic odontophore we should have + little or no indication that such forms as _Phyllirhoë_ and + _Limapontia_ really belong to the Mollusca at all. The interesting + little _Rhodope veranyii_, which has no odontophore, has been + associated by systematists both with these simplified Opisthobranchs + and with Rhabdocoel Planarians. + + [Illustration: FIG. 38.--Three views of _Aplysia sp._, in various + conditions of expansion and retraction. (After Cuvier.) + + t, Anterior cephalic tentacles. + t², Posterior cephalic tentacles. + e, Eyes. + f, Metapodium. + ep, Epipodium. + g, Gill-plume (ctenidium). + m, Mantle-flap reflected over the thin oval shell. + os, s, Orifice formed by the unclosed border of the reflected + mantle-skirt, allowing the shell to show. + pe, The spermatic groove.] + + In many respects the sea-hare (_Aplysia_), of which several species + are known (some occurring on the English coast), serves as a + convenient example of the fullest development of the organization + characteristic of Opisthobranchia. The woodcut (fig. 38) gives a + faithful representation of the great mobility of the various parts of + the body. The head is well marked and joined to the body by a somewhat + constricted neck. It carries two pairs of cephalic tentacles and a + pair of sessile eyes. The visceral hump is low and not drawn out into + a spire. The foot is long, carrying the oblong visceral mass upon it, + and projecting (as metapodium) a little beyond it (f). Laterally the + foot gives rise to a pair of mobile fleshy lobes, the parapodia (ep), + which can be thrown up so as to cover in the dorsal surface of the + animal. Such parapodia are common, though by no means universal, among + Opisthobranchia. The torsion of the visceral hump is not carried out + very fully, the consequence being that the anus has a posterior + position a little to the right of the median line above the + metapodium, whilst the branchial chamber formed by the overhanging + mantle-skirt faces the right side of the body instead of lying well to + the front as in Streptoneura and as in Pulmonate Euthyneura. The + gill-plume, which in _Aplysia_ is the typical Molluscan ctenidium, is + seen in fig. 39 projecting from the branchial sub-pallial space. The + relation of the delicate shell to the mantle is peculiar, since it + occupies an oval area upon the visceral hump, the extent of which is + indicated in fig. 38, C, but may be better understood by a glance at + the figures of the allied genus _Umbrella_ (fig. 40), in which the + margin of the mantle-skirt coincides, just as it does in the limpet, + with the margin of the shell. But in _Aplysia_ the mantle is reflected + over the edge of the shell, and grows over its upper surface so as to + completely enclose it, excepting at the small central area s where the + naked shell is exposed. This enclosure of the shell is a permanent + development of the arrangement seen in many Streptoneura (e.g. + _Pyrula, Ovula_, see figs. 18 and 32), where the border of the mantle + can be, and usually is, drawn over the shell, though it is withdrawn + (as it cannot be in _Aplysia_) when they are irritated. From the fact + that _Aplysia_ commences its life as a free-swimming veliger with a + nautiloid shell not enclosed in any way by the border of the mantle, + it is clear that the enclosure of the shell in the adult is a + secondary process. Accordingly, the shell of _Aplysia_ must not be + confounded with a primitive shell in its shell-sac, such as we find + realized in the shells of _Chiton_ and in the plugs which form in the + remarkable transitory "shell-sac" or "shell-gland" of Molluscan + embryos (see figs. 26, 60). _Aplysia_, like other Mollusca, develops a + primitive shell-sac in its trochosphere stage of development, which + disappears and is succeeded by a nautiloid shell (fig. 36). This forms + the nucleus of the adult shell, and, as the animal grows, becomes + enclosed by a reflection of the mantle-skirt. When the shell of an + _Aplysia_ enclosed in its mantle is pushed well to the left, the + sub-pallial space is fully exposed as in fig. 39, and the various + apertures of the body are seen. Posteriorly we have the anus, in + front of this the lobate gill-plume, between the two (hence + corresponding in position to that of the Pectinibranchia) we have the + aperture of the renal organ. In front, near the anterior attachment of + the gill-plume, is the osphradium (olfactory organ) discovered by J.W. + Spengel, yellowish in colour, in the typical position, and overlying + an olfactory ganglion with typical nerve-connexion (see fig. 43). To + the right of Spengel's osphradium is the opening of a peculiar gland + which has, when dissected out, the form of a bunch of grapes; its + secretion is said to be poisonous. On the under side of the free edge + of the mantle are situated the numerous small cutaneous glands which, + in the large _Aplysia camelus_ (not in other species), form the purple + secretion which was known to the ancients. In front of the osphradium + is the single genital pore, the aperture of the common or + hermaphrodite duct. From this point there passes forward to the right + side of the head a groove--the spermatic groove--down which the + spermatic fluid passes. In other Euthyneura this groove may close up + and form a canal. At its termination by the side of the head is the + muscular introverted penis. In the hinder part of the foot (not shown + in any of the diagrams) is the opening of a large mucus-forming gland + very often found in the Molluscan foot. + + [Illustration: FIG. 39.--_Aplysia leporina_ (_camelus_, Cuv.), with + epipodia and mantle reflected away from the mid-line. (Lankester.) + + a, Anterior cephalic tentacle. + b, Posterior cephalic tentacle; between a and b, the eyes. + c, Right epipodium. + d, Left epipodium. + e, Hinder part of visceral hump. + fp, Posterior extremity of the foot. + fa, Anterior part of the foot underlying the head. + g, The ctenidium (branchial plume). + h, The mantle-skirt tightly spread over the horny shell and pushed + with it towards the left side. + i, The spermatic groove. + k, The common genital pore (male and female). + l, Orifice of the grape-shaped (supposed poisonous) gland. + m, The osphradium (olfactory organ of Spengel). + n, Outline of part of the renal sac (nephridium) below the surface. + o, External aperture of the nephridium. + p, Anus.] + + With regard to internal organization we may commence with the + disposition of the renal organ (nephridium), the external opening of + which has already been noted. The position of this opening and other + features of the renal organ were determined by J.T. Cunningham. + + [Illustration: FIG. 40.--_Umbrella mediterranea_. a, mouth; b, + cephalic tentacle; h, gill (ctenidium). The free edge of the mantle is + seen just below the margin of the shell (compare with _Aplysia_, fig. + 39). (From Owen.)] + + There is considerable uncertainty with respect to the names of the + species of _Aplysia_. There are two forms which are very common in the + Gulf of Naples. One is quite black in colour, and measures when + outstretched 8 or 9 in. in length. The other is light brown and + somewhat smaller, its length usually not exceeding 7 in. The first is + flaccid and sluggish in its movements, and has not much power of + contraction; its epipodial lobes are enormously developed and extend + far forward along the body; it gives out when handled an abundance of + purple liquid, which is derived from cutaneous glands situated on the + under side of the free edge of the mantle. According to F. Blochmann + it is identical with _A. camelus_ of Cuvier. The other species is _A. + depilans_; it is firm to the touch, and contracts forcibly when + irritated; the secretion of the mantle-glands is not abundant, and is + milky white in appearance. The kidney has similar relations in both + species, and is identical with the organ spoken of by many authors as + the triangular gland. Its superficial extent is seen when the folds + covering the shell are cut away and the shell removed; the external + surface forms a triangle with its base bordering the pericardium, and + its apex directed posteriorly and reaching the the left-hand posterior + corner of the shell-chamber. The dorsal surface of the kidney extends + to the left beyond the shell-chamber beneath the skin in the space + between the shell-chamber and the left parapodium. + + When the animal is turned on its left-hand side and the mantle-chamber + widely opened, the gill being turned over to the left, a part of the + kidney is seen beneath the skin between the attachment of the gill and + the right parapodium (fig. 39). On examination this is found to be the + under surface of the posterior limb of the gland, the upper surface of + which has just been described as lying beneath the shell. In the + posterior third of this portion, close to that edge which is adjacent + to the base of the gill, is the external opening (fig. 39, o). + + When the pericardium is cut open from above in an animal otherwise + entire, the anterior face of the kidney is seen forming the posterior + wall of the pericardial chamber; on the deep edge of this face, a + little to the left of the attachment of the auricle to the floor of + the pericardium, is seen a depression; this depression contains the + opening from the pericardium into the kidney. + + To complete the account of the relations of the organ: the right + anterior corner can be seen superficially in the wall of the + mantle-chamber above the gill. Thus the base of the gill passes in a + slanting direction across the right-hand side of the kidney, the + posterior end being dorsal to the apex of the gland, and the anterior + end ventral to the right-hand corner. + + As so great a part of the whole surface of the kidney lies adjacent to + external surfaces of the body, the remaining part which faces the + internal organs is small; it consists of the left part of the under + surface; it is level with the floor of the pericardium, and lies over + the globular mass formed by the liver and convoluted intestine. + + [Illustration: FIG. 41.--Gonad, and accessory glands and ducts of + _Aplysia_. (Lankester.) + + i, Ovo-testis. + h, Hermaphrodite duct. + g, Albuminiparous gland. + f, Vesicula seminalis. + k, Opening of the albuminiparous gland into the hermaphrodite duct. + e, Hermaphrodite duct (uterine portion). + b, Vaginal portion of the uterine duct. + c, Spermatheca. + d, Its duct. + a, Genital pore.] + + Thus the renal organ of _Aplysia_ is shown to conform to the Molluscan + type. The heart lying within the adjacent pericardium has the usual + form, a single auricle and ventricle. The vascular system is not + extensive, the arteries soon ending in the well-marked spongy tissue + which builds up the muscular foot, parapodia, and dorsal body-wall. + + The alimentary canal commences with the usual buccal mass; the lips + are cartilaginous, but not armed with horny jaws, though these are + common in other Opisthobranchs; the lingual ribbon is + multidenticulate, and a pair of salivary glands pour in their + secretion. The oesophagus expands into a curious gizzard, which is + armed internally with large horny processes, some broad and thick, + others spinous, fitted to act as crushing instruments. From this we + pass to a stomach and a coil of intestine embedded in the lobes of a + voluminous liver; a caecum of large size is given off near the + commencement of the intestine. The liver opens by two ducts into the + digestive tract. + + The generative organs lie close to the coil of intestine and liver, a + little to the left side. When dissected out they appear as represented + in fig. 41. The essential reproductive organ or gonad consists of both + ovarian and testicular cells (see fig. 42). It is an ovo-testis. From + it passes a common or hermaphrodite duct, which very soon becomes + entwined in the spire of a gland--the albuminiparous gland. The latter + opens into the common duct at the point k, and here also is a small + diverticulum of the duct f. Passing on, we find not far from the + genital pore a glandular spherical body (the spermatheca c) opening by + means of a longish duct into the common duct, and then we reach the + pore (fig. 39, k). Here the female apparatus terminates. But when the + male secretion of the ovo-testis is active, the seminal fluid passes + from the genital pore along the spermatic groove (fig. 39) to the + penis, and is by the aid of that eversible muscular organ introduced + into the genital pore of a second _Aplysia_, whence it passes into the + spermatheca, there to await the activity of the female element of the + ovo-testis of this second _Aplysia_. After an interval of some + days--possibly weeks--the ova of the second _Aplysia_ commence to + descend the hermaphrodite duct; they become enclosed in a viscid + secretion at the point where the albuminiparous gland opens into the + duct intertwined with it; and on reaching the point where the + spermathecal duct debouches they are impregnated by the spermatozoa + which escape now from the spermatheca and meet the ova. + + [Illustration: FIG. 42.--Follicles of the hermaphrodite gonads of + Euthyneurous Gastropods. A, of _Helix_; B, of _Eolis_; a, ova; b, + developing spermatozoa; c, common efferent duct.] + + The development of _Aplysia_ from the egg presents many points of + interest from the point of view of comparative embryology, but in + relation to the morphology of the Opisthobranchia it is sufficient to + point to the occurrence of a trochosphere and a veliger stage (fig. + 36), and of a shell-gland or primitive shell-sac (fig. 36, _shgr_), + which is succeeded by a nautiloid shell. + + [Illustration: FIG. 43.--Nervous system of _Aplysia_, as a type of the + long-looped Euthyneurous condition. The untwisted visceral loop is + lightly shaded. (After Spengel.) + + ce, Cerebral ganglion. + pl, Pleural ganglion. + pe, Pedal ganglion. + ab.sp, Abdominal ganglion which represents also the + supra-intestinal ganglion of Streptoneura and gives off the nerve + to the osphradium (olfactory organ) o, and another to an unlettered + so-called "genital" ganglion. The buccal nerves and ganglia are + omitted.] + + In the nervous system of _Aplysia_ the great ganglion-pairs are well + developed and distinct. The euthyneurous visceral loop is long, and + presents only one ganglion (in _Aplysia camelus_, but two distinct + ganglia joined to one another in _Aplysia hybrida_ of the English + coast), placed at its extreme limit, representing both the right and + left visceral ganglia and the third or abdominal ganglion, which are + so often separately present. The diagram (fig. 43) shows the nerve + connecting this abdomino-visceral ganglion with the olfactory ganglion + of Spengel. It is also seen to be connected with a more remote + ganglion--the genital. Such special irregularities in the development + of ganglia upon the visceral loop, and on one or more of the main + nerves connected with it, are very frequent. Our figure of the nervous + system of _Aplysia_ does not give the small pair of buccal ganglia + which are, as in all glossophorous Molluscs, present upon the nerves + passing from the cerebral region to the odontophore. + + For a comparison of various Opisthobranchs, _Aplysia_ will be found to + present a convenient starting-point. It is one of the more typical + Opisthobranchs, that is to say, it belongs to the section + Tectibranchia, but other members of the suborder, namely, _Bulla_ and + _Actaeon_ (figs. 44 and 45), are less abnormal than _Aplysia_ in + regard to their shells and the form of the visceral hump. They have + naked spirally twisted shells which may be concealed from view in the + living animal by the expansion and reflection of the parapodia, but + are not enclosed by the mantle, whilst _Actaeon_ is remarkable for + possessing an operculum like that of so many Streptoneura. + + The great development of the parapodia seen in _Aplysia_ is usual in + Tectibranchiate Opisthobranchs. The whole surface of the body becomes + greatly modified in those Nudibranchiate forms which have lost, not + only the shell, but also the ctenidium. Many of these have peculiar + processes developed on the dorsal surface (fig. 46, A, B), or retain + purely negative characters (fig. 46, D). The chief modification of + internal organization presented by these forms, as compared with + _Aplysia_, is found in the condition of the alimentary canal. The + liver is no longer a compact organ opening by a pair of ducts into the + median digestive tract, but we find very numerous hepatic diverticula + on a shortened axial tract (fig. 47). These diverticula extend usually + one into each of the dorsal papillae or "cerata" when these are + present. They are not merely digestive glands, but are sufficiently + wide to act as receptacles of food, and in them the digestion of food + proceeds just as in the axial portion of the canal. A precisely + similar modification of the liver or great digestive gland is found in + the scorpions, where the axial portion of the digestive canal is short + and straight, and the lateral ducts sufficiently wide to admit food + into the ramifications of the gland there to be digested; whilst in + the spiders the gland is reduced to a series of simple caeca. + + [Illustration: FIG. 44.--_Bulla vexillum_ (Chemnitz), as seen + crawling. a', oral hood (compare with Tethys, fig. 46, B), possibly a + continuation of the epipodia; b, b', cephalic tentacles. (From Owen.)] + + The typical character is retained by the heart, pericardium, and the + communicating nephridium or renal organ in all Opisthobranchs. An + interesting example of this is furnished by the fish-like transparent + _Phyllirhoë_ (fig. 37), in which it is possible most satisfactorily to + study in the living animal, by means of the microscope, the course of + the blood-stream, and also the reno-pericardial communication. In many + of the Nudibranchiate Opisthobranchs the nervous system presents a + concentration of the ganglia (fig. 48), contrasting greatly with what + we have seen in _Aplysia_. Not only are the pleural ganglia fused to + the cerebral, but also the visceral to these (see in further + illustration the condition attained by the Pulmonate _Limnaeus_, fig. + 59), and the visceral loop is astonishingly short and insignificant + (fig. 48, e'). That the parts are rightly thus identified is + probable from J.W. Spengel's observation of the osphradium and its + nerve-supply in these forms; the nerve to that organ, which is placed + somewhat anteriorly--on the dorsal surface--being given off from the + hinder part (visceral) of the right compound ganglion--the fellow to + that marked A in fig. 48. The Eolid-like Nudibranchs, amongst other + specialities of structure, possess (in some cases at any rate) + apertures at the apices of the "cerata" or dorsal papillae, which lead + from the exterior into the hepatic caeca. Some amongst them + (_Tergipes, Eolis_) are also remarkable for possessing peculiarly + modified cells placed in sacs (cnidosacs) at the apices of these same + papillae, which resemble the "thread-cells" of the Coelentera. + According to T.S. Wright and J.H. Grosvenor these nematocysts are + derived from the hydroids on which the animals feed. + + [Illustration: FIG. 45.--_Actaeon._ h, shell; b, oral hood; d, foot; + f, operculum.] + + The development of many Opisthobranchia has been examined--e.g. + _Aplysia, Pleurobranchidium, Elysia, Polycera, Doris, Tergipes_. All + pass through trochosphere and veliger stages, and in all a nautiloid + or boat-like shell is developed, preceded by a well-marked + "shell-gland" (see fig. 36). The transition from the free-swimming + veliger larva with its nautiloid shell (fig. 36) to the adult form has + not been properly observed, and many interesting points as to the true + nature of folds (whether parapodia or mantle or velum) have yet to be + cleared up by a knowledge of such development in forms like _Tethys, + Doris, Phyllidia_, &c. As in other Molluscan groups, we find even in + closely-allied genera (for instance, in _Aplysia_ and + _Pleurobranchidium_, and other genera), the greatest differences as to + the _amount_ of food-material by which the egg-shell is encumbered. + Some form their diblastula by emboly, others by epiboly; and in the + later history of the further development of the enclosed cells + (arch-enteron) very marked variations occur in closely-allied forms, + due to the influence of a greater or less abundance of food-material + mixed with the protoplasm of the egg. + + Sub-order 1.--TECTIBRANCHIA. Opisthobranchs provided in the adult + state with a shell and a mantle, except _Runcina, Pleurobranchaea, + Cymbuliidae_, and some Aplysiomorpha. There is a ctenidium, except in + some Thecosomata and Gymnosomata, and an osphradium. + + Tribe 1.--BULLOMORPHA. The shell is usually well developed, except in + _Runcina_ and _Cymbuliidae_, and may be external or internal. No + operculum, except in _Actaeonidae_ and _Limacinidae_. The pallial + cavity is always well developed, and contains the ctenidium, at least + in part; ctenidium, except in _Lophocercidae_, of folded type. With + the exception of the _Aplustridae, Lophocercidae_ and _Thecosomata_, + the head is devoid of tentacles, and its dorsal surface forms a + digging disk or shield. The edges of the foot form parapodia, often + transformed into fins. Posteriorly the mantle forms a large pallial + lobe under the pallial aperture. Stomach generally provided with + chitinous or calcified masticatory plates. Visceral commissure fairly + long, except in _Runcina, Lobiger_ and _Thecosomata_. Hermaphrodite + genital aperture, connected with the penis by a ciliated groove, + except in _Actaeon, Lobiger_ and _Cavolinia longirostris_, in which + the spermiduct is a closed tube. Animals either swim or burrow. + + [Illustration: FIG. 46. + + A, _Eolis papillosa_ (Lin.), dorsal view. + a, b, Posterior and anterior cephalic tentacles. + c, The dorsal "cerata." + B, _Tethys leporina_, dorsal view. + a, The cephalic hood. + b, Cephalic tentacles. + c, Neck. + d, Genital pore. + e, Anus. + f, Large cerata. + g, Smaller cerata. + h, Margin of the foot. + C, _Doris (Actinocyclus) tuberculatus_ (Cuv.), seen from the pedal + surface. + m, Mouth. + b, Margin of the head. + f, Sole of the foot. + sp, The mantle-like epipodium. + D, E, Dorsal and lateral view of _Elysia (Actaeon) viridis_. + ep, epipodial outgrowths. (After Keferstein.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 47.--Enteric Canal of _Eolis papillosa_. (From + Gegenbaur, after Alder and Hancock.) + + ph, Pharynx. + m, Midgut, with its hepatic appendages h, all of which are not + figured. + e, Hind gut. + an, Anus.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 48.--Central Nervous System of _Fiona_ (one of the + Nudibranchia), showing a tendency to fusion of the great ganglia. + (From Gegenbaur, after Bergh.) + + A, Cerebral, pleural and visceral ganglia united. + B, Pedal ganglion. + C, Buccal ganglion. + D, Oesophageal ganglion connected with, the Buccal. + a, Nerve to superior cephalic tentacle. + b, Nerves to inferior cephalic tentacles. + c, Nerve to generative organs. + d, Pedal nerve. + e, Pedal commissure. + e', Visceral loop or commissure (?).] + + [Illustration: Fig. 49.--_Cavolinia tridentata_, Forsk. from the + Mediterranean, magnified two diameters. (From Owen.) + + a, Mouth. + b, Pair of cephalic tentacles. + C, C, Pteropodial lobes of the foot. + d, Median web connecting these. + e, e, Processes of the mantle-skirt reflected over the surface of + the shell. + g, The shell enclosing the visceral hump. + h. The median spine of the shell.] + + Fam. 1.--_Actaeonidae._ Cephalic shield bifid posteriorly; margins + of foot slightly developed; genital duct diaulic; visceral + commissure streptoneurous; shell thick, with prominent spire and + elongated aperture; a horny operculum. _Actaeon_, British. + _Solidula. Tornatellaea_, extinct. _Adelactaeon. Bullina. + Bullinula._ + + Fam. 2.--_Ringiculidae._ Cephalic disk enlarged anteriorly, forming + an open tube posteriorly; shell external, thick, with prominent + spire; no operculum. _Ringicula. Pugnus._ + + Fam. 3.--_Tornatinidae._ Margins of foot not prominent; no radula; + shell external, with inconspicuous spire. _Tornatina_, British. + _Retusa. Volvula._ + + Fam. 4.--_Scaphandridae._ Cephalic shield short, truncated + posteriorly; eyes deeply embedded; three calcareous stomachal + plates; shell external, with reduced spire. _Scaphander_, British. + _Atys. Smaragdinella. Cylichna_, British. _Amphisphyra_, British. + + Fam. 5.--_Bullidae._ Margins of foot well developed; eyes + superficial; three chitinous stomachal plates; shell external, with + reduced spire. Bulla, British. _Haminea_, British. + + Fam. 6.--_Aceratidae._ Cephalic shield continuous with neck; twelve + to fourteen stomachal plates; a posterior pallial filament passing + through a notch in shell. _Acera_, British. _Cylindrobulla. + Volutella._ + + Fam. 7.--_Aplustridae._ Foot very broad; cephalic shield with four + tentacles; shell external, thin, without prominent spire. + _Aplustrum. Hydatina. Micromelo._ + + Fam. 8.--_Philinidae._ Cephalic shield broad, thick and simple; + shell wholly internal, thin, spire much reduced, aperture very + large. _Philine_, British. _Cryptophthalmus. Chelinodura. + Phanerophthalmus. Colpodaspis_, British. _Colobocephalus._ + + Fam. 9.--_Doridiidae._ Cephalic shield ending posteriorly in a + median point; shell internal, largely membranous; no radula or + stomachal plates. _Doridium. Navarchus._ + + Fam. 10.--_Gastropteridae._ Cephalic shield pointed behind; shell + internal, chiefly membranous, with calcified nucleus, nautiloid; + parapodia forming fins. _Gastropteron._ + + Fam. 11.--_Runcinidae._ Cephalic shield continuous with dorsal + integument; no shell; ctenidium projecting from mantle cavity. + _Runcina._ + + Fam. 12.--_Lophocercidae._ Shell external, globular or ovoid; foot + elongated, parapodia separate from ventral surface; genital duct + diaulic. _Lobiger. Lophocercus._ + + [Illustration: FIG. 50.--Shell of _Cavolinia tridentata_, seen from + the side. + + f, Postero-dorsal surface. + g, Antero-ventral surface. + h, Median dorsal spine. + i, Mouth of the shell.] + + The next three families form the group formerly known as Thecosomatous + Pteropods. They are all pelagic, the foot being entirely transformed + into a pair of anterior fins; eyes are absent, and the nerve centres + are concentrated on the ventral side of the oesophagus. + + Fam. 13.--_Limacinidae._ Dextral animals, with shell coiled + pseudo-sinistrally; operculum with sinistral spiral; pallial cavity + dorsal. _Limacina_, British. _Peraclis_, ctenidium present. + + Fam. 14.--_Cymbuliidae._ Adult without shell; a sub-epithelial + pseudoconch formed by connective tissue; pallial cavity ventral. + _Cymbulia. Cymbuliopsis. Gleba. Desmopterus._ + + Fam. 15.--_Cavoliniidae._ Shell not coiled, symmetrical; pallial + cavity ventral. _Cavolinia. Clio. Cuvierina._ + + Tribe 2.--APLYSIOMORPHA. Shell more or less internal, much reduced or + absent. Head bears two pairs of tentacles. Parapodia separate from + ventral surface, and generally transformed into swimming lobes. + Visceral commissure much shortened, except in _Aplysia_. Genital duct + monaulic; hermaphrodite duct connected with penis by a ciliated + groove. Animals either swim or crawl. + + Fam. 1.--_Aplysiidae_. Shell partly or wholly internal, or absent; + foot long, with well-developed ventral surface. _Aplysia. Dolabella. + Dolabrifer. Aplysiella. Phyllaplysia. Notarchus_. + + The next six families include the animals formerly known as + Gymnosomatous Pteropods, characterized by the absence of mantle and + shell, the reduction of the ventral surface of the foot, and the + parapodial fins at the anterior end of the body. They are all pelagic. + + Fam. 2.--_Pneumonodermatidae_. Pharynx evaginable, with suckers. + _Pneumonoderma. Dexiobranchaea. Spongiobranchaea. Schizobrachium_. + + Fam. 3.--_Clionopsidae_. No buccal appendages or suckers; a very + long evaginable proboscis; a quadriradiate terminal branchia. + _Clionopsis_. + + Fam. 4.--_Notobranchaeidae_. Posterior branchia triradiate. + Notobranchaea. + + Fam. 5.--_Thliptodontidae_. Head very large, not marked off from the + body; neither branchia nor suckers; fins situated near the middle of + the body. _Thliptodon_. + + [Illustration: FIG. 51.--Embryo of _Cavolinia tridentata_. (From + Balfour, after Fol.) + + a, Anus. + f, Median portion of the foot. + pn, Pteropodial lobe of the foot. + h, Heart. + i, Intestine. + m. Mouth. + ot, Otocyst. + q, Shell. + r, Nephridium. + s, Oesophagus. + [sigma], Sac containing nutritive yolk. + mb, Mantle-skirt. + mc, Sub-pallial chamber. + Kn, Contractile sinus.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 52.--_Styliola acicula_, Rang. sp. enlarged. (From + Owen.) + + C, C, The wing-like lobes of the foot. + d, Median fold of same. + e, Copulatory organ. + h, Pointed extremity of the shell. + i, Anterior margin of the shell. + n, Stomach. + o, Liver. + u. Hermaphrodite gonad.] + + Fam. 6.--_Clionidae_. No branchia of any kind; a short evaginable + pharynx, bearing paired conical buccal appendages or "cephalocones." + _Clione. Paraclione. Fowlerina_. + + Fam. 7.--_Halopsychidae_. No branchia; two long and branched buccal + appendages. _Halopsyche_. + + Tribe 3.--PLEUROBRANCHOMORPHA. Two pairs of tentacles. Foot without + parapodia; no pallial cavity, but always a single ctenidium situated + on the right side between mantle and foot. Genital duct diaulic, + without open seminal groove; male and female apertures contiguous. + Visceral commissure short, tendency to concentration of all ganglia in + dorsal side of oesophagus. + + Fam. 1.--_Tylodinidae_. Shell external and conical; anterior + tentacles form a frontal veil; ctenidium extending only over right + side; a distinct osphradium. _Tylodina_. + + Fam. 2.--_Umbrellidae_. Shell external, conical, much flattened; + anterior tentacles very small, and situated with the mouth in a + notch of the foot below the head; ctenidium very large. _Umbrella_. + + Fam. 3.--_Pleurobranchidae_. Shell covered by mantle, or absent; + anterior tentacles form a frontal veil; mantle contains spicules. + _Pleurobranchus. Berthella. Haliotinella. Oscanius_, British. + _Oscaniella. Oscaniopsis. Pleurobranchaea._ + + Sub-order 2.--NUDIBRANCHIA. Shell absent in the adult; no ctenidium or + osphradium. Body generally slug-like, and externally symmetrical. + Visceral mass not marked off from the foot, except in _Hedylidae._ + Dorsal respiratory appendages frequently present. Visceral commissure + reduced; nervous system concentrated on dorsal side of oesophagus. + Marine; generally carnivorous, and brightly coloured, affording many + instances of protective resemblance. + + Tribe 1.--TRITONIOMORPHA. Liver wholly or partially contained in the + visceral mass. Anus lateral, on the right side. Usually two rows of + ramified dorsal appendages. Genital duct diaulic; male and female + apertures contiguous. + + Fam. 1.--_Tritoniidae._ Anterior tentacles form a frontal veil; foot + rather broad. _Tritonia_, British. _Marionia._ + + Fam. 2.--_Scyllaeidae._ No anterior tentacles; dorsal appendages + broad and foliaceous; foot very narrow; stomach with horny plates. + _Scyllaea_, pelagic. + + Fam. 3.--_Phyllirhoidae._ No anterior tentacles, and no dorsal + appendages; body laterally compressed, transparent; pelagic. + _Phyllirhoë._ + + Fam. 4.--_Tethyidae._ Head broad, surrounded by a funnel-shaped + velum or hood; no radula; dorsal appendages foliaceous. _Tethys. + Melibe._ + + Fam. 5.--_Dendronotidae._ Anterior tentacles forming a scalloped + frontal veil; dorsal appendages and tentacles similarly ramified. + _Dendronotus. Campaspe._ + + Fam. 6.--_Bornellidae._ Dorsum furnished on either side with + papillae, at the base of which are ramified appendages. _Bornella._ + + Fam. 7.--_Lomanotidae._ Body flattened, the two dorsal borders + prominent and foliaceous. _Lomanotus_, British. + + Tribe 2.--DORIDOMORPHA. Body externally symmetrical; anus median, + posterior, and generally dorsal, surrounded by ramified pallial + appendages, constituting a secondary branchia. Liver not ramified in + the integuments. Genital duct triaulic. Spicules present in the + mantle. + + [Illustration: FIG. 53.--_Halopsyche gaudichaudii_, Soul. (From Owen.) + Much enlarged; the body-wall removed. + + a, The mouth. + c, The pteropodial lobes of the foot. + f, The centrally-placed hind-foot. + d, l, e, Three pairs of tentacle-like processes placed at the sides + of the mouth, and developed (in all probability) from the + fore-foot. + o', Anus. + y, Genital pore. + k, Retractor muscles. + o and p, The liver. + u, v, w, Genitalia.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 54.--_Ancula cristata_, one of the pygobranchiate + Opisthobranchs (dorsal view). (From Gegenbaur, after Alder and + Hancock.) + + a, Anus. + br, Secondary branchia surrounding the anus. + t, Cephalic tentacles. + + External to the branchia are seen ten club-like processes of the + dorsal wall, these are the "cerata" which are characteristically + developed in another suborder of Opisthobranchs.] + + Fam. 1.--_Polyceratidae._ A more or less prominent frontal veil; + branchiae non-retractile. _Euplocamus. Polycera_, British. + _Thecacera_, British. _Aegirus_, British. _Plocamopherus. Palio. + Crimora. Triopa_, British. _Triopella._ + + Fam. 2.--_Goniodorididae._ Mantle-border projecting; frontal veil + reduced, and often covered by the anterior border of the mantle. + _Goniodoris_, British. _Acanthodoris_, British. _Idalia_, British. + _Ancula_, British. _Doridunculus_. _Lamellidoris. Ancylodoris_, + the only fresh-water Nudibranch, from Lake Baikal. + + Fam. 3.--_Heterodorididae_. No branchia. _Heterodoris_. + + Fam. 4.--_Dorididae_. Mantle oval, covering the head and the greater + part of the body; anterior tentacles, ill-developed; branchiae + generally retractile. _Doris_, British. _Hexabranchus_. + _Chromodoris_. + + Fam. 5.--_Doridopsidae_. Pharynx suctorial; no radula; branchial + rosette on the dorsal surface, above the mantle-border. + _Doridopsis_. + + Fam. 6.--_Corambidae_. Anus and branchia posterior, below the + mantle-border. _Corambe_. + + Fam. 7.-_-Phyllidiidae_. Pharynx suctorial; branchiae surrounding + the body, between the mantle and foot. _Phyllidia. Fryeria_. + + The last three families constitute the sub-tribe Porostomata, + characterized by the reduction of the buccal mass, which is modified + into a suctorial apparatus. + + Tribe 3.--EOLIDOMORPHA (_Cladohepatica_). The whole of the liver + contained in the integuments and tegumentary papillae. Genital duct + diaulic; male and female apertures contiguous. The anus is + antero-lateral, except in the _Proctonotidae_, in which it is median. + Tegumentary papillae not ramified, and containing cnidosacs with + nematocysts. + + Fam. 1.--_Eolididae_. Dorsal papillae spindle-shaped or club-shaped. + _Eolis_, British. _Facelina_, British. _Tergipes_, British. + _Gonieolis. Cuthona. Embletonia. Galvina. Calma. Hero_. + + Fam. 2.--_Glaucidae_. Body furnished with three pairs of lateral + lobes, bearing the tegumentary papillae; foot very narrow; pelagic. + _Glaucus_. + + Fam. 3.--_Hedylidae_. Body elongated; visceral mass marked off from + foot posteriorly; dorsal appendages absent, or reduced to a single + pair; spicules in the integument. _Hedyle_. + + Fam. 4.--_Pseudovermidae_. Head without tentacles; body elongated; + anus on right side. _Pseudovermis_. + + Fam. 5.--_Proctonotidae_. Anus posterior, median; anterior + tentacles, atrophied; foot broad. _Janus_, British. _Proctonotus_, + British. + + Fam. 6.--_Dotonidae_. Bases of the rhinophores surrounded by a + sheath; dorsal papillae tuberculated and club-shaped, in a single + row on either side of the dorsum; no cnidosacs. _Doto_, British. + _Gellina. Heromorpha_. + + Fam. 7.--_Fionidae_. Dorsal papillae with a membranous expansion; + male and female apertures at some distance from each other; pelagic. + _Fiona_. + + Fam. 8.--_Pleurophyllidae_. Anterior tentacles in the form of a + digging shield; mantle without appendages, but respiratory papillae + beneath the mantle-border. _Pleurophyllidia_. + + Fam. 9.--_Dermatobranchidae_. Like the last, but wholly without + branchiae. _Dermatobranchus_. + + Tribe 4.--ELYSIOMORPHA. Liver ramifies in integuments and extends into + dorsal papillae, but there are no cnidosacs. Genital duct always + triaulic, and male and female apertures distant from each other. No + mandibles, and radula uniserial. Never more than one pair of + tentacles, and these are absent in _Alderia_ and some species of + _Limapontia_. + + [Illustration: FIG. 55.--Dorsal and Ventral View of _Pleurophyllidia + lineata_ (Otto), one of the Eolidomorph Nudibranchs. (After + Keferstein.) + + b, The mouth. + l, The lamelliform sub-pallial gills, which (as in Patella) replace + the typical Molluscan ctenidium.] + + Fam. 1.--_Hermaeidae_. Foot narrow; dorsal papillae linear or + fusiform, in several series. _Hermaea_, British. _Stiliger_. + _Alderia_, British. + + Fam. 2.--_Phyllobranchidae_. Foot broad; dorsal papillae flattened + and foliaceous. _Phyllobranchus. Cyerce_. + + Fam. 3.--_Plakobranchidae_. Body depressed, without dorsal papillae, + but with two very large lateral expansions, with dorsal plications. + _Plakobranchus_. + + Fam. 4.--_Elysiidae_. Body elongated, with lateral expansions; + tentacles large; foot narrow. _Elysia_, British. _Tridachia_. + + Fam. 5.--_Limapontiidae_. No lateral expansions, and no dorsal + papillae; body planariform; anus dorsal, median and posterior. + _Limapontia_, British. _Actaeonia_, British. _Cenia_. + + Order 2 (of the Euthyneura).--PULMONATA. Euthyneurous Gastropoda, + probably derived from ancestral forms similar to the Tectibranchiate + Opisthobranchia by adaptation to a terrestrial life. The ctenidium is + atrophied, and the edge of the mantle-skirt is fused to the dorsal + integument by concrescence, except at one point which forms the + aperture of the mantle-chamber, thus converted into a nearly closed + sac. Air is admitted to this sac for respiratory and hydrostatic + purposes, and it thus becomes a lung. An operculum is present only in + _Amphibola_; a contrast being thus afforded with the operculate + pulmonate Streptoneura (_Cyclostoma_, &c.), which differ in other + essential features of structure from the Pulmonata. The Pulmonata are, + like the other Euthyneura, hermaphrodite, with elaborately developed + copulatory organs and accessory glands. Like other Euthyneura, they + have very numerous small denticles on the lingual ribbon. In aquatic + Pulmonata the osphradium is retained. + + In some Pulmonata (snails) the foot is extended at right angles to the + visceral hump, which rises from it in the form of a coil as in + Streptoneura; in others the visceral hump is not elevated, but is + extended with the foot, and the shell is small or absent (slugs). + + [Illustration: FIG. 56.--A Series of Stylommatophorous Pulmonata, + showing transitional forms between snail and slug. + + A, _Helix pomatia_. (From Keferstein.) + B, _Helicophanta brevipes_. (From Keferstein, after Pfeiffer.) + C, _Testacella haliotidea_. (From Keferstein.) + D, _Arion ater_, the great black slug. (From Keferstein.) + a, Shell in A, B, C, shell-sac (closed) in D; b, orifice leading + into the sub-pallial chamber (lung).] + + Pulmonata are widely distinguished from a small number of Streptoneura + at one time associated with them on account of their mantle-chamber + being converted, as in Pulmonata, into a lung, and the ctenidium or + branchial plume aborted. The terrestrial Streptoneura (represented in + England by the common genus _Cyclostoma_) have a twisted visceral + nerve-loop, an operculum on the foot, a complex rhipidoglossate or + taenio-glossate radula, and are of distinct sexes. The Pulmonata have + a straight visceral nerve-loop, usually no operculum even in the + embryo, and a multidenticulate radula, the teeth being equi-formal; + and they are hermaphrodite. Some Pulmonata (_Limnaea_, &c.) live in + fresh waters although breathing air. The remarkable discovery has been + made that in deep lakes such _Limnaei_ do not breathe air, but admit + water to the lung-sac and live at the bottom. The lung-sac serves + undoubtedly as a hydrostatic apparatus in the aquatic Pulmonata, as + well as assisting respiration. + + [Illustration: FIG. 57.--_Ancylus fluviatilis_, a patelliform aquatic + Pulmonate.] + + The same general range of body-form is shown in Pulmonata as in the + Heteropoda and in the Opisthobranchia; at one extreme we have snails + with coiled visceral hump, at the other cylindrical or flattened slugs + (see fig. 56). Limpet-like forms are also found (fig. 57, _Ancylus_). + The foot is always simple, with its flat crawling surface extending + from end to end, but in the embryo _Limnaea_ it shows a bilobed + character, which leads on to the condition characteristic of + Pteropoda. + + The adaptation of the Pulmonata to terrestrial life has entailed + little modification of the internal organization. In one genus + (_Planorbis_) the plasma of the blood is coloured red by haemoglobin, + this being the only instance of the presence of this body in the blood + of Glossophorous Mollusca, though it occurs in corpuscles in the blood + of the bivalves _Arca_ and _Solen_ (Lankester). + + [Illustration: _Fig. 58._--Hermaphrodite Reproductive Apparatus of the + Garden Snail (_Helix hortensis_). + + [tau], Ovo-testis. + ve, Hermaphrodite duct. + Ed, Albuminiparous gland. + u, Uterine dilatation of the hermaphrodite duct. + d, Digitate accessory glands on the female duct. + ps, Calciferous gland or dart-sac on the female duct. + Rf, Spermatheca or receptacle of the sperm in copulation, opening + into the female duct. + vd, Male duct (vas deferens). + p, Penis. + fl, Flagellum.] + + The generative apparatus of the snail (_Helix_) may serve as an + example of the hermaphrodite apparatus common to the Pulmonata and + Opisthobranchia (fig. 58). From the ovo-testis, which lies near the + apex of the visceral coil, a common hermaphrodite duct ve proceeds, + which receives the duct of the compact white albuminiparous gland, Ed, + and then becomes much enlarged, the additional width being due to the + development of glandular folds, which are regarded as forming a uterus + u. Where these folds cease the common duct splits into two portions, a + male and a female. The male duct vd becomes fleshy and muscular near + its termination at the genital pore, forming the penis p. Attached to + it is a diverticulum fl, in which the spermatozoa which have descended + from the ovo-testis are stored and modelled into sperm ropes or + spermatophores. The female portion of the duct is more complex. Soon + after quitting the uterus it is joined by a long duct leading from a + glandular sac, the spermatheca (Rf). In this duct and sac the + spermatophores received in copulation from another snail are lodged. + In _Helix hortensis_ the spermatheca is simple. In other species of + _Helix_ a second duct (as large in _Helix aspersa_ as the chief one) + is given off from the spermathecal duct, and in the natural state is + closely adherent to the wall of the uterus. This second duct has + normally no spermathecal gland at its termination, which is simple and + blunt. But in rare cases in _Helix aspersa_ a second spermatheca is + found at the end of this second duct. Tracing the widening female duct + onwards we now come to the openings of the digitate accessory glands + d, d, which probably assist in the formation of the egg-capsule. Close + to them is the remarkable dart-sac ps, a thick-walled sac, in the + lumen of which a crystalline four-fluted rod or dart consisting of + carbonate of lime is found. It is supposed to act in some way as a + stimulant in copulation, but possibly has to do with the calcareous + covering of the egg-capsule. Other Pulmonata exhibit variations of + secondary importance in the details of this hermaphrodite apparatus. + + The nervous system of _Helix_ is not favourable as an example on + account of the fusion of the ganglia to form an almost uniform ring of + nervous matter around the oesophagus. The pond-snail (_Limnaeus_) + furnishes, on the other hand, a very beautiful case of distinct + ganglia and connecting cords (fig. 59). The demonstration which it + affords of the extreme shortening of the Euthyneurous visceral + nerve-loop is most instructive and valuable for comparison with and + explanation of the condition of the nervous centres in Cephalopoda, as + also of some Opisthobranchia. The figure (fig. 59) is sufficiently + described in the letterpress attached to it; the pair of buccal + ganglia joined by the connectives to the cerebrals are, as in most of + our figures, omitted. Here we need only further draw attention to the + osphradium, discovered by Lacaze-Duthiers, and shown by Spengel to + agree in its innervation with that organ in all other Gastropoda. On + account of the shortness of the visceral loop and the proximity of the + right visceral ganglion to the oesophageal nerve-ring, the nerve to + the osphradium and olfactory ganglion is very long. The position of + the osphradium corresponds more or less closely with that of the + vanished right ctenidium, with which it is normally associated. In + _Helix_ and _Limax_ the osphradium has not been described, and + possibly its discovery might clear up the doubts which have been + raised as to the nature of the mantle-chamber of those genera. In + _Planorbis_, which is sinistral (as are a few other genera or + exceptional varieties of various Anisopleurous Gastropods), instead of + being dextral, the osphradium is on the left side, and receives its + nerve from the left visceral ganglion, the whole series of unilateral + organs being reversed. This is, as might be expected, what is found + to be the case in all "reversed" Gastropods. + + The shell of the Pulmonata, though always light and delicate, is in + many cases a well-developed spiral "house" into which the creature can + withdraw itself; and, although the foot possesses no operculum, yet in + _Helix_ the aperture of the shell is closed in the winter by a + complete lid, the "hybernaculum" more or less calcareous in nature, + which is secreted by the foot. In _Clausilia_ a peculiar modification + of this lid exists permanently in the adult, attached by an elastic + stalk to the mouth of the shell, and known as the "clausilium." In + _Limnaeus_ the permanent shell is preceded in the embryo by a + well-marked shell-gland or primitive shell-sac (fig. 60), at one time + supposed to be the developing anus, but shown by Lankester to be + identical with the "shell-gland" discovered by him in other Mollusca + (_Pisidium, Pleurobranchidium, Neritina_, &c.). As in other Gastropoda + Anisopleura, this shell-sac may abnormally develop a plug of chitinous + matter, but normally it flattens out and disappears, whilst the + cap-like rudiment of the permanent shell is shed out from the + dome-like surface of the visceral hump, in the centre of which the + shell-sac existed for a brief period. + + [Illustration: FIG. 59.--Nervous System of the Pond-Snail, _Limnaeus + stagnalis_, as a type of the short-looped euthyneurous condition. The + short visceral "loop" with its three ganglia is lightly-shaded. + + ce, Cerebral ganglion. + pe, Pedal ganglion. + pl, Pleural ganglion. + ab, Abdominal ganglion. + sp, Visceral ganglion of the left side; opposite to it is the + visceral ganglion of the right side, which gives off the long nerve + to the olfactory ganglion and osphradium o. + + In _Planorbis_ and in _Auricula_ (Pulmonata, allied to _Limnaeus_) + the olfactory organ is on the _left_ side and receives its nerve + from the _left_ visceral ganglion. (After Spengel.)] + + In _Clausilia_, according to the observations of C. Gegenbaur, the + primitive shell-sac does not flatten out and disappear, but takes the + form of a flattened closed sac. Within this closed sac a plate of + calcareous matter is developed, and after a time the upper wall of the + sac disappears, and the calcareous plate continues to grow as the + nucleus of the permanent shell. In the slug _Testacella_ (fig. 56, C) + the shell-plate never attains a large size, though naked. In other + slugs, namely, _Limax_ and _Arion_, the shell-sac remains permanently + closed over the shell-plate, which in the latter genus consists of a + granular mass of carbonate of lime. The permanence of the primitive + shell-sac in these slugs is a point of considerable interest. It is + clear enough that the sac is of a different origin from that of + _Aplysia_ (described in the section treating of Opisthobranchia), + being primitive instead of secondary. It seems probable that it is + identical with one of the open sacs in which each shell-plate of a + _Chiton_ is formed, and the series of plate-like imbrications which + are placed behind the single shell-sac on the dorsum of the curious + slug, _Plectrophorus_, suggest the possibility of the formation of a + series of shell-sacs on the back of that animal similar to those which + we find in _Chiton_. Whether the closed primitive shell-sac of the + slugs (and with it the transient embryonic shell-gland of all other + Mollusca) is precisely the same thing as the closed sac in which the + calcareous pen or shell of the Cephalopod _Sepia_ and its allies is + formed, is a further question which we shall consider when dealing + with the Cephalopoda. It is important here to note that _Clausilia_ + furnishes us with an exceptional instance of the _continuity_ of the + shell or secreted product of the primitive shell-sac with the adult + shell. In most other Mollusca (Anisopleurous Gastropods, Pteropods and + Conchifera) there is a want of such continuity; the primitive + shell-sac contributes no factor to the permanent shell, or only a very + minute knob-like particle (_Neritina_ and _Paludina_). It flattens out + and disappears before the work of forming the permanent shell + commences. And just as there is a break at this stage, so (as observed + by A. Krohn in _Marsenia_ = _Echinospira_) there _may_ be a break at a + later stage, the nautiloid shell formed on the larva being cast, and a + new shell of a different form being formed afresh on the surface of + the visceral hump. It is, then, in this sense that we may speak of + primary, secondary and tertiary shells in Mollusca recognizing the + fact that they _may_ be merely phases fused by continuity of growth so + as to form but one shell, or that in other cases they _may_ be + presented to us as separate individual things, in virtue of the + non-development of the later phases, or in virtue of sudden changes in + the activity of the mantle-surface causing the shedding or + disappearance of one phase of shell-formation before a later one is + entered upon. + + The development of the aquatic Pulmonata from the egg offers + considerable facilities for study, and that of _Limnaeus_ has been + elucidated by E.R. Lankester, whilst H. Rabl has with remarkable skill + applied the method of sections to the study of the minute embryos of + _Planorbis_. The chief features in the development of _Limnaeus_ are + exhibited in fig. 60. There is not a very large amount of + food-material present in the egg of this snail, and accordingly the + cells resulting from division are not so unequal as in many other + cases. The four cells first formed are of equal size, and then four + smaller cells are formed by division of these four so as to lie at one + end of the first four (the pole corresponding to that at which the + "directive corpuscles" are extruded and remain). The smaller cells now + divide and spread over the four larger cells; at the same time a + space--the cleavage cavity or blastocoel--forms in the centre of the + mulberry-like mass. Then the large cells recommence the process of + division and sink into the hollow of the sphere, leaving an elongated + groove, the blastopore, on the surface. The invaginated cells (derived + from the division of the four big cells) form the endoderm or + arch-enteron; the outer cells are the ectoderm. The blastopore now + closes along the middle part of its course, which coincides in + position with the future "foot." One end of the blastopore becomes + nearly closed, and an ingrowth of ectoderm takes place around it to + form the stomodaeum or fore-gut and mouth. The other extreme end + closes, but the invaginated endoderm cells remain in continuity with + this extremity of the blastopore, and form the "rectal peduncle" or + "pedicle of invagination" of Lankester, although the endoderm cells + retain no contact with the middle region of the now closed-up + blastopore. The anal opening forms at a late period by a very short + ingrowth or proctodaeum coinciding with the blind termination of the + rectal peduncle (fig. 60, pi). + + [Illustration: FIG. 60.--Embryo of _Limnaeus stagnalis_, at a stage + when the Trochosphere is developing foot and shell-gland and becoming + a Veliger, seen as a transparent object under slight pressure. + (Lankester.) + + ph, Pharynx (stomodaeal invagination). + v, v, The ciliated band marking out the velum. + ng, Cerebral nerve-ganglion. + re, Stiebel's canal (left side), probably an evanescent embryonic + nephridium. + sh, The primitive shell-sac or shell-gland. + pi, The rectal peduncle or pedicle of invagination; its attachment + to the ectoderm is coincident with the hindmost extremity of the + elongated blastopore of fig. 3, C. + tge, Mesoblastic (skeleto-trophic and muscular) cells investing + gs, the bilobed arch-enteron or lateral vesicles of invaginated + endoderm, which will develop into liver. + f, The foot.] + + The body-cavity and the muscular, fibrous and vascular tissues are + traced partly to two symmetrically disposed "mesoblasts," which bud + off from the invaginated arch-enteron, partly to cells derived from + the ectoderm, which at a very early stage is connected by long + processes with the invaginated endoderm. The external form of the + embryo goes through the same changes as in other Gastropods, and is + not, as was held previously to Lankester's observations, exceptional. + When the middle and hinder regions of the blastopore are closing in, + an equatorial ridge of ciliated cells is formed, converting the embryo + into a typical trochosphere. + + The foot now protrudes below the mouth, and the post-oral hemisphere + of the trochosphere grows more rapidly then the anterior or velar + area. The young foot shows a bilobed form. Within the velar area the + eyes and the cephalic tentacles commence to rise up, and on the + surface of the post-oral region is formed a cap-like shell and an + encircling ridge, which gradually increases in prominence and becomes + the freely depending mantle-skirt. The outline of the velar area + becomes strongly emarginated and can be traced through the more mature + embryos to the cephalic lobes or labial processes of the adult + _Limnaeus_ (fig. 61). + + [Illustration: FIG. 61.--A, B, C. Three views of _Limnaeus stagnalis_, + in order to show the persistence of the larval velar area v, as the + circum-oral lobes of the adult. m, Mouth; f, foot; v, velar area, the + margin v corresponding with the ciliated band which demarcates the + velar area or velum of the embryo Gastropod (see fig. 4, D, E, F, H, + I, v). (Original.)] + + The increase of the visceral dome, its spiral twisting, and the + gradual closure of the space overhung by the mantle-skirt so as to + convert it into a lung-sac with a small contractile aperture, belong + to stages in the development later than any represented in our + figures. + + We may now revert briefly to the internal organization at a period + when the trochosphere is beginning to show a prominent foot growing + out from the area where the mid-region of the elongated blastopore was + situated, and having therefore at one end of it the mouth and at the + other the anus. Fig. 60 represents such an embryo under slight + compression as seen by transmitted light. The ciliated band of the + left side of the velar area is indicated by a line extending from v to + v; the foot f is seen between the pharynx ph and the pedicle of + invagination pi. The mass of the arch-enteron or invaginated + endodermal sac has taken on a bilobed form, and its cells are swollen + (gs and tge). This bilobed sac becomes _entirely_ the liver in the + adult; the intestine and stomach are formed from the pedicle of + invagination, whilst the pharynx, oesophagus and crop form from the + stomodaeal invagination ph. To the right (in the figure) of the rectal + peduncle is seen the deeply invaginated shell-gland ss, with a + secretion sh protruding from it. The shell-gland is destined in + _Limnaeus_ to become very rapidly stretched out, and to disappear. + Farther up, within the velar area, the rudiments of the cerebral + nerve-ganglion ng are seen separating from the ectoderm. A remarkable + cord of cells having a position just below the integument occurs on + each side of the head. In the figure the cord of the left side is + seen, marked re. This paired organ consists of a string of cells which + are perforated by a duct opening to the exterior and ending internally + in a flame-cell. Such cannulated cells are characteristic of the + nephridia of many worms, and the organs thus formed in the embryo + _Limnaeus_ are embryonic nephridia. The most important fact about them + is that they disappear, and are in no way connected with the typical + nephridium of the adult. In reference to their first observer they + were formerly called "Stiebel's canals." Other Pulmonata possess, when + embryos, Stiebel's canals in a more fully developed state, for + instance, the common slug _Limax_. Here too they disappear during + embryonic life. Similar larval nephridia occur in other Gastropoda. In + the marine Streptoneura they are ectodermic projections which + ultimately fall off; in the Opisthobranchs they are closed pouches; in + _Paludina_ and _Bithynia_ they are canals as in Pulmonata. + + [Illustration: FIG. 62.--_Oncidium tonganum_, a littoral Pulmonate, + found on the shores of the Indian and Pacific Oceans (Mauritius, + Japan).] + + _Marine Pulmonata._--Whilst the Pulmonata are essentially a + terrestrial and fresh-water group, there is one genus of slug-like + Pulmonates which frequent the sea-coast (_Oncidium_, fig. 62). Karl + Semper has shown that these slugs have, in addition to the usual pair + of cephalic eyes, a number of eyes developed upon the dorsal + integument. These dorsal eyes are very perfect in elaboration, + possessing lens, retinal nerve-end cells, retinal pigment and optic + nerve. Curiously enough, however, they differ from the cephalic + Molluscan eye in the fact that, as in the vertebrate eye, the + filaments of the optic nerve penetrate the retina, and are connected + with the surfaces of the nerve-end cells nearer the lens instead of + with the opposite end. The significance of this arrangement is not + known, but it is important to note, as shown by V. Henson, S.J. + Hickson and others, that in the bivalves _Pecten_ and _Spondylus_, + which also have eyes upon the mantle quite distinct from typical + cephalic eyes, there is the same relationship as in Oncidiidae of the + optic nerve to the retinal cells. In both Oncidiidae and _Pecten_ the + pallial eyes have probably been developed by the modification of + tentacles, such as coexist in an unmodified form with the eyes. The + Oncidiidae are, according to K. Semper, pursued as food by the leaping + fish _Periophthalmus_, and the dorsal eyes are of especial value to + them in aiding them to escape from this enemy. + + Sub-order 1.--BASOMMATOPHORA. Pulmonata with an external shell. The + head bears a single pair of contractile but not invaginable tentacles, + at the base of which are the eyes. Penis at some distance from the + female aperture, except in _Amphibola_ and _Siphonaria_. All have an + osphradium, except the _Auriculidae_, which are terrestrial, and it is + situated outside the pallial cavity in those forms in which water is + not admitted into the lung. There is a veliger stage in development, + but the velum is reduced. + + Fam. 1.--_Auriculidae_. Terrestrial and usually littoral; genital + duct monaulic, the penis being connected with the aperture by an + open or closed groove; shell with a prominent spire, the internal + partitions often absorbed and the aperture denticulated. _Auricula. + Cassidula. Alexia. Melampus. Carychium_, terrestrial, British. + _Scarabus. Leuconia_, British. _Blauneria. Pedipes_. + + Fam. 2.--_Otinidae_. Shell with short spire, and wide oval aperture; + tentacles short. _Otina_, British. _Camptonyx_, terrestrial. + + Fam. 3.--_Amphibolidae_. Shell spirally coiled; head broad, without + prominent tentacles; foot short, operculated; marine. _Amphibola_. + + Fam. 4.--_Siphonariidae_. Visceral mass and shell conical; tentacles + atrophied; head expanded; genital apertures contiguous; marine + animals, with an aquatic pallial cavity containing secondary + branchial laminae. _Siphonaria_. + + Fam. 5.--_Gadiniidae_. Visceral mass and shell conical; head + flattened; pallial cavity aquatic, but without a branchia; genital + apertures separated. _Gadinia_. + + Fam. 6.--_Chilinidae_. Shell ovoid, with short spire, wide aperture + and folded columella; inferior pallial lobe thick; visceral + commissure still twisted. _Chilina_. + + Fam. 7.--_Limnaeidae_. Shell thin, dextral, with prominent spire and + oval aperture; no inferior pallial lobe. _Limnaea_, British. + _Amphipeplea_, British. + + Fam. 8.--_Pompholygidae_. Shell dextral, hyperstrophic, animal + sinistral. _Pompholyx. Choanomphalus_. + + Fam. 9.--_Planorbidae_. Visceral mass and shell sinistral; inferior + pallial lobe very prominent, and transformed into a branchia. + _Planorbis_, British. _Bulinus. Miratesta_. + + Fam. 10.--_Ancylidae_. Shell conical, not spiral; inferior pallial + lobe transformed into a branchia. _Ancylus_, British. _Latia. + Grundlachia_. + + Fam. 11.--_Physidae_. Visceral mass and shell sinistrally coiled; + shell thin, with narrow aperture; no inferior pallial lobe. _Physa_, + British. _Aplexa_, British. + + Sub-order 2.--STYLOMMATOPHORA. Pulmonata with two pairs of tentacles, + except _Janellidae_ and _Vertigo_; these tentacles are invaginable, + and the eyes are borne on the summits of the posterior pair. Male and + female genital apertures open into a common vestibule, except in + _Vaginulidae_ and _Oncidiidae_. Except in _Oncidium_, there is no + longer a veliger stage in development. + + Tribe 1.--HOLOGNATHA. Jaw simple, without a superior appendage. + + Fam. 1.--_Selenitidae_. Radula with elongated and pointed teeth, + like those of the Agnatha; a jaw present. _Plutonia. + Trigonochlamys_. + + Fam. 2.--_Zonitidae_. Shell external, smooth, heliciform or + flattened; radula with pointed marginal teeth. _Zonites_, British. + _Ariophanta. Orpiella. Vitrina. Helicarion_. + + Fam. 3.--_Limacidae_. Shell internal. _Limax_, British. _Parmacella. + Urocyclus. Parmarion. Amalia. Agriolimax. Mesolimax. Monochroma. + Paralimax. Metalimax_. + + Fam. 4.--_Philomycidae_. No shell; mantle covers the whole surface + of the body; radula with squarish teeth. _Philomycus_. + + Fam. 5.--_Ostracolethidae_. Shell largely chitinous, not spiral, its + calcareous apex projecting through a small hole in the mantle. + _Ostracolethe_. + + Fam. 6.--_Arionidae_. Shell internal, or absent; mantle restricted + to the anterior and middle part of the body; radula with squarish + teeth. _Arion_, British. _Geomalacus. Ariolimax. Anadenus_. + + Fam. 7.--_Helicidae_. Shell with medium spire, external or partly + covered by the mantle; genital aperture below the right posterior + tentacle; genital apparatus generally provided with a dart-sac and + multifid vesicles. _Helix_, British. _Bulimus. Hemphillia. + Berendtia. Cochlostyla. Rhodea_. + + Fam. 8.--_Endodontidae_. Shell external, spiral, generally + ornamented with ribs; borders of aperture thin and not reflected; + radula with square teeth; genital ducts without accessory organs. + _Endodonta. Punctum. Sphyradium. Laoma. Pyramidula._ + + Fam. 9.--_Orthalicidae._ Shell external, ovoid, the last whorl + swollen, aperture oval with a simple border; radular teeth in + oblique rows. _Orthalicus._ + + Fam. 10.--_Bulimulidae._ Jaw formed of folds imbricated externally + and meeting at an acute angle near the base. _Bulimulus. Peltella. + Amphibulimus._ + + Fam. 11.--_Cylindrellidae._ Shell turriculated, with numerous + whorls, the last more or less detached. _Cylindrella._ + + Fam. 12.--_Pupidae._ Shell external, with elongated spire and + numerous whorls, aperture generally narrow; male genital duct + without multifid vesicles. _Pupa_, British. _Eucalodium. Vertigo_, + British. _Buliminus_, British. _Clausilia_, British. _Balea. + Zospeum. Megaspira. Strophia. Anostoma._ + + Fam. 13.--_Stenogyridae._ Shell elongated, with a more or less + obtuse summit; aperture with a simple border. _Achatina. Stenogyra. + Ferussacia_, British. _Cionella. Caecilianella. Azeca. Opeas._ + + Fam. 14.--_Helicteridae._ Shell bulimoid, dextral or sinistral; + radular teeth, expanded at their extremities and multicuspidate. + _Helicter. Tornatellina._ + + Tribe 2.--AGNATHA. No jaws; teeth narrow and pointed; carnivorous. + + Fam. 1.--_Oleacinidae._ Shell oval, elongated, with narrow aperture; + neck very long; labial palps prominent. _Oleacina (Glandina). + Streptostyla._ + + Fam. 2.--_Testacellidae._ Shell globular or auriform, external or + partly covered by the mantle. _Streptaxis. Gibbulina. Aerope. + Rhytida. Daudebardia. Testacella. Chlamydophorus. Schizoglossa._ + + Fam. 3.--_Rathouisiidae._ No shell, a carinated mantle covering the + whole body; male and female apertures distant, the female near the + anus. _Rathouisia. Atopos._ + + Tribe 3.--ELASMOGNATHA. Jaw with a well-developed dorsal appendage. + + Fam. 1.--_Succineidae._ Anterior tentacles much reduced; male and + female apertures contiguous but distinct; shell thin, spiral, with + short spire. _Succinea_, British. _Homalonyx. Hyalimax. + Neohyalimax._ + + Fam. 2.--_Janellidae._ Limaciform, with internal rounded shell; + mantle very small and triangular; pulmonary chamber with tracheae; + no anterior tentacles. _Janella. Aneitella. Aneitea. + Triboniophorus._ + + Tribe 4.--DITREMATA. Male and female apertures distant. + + Fam. 1.--_Vaginulidae._ No shell; limaciform; terrestrial; female + aperture on right side in middle of body; anus posterior. + _Vaginula._ + + Fam. 2.--_Oncidiidae._ No shell; limaciform; littoral; female + aperture posterior, near anus; a reduced pulmonary cavity with a + distinct aperture. _Oncidium. Oncidiella_, British. _Peronia._ + + AUTHORITIES.--L. Boutan, "La Cause principale de l'asymétrie des + mollusques gastéropodes," _Arch. de zool. expér._ (3), vii. (1899); A. + Lang, "Versuch einer Erklärung der Asymmetrie der Gastropoder," + _Vierteljahrsschr. naturforsch. Gesellschaft_, Zürich, 36 (1892); A. + Robert, "Recherches sur le développement des Troques," _Arch. de zool. + expér._ (3), x. (1903); P. Pelseneer, "Report on the Pteropoda," + _Zool. "Challenger" Expedit._ pts. lviii., lxv., lxvi. (1887, 1888); + P. Pelseneer, "Protobranches aériens et Pulmonés branchifères," _Arch. + de biol._ xiv. (1895); W.A. Herdman, "On the Structure and Functions + of the Cerata or Dorsal Papillae in some Nudibranchiate Mollusca," + _Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci._ (1892); J.T. Cunningham, "On the Structure + and Relations of the Kidney in Aplysia," _Mitt. Zool. Stat. Neapel_, + iv. (1883); Böhmig, "Zur feineren Anatomie von _Rhodope veranyi_, + Kölliker," _Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool._ vol. lvi. (1893). + + TREATISES.--S.P. Woodward, _Manual of the Mollusca_ (2nd ed., with + appendix, London, 1869); E. Forbes and S. Hanley, _History of British + Mollusca_ (4 vols., London, 1853); Alder and Hancock, _Monograph of + British Nudibranchiate Mollusca_ (London, Roy. Society, 1845); P. + Pelseneer, _Mollusca. Treatise on Zool._, edited by E. Ray Lankester, + pt. v. (1906); E. Ray Lankester, "Mollusca," in 9th ed. of this + Encyclopaedia, to which this article is much indebted. (J. T. C) + + + + +GASTROTRICHA, a small group of fairly uniform animals which live among +Rotifers and Protozoa at the bottom of ponds and marshes, biding amongst +the recesses of the algae and sphagnum and other fresh-water plants and +eating organic débris and Infusoria. They are of minute size varying +from one-sixtieth to one-three-hundredth of an inch, and they move by +means of long cilia. Two ventral bands composed of regular transverse +rows of cilia are usually found. The head bears some especially large +cilia. The cuticle which covers the body is here and there raised into +overlapping scales which may be prolonged into bristles. An enlarged, +frontal scale may cover the head, and a row of scales separates the +ventral ciliated areas from one another, whilst two series of +alternating rows cover the back and side. The body, otherwise circular +in section, is slightly flattened ventrally. The mouth is anterior and +slightly ventral; it leads into a protrusible pharynx armed with +recurved teeth that can be everted. This leads to a muscular oesophagus +with a triradiate lumen, which acts as a sucking pump and ends in a +funnel-valve projecting into the stomach. The last named is oval and +formed of four rows of large cells; it is separated by a sphincter from +the rectum, which opens posteriorly and dorsally. The nitrogenous +excretory apparatus consists of a coiled tube on each side of the +stomach; internally the tubes end in large flame-cells, and externally +by small pores which lie on the edges of the ventral row of scales. A +cerebral ganglion rests on the oesophagus and supplies the cephalic +cilia and hairs; it is continued some way back as two dorsal nerve +trunks. The sense organs are the hairs and bristles and in some species +eyes. The muscles are simple and unstriated and for the most part run +longitudinally. + +[Illustration: From _Zeitschrift für Wissenschaft Zoologie_, vol. xlix. +p. 209, by permission of Wilhelm Engelmann. + + _Chaetonotus maximus_, Ehrb., ventral side. (After Zelinka.) + Bo, Bristles surrounding the mouth. + ds, Dorsal bristles. + hCi, Posterior lateral cilia. + Ke, Cuticular dome. + Mr, Oral cavity. + lT, Lateral sensory hairs. + Pl, Cuticular plates. + Sa, Dorsal bristle of the basal part. + Sch, Plates. + Se, Lateral bristles. + Vb, Point of union of ciliated tract. + vCi, Anterior group of cilia. + vS, Ventral bristles of the basal part.] + +The two ovaries lie at the level of the juncture of the stomach and +rectum. The eggs become very large, sometimes half the length of the +mother; they are laid amongst water weeds. The male reproductive system +is but little known, a small gland lying between the ovaries has been +thought to be a testis, and if it be, the Gastrotricha are +hermaphrodite. + + Zelinka classifies the group as follows:-- + + Sub-order 1.--EUICHTHYDINA with a forked tail. + + (i.) Fam. Ichthydidae, without bristles. Genera: _Ichthydium, + Lepidoderma_. + + (ii.) Fam. Chaetonotidae, with bristles. Genera: _Chaetonotus, + Chaetura_. + + Sub-order 2.--APODINA, tail not forked. Genera: _Dasydytes, Gossea, + Stylochaeta_. + + The genus _Aspidiophorus_ recently described by Voigt seems in some + respects intermediate between _Lepidoderma_ and _Chaetonotus_. + _Zelinkia_ and _Philosyrtis_ are two slightly aberrant forms described + by Giard from certain diatomaceous sands. Altogether there must be + some forty to fifty described species. + + The group is an isolated one and shows no clear affinities with any of + the great phyla. Those that are usually dwelt on are treated with the + Rotifers and Nematoda and Turbellaria. + + LITERATURE.--A.C. Stokes, _The Microscope_ (Detroit, 1887-1888); C. + Zelinka, _Zeitschr. wiss. Zool._ xlix., 1890, p. 209; M. Voigt, + _Forschber. Plön._ Th. ix., 1904, p. 1; A. Giard, _C. R. Soc. Biol._ + lvi. pp. 1061 and 1063; E. Daday, _Termes. Fuzetek._ xxiv. p. 1; F. + Zschokke, _Denk. Schweiz. Ges._ xxxvii. p. 109; S. Hlava, _Zool. Anz._ + xxviii., 1905, p. 331. (A. E. S.) + + + + +GATAKER, THOMAS (1574-1654), English divine, was born in London in +September 1574, and educated at St John's College, Cambridge. From 1601 +to 1611 he held the appointment of preacher to the society of Lincoln's +Inn, which he resigned on accepting the rectory of Rotherhithe. In 1642 +he was chosen a member of the assembly of divines at Westminster, and +annotated for that assembly the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah and +Lamentations. He disapproved of the introduction of the Covenant, and +declared himself in favour of episcopacy. He was one of the forty-seven +London clergymen who disapproved of the trial of Charles I. He was +married four times, and died in July 1654. + + His principal works, besides some volumes of sermons are--_On the + Nature and Use of Lots_ (1619), a curious treatise which led to his + being accused of favouring games of chance; _Dissertatio de stylo Novi + Testamenti_ (1648); _Cinnus, sive Adversaria miscellanea, in quibus + Sacrae Scripturae primo, deinde aliorum scriptorum, locis aliquam + multis lux redditur_ (1651), to which was afterwards subjoined + _Adversaria Posthuma_; and his edition of _Marcus Antoninus_ (1652), + which, according to Hallam, is the "earliest edition of any classical + writer published in England with original annotations," and, for the + period at which it was written, possesses remarkable merit. His + collected works were published at Utrecht in 1698. + + + + +GATCHINA, a town of Russia, in the government of St Petersburg, 29 m. by +rail S. of the city of St Petersburg, in 59° 34' N. and 30° 6' E. Pop. +(1860) 9184; (1897) 14,735. It is situated in a flat, well-wooded, and +partly marshy district, and on the south side of the town are two lakes. +Among its more important buildings are the imperial palace, which was +founded in 1770 by Prince Orlov, and constructed according to the plans +of the Italian architect Rinaldi; a military orphanage, founded in 1803; +and a school for horticulture. Among the few industrial establishments +is a porcelain factory. At Gatchina an alliance was concluded between +Russia and Sweden on the 29th of October 1799. + + + + +GATE, an opening into any enclosure for entrance or exit, capable of +being closed by a barrier at will. The word is of wide application, +embracing not only the defensive entrance ways into a fortified place, +with which this article mainly deals, or the imposing architectural +features which form the main entrances to palaces, colleges, monastic +buildings, &c., but also the common five-barred barrier which closes an +opening into a field. The most general distinction that can be made +between "door" and "gate" is that of size, the greater entrance into a +court containing other buildings being the "gate," the smaller entrances +opening directly into the particular buildings the "doors," or that of +construction, the whole entrance way being a "gate" or gateway, the +barrier which closes it a "door." A further distinction is drawn by +applying "door" to the solid barriers or "valves" of wood, metal, &c., +made in panels and fitted to a framework, and "gate" to an openwork +structure, whether of metal or wood (see further DOOR and METAL-WORK). +The ultimate origin of the word is obscure; the early forms appear with +a palatalized initial letter, still surviving in such dialectical forms +as "yate," or in Scots "yett." It is probably connected with the root of +"get," in the sense either of "means of access" or of "holding," +"receptacle"; cf. Dutch _gat_, hole. There may be a connexion, however, +with "gate," now usually spelled "gait," a manner of walking,[1] but +originally a way, passage; cf. Ger. _Gasse_, narrow street, lane. + +The entrance through the enclosing walls of a city or fortification has +been from the earliest times a place of the utmost importance, +considered architecturally, socially or from the point of view of the +military engineer. In the East the "gate" was and still is in many +Mahommedan countries the central place of civic life. Here was the seat +of justice and of audience, the most important market-place, the spot +where men gathered to receive and exchange news. The references in the +Bible to the gates of the city in all these varied aspects are +innumerable (cf. Gen. xix. 1; Deut. xxv. 7; Ruth iv. 1; 2 Sam. xix. 8; 2 +Kings vii. 1). Later the seat of justice and of government is +transferred to the gate of the palace of the king (cf. Dan. ii. 49, and +Esther ii. 19), and this use is preserved to-day in the official title +of the seat of government of the Turkish empire at Constantinople, the +"Sublime Porte," a translation of the Turkish _Bab Aliy_ (_bab_, gate, +and _aliy_, high). A full account with many modern instances of Eastern +customs will be found in Sir Charles Warren's article "Gate" in +Hastings's _Dict. of Bible_. For the "pylon," the typical gate of +Egyptian architecture, see ARCHITECTURE. + +The gates into a walled town or other fortified place were necessarily +in early times the chief points on which the attack concentrated, and +the features, common throughout the ages, of flanking or surmounting +towers and of galleries over the entrance way, are found in the Assyrian +gate at Khorsabad (cf. 2 Chron. xxvi. 9; 2 Sam. xviii. 24). With the +coming of peaceful times to a city or the removal of the fear of sudden +attack, the gateways would take a form adapted more for ready exit and +entrance than for defence, though the possibility of defending them was +not forgotten. Such city gates often had separate openings for entrance +and exit, and again for foot passengers and for vehicles. The +Gallo-Roman gate at Autun has four entrances, two just wide enough to +admit carriages, and two narrow alleys for foot passengers. A fine +example of a Roman city gate, dating from the time of Constantine, is at +Trèves. It is four storeys high, with ornamental windows, and decorated +with columns on each storey. The two outer wings project beyond the +central part, the two entrance ways are 14 ft. wide, and could be closed +by doors and a portcullis. The chambers in the storeys above were used +for the purposes of civil administration. In more modern times city +gateways have often followed the type of the Roman triumphal arch, with +a single wide opening and purely ornamental superstructure. On the other +hand, the defensive gate formed by an archway entering as it were +through a tower has been constantly followed as a type of entrance to +buildings of an entirely peaceful character. A fine example of such a +gateway, originally built for defence, is at Battle Abbey; this was +built by Abbot Retlynge in 1338, when Edward III. granted a licence to +fortify and crenellate the abbey. Such gateways are typical of Tudor +palaces, as at St James's or at Hampton Court, and are the most common +form in the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge. The Tom Gate at Christ +Church, Oxford, with its surmounted domed bell tower, or the cupola +resting on columns at Queen's College, Oxford, are further examples of +the gate architecturally considered. + +The changes the fortified gateway has undergone in construction and the +varying relative importance it has held in the scheme of defence follow +the lines of development taken by the history of FORTIFICATION AND +SIEGECRAFT (q.v.). The following is a short sketch of the main stages in +its history. A good example of the Roman fortified city gate still +remains at Pompeii. Here there is one passage way for vehicles, 14 ft. +wide; this is open to the sky. The two footways on either side are +arched, with openings in the centre on to the central way. The doors of +the gate are on the city side, but a portcullis (_cataracta_) closed it +on the country side. The gateways of the Roman permanent camps (_castra +stativa_) were four in number, the _porta praetoria_ and _Decumana_ at +either end, with _principalis dextra_ and _sinistra_ on the side (see +also CAMP). At Pevensey (_Anderida_) a small postern on the north side +of the Roman walls was laid bare in 1906-1907, in which the passage +curves in the thickness of the wall, and from a width admitting two men +abreast narrows so that one alone could block it. Flanking towers or +bastions guarded the main entrances, while in front were built outworks, +of palisades, &c., to protect it; these were known as _procastra_ or +_antemuralia_, and the entrances to these were placed so that they could +be flanked from the main walls. + +In the defence of a fortified place the gate had not only to be +protected from sudden surprise, but also had to undergo protracted +attacks concentrated upon it during a siege. Thus until the coming of +gunpowder, the ingenuity of military engineers was exhausted in +accumulating the most complicated defences round the gateways, and the +strength of a fortified place could be estimated by the fewness of its +gates. Viollet-le-Duc (_Dict. de l'arch. du moyen âge_, s.v. _Porte_) +takes the Narbonne and Aude gates (E. and W.) of Carcassonne as typical +instances of this complication. The following brief account of the +Narbonne Gate (fig. 1), one of the principal parts of the work on the +fortifications begun by Philip the Bold in 1285, will give some idea of +the varied means of defence, which may be found individually if not +always in such collective abundance in the fortified gateways of the +middle ages. Two massive towers flanked the actual entrance and were +linked across by an iron chain; over the entrance (E) was a +machicolation, further added to in time of war by a hoarding of timber; +and an outer portcullis fell in front of the heavy iron-lined doors. On +to the passage way between the first and second doors opened a square +machicolation (G) from which the defenders in the upper chambers of the +gate could attack an enemy that had succeeded in breaking through the +first entrance or had been trapped by the falling of the first +portcullis. Another machicolation (I) opened from the roof in front of +the second portcullis and second door. So much for the gate itself; but +before an attack could reach that point, the following defences had to +be passed: an immense circular barbican (A) protected the entrance +across the moat and through the outer _enceinte_ of the city. This +entrance was flanked by a masked return of the wall (C), while palisades +(P) still further hampered the assailant in his passage across the +"lists" to the foot of the gate towers. Here sappers would find +themselves exposed to a fire from the loopholes and from the +machicolated hoardings above them, while the projecting horns with which +the face of the towers terminated forced them to uncover themselves to a +flanking fire from the indents in the main curtain on either side of the +towers. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Plan of the Narbonne Gate of the city of +Carcassonne.] + +The later history of the gateway is merged in that of modern +fortification. The more elaborate the gate defences the greater was the +inducement for the besieger to attack the walls, and improvements in +methods of siegecraft ultimately compelled the defender to develop the +_enceinte_ from its medieval form of a ring wall with flanking towers to +the 17th century form of bastions, curtains, tenailles and ravelins, all +intimately connected in one general scheme of defence. By Vauban's time +there is little to distinguish the position and defences of the gateways +from the rest of the fortifications surrounding a town. A road from the +country usually entered one of the ravelins, sinking into the glacis, +crossing the ditch of the ravelin and piercing the parapet almost at +right angles to its proper direction (see fig. 2, which also shows a +typical arrangement of minor communications such as ramps and +staircases). From the interior of the ravelin it passed across the main +ditch to a gate in the curtain of the enceinte. The road was in fact +artificially made to wind in such a way that it was kept under fire from +the defences throughout, while the part of it inside the works was bent +so as to place a covering mass between the enemy's fire and troops using +the road for a sortie. Thus the gate itself was merely a barrier against +a _coup de main_ and to keep out unauthorized persons. In conditions +precluding the making of a breach in the walls, i.e. in surprises and +assaults _de vive force_, the gateway and accompanying drawbridge +continue to play their part in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, but +they seldom or never appear as the objectives of a siege _en règle_. In +Vauban's works, and those of most other engineers, there was generally a +postern giving access to the floor of the main ditch, in the centre of +the curtain escarp. The gates of Vauban's and later fortresses are +strong heavy wooden doors, and the gateways more or less ornamental +archways, exactly as in many private mansions of castellar form. In +modern fortresses the gate of a detached fort or an _enceinte de sureté_ +is intended purely as a defence against an unexpected rush. The usual +method is to have two gates, the outer one a lattice or portcullis of +iron bars and the inner one a plate of half-inch steel armour, backed by +wood and loopholed. The defenders of the gate can by this arrangement +fire from the inner loopholes through the outer gate upon the +approaches, and also keep the enemy under fire whilst he is trying to +force the outer gate itself. The ditches are crossed either by +drawbridges or by ramps leading the road down to the floor of the ditch. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Plan of Gate Arrangements of an 18th Century +Fortress.] + +The "gate" as a barrier to be removed and as an entrance to be passed is +of constant occurrence in figurative language and in symbolical usage. +The gates of the temple of Janus (q.v.) at Rome stood open in war and +closed in peace. The _pylon_ of ancient Egypt had a symbolical meaning +in the Book of the Dead, and religious significance attaches to the +_torii_, one of the outward signs of the Shinto religion in Japan, the +Buddhist _toran_, and to the Chinese _pai-loo_, the honorific gateways +erected to ancestors. The gates of heaven and hell, the gates of death +and darkness, the wide and narrow gates that lead to destruction and +life (Matt. vii. 13 and 14), are familiar metaphorical phrases in the +Bible. In Greek and Roman legend dreams pass through gates of +transparent horn if true, if deceptive and false through opaque gates of +ivory (Hom. _Od_. xix. 560 sq.; Virg. _Aen_. vi. 893). (C. We.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The spelling "gait" is confined to this meaning--the only + literary one surviving. In the form "gate" it appears dialectally in + this sense and in such particular meanings as a right to run cattle + on common or private ground or as a passage way in mines. The + principal survival is in names of streets in the north and midlands + of England and in Scotland, e.g. Briggate at Leeds, Wheeler Gate and + Castle Gate at Nottingham, Gallow Tree Gate at Leicester, and + Canongate and Cowgate at Edinburgh. + + + + +GATEHOUSE. In the second half of the 16th century in England the +entrance gateway, which formed part of the principal front of the +earlier feudal castles, became a detached feature attached to the +mansions only by a wall enclosing the entrance court. The gatehouse then +constituted a structure of some importance, and included sometimes many +rooms as at Stanway Hall, Gloucestershire, where it measures 44 ft. by +22 ft. and has three storeys; at Westwood, Worcestershire, it had a +frontage of 54 ft. with two storeys; and at Burton Agnes, Yorkshire, it +was still larger and was flanked by great octagonal towers at the angles +and had three storeys. At a later period smaller accommodation was +provided so that it virtually became a lodge, but being designed to +harmonize with the mansion it presented sometimes a monumental +structure. On the continent of Europe the gatehouse forms a much more +important building, as it formed part of the town fortifications, where +it sometimes defended the passage of a bridge across the stream or moat. +There are numerous examples in France and Germany. + + + + +GATES, HORATIO (1728-1806), American general, was born at Maldon in +Essex, England, in 1728. He entered the English army at an early age, +and was rapidly promoted. He accompanied General Braddock in his +disastrous expedition against Fort Duquesne in 1755, and was severely +wounded in the battle of July 9; and he saw other active service in the +Seven Years' War. After the peace of 1763 he purchased an estate in +Virginia, where he lived till the outbreak of the War of Independence +in 1775, when he was named by Congress adjutant-general. In 1776 he was +appointed to command the troops which had lately retreated from Canada, +and in August 1777, as a result of a successful intrigue, was appointed +to supersede General Philip Schuyler in command of the Northern +Department. In the two battles of Saratoga (q.v.) his army defeated +General Burgoyne, who, on the 17th of October, was forced to surrender +his whole army. This success was, however, largely due to the previous +manoeuvres of Schuyler and to Gates's subordinate officers. The +intrigues of the Conway Cabal to have Washington superseded by Gates +completely failed, but Gates was president for a time of the Board of +War, and in 1780 was placed in chief command in the South. He was +totally defeated at Camden, S. C., by Cornwallis on the 17th of August +1780, and in December was superseded by Greene, though an investigation +into his conduct terminated in acquittal (1782). He then retired to his +Virginian estate, whence he removed to New York in 1790, after +emancipating his slaves and providing for those who needed assistance. +He died in New York on the 10th of April 1806. + + + + +GATESHEAD, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough of Durham, +England; on the S. bank of the Tyne opposite Newcastle, and on the North +Eastern railway. Pop. (1891) 85,692; (1901) 109,888. Though one of the +largest towns in the county, neither its streets nor its public +buildings, except perhaps its ecclesiastical buildings, have much claim +to architectural beauty. The parish church of St Mary is an ancient +cruciform edifice surmounted by a lofty tower; but extensive restoration +was necessitated by a fire in 1854 which destroyed a considerable part +of the town. The town-hall, public library and mechanic's institute are +noteworthy buildings. Education is provided by a grammar school, a large +day school for girls, and technical and art schools. There is a service +of steam trams in the principal streets, and three fine bridges connect +the town with Newcastle-upon-Tyne. There are large iron works (including +foundries and factories for engines, boilers, chains and cables), +shipbuilding yards, glass manufactories, chemical, soap and candle +works, brick and tile works, breweries and tanneries. The town also +contains a depot of the North Eastern railway, with large stores and +locomotive works. Extensive coal mines exist in the vicinity; and at +Gateshead Fell are large quarries for grindstones, which are much +esteemed and are exported to all parts of the world. Large gas-works of +the Newcastle and Gateshead Gas Company are also situated in the +borough. The parliamentary borough returns one member. The corporation +consists of a mayor, 9 aldermen, and 27 councillors. Area, 3132 acres. + +Gateshead (Gateshewed) probably grew up during late Saxon times, the +mention of the church there in which Bishop Walcher was murdered in 1080 +being the first evidence of settlement. The borough probably obtained +its charter during the following century, for Hugh de Puiset, bishop of +Durham (1153-1195), confirmed to his burgesses similar rights to those +of the burgesses of Newcastle, freedom of toll within the palatinate and +other privileges. The bishop had a park here in 1348, and in 1438 Bishop +Nevill appointed a keeper of the "tower." The position of the town led +to a struggle with Newcastle over both fishing and trading rights. An +inquisition of 1322 declared that the water of the Tyne was divided into +three parts: the northern, belonging to Northumberland; the southern to +Durham; and the central, common to all. At another inquisition held in +1336 the men of Gateshead claimed liberty of trading and fishing along +the coast of Durham, and freedom to sell their fish where they would. In +1552, on the temporary extinction of the diocese of Durham, Gateshead +was attached to Newcastle, but in 1554 was regranted to Bishop Tunstall. +As compensation the bishop granted to Newcastle, at a nominal rent, the +Gateshead salt-meadows, with rights of way to the High Street, thus +abolishing the toll previously paid to the bishop. During the next +century Bishop Tunstall's successors incorporated nearly all the various +trades of Gateshead, and Cromwell continued this policy. The town +government during this period was by the bishop's bailiff, and the +holders of the burgages composed the juries of the bishop's courts leet +and baron. No charter of incorporation is extant, but in 1563 contests +were carried on under the name of the bailiffs, burgesses and +commonalty, and a list of borough accounts exists for 1696. The bishop +appointed the last borough bailiff in 1681, and though the inhabitants +in 1772 petitioned for a bailiff the town remained under a steward and +grassmen until the 19th century. As part of the palatinate of Durham, +Gateshead was not represented in parliament until 1832. At the +inquisition of 1336 the burgesses claimed an annual fair on St Peter's +Day, and depositions in 1577 mention a borough market held on Tuesday +and Friday, but these were apparently extinct in Camden's day, and no +grant of them is extant. The medieval trade seems to have centred round +the fisheries and the neighbouring coal mines which are mentioned in +1364 and also by Leland. + + + + +GATH, one of the five chief cities of the Philistines. It is frequently +mentioned in the historical books of the Old Testament, and from Amos +vi. 2 we conclude that, like Ashdod, it fell to Sargon in 711. Its site +appears to have been known in the 4th century, but the name is now lost. +Eusebius (in the _Onomasticon_) places it near the road from +Eleutheropolis (Beit Jibrïn) to Diospolis (Ludd) about five Roman miles +from the former. The Roman road between these two towns is still +traceable, and its milestones remain in places. East of the road at the +required distance rises a white cliff, almost isolated, 300 ft. high and +full of caves. On the top is the little mud village of Tell es-Safi +("the shining mound"), and beside the village is the mound which marks +the site of the Crusaders' castle of Blanchegarde (Alba Custodia), built +in 1144. Tell es-Safi was known by its present name as far back as the +12th century; but it appears not improbable that the strong site here +existing represents the ancient Gath. The cliff stands on the south side +of the mouth of the Valley of Elah, and Gath appears to have been near +this valley (1 Sam. xvii. 2, 52). This identification is not certain, +but it is at least much more probable than the theory which makes Gath, +Eleutheropolis, and Beit Jibrïn one and the same place. The site was +partially excavated by the Palestine Exploration Fund in 1899, and +remains extending in date back to the early Canaanite period were +discovered. + + + + +GATLING, RICHARD JORDAN (1818-1903), American inventor, was born in +Hertford county, North Carolina, on the 12th of September 1818. He was +the son of a well-to-do planter and slave-owner, from whom he inherited +a genius for mechanical invention and whom he assisted in the +construction and perfecting of machines for sowing cotton seeds, and for +thinning the plants. He was well educated and was successively a school +teacher and a merchant, spending all his spare time in developing new +inventions. In 1839 he perfected a practical screw propeller for +steamboats, only to find that a patent had been granted to John Ericsson +for a similar invention a few months earlier. He established himself in +St Louis, Missouri, and taking the cotton-sowing machine as a basis he +adapted it for sowing rice, wheat and other grains, and established +factories for its manufacture. The introduction of these machines did +much to revolutionize the agricultural system in the country. Becoming +interested in the study of medicine through an attack of smallpox, he +completed a course at the Ohio Medical College, taking his M.D. degree +in 1850. In the same year he invented a hemp-breaking machine, and in +1857 a steam plough. At the outbreak of the Civil War he was living in +Indianapolis, and devoted himself at once to the perfecting of +fire-arms. In 1861 he conceived the idea of the rapid fire machine-gun +which is associated with his name. By 1862 he had succeeded in +perfecting a gun that would discharge 350 shots per minute; but the war +was practically over before the Federal authorities consented to its +official adoption. From that time, however, the success of the invention +was assured, and within ten years it had been adopted by almost every +civilized nation. Gatling died in New York City on the 26th of February +1903. + + + + +GATTY, MARGARET (1809-1873), English writer, daughter of the Rev. +Alexander Scott (1768-1840), chaplain to Lord Nelson, was born at +Burnham, Essex, in 1809. She early began to draw and to etch on copper, +being a regular visitor to the print-room of the British Museum from the +age of ten. She also illuminated on vellum, copying the old strawberry +borders and designing initials. In 1839 Margaret Scott married the Rev. +Alfred Gatty, D.D., vicar of Ecclesfield near Sheffield, subdean of York +cathedral, and the author of various works both secular and religious. +In 1842 she published in association with her husband a life of her +father; but her first independent work was _The Fairy Godmother and +other Tales_, which appeared in 1851. This was followed in 1855 by the +first of five volumes of _Parables from Nature_, the last being +published in 1871. It was under the _nom de plume_ of Aunt Judy, as a +pleasant and instructive writer for children, that Mrs Gatty was most +widely known. Before starting _Aunt Judy's Magazine_ in May 1866, she +had brought out _Aunt Judy's Tales_ (1858) and _Aunt Judy's Letters_ +(1862), and among the other children's books which she subsequently +published were _Aunt Judy's Song Book for Children_ and _The Mother's +Book of Poetry_. "Aunt Judy" was the nickname given by her daughter +Juliana Horatia Ewing (q.v.). The editor of the magazine was on the +friendliest terms with her young correspondents and subscribers, and her +success was largely due to the sympathy which enabled her to look at +things from the child's point of view. Besides other excellences her +children's books are specially characterized by wholesomeness of +sentiment and cheerful humour. Her miscellaneous writings include, in +addition to several volumes of tales, _The Old Folks from Home_, an +account of a holiday ramble in Ireland; _The Travels and Adventures of +Dr Wolff the Missionary_ (1861), an autobiography edited by her; +_British Sea Weeds_ (1862); _Waifs and Strays of Natural History_ +(1871); _A Book of Emblems_ and _The Book of Sun-Dials_ (1872). She died +at Ecclesfield vicarage on the 4th of October 1873. + + + + +GAU, JOHN (c. 1495-? 1553), Scottish translator, was born at Perth +towards the close of the 15th century. He was educated in St Salvator's +College at St Andrews. He appears to have been in residence at Malmö in +1533, perhaps as chaplain to the Scots community there. In that year +John Hochstraten, the exiled Antwerp printer, issued a book by Gau +entitled: _The Richt vay to the Kingdome of Heuine_, of which the chief +interest is that it is the first Scottish book written on the side of +the Reformers. It is a translation of Christiern Pedersen's _Den rette +vey till Hiemmerigis Rige_ (Antwerp, 1531), for the most part direct, +but showing intimate knowledge in places of the German edition of +Urbanus Rhegius. Only one copy of Gau's text is extant, in the library +of Britwell Court, Bucks. It has been assumed that all the copies were +shipped from Malmö to Scotland, and that the cargo was intercepted by +the Scottish officers on the look out for the heretical works which were +printed abroad in large numbers. This may explain the silence of all the +historians of the Reformed Church--Knox, Calderwood and Spottiswood. Gau +married in 1536 a Malmö citizen's daughter, bearing the Christian name +Birgitta. She died in 1551, and he in or about 1553. + + The first reference to the _Richt Vay_ appeared in Chalmers's + _Caledonia_, ii. 616. Chalmers, who was the owner of the unique volume + before it passed into the Britwell Court collection, considered it to + be an original work. David Laing printed extracts for the Bannatyne + Club (_Miscellany_, iii., 1855). The evidence that the book is a + translation was first given by Sonnenstein Wendt in a paper "Om + Reformatorerna i Malmö," in Rördam's _Ny Kirkehistoriske Samlinger_, + ii. (Copenhagen, 1860). A complete edition was edited by A.F. Mitchell + for the Scottish Text Society (1888). See also Lorimer's _Patrick + Hamilton_. + + + + +GAUDEN, JOHN (1605-1662), English bishop and writer, reputed author of +the _Eikon Basilike_, was born in 1605 at Mayland, Essex, where his +father was vicar of the parish. Educated at Bury St Edmunds school and +at St John's College, Cambridge, he took his M.A. degree in 1625/6. He +married Elizabeth, daughter of Sir William Russell of Chippenham, +Cambridgeshire, and was tutor at Oxford to two of his wife's brothers. +He seems to have remained at Oxford until 1630, when he became vicar of +Chippenham. His sympathies were at first with the parliamentary party. +He was chaplain to Robert Rich, second earl of Warwick, and preached +before the House of Commons in 1640. In 1641 he was appointed to the +rural deanery of Bocking. Apparently his views changed as the +revolutionary tendency of the Presbyterian party became more pronounced, +for in 1648/9 he addressed to Lord Fairfax _A Religious and Loyal +Protestation_ ... against the proceedings of the parliament. Under the +Commonwealth he faced both ways, keeping his ecclesiastical preferment, +but publishing from time to time pamphlets on behalf of the Church of +England. At the Restoration he was made bishop of Exeter. He immediately +began to complain to Hyde, earl of Clarendon, of the poverty of the see, +and based claims for a better benefice on a certain secret service, +which he explained on the 20th of January 1661 to be the sole invention +of the _Eikon Basilike, The Pourtraicture of his sacred Majestie in his +Solitudes and Sufferings_ put forth within a few hours after the +execution of Charles I. as written by the king himself. To which +Clarendon replied that he had been before acquainted with the secret and +had often wished he had remained ignorant of it. Gauden was advanced in +1662, not as he had wished to the see of Winchester, but to Worcester. +He died on the 23rd of May of the same year. + +The evidence in favour of Gauden's authorship rests chiefly on his own +assertions and those of his wife (who after his death sent to her son +John a narrative of the claim), and on the fact that it was admitted by +Clarendon, who should have had means of being acquainted with the truth. +Gauden's letters on the subject are printed in the appendix to vol. iii. +of the _Clarendon Papers_. The argument is that Gauden had prepared the +book to inspire sympathy with the king by a representation of his pious +and forgiving disposition, and so to rouse public opinion against his +execution. In 1693 further correspondence between Gauden, Clarendon, the +duke of York, and Sir Edward Nicholas was published by Mr Arthur North, +who had found them among the papers of his sister-in-law, a +daughter-in-law of Bishop Gauden; but doubt has been thrown on the +authenticity of these papers. Gauden stated that he had begun the book +in 1647 and was entirely responsible for it. But it is contended that +the work was in existence at Naseby,[1] and testimony to Charles's +authorship is brought forward from various witnesses who had seen +Charles himself occupied with it at various times during his +imprisonment. It is stated that the MS. was delivered by one of the +king's agents to Edward Symmons, rector of Raine, near Bocking, and that +it was in the handwriting of Oudart, Sir Edward Nicholas's secretary. +The internal evidence has, as is usual in such cases, been brought +forward as a conclusive argument in favour of both contentions. Doubt +was thrown on Charles's authorship in Milton's _Eikonoklastes_ (1649), +which was followed almost immediately by a royalist answer, _The +Princely Pelican. Royall Resolves--Extracted from his Majesty's Divine +Meditations, with satisfactory reasons ... that his Sacred Person was +the only Author of them_ (1649). The history of the whole controversy, +which has been several times renewed, was dealt with in Christopher +Wordsworth's tracts in a most exhaustive way. He eloquently advocated +Charles's authorship. Since he wrote in 1829, some further evidence has +been forthcoming in favour of the Naseby copy. A correspondence relating +to the French translation of the work has also come to light among the +papers of Sir Edward Nicholas. None of the letters show any doubt that +King Charles was the author. S.R. Gardiner (_Hist. of the Great Civil +War_, iv. 325) regards Mr Doble's articles in the _Academy_ (May and +June 1883) as finally disposing of Charles's claim to the authorship, +but this is by no means the attitude of other recent writers. If Gauden +was the author, he may have incorporated papers, &c., by Charles, who +may have corrected the work and thus been joint-author. This theory +would reconcile the conflicting evidence, that of those who saw Charles +writing parts and read the MS. before publication, and the deliberate +statements of Gauden. + + See also the article by Richard Hooper in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._; + Christopher Wordsworth, _Who wrote Eikon Basilike?_ two letters + addressed to the archbishop of Canterbury (1824), and _King Charles + the First, the Author of Icon Basilikè_ (1828); H.J. Todd, _A Letter + to the Archbishop of Canterbury concerning Eikon Basilike_ (1825); + _Bishop Gauden, The Author of the Icôn Basilikè_ (1829); W.G. + Broughton, _A Letter to a Friend_ (1826), _Additional Reasons ..._ + (1829), supporting the contention in favour of Dr Gauden; Mr E.J.L. + Scott's introduction to his reprint (1880) of the original edition; + articles in the _Academy_, May and June 1883, by Mr C.E. Doble; + another reprint edited by Mr Edward Almack for the King's Classics + (1904); and Edward Almack, _Bibliography of the King's Book_ (1896). + This last book contains a summary of the arguments on either side, a + full bibliography of works on the subject, and facsimiles of the title + pages, with full descriptions of the various extant copies. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] See a note in Archbishop Tenison's handwriting in his copy of the + _Eikon Basilike_ preserved at Lambeth Palace, and quoted in Almack's + _Bibliography_, p. 15. + + + + +GAUDICHAUD-BEAUPRÉ, CHARLES (1789-1854), French botanist, was born at +Angoulême on the 4th of September 1789. He studied pharmacy first in the +shop of a brother-in-law at Cognac, and then under P.J. Robiquet at +Paris, where from R.L. Desfontaines and L.C. Richard he acquired a +knowledge of botany. In April 1810 he was appointed dispenser in the +military marine, and from July 1811 to the end of 1814 he served at +Antwerp. In 1817 he joined the corvette "Uranie" as pharmaceutical +botanist to the circumpolar expedition commanded by D. de Freycinet. The +wreck of the vessel on the Falkland Isles, at the close of 1819, +deprived him of more than half the botanical collections he had made in +various parts of the world. In 1830-1833 he visited Chile, Peru and +Brazil, and in 1836-1837 he acted as botanist to "La Bonite" during its +circumnavigation of the globe. His theory accounting for the growth of +plants by the supposed coalescence of elementary "phytons" involved him, +during the latter years of his life, in much controversy with his +fellow-botanists, more especially C.F.B. de Mirbel. He died in Paris on +the 16th of January 1854. + + Besides accounts of his voyages round the world, Gaudichaud-Beaupré + wrote "Lettres sur l'organographie et la physiologie," _Arch. de + botanique_, ii., 1883; "Recherches générales sur l'organographie," &c. + (prize essay, 1835), _Mém. de l'Académie des Sciences_, t. viii. and + kindred treatises, with memoirs on the potato-blight, the + multiplication of bulbous plants, the increase in diameter of + dicotyledonous plants, and other subjects; and _Réfutation de toutes + les objections contre les nouveaux principes physiologiques_ (1852). + + + + +GAUDRY, JEAN ALBERT (1827-1908), French geologist and palaeontologist, +was born at St Germain-en-Laye on the 16th of September 1827, and was +educated at the college, Stanislas. At the age of twenty-five he made +explorations in Cyprus and Greece, residing in the latter country from +1855 to 1860. He then investigated the rich deposit of fossil vertebrata +at Pikermi and brought to light a remarkable mammalian fauna, Miocene in +age, and intermediate in its forms between European, Asiatic and African +types. He also published an account of the geology of the island of +Cyprus (_Mém. Soc. Géol. de France_, 1862). In 1853, while still in +Cyprus, he was appointed assistant to A. d'Orbigny, who was the first to +hold the chair of palaeontology in the museum of natural history at +Paris. In 1872 he succeeded to this important post; in 1882 he was +elected member of the Academy of Sciences; and in 1900 he presided over +the meetings of the eighth International Congress of Geology then held +in Paris. He died on the 27th of November 1908. He is distinguished for +his researches on fossil mammalia, and for the support which his studies +have rendered to the theory of evolution. + + PUBLICATIONS.--_Animaux fossiles et géologie de l'Attique_ (2 vols., + 1862-1867); _Cours de paléontologie_ (1873); _Animaux fossiles du Mont + Lebéron_ (1873); _Les Enchaînements du monde animal dans les temps + géologiques_ (_Mammifères Tertiaires_, 1878; _Fossiles primaires_, + 1883; _Fossiles secondaires_, 1890); _Essai de paléontologie + philosophique_ (1896). Brief memoir with portrait in _Geol. Mag._ + (1903), p. 49. (H. B. W.) + + + + +GAUDY, an adjective meaning showy, very bright, gay, especially with a +sense of tasteless or vulgar extravagance, of colour or ornament. The +accurate origin of the various senses which this word and the +substantive "gaud" have taken are somewhat difficult to trace. They are +all ultimately to be referred to the Lat. _gaudere_, to rejoice, +_gaudium_, joy, some of them directly, others to the French derivative +_gaudir_, to rejoice, and O. Fr. _gaudie_. As a noun, in the sense of +rejoicing or feast, "gaudy" is still used of a commemoration dinner at a +college at the university of Oxford. "Gaud," meaning generally a toy, a +gay adornment, a piece of showy jewelry, is more specifically applied to +larger and more decorative beads in a rosary. + + + + +GAUERMANN, FRIEDRICH (1807-1862), Austrian painter, son of the landscape +painter Jacob Gauermann (1773-1843), was born at Wiesenbach near +Gutenstein in Lower Austria on the 20th of September 1807. It was the +intention of his father that he should devote himself to agriculture, +but the example of an elder brother, who, however, died early, fostered +his inclination towards art. Under his father's direction he began +studies in landscape, and he also diligently copied the works of the +chief masters in animal painting which were contained in the academy and +court library of Vienna. In the summer he made art tours in the +districts of Styria, Tirol and Salzburg. Two animal pieces which he +exhibited at the Vienna Exhibition of 1824 were regarded as remarkable +productions for his years, and led to his receiving commissions in 1825 +and 1826 from Prince Metternich and Caraman, the French ambassador. His +reputation was greatly increased by his picture "The Storm," exhibited +in 1829, and from that time his works were much sought after and +obtained correspondingly high prices. His "Field Labourer" was regarded +by many as the most noteworthy picture in the Vienna exhibition of 1834, +and his numerous animal pieces have entitled him to a place in the first +rank of painters of that class of subjects. The peculiarity of his +pictures is the representation of human and animal figures in connexion +with appropriate landscapes and in characteristic situations so as to +manifest nature as a living whole, and he particularly excels in +depicting the free life of animals in wild mountain scenery. Along with +great mastery of the technicalities of his art, his works exhibit +patient and keen observation, free and correct handling of details, and +bold and clear colouring. He died at Vienna on the 7th of July 1862. + + Many of his pictures have been engraved, and after his death a + selection of fifty-three of his works was prepared for this purpose by + the Austrian _Kunstverein_ (Art Union). + + + + +GAUGE, or GAGE (Med. Lat. _gauja, jaugia_, Fr. _jauge_, perhaps +connected with Fr. _jale_, a bowl, _galon_, gallon), a standard of +measurement, and also the name given to various instruments and +appliances by which measurement is effected. The word seems to have been +primarily used in connexion with the process of ascertaining the +contents of wine casks; the name gauger is still applied to certain +custom-house officials in the United States, and in Scotland it means an +exciseman. Thence it was extended to other measurements, and used of the +instruments used in making them or of the standards to which they were +referred. In the mechanical arts gauges are employed in great variety to +enable the workmen to ascertain whether the object he is making is of +the proper dimensions (see TOOL), and similar gauges of various forms +are employed to ascertain and to specify the sizes of manufactured +articles such as wire and screws. A rain gauge is an apparatus for +measuring the amount of the rainfall at any locality, and a wind gauge +indicates the pressure and force of the wind. The boilers of steam +engines are provided with a water gauge and a steam or pressure gauge. +The purpose of the former is to enable the attendant to see whether or +not there is a sufficient quantity of water in the boiler. It consists +of two cocks or taps communicating with the interior, one being placed +at the lowest point to which it is permissible for the water to fall, +and the other at the point above which it should not rise; a glass tube +connects the two cocks, and when they are both open the water in this +stands at the same level as in the boiler. The steam gauge shows the +pressure of the steam in the boiler. One of the commonest forms, known +as the Bourdon gauge, depends on the fact that a curved tube tends to +straighten itself if the pressure within it is greater than that outside +it. This gauge therefore consists of a curved or coiled tube of elastic +material, and preferably of elliptic section, connected with the boiler +and arranged with a multiplying gear so that its bending or unbending +actuates a pointer moving over a graduated scale. If the pressure within +the tube is less than that outside it, the tube tends to bend or coil +itself up further; with a pointer arranged as before, the gauge then +becomes a vacuum gauge, indicating how far the pressure in the vessel to +which it is attached is below that of the atmosphere. In railway +engineering the gauge of a line is the distance between the two rails +(see RAILWAY). In nautical language, a ship is said to have the weather +gage when she is to windward of another, and similarly the lee gage when +to leeward of another; in this sense the word is usually spelt "gage," a +spelling which prevails in America for all senses. + + + + +GAUHATI, a town of British India, in the Kamrup district of Eastern +Bengal and Assam, mainly on the left or south, but partly on the right +bank of the Brahmaputra. Pop. (1901) 14,244. It is beautifully situated, +with an amphitheatre of wooded hills to the south, but is not very +healthy. There are many evidences, such as ancient earthworks and tanks, +of its historical importance. During the 17th century it was taken and +retaken by Mahommedans and Ahoms eight times in fifty years, but in 1681 +it became the residence of the Ahom governor of lower Assam, and in 1786 +the capital of the Ahom raja. On the cession of Assam to the British in +1826 it was made the seat of the British administration of Assam, and so +continued till 1874, when the headquarters were removed to Shillong in +the Khasi hills, 67 m. distant, with which Gauhati is connected by an +excellent cart-road. Two much-frequented places of Hindu pilgrimage are +situated in the immediate vicinity, the temple of Kamakhya on a hill 2 +m. west of the town, and the rocky island of Umananda in the mid-channel +of the Brahmaputra. Gauhati is still the headquarters of the district +and of the Brahmaputra Valley division, though no longer a military +cantonment. It is the river terminus of a section of the Assam-Bengal +railway. There are a second-grade college, a government high school, a +law class and a training school for masters. Gauhati is an important +centre of river trade, and the largest seat of commerce in Assam. +Cotton-ginning, flour-milling, and an export trade in mustard seed, +cotton, silk and forest produce are carried on. Gauhati suffered very +severely from the earthquake of the 12th of June 1897. + + + + +GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM (1855- ), American artist, was born in Jersey +City, New Jersey, on the 31st of March 1855. He was a pupil of J.G. +Brown and L.E. Wilmarth, and he became a painter of military pictures, +portraying incidents of the American Civil War. He was elected an +associate of the National Academy of Design in 1880, and in 1882 a full +academician, and in the latter year became a member of the Society of +American Artists. His important works include: "Charging the Battery," +"News from Home," "Cold Comfort on the Outpost," "Silenced," "On the +Look-out," and "Guerillas returning from a Raid." + + + + +GAUL, the modern form of the Roman _Gallia_, the name of the two chief +districts known to the Romans as inhabited by Celtic-speaking peoples, +(a) _Gallia Cisalpina_ (or _Citerior_, "Hither"), i.e. north Italy +between Alps and Apennines and (b) the far more important _Gallia +Transalpina_ (or _Ulterior_, "Further"), usually called _Gallia_ (Gaul) +simply, the land bounded by the Alps, the Mediterranean, the Pyrenees, +the Atlantic, the Rhine, i.e. modern France and Belgium with parts of +Holland, Germany and Switzerland. The Greek form of _Gallia_ was [Greek: +Galatia], but Galatia in Latin denoted another Celtic region in central +Asia Minor, sometimes styled _Gallograecia_. + +(a) Gallia Cisalpina was mainly conquered by Rome by 222 B.C.; later it +adopted Roman civilization; about 42 B.C. it was united with Italy and +its subsequent history is merged in that of the peninsula. Its chief +distinctions are that during the later Republic and earlier Empire it +yielded excellent soldiers, and thus much aided the success of Caesar +against Pompey and of Octavian against Antony, and that it gave Rome the +poet Virgil (by origin a Celt), the historian Livy, the lyrist Catullus, +Cornelius Nepos, the elder and the younger Pliny and other distinguished +writers.[1] + +(b) Gaul proper first enters ancient history when the Greek colony of +Massilia was founded (? 600 B.C.). Roman armies began to enter it about +218 B.C. In 121 B.C. the coast from Montpellier to the Pyrenees (i.e. +all that was not Massiliot) with its port of Narbo (mod. _Narbonne_) and +its trade route by Toulouse to the Atlantic, was formed into the +province of Gallia Narbonensis and Narbo itself into a Roman +municipality. Commercial motives prompted the step, and Roman traders +and land speculators speedily flocked in. Gradually the province was +extended north of Massilia, up the Rhone, while the Greek town itself +became weak and dependent on Rome. + +It is not, however, until the middle of the 1st century B.C. that we +have any detailed knowledge of pre-Roman Gaul. The earliest account is +that contained in the _Commentaries_ of Julius Caesar. According to this +authority, Gaul was at that time divided among three peoples, more or +less distinct from one another, the Aquitani, the Gauls, who called +themselves Celts, and the Belgae. The first of these extended from the +Pyrenees to the Garumna (Garonne); the second, from that river to the +Sequana (Seine) and its chief tributary the Matrona (Marne), reaching +eastward presumably as far as the Rhenus (Rhine); and the third, from +this bounding line to the mouth of the last-named river, thus bordering +on the Germans. By implication Caesar recognizes as a fourth division +the province of Gallia Narbonensis. By far the greater part of the +country was a plain watered by numerous rivers, the chief of which have +already been mentioned, with the exception of its great central stream, +the Liger or Ligeris (Loire). Its principal mountain ranges were Cebenna +or Gebenna (Cévennes) in the south, and Jura, with its continuation +Vosegus or Vogesus (Vosges), in the east. The tribes inhabiting Gaul in +Caesar's time, and belonging to one or other of the three races +distinguished by him, were numerous. Prominent among them, and dwelling +in the division occupied by the Celts, were the Helvetii, the Sequani +and the Aedui, in the basins of the Rhodanus and its tributary the Arar +(Saône), who, he says, were reckoned the three most powerful nations in +all Gaul; the Arverni in the mountains of Cebenna; the Senones and +Carnutes in the basin of the Liger; the Veneti and other Armorican +tribes between the mouths of the Liger and Sequana. The Nervii, +Bellovaci, Suessiones, Remi, Morini, Menapii and Aduatuci were Belgic +tribes; the Tarbelli and others were Aquitani; while the Allobroges +inhabited the north of the Provincia, having been conquered in 121 B.C. +The ethnological divisions thus set forth by Caesar have been much +discussed (see CELT, and articles on the chief tribes). + +The Gallic Wars (58-51) of Caesar (q.v.) added all the rest of Gaul, +north-west of the Cévennes, to the Rhine and the Ocean, and in 49 also +annexed Massilia. All Gaul was now Roman territory. Now the second +period of her history opens; it remained for Roman territory to become +romanized. + +Caesar had no time to organize his conquest; this work was left to +Augustus. As settled by him, and in part perhaps also by his successor +Tiberius, it fell into the following five administrative areas. + +(i) _Narbonensis_, that is, the land between Alps, sea and Cévennes, +extending up the Rhone to Vienne, was as Augustus found it, distinct in +many ways from the rest of Gaul. By nature it is a sun-steeped southern +region, the home of the vine and olive, of the minstrelsy of the +Provençal and the exuberance of Tartarin, distinct from the colder and +more sober north. By history it had already (in the time of Augustus) +been Roman for from 80 to 100 years and was familiar with Roman ways. It +was ready to be Italianized and it was civilized enough to need no +garrison. Accordingly, it was henceforward governed by a proconsul +(appointed by the senate) and freed from the burden of troops, while its +local government was assimilated to that of Italy. The old Celtic tribes +were broken up: instead, municipalities of Roman citizens were founded +to rule their territories. Thus the Allobroges now disappear and the +_colonia_ of Vienna takes their place: the Volcae vanish and we find +Nemausus (Nîmes). Thus thrown into Italian fashion, the province took +rapidly to Italian ways. By A.D. 70 it was "Italia verius quam +provincia" (Pliny). The Gauls obviously had a natural bias towards the +Italian civilization, and there soon became no difference between Italy +and southern Gaul. But though education spread, the results were +somewhat disappointing. Trade flourished; the corporations of bargemen +and the like on the Rhone made money; the many towns grew rich and could +afford splendid public buildings. But no great writer and no great +administrator came from Narbonensis; itinerant lecturers and journalists +alone were produced in plenty, and at times minor poets. + +(ii.-iv.) Across the Cévennes lay Caesar's conquests, Atlantic in +climate, new to Roman ways. The whole area, often collectively styled +"Gallia Comata," often "Tres Provinciae," was divided into three +provinces, each under a _legatus pro praetore_ appointed by the emperor, +with a common capital at Lugudunum (Lyons). The three provinces were: +_Aquitania_, reaching from the Pyrenees almost to the Loire; +_Lugudunensis_, the land between Loire and Seine, reaching from Brittany +in the west to Lyons in the south-east; and _Belgica_ in the north. The +boundaries, it will be observed, were wholly artificial. Here also it +was found possible to dispense with garrisons, not because the provinces +were as peaceful as Narbonensis, but because the Rhine army was close at +hand. As befitted an unromanized region, the local government was unlike +that of Italy or Narbonensis. Roman municipalities were not indeed +unknown, but very few: the local authorities were the magistrates of the +old tribal districts. Local autonomy was here carried to an extreme. But +the policy succeeded. The Gauls of the Three Provinces, or some of them, +revolted in A.D. 21 under Florus and Sacrovir, in 68 under Vindex, and +in 70 under Classicus and Tutor (see CIVILIS, CLAUDIUS). But all five +leaders were romanized nobles, with Roman names and Roman citizenship, +and their risings were directed rather against the Roman government than +the Roman empire. In general, the Gauls of these provinces accepted +Roman civilization more or less rapidly, and in due course became hardly +distinguishable from the Italian. In particular, they eagerly accepted +the worship of "Augustus and Rome," devised by the first emperor as a +bond of state religion connecting the provinces with Rome. Each August, +despite the heat, representatives from the 60 (or 64) tribes of Gallia +Comata met at Lyons, elected a priest, "sacerdos ad aram Augusti et +Romae," and held games. The post of representative, and still more that +of priest, was eagerly coveted and provided a scope for the ambitions +which despotism usually crushes. It agrees with the vigorous development +of this worship that the Three Provinces, though romanized, retained +their own local feeling. Even in the 3rd century the cult of Celtic +deities (Hercules Magusanus, Deusoniensis, &c.) were revived, the Celtic +_leuga_ reintroduced instead of the Roman mile on official milestones, +and a brief effort made to establish an independent, though romanized, +Gaul under Postumus and his short-lived successors (A.D. 250-273). Not +only was the area too large and strong to lose its individuality: it was +also too rural and too far from the Mediterranean to be romanized as +fully and quickly as Narbonensis. It is even probable that Celtic was +spoken in forest districts into the 4th century A.D. Town life, however, +grew. The _chefs-lieux_ of the tribes became practically, though not +officially, municipalities, and many of these towns reached considerable +size and magnificence of public buildings. But they attest their tribal +relations by their appellations, which are commonly drawn from the name +of the tribe and not of the town itself. Thus the capitals of the Remi +and Parisii were actually Durocortorum and Lutetia: the appellations in +use were Remis or Remus, Parisiis or Parisius--these forms being +indeclinable nouns formed from a sort of locative of the tribe names. +Literature also flourished. In the latest empire Ausonius, Symmachus, +Apollinaris, Sidonius and other Gaulish writers, chiefly of Gallia +Comata, kept alive the classical literary tradition, not only for Gaul +but for the world. + +(v.) The fifth division of Gaul was the Rhenish military frontier. +Augustus had planned the conquest of Germany up to the Elbe. His plans +were foiled by the courage of Arminius and the inability of the Roman +exchequer to pay a larger army. Instead, his successor Tiberius +organized the Rhine frontier in two military districts. The northern one +was the valley of the Meuse and that of the Rhine to a point just south +of Bonn: the southern was the rest of the Rhine valley to Switzerland. +Each district was garrisoned at first by four, later by fewer legions, +which were disposed at various times in some of the following +fortresses: Vetera (Xanten), Novaesium (Neuss), Bonne (Bonn), +Moguntiacum (Mainz), Argentorate (Strassburg) and Vindonissa (Windisch +in Switzerland). At first the districts were purely military, were +called, after the garrisons, "exercitus Germanicus superior" (south) and +"inferior" (north). Later one or two municipalities were +founded--Colonia Agrippinensis at Cologne (A.D. 51), Colonia Augusta +Treverorum at Trier (date uncertain), Colonia Ulpia Traiana outside +Vetera--and about 80-90 A.D. the two "Exercitus" were turned into the +two provinces of Upper and Lower Germany. The armies in these districts +formed the defence of Gaul against German invaders. They also helped to +keep Gaul itself in order and their presence explains why the four +provinces of Gaul proper contained no troops. + +These provincial divisions were modified by Diocletian but without +seriously affecting the life of Gaul. The whole country, indeed, +continued Roman and fairly safe from barbarian invasions till after 400. +In 407 a multitude of Franks, Vandals, &c., burst over Gaul: Roman rule +practically ceased and the three kingdoms of the Visigoths, Burgundians +and Franks began to form. There were still a Roman general and Roman +troops when Attila was defeated in the _campi Catalaunici_ in A.D. 451, +but the general, Aetius, was "the last of the Romans," and in 486 Clovis +the Frank ended the last vestige of Roman rule in Gaul. + + For Roman antiquities in Gaul see, beside articles on the modern towns + (ARLES, NÎMES, ORANGE &c.), BIBRACTE, ALESIA, ITIUS PORTUS, AQUEDUCT, + ARCHITECTURE, AMPHITHEATRE, &c.; for religion see DRUIDISM; for the + famous schools of Autun, Lyons, Toulouse, Nîmes, Vienne, Marseilles + and Narbonne, see J.E. Sandys, _History of Classical Scholarship_ (ed. + 1906-1908), i. pp. 247-250; for the Roman provinces, Th. Mommsen, + _Provinces of the Roman Empire_ (trans. 1886), vol. i. chap. iii. See + also Desjardins, _Géographie historique et administrative de la Gaule + romaine_ (Paris, 1877); Fustel de Coulanges, _Histoire des + institutions politiques de l'ancienne France_ (Paris, 1877); for + Caesar's campaigns, article CAESAR, JULIUS, and works quoted; for + coins, art. NUMISMATICS and articles in the _Numismatische + Zeitschrift_ and _Revue numismatique_ (e.g. Blanchet, 1907, pp. 461 + foll.). (F. J. H.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] When Cisalpine Gaul became completely Romanized, it was often + known as "Gallia Togata," while the Province was distinguished as + "Gallia Bracata" (_bracae_, incorrectly _braccae_, "trousers"), from + the long trousers worn by the inhabitants, and the rest of Gaul as + "Gallia Comata," from the inhabitants wearing their hair long. + + + + +GAULT, in geology, one of the members of the Lower Cretaceous System. +The name is still employed provincially in parts of England for a stiff +blue clay of any kind; by the earlier writers it was sometimes spelt +"Galt" or "Golt." + +The formation now known as Gault in England has been variously +designated "Blue Marle," "Brick Earth," "Golt Brick Earth" and +"Oak-tree-soil." In certain parts of the south of England the Gault +appears as a well-marked deposit of clay, lying between two sandy +formations; the one above came to be known as the "Upper Greensand," the +one below being the "Lower Greensand" (see GREENSAND). Since the typical +clayey Gault is continually taking on a sandy facies as it is traced +both horizontally and vertically; and since the fossils of the Upper +Greensand and Gault are inseparably related, it has been proposed by +A.J. Jukes-Browne that these two series of beds should be regarded as +the arenaceous and argillaceous phases of a single formation, to which +he has given the name "Selbornian" (from the village of Selborne where +the beds are well developed). Lithologically, then, the Selbornian +includes the blue and grey clays and marls of the Gault proper; the +glauconitic sands of the Upper Greensand, and their local equivalent, +the "malm," "malm rock" or "firestone," which in places passes into the +micaceous sandstone containing sponge spicules and globules of silica, +the counterpart of the rock called "gaize" on the same horizon in +northern France. In Yorkshire, Lincolnshire and parts of Norfolk the +Selbornian is represented by the Red Chalk. The malm is a ferruginous +siliceous rock, the silica being mainly in the colloidal condition in +the form of globules and sponge spicules; some quartz grains, mica and +glauconite are usually present along with from 2 to 25% of calcareous +matter. Chert-bands and nodules are common in the Upper Greensand of +certain districts; and calcareous concretions, locally recognized as +cowstones (Lyme Regis), doggers or buhrstones, are not infrequent. + +The principal divisions of the Selbornian stage with their +characteristic zonal fossils are as follows:-- + + + Warminster Beds _Pecten asper_ and _Cardiaster fossarius_. + + Upper Gault Devizes Beds or Merstham Beds with + _Schloenbachia rostralus_. + + / _Hoplites lautus._ + Lower Gault < _H. interruptus._ + \ _Acanthoceras mammillatum._ + + The Gault (with Upper Greensand) crops out all round the Wealden area; + it extends beneath the London basin and reappears from beneath the + northern scarp of the Chalk along the foot of the Chiltern Hills to + near Tring. In the south of England the Gault clay is fairly constant + in the lower part, with the Greensand above; the clay, however, passes + into sand as it is followed westward and, as already pointed out, the + clay and sand appear to pass into a red chalk towards the north-east. + The Gault overlaps the Lower Greensand towards the east, where it + rests upon the old Paleozoic axis; it also overlaps the same formation + towards the west about Frome, and thence passes unconformably across + the Portlandian beds, Kimeridge Clay, Corallian beds and Oxford Clay; + in south Dorsetshire it rests upon the Wealden Series. The Gault (with + Upper Greensand) passes on to the Jurassic and Rhaetic rocks near + Axmouth, and oversteps farther westward, in the Haldon Hills, on to + the Permian. A large outlier occurs on the Blackdown Hills of + Devonshire. Good localities for fossils are Folkestone--where many of + the shells are preserved with their original pearly nacre,--Burnham, + Merstham, Isle of Wight, the Blackdown and Haldon Hills, Warminster, + Hunstanton and Speeton, Black Venn near Lyme Regis, and Devizes + (malmstone and gaize). The beds are well developed in the vale of + Wardour, and in the Isle of Wight; the Gault forms the so-called "blue + slipper" at Ventnor which has been the cause of the landslip or + undercliff. + + The Gault of north France is very similar to that in the south of + England, but the French term _Albien_ includes only a portion of the + Selbornian formation. The Gault of north-west Germany embraces beds + that would be classed as _Albien_ and _Aptien_ by French authors; it + comprises the "Flammenmergel"--a pale siliceous marl shot with + flame-shaped darker patches--a clay with _Belemnites minimus_, and the + "Gargasmergel" (Aptian). In the Diester and Teutoberger Wald, and in + the region of Halberstadt, the clays and marls are replaced by + sandstones, the so-called _Gault-Quader_. Continental writers usually + place the Gault or Albian at the summit of the Lower Cretaceous; while + with English geologists the practice is to commence the Upper + Cretaceous with this formation. In addition to the fossils already + noticed, the following may be mentioned: _Acanthoceras Desmoceras + Beaudanti, Hoplites splendens, Hamites, Scaphites, Turrilites, + Aporrhais retusa, Trigonia aliforme_, also _Ichthyosaurus_ and + _Ornithocheirus_ (Pterodactyl). From the clays, bricks and tiles are + made at Burham, Barnwell, Dunton Green, Arlesey, Hitchin, &c. The + cherts in the Greensand portion are used for road metal, and in the + Blackdown Hills, for scythe stones; hearthstone is obtained about + Merstham; phosphatic nodules occur at several horizons. + + See CRETACEOUS SYSTEM; ALBIAN; APTIAN; also A.J. Jukes-Browne, "The + Gault and Upper Greensand of England." vol. i., _Cretaceous Rocks of + Britain_; _Mem. Geol. Survey_, 1900. + + + + +GAUNTLET (a diminutive of the Fr. _gant_, glove), a large form of glove, +and especially the steel-plated glove of medieval armour. To "run the +gauntlet," i.e. to run between two rows of men who, armed with sticks, +rope-ends or other weapons, beat and strike at the person so running, +was formerly a punishment for military and naval offences. It was +abolished in the Prussian army by Scharnhorst. As a method of torturing +prisoners, it was employed among the North American Indians. "Gauntlet" +(earlier "gantlet") in this expression is a corruption of "gantlope," +from a Swedish _gatlope_, from _gata_, lane, and _lopp_, a course (cf. +Ger. _gassenlaufen_, to run the gauntlet). According to the _New English +Dictionary_ the word became familiar in England at the time of the +Thirty Years' War. + + + + +GAUR, or LAKHNAUTI, a ruined city of British India, in Malda district of +Eastern Bengal and Assam. The ruins are situated about 8 m. to the south +of English Bazar, the civil station of the district of Malda, and on the +eastern bank of the Bhagirathi, an old channel of the Ganges. It is said +to have been founded by Lakshman, and its most ancient name was +Lakshmanavati, corrupted into Lakhnauti. Its known history begins with +its conquest in A.D. 1198 by the Mahommedans, who retained it as the +chief seat of their power in Bengal for more than three centuries. When +the Afghan kings of Bengal established their independence, they +transferred their seat of government (about 1350) to Pandua (q.v.), also +in Malda district, and to build their new capital they plundered Gaur of +every monument that could be removed. When Pandua was in its turn +deserted (A.D. 1453), Gaur once more became the capital under the name +of Jannatabad; it remained so as long as the Mahommedan kings retained +their independence. In A.D. 1564 Sulaiman Kirani, a Pathan adventurer, +abandoned it for Tanda, a place somewhat nearer the Ganges. Gaur was +sacked by Sher Shah in 1539, and was occupied by Akbar's general in +1575, when Daud Shah, the last of the Afghan dynasty, refused to pay +homage to the Mogul emperor. This occupation was followed by an outbreak +of the plague, which completed the downfall of the city, and since then +it has been little better than a heap of ruins, almost overgrown with +jungle. + +The city in its prime measured 7½ m. from north to south, with a breadth +of 1 to 2 m. With suburbs it covered an area of 20 to 30 sq. m., and in +the 16th century the Portuguese historian Faria y Sousa described it as +containing 1,200,000 inhabitants. The ramparts of this walled city, +which was surrounded by extensive suburbs, still exist; they were works +of vast labour, and were on the average about 40 ft. high, and 180 to +200 ft. thick at the base. The facing of masonry and the buildings with +which they were covered have now disappeared, and the embankments +themselves are overgrown with dense jungle. The western side of the city +was washed by the Ganges, and within the space enclosed by these +embankments and the river stood the city of Gaur proper, with the fort +containing the palace in its south-west corner. Radiating north, south +and east from the city, other embankments are to be traced running +through the suburbs and extending in certain directions for 30 or 40 m. +Surrounding the palace is an inner embankment of similar construction to +that which surrounds the city, and even more overgrown with jungle. A +deep moat protects it on the outside. To the north of the outer +enbankment lies the Sagar Dighi, a great reservoir, 1600 yds. by 800 +yds., dating from A.D. 1126. + +Fergusson in his _History of Eastern Architecture_ thus describes the +general architectural style of Gaur:--"It is neither like that of Delhi +nor Jaunpore, nor any other style, but one purely local and not without +considerable merit in itself; its principal characteristic being heavy +short pillars of stone supporting pointed arches and vaults in +brick--whereas at Jaunpore, for instance, light pillars carried +horizontal architraves and flat ceilings." Owing to the lightness of the +small, thin bricks, which were chiefly used in the making of Gaur, its +buildings have not well withstood the ravages of time and the weather; +while much of its enamelled work has been removed for the ornamentation +of the surrounding cities of more modern origin. Moreover, the ruins +long served as a quarry for the builders of neighbouring towns and +villages, till in 1900 steps were taken for their preservation by the +government. The finest ruin in Gaur is that of the Great Golden Mosque, +also called Bara Darwaza, or twelve-doored (1526). An arched corridor +running along the whole front of the original building is the principal +portion now standing. There are eleven arches on either side of the +corridor and one at each end of it, from which the mosque probably +obtained its name. These arches are surmounted by eleven domes in fair +preservation; the mosque had originally thirty-three. + +The Small Golden or Eunuch's mosque, in the ancient suburb of Firozpur, +has fine carving, and is faced with stone fairly well preserved. The +Tantipara mosque (1475-1480) has beautiful moulding in brick, and the +Lotan mosque of the same period is unique in retaining its glazed tiles. +The citadel, of the Mahommedan period, was strongly fortified with a +rampart and entered through a magnificent gateway called the Dakhil +Darwaza (?1459-1474). At the south-east corner was a palace, surrounded +by a wall of brick 66 ft. high, of which a part is standing. Near by +were the royal tombs. Within the citadel is the Kadam Rasul mosque +(1530), which is still used, and close outside is a tall tower called +the Firoz Minar (perhaps signifying "tower of victory"). There are a +number of Mahommedan buildings on the banks of the Sagar Dighi, +including, notably, the tomb of the saint Makhdum Shaikh Akhi Siraj (d. +1357), and in the neighbourhood is a burning ghat, traditionally the +only one allowed to the use of the Hindus by their Mahommedan +conquerors, and still greatly venerated and frequented by them. Many +inscriptions of historical importance have been found in the ruins. + + See M. Martin (Buchanan Hamilton), _Eastern India_, vol. iii. (1831); + G.H. Ravenshaw, _Gaur_ (1878); James Fergusson, _History of Indian and + Eastern Architecture_ (1876); _Reports of the Archaeological Surveyor, + Bengal Circle_ (1900-1904). + + + + +GAUR, the native name of the wild ox, _Bos (Bibos) gaurus_, of India, +miscalled bison by sportsmen. The gaur, which extends into Burma and the +Malay Peninsula, where it is known as seladang, is the typical +representative of an Indo-Malay group of wild cattle characterized by +the presence of a ridge on the withers, the compressed horns, and the +white legs. The gaur, which reaches a height of nearly 6 ft. at the +shoulder, is specially characterized by the forward curve and great +elevation of the ridge between the horns. The general colour is +blackish-grey. Hill-forests are the resort of this species. + + + + +GAUSS, KARL FRIEDRICH (1777-1855), German mathematician, was born of +humble parents at Brunswick on the 30th of April 1777, and was indebted +for a liberal education to the notice which his talents procured him +from the reigning duke. His name became widely known by the publication, +in his twenty-fifth year (1801), of the _Disquisitiones arithmeticae_. +In 1807 he was appointed director of the Göttingen observatory, an +office which he retained to his death: it is said that he never slept +away from under the roof of his observatory, except on one occasion, +when he accepted an invitation from Baron von Humboldt to attend a +meeting of natural philosophers at Berlin. In 1809 he published at +Hamburg his _Theoria motus corporum coelestium_, a work which gave a +powerful impulse to the true methods of astronomical observation; and +his astronomical workings, observations, calculations of orbits of +planets and comets, &c., are very numerous and valuable. He continued +his labours in the theory of numbers and other analytical subjects, and +communicated a long series of memoirs to the Royal Society of Sciences +(_Königliche Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften_) at Göttingen. His first +memoir on the theory of magnetism, _Intensitas vis magneticae terrestris +ad mensuram absolutam revocata_, was published in 1833, and he shortly +afterwards proceeded, in conjunction with Wilhelm Weber, to invent new +apparatus for observing the earth's magnetism and its changes; the +instruments devised by them were the declination instrument and the +bifilar magnetometer. With Weber's assistance he erected in 1833 at +Göttingen a magnetic observatory free from iron (as Humboldt and F.J.D. +Arago had previously done on a smaller scale), where he made magnetic +observations, and from this same observatory he sent telegraphic signals +to the neighbouring town, thus showing the practicability of an +electromagnetic telegraph. He further instituted an association +(_Magnetischer Verein_), composed at first almost entirely of Germans, +whose continuous observations on fixed term-days extended from Holland +to Sicily. The volumes of their publication, _Resultate am den +Beobachtungen des magnetischen Vereins_, extend from 1836 to 1839; and +in those for 1838 and 1839 are contained the two important memoirs by +Gauss, _Allgemeine Theorie des Erdmagnetismus, and the Allgemeine +Lehrsätze_--on the theory of forces attracting according to the inverse +square of the distance. The instruments and methods thus due to him are +substantially those employed in the magnetic observatories throughout +the world. He co-operated in the Danish and Hanoverian measurements of +an arc and trigonometrical operations (1821-1848), and wrote (1843, +1846) the two memoirs _Über Gegenstände der höheren Geodäsie_. Connected +with observations in general we have (1812-1826) the memoir _Theoria +combinationis observationum erroribus minimis obnoxia_, with a second +part and a supplement. Another memoir of applied mathematics is the +_Dioptrische Untersuchungen_ (1840). Gauss was well versed in general +literature and the chief languages of modern Europe, and was a member of +nearly all the leading scientific societies in Europe. He died at +Göttingen on the 23rd of February 1855. The centenary of his birth was +celebrated (1877) at his native place, Brunswick. + + Gauss's collected works were published by the Royal Society of + Göttingen, in 7 vols. 4to (Gött., 1863-1871), edited by E.J. + Schering--(1) the _Disquisitiones arithmeticae_, (2) _Theory of + Numbers_, (3) _Analysis_, (4) _Geometry and Method of Least Squares_, + (5) _Mathematical Physics_, (6) _Astronomy_, and (7) the _Theoria + motus corporum coelestium_. Additional volumes have since been + published, _Fundamente der Geometrie usw_. (1900), and _Geodatische + Nachträge zu Band iv_. (1903). They include, besides his various works + and memoirs, notices by him of many of these, and of works of other + authors in the _Göttingen gelehrte Anzeigen_, and a considerable + amount of previously unpublished matter, _Nachlass_. Of the memoirs in + pure mathematics, comprised for the most part in vols, ii., iii. and + iv. (but to these must be added those on _Attractions_ in vol. v.), it + may be safely said there is not one which has not signally contributed + to the progress of the branch of mathematics to which it belongs, or + which would not require to be carefully analysed in a history of the + subject. Running through these volumes in order, we have in the second + the memoir, _Summatio quarundam serierum singularium_, the memoirs on + the theory of biquadratic residues, in which the notion of complex + numbers of the form a + _bi_ was first introduced into the theory of + numbers; and included in the _Nachlass_ are some valuable tables. That + for the conversion of a fraction into decimals (giving the complete + period for all the prime numbers up to 997) is a specimen of the + extraordinary love which Gauss had for long arithmetical calculations; + and the amount of work gone through in the construction of the table + of the number of the classes of binary quadratic forms must also have + been tremendous. In vol. iii. we have memoirs relating to the proof of + the theorem that every numerical equation has a real or imaginary + root, the memoir on the _Hypergeometric Series_, that on + _Interpolation_, and the memoir _Determinatio attractionis_--in which + a planetary mass is considered as distributed over its orbit according + to the time in which each portion of the orbit is described, and the + question (having an implied reference to the theory of secular + perturbations) is to find the attraction of such a ring. In the + solution the value of an elliptic function is found by means of the + _arithmetico-geometrical mean_. The _Nachlass_ contains further + researches on this subject, and also researches (unfortunately very + fragmentary) on the lemniscate-function, &., showing that Gauss was, + even before 1800, in possession of many of the discoveries which have + made the names of N.H. Abel and K.G.J. Jacobi illustrious. In vol. iv. + we have the memoir _Allgemeine Auflösung_, on the graphical + representation of one surface upon another, and the _Disquisitiones + generales circa superficies curvas_. (An account of the treatment of + surfaces which he originated in this paper will be found in the + article SURFACE.) And in vol. v. we have a memoir _On the Attraction + of Homogeneous Ellipsoids_, and the already mentioned memoir + _Allgemeine Lehrsätze_, on the theory of forces attracting according + to the inverse square of the distance. (A. Ca.) + + + + +GAUSSEN, FRANÇOIS SAMUEL ROBERT LOUIS (1790-1863), Swiss Protestant +divine, was born at Geneva on the 25th of August 1790. His father, Georg +Markus Gaussen, a member of the council of two hundred, was descended +from an old Languedoc family which had been scattered at the time of the +religious persecutions in France. At the close of his university career +at Geneva, Louis was in 1816 appointed pastor of the Swiss Reformed +Church at Satigny near Geneva, where he formed intimate relations with +J.E. Cellérier, who had preceded him in the pastorate, and also with the +members of the dissenting congregation at Bourg-de-Four, which, together +with the Église du témoignage, had been formed under the influence of +the preaching of James and Robert Haldane in 1817. The Swiss revival was +distasteful to the pastors of Geneva (_Vénérable Compagnie des +Pasteurs_), and on the 7th of May 1817 they passed an ordinance hostile +to it. As a protest against this ordinance, in 1819 Gaussen published in +conjunction with Cellérier a French translation of the Second Helvetic +Confession, with a preface expounding the views he had reached upon the +nature, use and necessity of confessions of faith; and in 1830, for +having discarded the official catechism of his church as being +insufficiently explicit on the divinity of Christ, original sin and the +doctrines of grace, he was censured and suspended by his ecclesiastical +superiors. In the following year he took part in the formation of a +_Société Évangélique_ (_Evangelische Gesellschaft_). When this society +contemplated, among other objects, the establishment of a new +theological college, he was finally deprived of his charge. After some +time devoted to travel in Italy and England, he returned to Geneva and +ministered to an independent congregation until 1834, when he joined +Merle d'Aubigné as professor of systematic theology in the college which +he had helped to found. This post he continued to occupy until 1857, +when he retired from the active duties of the chair. He died at Les +Grottes, Geneva, on the 18th of June 1863. + +His best-known work, entitled _La Théopneustie ou pleine inspiration des +saintes écritures_, an elaborate defence of the doctrine of "plenary +inspiration," was originally published in Paris in 1840, and rapidly +gained a wide popularity in France, as also, through translations, in +England and America. It was followed in 1860 by a supplementary treatise +on the canon (_Le Canon des saintes écritures au double point de vue de +la science et de la foi_), which, though also popular, has hardly been +so widely read. + + See the article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_ (1899). + + + + +GAUTIER, ÉMILE THÉODORE LÉON (1832-1897), French literary historian, was +born at Hâvre on the 8th of August 1832. He was educated at the École +des Chartes, and became successively keeper of the archives of the +department of Haute-Marne and of the imperial archives at Paris under +the empire. In 1871 he became professor of palaeography at the École des +Chartes. He was elected member of the Academy of Inscriptions in 1887, +and became chief of the historical section of the national archives in +1893. Léon Gautier rendered great services to the study of early French +literature, the most important of his numerous works on medieval +subjects being a critical text (Tours, 1872) with translation and +introduction of the _Chanson de Roland_, and _Les Épopées françaises_ (3 +vols., 1866-1867; 2nd ed., 5 vols., 1878-1897, including a +_Bibliographie des chansons de geste_). He died in Paris on the 25th of +August 1897. + + + + +GAUTIER, THÉOPHILE (1811-1872), French poet and miscellaneous writer, +was born at Tarbes on the 31st of August 1811. He was educated at the +grammar school of that town, and afterwards at the Collège Charlemagne +in Paris, but was almost as much in the studios. He very early devoted +himself to the study of the older French literature, especially that of +the 16th and the early part of the 17th century. This study qualified +him well to take part in the Romantic movement, and enabled him to +astonish Sainte-Beuve by the phraseology and style of some literary +essays which, when barely eighteen years old, he put into the critic's +hands. In consequence of this introduction he at once came under the +influence of the great Romantic _cénacle_, to which, as to Victor Hugo +in particular, he was also introduced by his gifted but ill-starred +schoolmate Gérard de Nerval. With Gérard, Petrus Borel, Corot, and many +other less known painters and poets whose personalities he has +delightfully sketched in the articles collected under the titles of +_Histoire du Romantisme_, &c., he formed a minor romantic clique who +were distinguished for a time by the most extravagant eccentricity. A +flaming crimson waistcoat and a great mass of waving hair were the +outward signs which qualified Gautier for a chief rank among the +enthusiastic devotees who attended the rehearsals of _Hernani_ with red +tickets marked "Hierro," performed mocking dances round the bust of +Racine, and were at all times ready to exchange word or blow with the +_perruques_ and _grisâtres_ of the classical party. In Gautier's case +these freaks were not inconsistent with real genius and real devotion to +sound ideals of literature. He began (like Thackeray, to whom he +presents in other ways some striking points of resemblance) as an +artist, but soon found that his true powers lay in another direction. + +His first considerable poem, _Albertus_ (1830), displayed a good deal of +the extravagant character which accompanied rather than marked the +movement, but also gave evidence of uncommon command both of language +and imagery, and in particular of a descriptive power hardly to be +excelled. The promise thus given was more than fulfilled in his +subsequent poetry, which, in consequence of its small bulk, may well be +noticed at once and by anticipation. The _Comédie de la mort_, which +appeared soon after (1832), is one of the most remarkable of French +poems, and though never widely read has received the suffrage of every +competent reader. Minor poems of various dates, published in 1840, +display an almost unequalled command over poetical form, an advance even +over _Albertus_ in vigour, wealth and appropriateness of diction, and +abundance of the special poetical essence. All these good gifts reached +their climax in the _Émaux et camées_, first published in 1856, and +again, with additions, just before the poet's death in 1872. These poems +are in their own way such as cannot be surpassed. Gautier's poetical +work contains in little an expression of his literary peculiarities. +There are, in addition to the peculiarities of style and diction already +noticed, an extraordinary feeling and affection for beauty in art and +nature, and a strange indifference to anything beyond this range, which +has doubtless injured the popularity of his work. + +But it was not, after all, as a poet that Gautier was to achieve either +profit or fame. For the theatre, he had but little gift, and his +dramatic efforts (if we except certain masques or ballets in which his +exuberant and graceful fancy came into play) are by far his weakest. It +was otherwise with his prose fiction. His first novel of any size, and +in many respects his most remarkable work, was _Mademoiselle de Maupin_ +(1835). Unfortunately this book, while it establishes his literary +reputation on an imperishable basis, was unfitted by its subject, and in +parts by its treatment, for general perusal, and created, even in +France, a prejudice against its author which he was very far from really +deserving. During the years from 1833 onwards, his fertility in novels +and tales was very great. _Les Jeunes-France_ (1833), which may rank as +a sort of prose _Albertus_ in some ways, displays the follies of the +youthful Romantics in a vein of humorous and at the same time +half-pathetic satire. _Fortunio_ (1838) perhaps belongs to the same +class. _Jettatura_, written somewhat later, is less extravagant and more +pathetic. A crowd of minor tales display the highest literary qualities, +and rank with Mérimée's at the head of all contemporary works of the +class. First of all must be mentioned the ghost-story of _La Morte +amoureuse_, a gem of the most perfect workmanship. For many years +Gautier continued to write novels. _La Belle Jenny_ (1864) is a not very +successful attempt to draw on his English experience, but the earlier +_Militona_ (1847) is a most charming picture of Spanish life. In +_Spirite_ (1866) he endeavoured to enlist the fancy of the day for +supernatural manifestations, and a _Roman de la momie_ (1856) is a +learned study of ancient Egyptian ways. His most remarkable effort in +this kind, towards the end of his life, was _Le Capitaine Fracasse_ +(1863), a novel, partly of the picaresque school, partly of that which +Dumas was to make popular, projected nearly thirty years earlier, and +before Dumas himself had taken to the style. This book contains some of +the finest instances of his literary power. + +Yet neither in poems nor in novels did the main occupation of Gautier as +a literary man consist. He was early drawn to the more lucrative task of +feuilleton-writing, and for more than thirty years he was among the most +expert and successful practitioners of this art. Soon after the +publication of _Mademoiselle de Maupin_, in which he had not been too +polite to journalism, he became irrevocably a journalist. He was +actually the editor of _L'Artiste_ for a time: but his chief newspaper +connexions were with _La Presse_ from 1836 to 1854 and with the +_Moniteur_ later. His work was mainly theatrical and art criticism. The +rest of his life was spent either at Paris or in travels of considerable +extent to Spain, the Netherlands, Italy, Turkey, England, Algeria and +Russia, all undertaken with a more or less definite purpose of +book-making. Having absolutely no political opinions, he had no +difficulty in accepting the Second Empire, and received from it +considerable favours, in return for which, however, he in no way +prostituted his pen, but remained a literary man pure and simple. He +died on the 23rd of December 1872. + +Accounts of his travels, criticisms of the theatrical and literary works +of the day, obituary notices of his contemporaries and, above all, art +criticism occupied him in turn. It has sometimes been deplored that this +engagement in journalism should have diverted Gautier from the +performance of more capital work in literature. Perhaps, however, this +regret springs from a certain misconception. Gautier's power was +literary power pure and simple, and it is as evident in his slightest +sketches and criticisms as in _Émaux et camées or La Morte amoureuse_. +On the other hand, his weakness, if he had a weakness, lay in his almost +total indifference to the matters which usually supply subjects for art +and therefore for literature. He has thus been accused of "lack of +ideas" by those who have not cleared their own minds of cant; and in the +recent set-back of the critical current against form and in favour of +"philosophic" treatment, comment upon him has sometimes been +unfavourable. But this injustice will, beyond all question, be redressed +again. He was neither immoral, irreligious nor unduly subservient to +despotism, but morals, religion and politics (to which we may add +science and material progress) were matters of no interest to him. He +was to all intents a humanist, as the word was understood in the 15th +century. But he was a humorist as well, and this combination, joined to +his singularly kindly and genial nature, saved him from some dangers and +depravations as well as some absurdities to which the humanist temper is +exposed. As time goes on it may be predicted that, though Gautier may +not be widely read, yet his writings will never cease to be full of +indescribable charm and of very definite instruction to men of letters. +Besides those of his works which have been already cited, we may notice +_Une Larme du diable_ (1839), a charming mixture of humour and +tenderness; _Les Grotesques_ (1844), a volume of early criticisms on +some oddities of 17th-century literature; _Caprices et zigzags_ (1845), +miscellanies dealing in part with English life; _Voyage en Espagne_ +(1845), _Constantinople_ (1854), _Voyage en Russie_ (1866), brilliant +volumes of travel; _Ménagerie intime_ (1869) and _Tableaux de siège_ +(1872), his two latest works, which display his incomparable style in +its quietest but not least happy form. + + There is no complete edition of Gautier's works, and the vicomte + Spoelberch de Lovenjoul's _Histoire des oeuvres de Théophile Gautier_ + (1887) shows how formidable such an undertaking would be. But since + his death numerous further collections of articles have been made: + _Fusains et eaux-fortes_ and _Tableaux à la plume_ (1880); _L'Orient_ + (2 vols., 1881); _Les Vacances du lundi_ (new ed., 1888); _La Nature + chez elle_ (new ed., 1891). In 1879 his son-in-law, E. Bergerat, who + had married his younger daughter Estelle (the elder, Mme Judith + Gautier--herself a writer of distinction--was at one time Mme Catulle + Mendès), issued a biography, _Théophile Gautier_, which has been often + reprinted. With it should be compared Maxime du Camp's volume in the + _Grands Écrivains français_ (1890) and the numerous references in the + _Journal des Goncourt_. Critical eulogies, from Sainte-Beuve + (repeatedly in the _Causeries_) and Baudelaire (two articles in _L'Art + romantique_) downwards, are numerous. The chief of the decriers is + Émile Faguet in his _Études littéraires sur le XIX^e siècle_. In 1902 + and 1903 there appeared two respectable academic _éloges_ by H. Menai + and H. Potez. (G. Sa.) + + + + +GAUTIER D'ARRAS, French _trouvère_, flourished in the second half of the +12th century. Nothing is known of his biography except what may be +gleaned from his works. He dedicated his romance of _Éracle_ to Theobald +V., count of Blois (d. 1191); among his other patrons were Marie, +countess of Champagne, daughter of Louis VII. and Eleanor of Guienne and +Baldwin IV., count of Hainaut. _Éracle_, the hero of which becomes +emperor of Constantinople as Heraclius, is purely a _roman d'aventures_ +and enjoyed great popularity. His second romance, _Ille et Galeron_, +dedicated to Beatrix, the second wife of Frederick Barbarossa, treats of +a similar situation to that outlined in the lay of "_Eliduc_" by Marie +de France. + + See the _Oeuvres de Gautier d'Arras_, ed. E. Löseth (2 vols., Paris, + 1890); _Hist. litt. de la France_, vol. xxii. (1852); A. Dinaux, _Les + Trouvères_ (1833-1843), vol. iii. + + + + +GAUZE, a light, transparent fabric, originally of silk, and now +sometimes made of linen or cotton, woven in an open manner with very +fine yarn. It is said to have been originally made at Gaza in Palestine, +whence the name. Some of the gauzes from eastern Asia were brocaded with +flowers of gold or silver. In the weaving of gauze the warp threads, in +addition to being crossed as in plain weaving, are twisted in pairs from +left to right and from right to left alternately, after each shot of +weft, thereby keeping the weft threads at equal distances apart, and +retaining them in their parallel position. The textures are woven either +plain, striped or figured; and the material receives many designations, +according to its appearance and the purposes to which it is devoted. A +thin cotton fabric, woven in the same way, is known as leno, to +distinguish it from muslin made by plain weaving. Silk gauze was a +prominent and extensive industry in the west of Scotland during the +second half of the 18th century, but on the introduction of +cotton-weaving it greatly declined. In addition to its use for dress +purposes silk gauze is much employed for bolting or sifting flour and +other finely ground substances. The term gauze is applied generally to +transparent fabrics of whatever fibre made, and to the fine-woven +wire-cloth used in safety-lamps, sieves, window-blinds, &c. + + + + +GAVARNI, the name by which SULPICE GUILLAUME CHEVALIER (1801-1866), +French caricaturist, is known. He is said to have taken the _nom de +plume_ from the place where he made his first published sketch. He was +born in Paris of poor parents, and started in life as a workman in an +engine-building factory. At the same time he attended the free school of +drawing. In his first attempts to turn his abilities to some account he +met with many disappointments, but was at last entrusted with the +drawing of some illustrations for a journal of fashion. Gavarni was then +thirty-four years of age. His sharp and witty pencil gave to these +generally commonplace and unartistic figures a life-likeness and an +expression which soon won for him a name in fashionable circles. +Gradually he gave greater attention to this more congenial work, and +finally ceased working as an engineer to become the director of the +journal _Les Gens du monde_. His ambition rising in proportion to his +success, Gavarni from this time followed the real bent of his +inclination, and began a series of lithographed sketches, in which he +portrayed the most striking characteristics, foibles and vices of the +various classes of French society. The letterpress explanations attached +to his drawings were always short, but were forcible and highly +humorous, if sometimes trivial, and were admirably adapted to the +particular subjects. The different stages through which Gavarni's talent +passed, always elevating and refining itself, are well worth being +noted. At first he confined himself to the study of Parisian manners, +more especially those of the Parisian youth. To this vein belong _Les +Lorettes_, _Les Actrices_, _Les Coulisses_, _Les Fashionables_, _Les +Gentilshommes bourgeois_, _Les Artistes_, _Les Débardeurs_, _Clichy_, +_Les Étudiants de Paris_, _Les Baliverneries parisiennes_, _Les Plaisirs +champêtres_, _Les Bals masqués_, _Le Carnaval_, _Les Souvenirs du +carnaval_, _Les Souvenirs du bal Chicard_, _La Vie des jeunes hommes_, +_Les Patois de Paris_. He had now ceased to be director of _Les Gens du +monde_; but he was engaged as ordinary caricaturist of _Le Charivari_, +and, whilst making the fortune of the paper, he made his own. His name +was exceedingly popular, and his illustrations for books were eagerly +sought for by publishers. _Le Juif errant_, by Eugène Sue (1843, 4 vols. +8vo), the French translation of Hoffman's tales (1843, 8vo), the first +collective edition of Balzac's works (Paris, Houssiaux, 1850, 20 vols. +8vo), _Le Diable à Paris_ (1844-1846, 2 vols. 4to), _Les Français peints +par eux-mêmes_ (1840-1843, 9 vols. 8vo), the collection of +_Physiologies_ published by Aubert in 38 vols. 18mo (1840-1842),--all +owed a great part of their success at the time, and are still sought +for, on account of the clever and telling sketches contributed by +Gavarni. A single frontispiece or vignette was sometimes enough to +secure the sale of a new book. Always desiring to enlarge the field of +his observations, Gavarni soon abandoned his once favourite topics. He +no longer limited himself to such types as the _lorette_ and the +Parisian student, or to the description of the noisy and popular +pleasures of the capital, but turned his mirror to the grotesque sides +of family life and of humanity at large. _Les Enfants terribles_, _Les +Parents terribles_, _Les Fourberies des femmes_, _La Politique des +femmes_, _Les Maris vengés_, _Les Nuances du sentiment_, _Les Rêves_, +_Les Petits Jeux de société_, _Les Petits Malheurs du bonheur_, _Les +Impressions de menage_, _Les Interjections_, _Les Traductions en langue +vulgaire_, _Les Propos de Thomas Vireloque_, &c., were composed at this +time, and are his most elevated productions. But whilst showing the same +power of irony as his former works, enhanced by a deeper insight into +human nature, they generally bear the stamp of a bitter and even +sometimes gloomy philosophy. This tendency was still more strengthened +by a visit to England in 1849. He returned from London deeply impressed +with the scenes of misery and degradation which he had observed among +the lower classes of that city. In the midst of the cheerful atmosphere +of Paris he had been struck chiefly by the ridiculous aspects of +vulgarity and vice, and he had laughed at them. But the debasement of +human nature which he saw in London appears to have affected him so +forcibly that from that time the cheerful caricaturist never laughed or +made others laugh again. What he had witnessed there became the almost +exclusive subject of his drawings, as powerful, as impressive as ever, +but better calculated to be appreciated by cultivated minds than by the +public, which had in former years granted him so wide a popularity. Most +of these last compositions appeared in the weekly paper +_L'Illustration_. In 1857 he published in one volume the series entitled +_Masques et visages_ (1 vol. 12mo), and in 1869, about two years after +his death, his last artistic work, _Les Douze Mois_ (1 vol. fol.), was +given to the world. Gavarni was much engaged, during the last period of +his life, in scientific pursuits, and this fact must perhaps be +connected with the great change which then took place in his manner as +an artist. He sent several communications to the Académie des Sciences, +and till his death on the 23rd of November 1866 he was eagerly +interested in the question of aerial navigation. It is said that he made +experiments on a large scale with a view to find the means of directing +balloons; but it seems that he was not so successful in this line as his +fellow-artist, the caricaturist and photographer, Nadar. + + Gavarni's _Oeuvres choisies_ were edited in 1845 (4 vols. 4to) with + letterpress by J. Janin, Th. Gautier and Balzac, followed in 1850 by + two other volumes named _Perles et parures_; and some essays in prose + and in verse written by him were collected by one of his biographers, + Ch. Yriarte, and published in 1869. See also E. and J. de Goncourt, + _Gavarni, l'homme et l'oeuvre_ (1873, 8vo). J. Claretie has also + devoted to the great French caricaturist a curious and interesting + essay. A catalogue _raisonné_ of Gavarni's works was published by J. + Armelhault and E. Bocher (Paris, 1873, 8vo). + + + + +GAVAZZI, ALESSANDRO (1809-1889), Italian preacher and patriot, was born +at Bologna on the 21st of March 1809. He at first became a monk (1825), +and attached himself to the Barnabites at Naples, where he afterwards +(1829) acted as professor of rhetoric. In 1840, having already expressed +liberal views, he was removed to Rome to fill a subordinate position. +Leaving his own country after the capture of Rome by the French, he +carried on a vigorous campaign against priests and Jesuits in England, +Scotland and North America, partly by means of a periodical, the +_Gavazzi Free Word_. While in England he gradually went over (1855) to +the Evangelical church, and became head and organizer of the Italian +Protestants in London. Returning to Italy in 1860, he served as +army-chaplain with Garibaldi. In 1870 he became head of the Free Church +(_Chiesa libera_) of Italy, united the scattered Congregations into the +"Unione delle Chiese libere in Italia," and in 1875 founded in Rome the +theological college of the Free Church, in which he himself taught +dogmatics, apologetics and polemics. He died in Rome on the 9th of +January 1889. + + Amongst his publications are _No Union with Rome_ (1871); _The Priest + in Absolution_ (1877); _My Recollections of the Last Four Popes_, &c., + in answer to Cardinal Wiseman (1858); _Orations_, 2 decades (1851). + + + + +GAVELKIND,[1] a peculiar system of tenure associated chiefly with the +county of Kent, but found also in other parts of England. In Kent all +land is presumed to be holden by this tenure until the contrary is +proved, but some lands have been disgavelled by particular statutes. It +is more correctly described as socage tenure, subject to the custom of +gavelkind. The chief peculiarities of the custom are the following. (1) +A tenant can alienate his lands by feoffment at fifteen years of age. +(2) There is no escheat on attainder for felony, or as it is expressed +in the old rhyme-- + + "The father to the bough, + The son to the plough." + +(3) Generally the tenant could always dispose of his lands by will. (4) +In case of intestacy the estate descends not to the eldest son but to +all the sons (or, in the case of deceased sons, their representatives) +in equal shares. "Every son is as great a gentleman as the eldest son +is." It is to this remarkable peculiarity that gavelkind no doubt owes +its local popularity. Though females claiming in their own right are +postponed to males, yet by representation they may inherit together with +them. (5) A wife is dowable of one-half, instead of one-third of the +land. (6) A widower may be tenant by courtesy, without having had any +issue, of one-half, but only so long as he remains unmarried. An act of +1841, for commuting manorial rights in respect of lands of copyhold and +customary tenure, contained a clause specially exempting from the +operation of the act "the custom of gavelkind as the same now exists and +prevails in the county of Kent." Gavelkind is one of the most +interesting examples of the customary law of England; it was, previous +to the Conquest, the general custom of the realm, but was then +superseded by the feudal law of primogeniture. Its survival in this +instance in one part of the country is regarded as a concession extorted +from the Conqueror by the superior bravery of the men of Kent. _Irish +gavelkind_ was a species of tribal succession, by which the land, +instead of being divided at the death of the holder amongst his sons, +was thrown again into the common stock, and redivided among the +surviving members of the sept. The equal division amongst children of an +inheritance in land is of common occurrence outside the United Kingdom +and is discussed under SUCCESSION. + + See INHERITANCE; TENURE. Also Robinson, _On Gavelkind_; Digby, + _History of the Law of Real Property_; Pollock and Maitland, _History + of English Law_; Challis, _Real Property_. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] This word is generally taken to represent in O. Eng. + _gafolgecynd_, from _gafol_, payment, tribute, and _gecynd_, species, + kind, and originally to have meant tenure by payment of rent or + non-military services, cf. gafol-land, and thence to have been + applied to the particular custom attached to such tenure in Kent. + _Gafol_ apparently is derived from the Teutonic root seen in "to + give"; the Med. Lat. _gabulum, gablum_ gives the Fr. _gabelle_, tax. + + + + +GAVESTON, PIERS (d. 1312), earl of Cornwall, favourite of the English +king Edward II., was the son of a Gascon knight, and was brought up at +the court of Edward I. as companion to his son, the future king. Strong, +talented and ambitious, Gaveston gained great influence over young +Edward, and early in 1307 he was banished from England by the king; but +he returned after the death of Edward I. a few months later, and at once +became the chief adviser of Edward II. Made earl of Cornwall, he +received both lands and money from the king, and added to his wealth and +position by marrying Edward's niece, Margaret, daughter of Gilbert de +Clare, earl of Gloucester (d. 1295). He was regent of the kingdom during +the king's short absence in France in 1308, and took a very prominent +part at Edward's coronation in February of this year. These proceedings +aroused the anger and jealousy of the barons, and their wrath was +diminished neither by Gaveston's superior skill at the tournament, nor +by his haughty and arrogant behaviour to themselves. They demanded his +banishment; and the king, forced to assent, sent his favourite to +Ireland as lieutenant, where he remained for about a year. Returning to +England in July 1309, Edward persuaded some of the barons to sanction +this proceeding; but as Gaveston was more insolent than ever the old +jealousies soon broke out afresh. In 1311 the king was forced to agree +to the election of the "ordainers," and the ordinances they drew up +provided _inter alia_ for the perpetual banishment of his favourite. +Gaveston then retired to Flanders, but returned secretly to England at +the end of 1311. Soon he was publicly restored by Edward, and the barons +had taken up arms. Deserted by the king he surrendered to Aymer de +Valence, earl of Pembroke (d. 1324), at Scarborough in May 1312, and was +taken to Deddington in Oxfordshire, where he was seized by Guy de +Beauchamp, earl of Warwick (d. 1315). Conveyed to Warwick castle he was +beheaded on Blacklow Hill near Warwick on the 19th of June 1312. +Gaveston, whose body was buried in 1315 at King's Langley, left an only +daughter. + + See W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, vol. ii. (Oxford, 1896); and + _Chronicles of the Reigns of Edward I. and Edward II._, edited by W. + Stubbs. Rolls series (London, 1882-1883). + + + + +GAVOTTE (a French word adopted from the Provençal _gavoto_), properly +the dance of the Gavots or natives of Gap, a district in the Upper Alps, +in the old province of Dauphiné. It is a dance of a brisk and lively +character, somewhat resembling the minuet, but quicker and less stately +(see DANCE); hence also the use of this name for a corresponding form of +musical composition. + + + + +GAWAIN (Fr. _Walwain (Brut), Gauvain, Gaugain_; Lat. _Walganus_, +_Walwanus_; Dutch, _Walwein_, Welsh, _Gwalchmei_), son of King Loth of +Orkney, and nephew to Arthur on his mother's side, the most famous hero +of Arthurian romance. The first mention of his name is in a passage of +William of Malmesbury, recording the discovery of his tomb in the +province of Ros in Wales. He is there described as "_Walwen qui fuit +haud degener Arturis ex sorore nepos_." Here he is said to have reigned +over Galloway; and there is certainly some connexion, the character of +which is now not easy to determine, between the two. In the later +_Historia_ of Geoffrey of Monmouth, and its French translation by Wace, +Gawain plays an important and "pseudo-historic" rôle. On the receipt by +Arthur of the insulting message of the Roman emperor, demanding tribute, +it is he who is despatched as ambassador to the enemy's camp, where his +arrogant and insulting behaviour brings about the outbreak of +hostilities. On receipt of the tidings of Mordred's treachery, Gawain +accompanies Arthur to England, and is slain in the battle which ensues +on their landing. Wace, however, evidently knew more of Gawain than he +has included in his translation, for he speaks of him as + + Li quens Walwains + Qui tant fu preudom de ses mains (11. 9057-58). + +and later on says + + Prous fu et de mult grant mesure, + D'orgoil et de forfait n'ot qure + Plus vaut faire qu'il ne dist + Et plus doner qu'il ne pramist (10. 106-109). + +The English Arthurian poems regard him as the type and model of +chivalrous courtesy, "the fine father of nurture," and as Professor +Maynadier has well remarked, "previous to the appearance of Malory's +compilation it was Gawain rather than Arthur, who was the typical +English hero." It is thus rather surprising to find that in the earliest +preserved MSS. of Arthurian romance, i.e. in the poems of Chrétien de +Troyes, Gawain, though generally placed first in the list of knights, is +by no means the hero _par excellence_. The latter part of the _Perceval_ +is indeed devoted to the recital of his adventures at the _Chastel +Merveilleus_, but of none of Chrétien's poems is he the protagonist. The +anonymous author of the _Chevalier à l'epée_ indeed makes this apparent +neglect of Gawain a ground of reproach against Chrétien. At the same +time the majority of the short episodic poems connected with the cycle +have Gawain for their hero. In the earlier form of the prose romances, +e.g. in the _Merlin_ proper, Gawain is a dominant personality, his feats +rivalling in importance those ascribed to Arthur, but in the later forms +such as the _Merlin_ continuations, the _Tristan_, and the final +_Lancelot_ compilation, his character and position have undergone a +complete change, he is represented as cruel, cowardly and treacherous, +and of indifferent moral character. Most unfortunately our English +version of the romances, Malory's _Morte Arthur_, being derived from +these later forms (though his treatment of Gawain is by no means +uniformly consistent), this unfavourable aspect is that under which the +hero has become known to the modern reader. Tennyson, who only knew the +Arthurian story through the medium of Malory, has, by exaggeration, +largely contributed to this misunderstanding. Morris, in _The Defence of +Guinevere_, speaks of "gloomy Gawain"; perhaps the most absurdly +misleading epithet which could possibly have been applied to the "gay, +gratious, and gude" knight of early English tradition. + +The truth appears to be that Gawain, the Celtic and mythic origin of +whose character was frankly admitted by the late M. Gaston Paris, +belongs to the very earliest stage of Arthurian tradition, long +antedating the crystallization of such tradition into literary form. He +was certainly known in Italy at a very early date; Professor Rajna has +found the names of Arthur and Gawain in charters of the early 12th +century, the bearers of those names being then grown to manhood; and +Gawain is figured in the architrave of the north doorway of Modena +cathedral, a 12th-century building. Recent discoveries have made it +practically certain that there existed, prior to the extant romances, a +collection of short episodic poems, devoted to the glorification of +Arthur's famous nephew and his immediate kin (his brother Ghaeris, or +Gareth, and his son Guinglain), the authorship of which was attributed +to a Welshman, Bleheris; fragments of this collection have been +preserved to us alike in the first continuation of Chrétien de Troyes +_Perceval_, due to Wauchier de Denain, and in our vernacular _Gawain_ +poems. Among these "Bleheris" poems was one dealing with Gawain's +adventures at the Grail castle, where the Grail is represented as +non-Christian, and presents features strongly reminiscent of the ancient +Nature mysteries. There is good ground for believing that as Grail +quester and winner, Gawain preceded alike Perceval and Galahad, and that +the solution of the mysterious Grail problem is to be sought rather in +the tales connected with the older hero than in those devoted to the +glorification of the younger knights. The explanation of the very +perplexing changes which the character of Gawain has undergone appears +to lie in a misunderstanding of the original sources of that character. +Whether or no Gawain was a sun-hero, and he certainly possessed some of +the features--we are constantly told how his strength waxed with the +waxing of the sun till noontide, and then gradually decreased; he owned +a steed known by a definite name le Gringalet; and a light-giving sword, +Escalibur (which, as a rule, is represented as belonging to Gawain, not +to Arthur)--all traits of a sun-hero--he certainly has much in common +with the primitive Irish hero Cuchullin. The famous head-cutting +challenge, so admirably told in _Syr Gawayne and the Grene Knighte_, was +originally connected with the Irish champion. Nor was the lady of +Gawain's love a mortal maiden, but the queen of the other-world. In +Irish tradition the other-world is often represented as an island, +inhabited by women only; and it is this "Isle of Maidens" that Gawain +visits in _Diu Crone_; returning therefrom dowered with the gift of +eternal youth. The Chastel Merveilleus adventure, related at length by +Chrétien and Wolfram is undoubtedly such an "other-world" story. It +seems probable that it was this connexion which won for Gawain the title +of the "Maidens' Knight," a title for which no satisfactory explanation +is ever given. When the source of the name was forgotten its meaning was +not unnaturally misinterpreted, and gained for Gawain the reputation of +a facile morality, which was exaggerated by the pious compilers of the +later Grail romances into persistent and aggravated wrong-doing; at the +same time it is to be noted that Gawain is never like Tristan and +Lancelot, the hero of an illicit connexion maintained under +circumstances of falsehood and treachery. Gawain, however, belonged to +the pre-Christian stage of Grail tradition, and it is not surprising +that writers, bent on spiritual edification, found him somewhat of a +stumbling-block. Chaucer, when he spoke of Gawain coming "again out of +faërie," spoke better than he knew; the home of that very gallant and +courteous knight is indeed Fairy-land, and the true Gawain-tradition is +informed with fairy glamour and grace. + + See _Syr Gawayne_, the English poems relative to that hero, edited by + Sir Frederick Madden for the Bannatyne Club, 1839 (out of print and + difficult to procure); _Histoire littéraire de la France_, vol. xxx.; + introduction and summary of episodic "Gawain" poems by Gaston Paris; + _The Legend of Sir Gawain_, by Jessie L. Weston, Grimm Library, vol. + vii.; _The Legend of Sir Perceval_, by Jessie L. Weston, Grimm + Library, vol. xvii.; "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight," "Sir Gawain at + the Grail Castle" and "Sir Gawain and the Lady of Lys," vols. i., vi + and vii. of _Arthurian Romances_ (Nutt). + + + + +GAWLER, a town of Gawler county, South Australia, on the Para river, 24¾ +m. by rail N.E. of Adelaide. It is one of the most thriving places in +the colony, being the centre of a large wheat-growing district; it has +also engineering works, foundries, flour-mills, breweries and saw-mills, +while gold, silver, copper and lead are found in the neighbouring hills. +The inhabitants of the town and its extensive suburbs number about 7000; +though the population of the town itself in 1901 was 1996. + + + + +GAY, JOHN (1685-1732), English poet, was baptized on the 16th of +September 1685 at Barnstaple, where his family had long been settled. He +was educated at the grammar school of the town under Robert Luck, who +had published some Latin and English poems. On leaving school he was +apprenticed to a silk mercer in London, but being weary, according to Dr +Johnson, "of either the restraint or the servility of his occupation," +he soon returned to Barnstaple, where he spent some time with his uncle, +the Rev. John Hanmer, the Nonconformist minister of the town. He then +returned to London, and though no details are available for his +biography until the publication of _Wine_ in 1708, the account he gives +in _Rural Sports_ (1713), of years wasted in attending on courtiers who +were profuse in promises never kept, may account for his occupations. +Among his early literary friends were Aaron Hill and Eustace Budgell. In +_The Present State of Wit_ (1711) Gay attempted to give an account of +"all our periodical papers, whether monthly, weekly or diurnal." He +especially praised the _Tatler_ and the _Spectator_, and Swift, who knew +nothing of the authorship of the pamphlet, suspected it to be inspired +by Steele and Addison. To Lintot's _Miscellany_ (1712) Gay contributed +"An Epistle to Bernard Lintot," containing some lines in praise of Pope, +and a version of the story of Arachne from the sixth book of the +_Metamorphoses_ of Ovid. In the same year he was received into the +household of the duchess of Monmouth as secretary, a connexion which +was, however, broken before June 1714. + +The dedication of his _Rural Sports_ (1713) to Pope was the beginning of +a lasting friendship. Gay could have no pretensions to rivalry with +Pope, who seems never to have tired of helping his friend. In 1713 he +produced a comedy, _The Wife of Bath_, which was acted only three +nights, and _The Fan_, one of his least successful poems; and in 1714 +_The Shepherd's Week_, a series of six pastorals drawn from English +rustic life. Pope had urged him to undertake this last task in order to +ridicule the Arcadian pastorals of Ambrose Philips, who had been praised +by the _Guardian_, to the neglect of Pope's claims as the first pastoral +writer of the age and the true English Theocritus. Gay's pastorals +completely achieved this object, but his ludicrous pictures of the +English swains and their loves were found to be abundantly entertaining +on their own account. Gay had just been appointed secretary to the +British ambassador to the court of Hanover through the influence of +Jonathan Swift, when the death of Queen Anne three months later put an +end to all his hopes of official employment. In 1715, probably with some +help from Pope, he produced _What d'ye call it?_ a dramatic skit on +contemporary tragedy, with special reference to Otway's _Venice +Preserved_. It left the public so ignorant of its real meaning that +Lewis Theobald and Benjamin Griffin (1680-1740) published a _Complete +Key to what d'ye call it_ by way of explanation. In 1716 appeared his +_Trivia, or the Art of Walking the Streets of London_, a poem in three +books, for which he acknowledged having received several hints from +Swift. It contains graphic and humorous descriptions of the London of +that period. In January 1717 he produced the comedy of _Three Hours +after Marriage_, which was grossly indecent without being amusing, and +was a complete failure. There is no doubt that in this piece he had +assistance from Pope and Arbuthnot, but they were glad enough to have it +assumed that Gay was the sole author. + +Gay had numerous patrons, and in 1720 he published _Poems on Several +Occasions_ by subscription, realizing £1000 or more. In that year James +Craggs, the secretary of state, presented him with some South Sea stock. +Gay, disregarding the prudent advice of Pope and other of his friends, +invested his all in South Sea stock, and, holding on to the end, he lost +everything. The shock is said to have made him dangerously ill. As a +matter of fact Gay had always been a spoilt child, who expected +everything to be done for him. His friends did not fail him at this +juncture. He had patrons in William Pulteney, afterwards earl of Bath, +in the third earl of Burlington, who constantly entertained him at +Chiswick or at Burlington House, and in the third earl of Queensberry. +He was a frequent visitor with Pope, and received unvarying kindness +from Congreve and Arbuthnot. In 1724 he produced a tragedy called _The +Captives_. In 1727 he wrote for Prince William, afterwards duke of +Cumberland, his famous _Fifty-one Fables in Verse_, for which he +naturally hoped to gain some preferment, although he has much to say in +them of the servility of courtiers and the vanity of court honours. He +was offered the situation of gentleman-usher to the Princess Louisa, who +was still a child. He refused this offer, which all his friends seem to +have regarded, for no very obvious reason, as an indignity. As the +_Fables_ were written for the amusement of one royal child, there would +appear to have been a measure of reason in giving him a sinecure in the +service of another. His friends thought him unjustly neglected by the +court, but he had already received (1722) a sinecure as lottery +commissioner with a salary of £150 a year, and from 1722 to 1729 he had +lodgings in the palace at Whitehall. He had never rendered any special +services to the court. + +He certainly did nothing to conciliate the favour of the government by +his next production, the _Beggars' Opera_, a lyrical drama produced on +the 29th of January 1728 by Rich, in which Sir Robert Walpole was +caricatured. This famous piece, which was said to have made "Rich gay +and Gay rich," was an innovation in many respects, and for a time it +drove Italian opera off the English stage. Under cover of the thieves +and highwaymen who figured in it was disguised a satire on society, for +Gay made it plain that in describing the moral code of his characters he +had in mind the corruptions of the governing class. Part of the success +of the _Beggars' Opera_ may have been due to the acting of Lavinia +Fenton, afterwards duchess of Bolton, in the part of Polly Peachum. The +play ran for sixty-two nights, though the representations, four of which +were "benefits" of the author, were not, as has sometimes been stated, +consecutive. Swift is said to have suggested the subject, and Pope and +Arbuthnot were constantly consulted while the work was in progress, but +Gay must be regarded as the sole author. He wrote a sequel, _Polly_, the +representation of which was forbidden by the lord chamberlain, no doubt +through the influence of Walpole. This act of "oppression" caused no +loss to Gay. It proved an excellent advertisement for _Polly_, which was +published by subscription in 1729, and brought its author more than +£1000. The duchess of Queensberry was dismissed from court for enlisting +subscribers in the palace. The duke of Queensberry gave him a home, and +the duchess continued her affectionate patronage until Gay's death, +which took place on the 4th of December 1732. He was buried in +Westminster Abbey. The epitaph on his tomb is by Pope, and is followed +by Gay's own mocking couplet:-- + + "Life is a jest, and all things show it, + I thought so once, and now I know it." + +_Acis and Galatea_, an English pastoral opera, the music of which was +written by Handel, was produced at the Haymarket in 1732. The profits of +his posthumous opera of _Achilles_ (1733), and a new volume of _Fables_ +(1738) went to his two sisters, who inherited from him a fortune of +£6000. He left two other pieces, _The Distressed Wife_ (1743), a comedy, +and _The Rehearsal at Goatham_ (1754), a farce. The _Fables_, slight as +they may appear, cost him more labour than any of his other works. The +narratives are in nearly every case original, and are told in clear and +lively verse. The moral which rounds off each little story is never +strained. They are masterpieces in their kind, and the very numerous +editions of them prove their popularity. They have been translated into +Latin, French and Italian, Urdu and Bengali. + + See his _Poetical Works_ (1893) in the Muses' Library, with an + introduction by Mr John Underhill; also Samuel Johnson's _Lives of the + Poets_, John Gay's _Singspiele_ (1898), edited by G. Sarrazin + (_Englische Textbibliothek II._); and an article by Austin Dobson in + vol. 21 of the _Dictionary of National Biography_; _Gay's Chair_ + (1820), edited by Henry Lee, a fellow-townsman, contained a + biographical sketch by his nephew, the Rev. Joseph Baller. + + + + +GAY, MARIE FRANÇOISE SOPHIE (1776-1852), French author, was born in +Paris on the 1st of July 1776. Madame Gay was the daughter of M. +Nichault de la Valette and of Francesca Peretti, an Italian lady. In +1793 she was married to M. Liottier, an exchange broker, but she was +divorced from him in 1799, and shortly afterwards was married to M. Gay, +receiver-general of the department of the Roër or Ruhr. This union +brought her into intimate relations with many distinguished personages; +and her salon came to be frequented by all the distinguished +littérateurs, musicians, actors and painters of the time, whom she +attracted by her beauty, her vivacity and her many amiable qualities. +Her first literary production was a letter written in 1802 to the +_Journal de Paris_, in defence of Madame de Staël's novel, _Delphine_; +and in the same year she published anonymously her first novel _Laure +d'Estell_. _Léonie de Montbreuse_, which appeared in 1813, is considered +by Sainte-Beuve her best work; but _Anatole_ (1815), the romance of a +deaf-mute, has perhaps a higher reputation. Among her other works, +_Salons célèbres_ (2 vols., 1837) may be especially mentioned. Madame +Gay wrote several comedies and opera libretti which met with +considerable success. She was also an accomplished musician, and +composed both the words and music of a number of songs. She died in +Paris on the 5th of March 1852. For an account of her daughter, Delphine +Gay, Madame de Girardin, see GIRARDIN. + + See her own _Souvenirs d'une vieille femme_ (1834); also Théophile + Gautier, _Portraits contemporains_; and Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du + lundi_, vol. vi. + + + + +GAY, WALTER (1856- ), American artist, was born at Hingham, +Massachusetts, on the 22nd of January 1856. In 1876 he became a pupil of +Léon Bonnat in Paris. He received an honourable mention in the Salon of +1885; a gold medal in 1888, and similar awards at Vienna (1894), Antwerp +(1895), Berlin (1896) and Munich (1897). He became an officer of the +Legion of Honour and a member of the Society of Secession, Munich. Works +by him are in the Luxembourg, the Tate Gallery (London), and the Boston +and Metropolitan (New York) Museums of Art. His compositions are mainly +figure subjects portraying French peasant life. + + + + +GAYA, a city and district of British India, in the Patna division of +Bengal. The city is situated 85 m. S. of Patna by rail. Pop. (1901) +71,288. It consists of two distinct parts, adjoining each other; the +part containing the residences of the priests is Gaya proper; and the +other, which is the business quarter, is called Sahibganj. The civil +offices and residences of the European inhabitants are situated here. +Gaya derives its sanctity from incidents in the life of Buddha. But a +local legend also exists concerning a pagan monster of great sanctity, +named Gaya, who by long penance had become holy, so that all who saw or +touched him were saved from perdition. Yama, the lord of hell, appealed +to the gods, who induced Gaya to lie down in order that his body might +be a place of sacrifice; and once down, Yama placed a large stone on him +to keep him there. The tricked demon struggled violently, and, in order +to pacify him, Vishnu promised that the gods should take up their +permanent residence in him, and that any one who made a pilgrimage to +the spot where he lay should be delivered from the terrors of the Hindu +place of torment. This may possibly be a Brahmanic rendering of Buddha's +life and work. There are forty-five sacred spots (of which the temple of +Vishnupada is the chief) in and around the city, and these are visited +by thousands of pilgrims annually. During the Mutiny the large store of +treasure here was conveyed safely to Calcutta by Mr A. Money. The city +contains a government high school and an hospital, with a Lady Elgin +branch for women. + +The DISTRICT OF GAYA comprises an area of 4712 sq. m. Generally +speaking, it consists of a level plain, with a ridge of prettily wooded +hills along the southern boundary, whence the country falls with a +gentle slope towards the Ganges. Rocky hills occasionally occur, either +detached or in groups, the loftiest being Maher hill about 12 m. S.E. of +Gaya city, with an elevation of 1620 ft. above sea-level. The eastern +part of the district is highly cultivated; the portions to the north and +west are less fertile; while in the south the country is thinly peopled +and consists of hills, the jungles on which are full of wild animals. +The principal river is the Son, which marks the boundary between Gaya +and Shahabad, navigable by small boats throughout the year, and by craft +of 20-tons burden in the rainy season. Other rivers are the Punpun, +Phalgu and Jamuna. Two branches of the Son canal system, the eastern +main canal and the Patna canal, intersect the district. In 1901 the +population was 2,059,933, showing a decrease of 3% in the decade. Among +the higher castes there is an unusually large proportion of Brahmans, a +circumstance due to the number of sacred places which the district +contains. The Gayawals, or priests in charge of the holy places, are +held in high esteem by the pilgrims; but they are not pure Brahmans, and +are looked down upon by those who are. They live an idle and dissolute +life, but are very wealthy, from contributions extorted from the +pilgrims. Buddh Gaya, about 6 m. S. of Gaya city, is one of the holiest +sites of Buddhism, as containing the tree under which Sakyamuni attained +enlightenment. In addition to many ruins and sculptures, there is a +temple restored by the government in 1881. Another place of religious +interest is a temple of great antiquity, which crowns the highest peak +of the Barabar hills, and at which a religious fair is held each +September, attended by 10,000 to 20,000 pilgrims. At the foot of the +hill are numerous rock caves excavated about 200 B.C. The opium poppy is +largely cultivated. There are a number of lac factories. Manufactures +consist of common brass utensils, black stone ornaments, pottery, +tussur-silk and cotton cloth. Formerly paper-making was an important +manufacture in the district, but it has entirely died out. The chief +exports are food grains, oil seeds, indigo, crude opium (sent to Patna +for manufacture), saltpetre, sugar, blankets, brass utensils, &c. The +imports are salt, piece goods, cotton, timber, bamboos, tobacco, lac, +iron, spices and fruits. The district is traversed by four branches of +the East Indian railway. In 1901 it suffered severely from the plague. + + See _District Gazetteer_ (1906); Sir A. Cunningham, _Mahabodhi_ + (1892). + + + + +GAYAL, a domesticated ox allied to the Gaur, but distinguished, among +other features, by the more conical and straighter horns, and the +straight line between them. Gayal are kept by the natives of the +hill-districts of Assam and parts of Tenasserim and Upper Burma. +Although it has received a distinct name, _Bos (Bibos) frontalis_, there +can be little doubt that the gayal is merely a domesticated breed of the +gaur, many gayal-skulls showing characters approximating to those of the +gaur. + + + + +GAYANGOS Y ARCE, PASCUAL DE (1809-1897), Spanish scholar and +Orientalist, was born at Seville on the 21st of June 1809. At the age of +thirteen he was sent to be educated at Pont-le-Voy near Blois, and in +1828 began the study of Arabic under Silvestre de Sacy. After a visit to +England, where he married, he obtained a post in the Spanish treasury, +and was transferred to the foreign office as translator in 1833. In 1836 +he returned to England, wrote extensively in English periodicals, and +translated Almakkari's _History of the Mahommedan Dynasties in Spain_ +(1840-1843) for the Royal Asiatic Society. In England he also made the +acquaintance of Ticknor, to whom he was very serviceable. In 1843 he +returned to Spain as professor of Arabic at the university of Madrid, +which post he held until 1881, when he was made director of public +instruction. This office he resigned upon being elected senator for the +district of Huelva. His latter years were spent in cataloguing the +Spanish manuscripts in the British Museum; he had previously continued +Bergenroth's catalogue of the manuscripts relating to England in the +Simancas archives. His best-known original work is his dissertation on +Spanish romances of chivalry in Rivadeneyra's _Biblioteca de autores +españoles_. He died in London on the 4th of October 1897. + + + + +GAYARRÉ, CHARLES ÉTIENNE ARTHUR (1805-1895), American historian, was +born in New Orleans, Louisiana, on the 9th of January 1805. After +studying at the Collège d'Orléans he began, in 1826, to study law in +Philadelphia, and three years later was admitted to the bar. In 1830 he +was elected a member of the House of Representatives of Louisiana, in +1831 was appointed deputy attorney-general of his state, in 1833 became +presiding judge of the city court of New Orleans, and in 1834 was +elected as a Jackson Democrat to the United States Senate. On account of +ill-health, however, he immediately resigned without taking his seat, +and for the next eight years travelled in Europe and collected +historical material from the French and the Spanish archives. In +1844-1845 and in 1856-1857 he was again a member of the state House of +Representatives, and from 1845 to 1853 was secretary of state of +Louisiana. He supported the Southern Confederacy during the Civil War, +in which he lost a large fortune, and after its close lived chiefly by +his pen. He died in New Orleans on the 11th of February 1895. He is best +known as the historian of Louisiana. He wrote _Histoire de la Louisiane_ +(1847); _Romance of the History of Louisiana_ (1848); _Louisiana: its +Colonial History and Romance_ (1851), reprinted in _A History of +Louisiana_; _History of Louisiana: the Spanish Domination_ (1854); +_Philip II. of Spain_ (1866); and _A History of Louisiana_ (4 vols., +1866), the last being a republication and continuation of his earlier +works in this field, the whole comprehending the history of Louisiana +from its earliest discovery to 1861. He wrote also several dramas and +romances, the best of the latter being _Fernando de Lemos_ (1872). + + + + +GAY-LUSSAC, JOSEPH LOUIS (1778-1850), French chemist and physicist, was +born at St Léonard, in the department of Haute Vienne, on the 6th of +December 1778. He was the elder son of Antoine Gay, _procureur du roi_ +and judge at Pont-de-Noblac, who assumed the name Lussac from a small +property he had in the neighbourhood of St Léonard. Young Gay-Lussac +received his early education at home under the direction of the abbé +Bourdieux and other masters, and in 1794 was sent to Paris to prepare +for the École Polytechnique, into which he was admitted at the end of +1797 after a brilliant examination. Three years later he was transferred +to the École des Ponts et Chaussées, and shortly afterwards was assigned +to C.L. Berthollet, who wanted an able student to help in his +researches. The new assistant scarcely came up to expectations in +respect of confirming certain theoretical views of his master's by the +experiments set him to that end, and appears to have stated the +discrepancy without reserve; but Berthollet nevertheless quickly +recognized the ability displayed, and showed his appreciation not only +by desiring to be Gay-Lussac's "father in science," but also by making +him in 1807 an original member of the Société d'Arcueil. In 1802 he was +appointed demonstrator to A.F. Fourcroy at the École Polytechnique, +where subsequently (1809) he became professor of chemistry, and from +1808 to 1832 he was professor of physics at the Sorbonne, a post which +he only resigned for the chair of chemistry at the Jardin des Plantes. +In 1831 he was elected to represent Haute Vienne in the chamber of +deputies, and in 1839 he entered the chamber of peers. He died in Paris +on the 9th of May 1850. + +Gay-Lussac's earlier researches were mostly physical in character and +referred mainly to the properties of gases, vapour-tensions, hygrometry, +capillarity, &c. In his first memoir (_Ann. de Chimie_, 1802) he showed +that different gases are dilated in the same proportion when heated from +0° to 100° C. Apparently he did not know of Dalton's experiments on the +same point, which indeed were far from accurate; but in a note he +explained that "le cit. Charles avait remarqué depuis 15 ans la même +propriété dans ces gaz; mais n'ayant jamais publié ses résultats, c'est +par le plus grand hasard que je les ai connus." In consequence of his +candour in thus rescuing from oblivion the observation which his +fellow-citizen did not think worth publishing, his name is sometimes +dissociated from this law, which instead is known as that of Charles. In +1804 he had an opportunity of prosecuting his researches on air in +somewhat unusual conditions, for the French Academy, desirous of +securing some observations on the force of terrestrial magnetism at +great elevations above the earth, through Berthollet and J.E. Chaptal +obtained the use of the balloon which had been employed in Egypt, and +entrusted the task to him and J.B. Biot. In their first ascent from the +garden of the Conservatoire des Arts on the 24th of August 1804 an +altitude of 4000 metres (about 13,000 ft.) was attained. But this +elevation was not considered sufficient by Gay-Lussac, who therefore +made a second ascent by himself oh the 16th of September, when the +balloon rose 7016 metres (about 23,000 ft.) above sea-level. At this +height, with the thermometer marking 9½ degrees below freezing, he +remained for a considerable time, making observations not only on +magnetism, but also on the temperature and humidity of the air, and +collecting several samples of air at different heights. The magnetic +observations, though imperfect, led him to the conclusion that the +magnetic effect at all attainable elevations above the earth's surface +remains constant; and on analysing the samples of air he could find no +difference of composition at different heights. (For an account of both +ascents see _Journ. de phys._ for 1804.) On the 1st of October in the +same year, in conjunction with Alexander von Humboldt, he read a paper +on eudiometric analysis (_Ann. de Chim._, 1805), which contained the +germ of his most important generalization, the authors noting that when +oxygen and hydrogen combine together by volume, it is in the proportion +of one volume of the former to two volumes of the latter. But his law of +combination by volumes was not enunciated in its general form until +after his return from a scientific journey through Switzerland, Italy +and Germany, on which with Humboldt he started from Paris in March 1805. +This journey was interrupted in the spring of 1806 by the news of the +death of M.J. Brisson, and Gay-Lussac hurried back to Paris in the hope, +which was gratified, that he would be elected to the seat thus vacated +in the Academy. In 1807 an account of the magnetic observations made +during the tour with Humboldt was published in the first volume of the +_Mémoires d'Arcueil_, and the second volume, published in 1809, +contained the important memoir on gaseous combination (read to the +Société Philomathique on the last day of 1808), in which he pointed out +that gases combining with each other in volume do so in the simplest +proportions--1 to 1, 1 to 2, 1 to 3--and that the volume of the compound +formed bears a simple ratio to that of the constituents. + +About this time Gay-Lussac's work, although he by no means entirely +abandoned physical questions, became of a more chemical character; and +in three instances it brought him into direct rivalry with Sir Humphry +Davy. In the first case Davy's preparation of potassium and sodium by +the electric current spurred on Gay-Lussac and his collaborator L.J. +Thénard, who had no battery at their disposal, to search for a chemical +method of obtaining those metals, and by the action of red-hot iron on +fused potash--a method of which Davy admitted the advantages--they +succeeded in 1808 in preparing potassium, going on to make a full study +of its properties and to use it, as Davy also did, for the reduction of +boron from boracic acid in 1809. The second concerned the nature of +"oxymuriatic acid" (chlorine). While admitting the possibility that it +was an elementary body, after many experiments they finally declared it +to be a compound (_Mém. d'Arcueil_, 1809). Davy, on the other hand, +could see no reason to suppose it contained oxygen, as they surmised, +and ultimately they had to accept his view of its elementary character. +The third case roused most feeling of all. Davy, passing through Paris +on his way to Italy at the end of 1813, obtained a few fragments of +iodine, which had been discovered by Bernard Courtois (1777-1838) in +1811, and after a brief examination by the aid of his limited portable +laboratory perceived its analogy to chlorine and inferred it to be an +element. Gay-Lussac, it is said, was nettled at the idea of a foreigner +making such a discovery in Paris, and vigorously took up the study of +the new substance, the result being the "Mémoire sur l'iode," which +appeared in the _Ann. de chim._ in 1814. He too saw its resemblance to +chlorine, and was obliged to agree with Davy's opinion as to its simple +nature, though not without some hesitation, due doubtless to his +previous declaration about chlorine. Davy on his side seems to have felt +that the French chemist was competing with him, not altogether fairly, +in trying to appropriate the honour of discovering the character of the +substance and of its compound, hydriodic acid. + +In 1810 he published a paper which contains some classic experiments on +fermentation, a subject to which he returned in a second paper published +in 1815. At the same time he was working with Thénard at the improvement +of the methods of organic analysis, and by combustion with oxidizing +agents, first potassium chlorate and subsequently copper oxide, he +determined the composition of a number of organic substances. But his +last great piece of pure research was on prussic acid. In a note +published in 1811 he described the physical properties of this acid, but +he said nothing about its chemical composition till 1815, when he +described cyanogen as a compound radicle, prussic acid as a compound of +that radicle with hydrogen alone, and the prussiates (cyanides) as +compounds of the radicle with metals. The proof that prussic acid +contains hydrogen but no oxygen was a most important support to the +hydrogen-acid theory, and completed the downfall of Lavoisier's oxygen +theory; while the isolation of cyanogen was of equal importance for the +subsequent era of compound radicles in organic chemistry. + +After this research Gay-Lussac's attention began to be distracted from +purely scientific investigation. He had now secured a leading if not the +foremost place among the chemists of the French capital, and the demand +for his services as adviser in technical problems and matters of +practical interest made great inroads on his available time. He had been +a member of the consultative committee on arts and manufactures since +1805; he was attached to the "administration des poudres et salpêtres" +in 1818, and in 1829 he received the lucrative post of assayer to the +mint. In these new fields he displayed the powers so conspicuous in his +scientific inquiries, and he was now to introduce and establish +scientific accuracy where previously there had been merely practical +approximations. His services to industry included his improvements in +the processes for the manufacture of sulphuric acid (1818) and oxalic +acid (1829); methods of estimating the amount of real alkali in potash +and soda by the volume of standard acid required for neutralization, and +for estimating the available chlorine in bleaching powder by a solution +of arsenious acid; directions for the use of the centesimal +alcoholometer published in 1824 and specially commended by the +Institute; and the elaboration of a method of assaying silver by a +standard solution of common salt, a volume on which was published in +1833. Among his research work of this period may be mentioned the +improvements in organic analysis and the investigation of fulminic acid +made with the help of Liebig, who gained the privilege of admission to +his private laboratory in 1823-1824. + +Gay-Lussac was patient, persevering, accurate to punctiliousness, +perhaps a little cold and reserved, and not unaware of his great +ability. But he was also bold and energetic, not only in his work but +also in support and defence of his friends. His early childish +adventures, as told by Arago, herald the fearless aeronaut and the +undaunted investigator of volcanic eruptions (Vesuvius was in full +eruption when he visited it during his tour in 1805); and the endurance +he exhibited under the laboratory accidents that befell him shows the +power of will with which he would face the prospect of becoming blind +and useless for the prosecution of the science which was his very life, +and of which he was one of the most distinguished ornaments. Only at the +very end, when the disease from which he was suffering left him no hope, +did he complain with some bitterness of the hardship of leaving this +world where the many discoveries being made pointed to yet greater +discoveries to come. + + The most complete list of Gay-Lussac's papers is contained in the + Royal Society's _Catalogue of Scientific Papers_, which enumerates + 148, exclusive of others written jointly with Humboldt, Thénard, + Welter and Liebig. Many of them were published in the _Annales de + chimie_, which after it changed its title to _Annales de chimie et + physique_ he edited, with Arago, up to nearly the end of his life; but + some are to be found in the _Mémoires d'Arcueil_ and the _Comptes + rendus_, and in the _Recherches physiques et chimiques_, published + with Thénard in 1811. + + + + +GAZA, THEODORUS (c. 1400-1475), one of the Greek scholars who were the +leaders of the revival of learning in the 15th century, was born at +Thessalonica. On the capture of his native city by the Turks in 1430 he +fled to Italy. During a three years' residence in Mantua he rapidly +acquired a competent knowledge of Latin under the teaching of Vittorino +da Feltre, supporting himself meanwhile by giving lessons in Greek, and +by copying manuscripts of the ancient classics.[1] In 1447 he became +professor of Greek in the newly founded university of Ferrara, to which +students in great numbers from all parts of Italy were soon attracted by +his fame as a teacher. He had taken some part in the councils which were +held in Siena (1423), Ferrara (1438), and Florence (1439), with the +object of bringing about a reconciliation between the Greek and Latin +Churches; and in 1450, at the invitation of Pope Nicholas V., he went to +Rome, where he was for some years employed by his patron in making Latin +translations from Aristotle and other Greek authors. After the death of +Nicholas (1455), being unable to make a living at Rome, Gaza removed to +Naples, where he enjoyed the patronage of Alphonso the Magnanimous for +two years (1456-1458). Shortly afterwards he was appointed by Cardinal +Bessarion to a benefice in Calabria, where the later years of his life +were spent, and where he died about 1475. Gaza stood high in the opinion +of most of his learned contemporaries, but still higher in that of the +scholars of the succeeding generation. His Greek grammar (in four +books), written in Greek, first printed at Venice in 1495, and +afterwards partially translated by Erasmus in 1521, although in many +respects defective, especially in its syntax, was for a long time the +leading text-book. His translations into Latin were very numerous, +including the _Problemata_, _De partibus animalium_ and _De generatione +animalium_ of Aristotle; the _Historia plantarum_ of Theophrastus; the +_Problemata_ of Alexander Aphrodisias; the _De instruendis aciebus_ of +Aelian; the _De compositione verborum_ of Dionysius of Halicarnassus; +and some of the _Homilies_ of John Chrysostom. He also turned into Greek +Cicero's _De senectute_ and _Somnium Scipionis_--with much success, in +the opinion of Erasmus; with more elegance than exactitude, according to +the colder judgment of modern scholars. He was the author also of two +small treatises entitled _De mensibus_ and _De origine Turcarum_. + + See G. Voigt, _Die Wiederbelebung des klassischen Altertums_ (1893), + and article by C.F. Bähr in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine + Encyklopädie_. For a complete list of his works, see Fabricius, + _Bibliotheca Graeca_ (ed. Harles), x. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] According to Voigt, Gaza came to Italy some ten years later from + Constantinople, where he had been a teacher or held some clerical + office. + + + + +GAZA (or 'AZZAH, mod. _Ghuzzeh_), the most southerly of the five +princely Philistine cities, situated near the sea, at the point where +the old trade routes from Egypt, Arabia and Petra to Syria met. It was +always a strong border fortress and a place of commercial importance, in +many respects the southern counterpart of Damascus. The earliest notice +of it is in the Tell el-Amarna tablets, in a letter from the local +governor, who then held it for Egypt, with which country it always stood +in close connexion. It never passed for long into Israelite hands, +though subject for a while to Hezekiah of Judah; from him it passed to +Assyria. In Amos i. 6 the city is denounced for giving up Hebrew slaves +to Edom. To Herodotus (iii. 5) the place seemed as important as Sardis. +The city withstood Alexander the Great for five months (332 B.C.), and +in 96 B.C. was razed to the ground by Alexander Jannaeus. It was rebuilt +by Aulus Gabinius, 57 B.C., but on a new site; the old site was +remembered and spoken of as "Old" or "Desert Gaza": compare Acts viii. +26. In the 2nd and 3rd centuries Gaza was a thriving Greek city, with +good schools and famous temples, especially one to the local god Marna +(i.e. "Lord" or "Our Lord"). A statue of this god has been found near +Gaza; it much resembles the Greek representation of Zeus. The struggle +with Christianity here was long and intense. Egyptian monks gradually +won over the country folk, and in 402, under the influence of Theodosius +and Porphyry the local bishop, the Marneion was destroyed and the cross +made politically supreme. In the 5th and 6th centuries Gaza was held in +high repute as a place of learning. But after it passed into Moslem +hands (635) it gradually lost all save commercial importance, and even +the Crusaders did little to revive its old military glory. It finally +was captured by the Moslems in 1244. Napoleon captured it in 1799. + +The modern town (pop. 16,000) is divided into four quarters, one of +which is built on a low hill. A magnificent grove of very ancient olives +forms an avenue 4 m. long to the north. There are many lofty minarets in +various parts of the town, and a fine mosque built of ancient materials. +A 12th century church towards the south side of the hill has also been +converted into a mosque. On the east is shown the tomb of Samson (an +erroneous tradition dating back to the middle ages). The ancient walls +are now covered up beneath green mounds of rubbish. The water-supply is +from wells sunk through the sandy soil to the rock; of these there are +more than twenty--an unusual number for a Syrian town. The land for the +3 m. between Gaza and the sea consists principally of sand dunes. There +is no natural harbour, but traces of ruins near the shore mark the site +of the old Maiuma Gazae or Port of Gaza, now called el Mineh, which in +the 5th century was a separate town and episcopal see, under the title +Constantia or Limena Gaza. Hashem, an ancestor of Mahomet, lies buried +in the town. On the east are remains of a race-course, the corners +marked by granite shafts with Greek inscriptions on them. To the south +is a remarkable hill, quite isolated and bare, with a small mosque and a +graveyard. It is called el Muntar, "the watch tower," and is supposed to +be the mountain "before (or facing) Hebron," to which Samson carried the +gates of Gaza (Judg. xvi. 3). The bazaars of Gaza are considered good. +An extensive pottery exists in the town, and black earthenware peculiar +to the place is manufactured there. The climate is dry and comparatively +healthy, but the summer temperature often exceeds 110° Fahr. The +surrounding country is partly cornland, partly waste, and is inhabited +by wandering Arabs. The prosperity of Ghuzzeh has partially revived +through the growing trade in barley, of which the average annual export +to Great Britain for 1897-1899 was over 30,000 tons. The dress of the +people is Egyptian rather than Syrian. Gaza is an episcopal see both of +the Greek and the Armenian church. The Church Missionary Society +maintains a mission, with schools for both sexes, and a hospital. + + + + +GAZALAND, a district of Portuguese East Africa, extending north from the +Komati or Manhissa river, Delagoa Bay, to the Pungwe river. It is a +well-watered, fertile country. Gazaland is one of the chief recruiting +grounds for negro labour in the Transvaal gold mines. The country +derives its name from a Swazi chief named Gaza, a contemporary of Chaka, +the Zulu king. Refugees from various clans oppressed by Dingaan (Chaka's +successor) were welded into one tribe by Gaza's son Manikusa, who took +the name of Sotshangana, his followers being known generally as +Matshangana. A section of them was called Maviti or Landeens (i.e. +couriers), a designation which persists as a tribal name. Between 1833 +and 1836 Manikusa made himself master of the country as far north as the +Zambezi and captured the Portuguese posts at Delagoa Bay, Inhambane, +Sofala and Sena, killing nearly all the inhabitants. The Portuguese +reoccupied their posts, but held them with great difficulty, while in +the interior the Matshangana continued their ravages unchecked, +depopulating large regions. Manikusa died about 1860, and his son +Umzila, receiving some help from the Portuguese at Delagoa Bay in a +struggle against a brother for the chieftainship, ceded to them the +territory south of the Manhissa river. North of that stream as far as +the Zambezi and inland to the continental plateau Umzila established +himself in independence, a position he maintained till his death (c. +1884). His chief rival was a Goanese named Gouveia, who came to Africa +about 1850. Having obtained possession of a _prazo_ in the Gorongoza +district, he ruled there as a feudal lord while acknowledging himself a +Portuguese subject. Gouveia recovered from the Matshangana and other +troublers of the peace much of the country in the Zambezi valley, and +was appointed by the Portuguese captain-general of a large region. From +1868 onward the country began to be better known. Probably the first +European to penetrate any distance inland from the Sofala coast since +the Portuguese gold-seekers of the 16th century was St Vincent W. +Erskine, who explored the region between the Limpopo and Pungwe +(1868-1875). Portugal's hold on the coast had been more firmly +established at the time of Umzila's death, and Gungunyana, his +successor, was claimed as a vassal, while efforts were made to open up +the interior. This led in 1890-1891 to collisions on the borderland of +the plateau with the newly established British South Africa Company, and +to the arrest by the company's agents of Gouveia, who was, however, set +at liberty and returned to Mozambique via Cape Town. An offer made by +Gungunyana (1891) to come under British protection was not accepted. In +1892 Gouveia was killed in a war with a native chief. Gungunyana +maintained his independence until 1895, when he was captured by a +Portuguese force and exiled, first to Lisbon and afterwards to Angola, +where he died in 1906. With the capture of Gungunyana opposition to +Portuguese rule largely ceased. + +In flora, fauna and commerce Gazaland resembles the neighbouring regions +of Portuguese East Africa. (q.v.). + + See G. McCall Theal, _History of South Africa since 1795_, vol. v. + (London, 1908). + + + + +GAZEBO (usually explained as a comic Latinism, for "I will gaze"; the +_New English Dictionary_ suggests a possible oriental origin now lost), +a term used in the 18th century for a structure on the outer wall of a +garden, having an upper storey with windows on each side so as to +overlook the road. Similar buildings are found in Holland on the borders +of the canals, which in some cases form very picturesque features. + + + + +GAZETTE, a name given to news-sheets or newspapers having an abstract of +current events (see NEWSPAPERS). The _London Gazette_ is the title of +the English official organ for announcements by the government, and is +published every Tuesday and Friday. It contains all proclamations, +orders of council, promotions and appointments to commissions in the +army and navy, all appointments to offices of state, and such other +orders, rules and regulations as are directed by act of parliament to be +published therein. It also contains notices of proceedings in +bankruptcy, dissolutions of partnership, &c. By the Documentary Evidence +Act 1868 the production of a copy of the _Gazette_ is prima facie +evidence of royal proclamations and government orders and regulations. +Similar gazettes are also published in Edinburgh and Dublin. Most +countries (the United States excepted) have official journals containing +information more or less similar to that of the _London Gazette_, as the +French _Journal officiel_, the German _Deutscher Reichs-und Kgl. Preuss. +Staats-Anzeiger_, &c. The word "gazetteer" was originally applied to one +who wrote for "gazettes," but is now only used for a geographical +dictionary arranged on an alphabetical plan. + + + + +GEAR (connected with "garb," properly elegance, fashion, especially of +dress, and with "gar," to cause to do, only found in Scottish and +northern dialects; the root of the word is seen in the Old Teut. +_garwjan_, to make ready), an outfit, applied to the wearing apparel of +a person, or to the harness and trappings of a horse or any draft +animal, as riding-gear, hunting-gear, &c.; also to household goods or +stuff. The phrase "out of gear," though now connected with the +mechanical application of the word, was originally used to signify "out +of harness" or condition, not ready to work, not fit. The word is also +used of apparatus generally, and especially of the parts collectively in +a machine by which motion is transmitted from one part to another by a +series of cog-wheels, continuous bands, &c. It is used in a special +sense in reference to a bicycle, meaning the diameter of an imaginary +wheel, the circumference of which is equal to the distance accomplished +by one revolution of the pedals (see BICYCLE). + + + + +GEBER. The name Geber has long been used to designate the author of a +number of Latin treatises on alchemy, entitled _Summa perfectionis +magisterii, De investigatione perfectionis, De inventione veritatis, +Liber fornacum, Testamentum Geberi Regis Indiae and Alchemia Geberi_, +and these writings were generally regarded as translations from the +Arabic originals of Abu Abdallah Jaber ben Hayyam (Haiyan) ben Abdallah +al-Kufi, who is supposed to have lived in the 8th or 9th century of the +Christian era. About him, however, there is considerable uncertainty. +According to the _Kitab-al-Fihrist_ (10th century), which gives his name +as above, the authorities disagree, some asserting him to have been a +writer on philosophy and rhetoric, and others claiming for him the first +place among the adepts of his time in the art of making gold and silver. +The writer of the _Kitab-al-Fihrist_ says he had been assured that Jaber +only wrote one book and even that he never existed at all, but these +statements he scouts as ridiculous, and expressing the conviction that +Jaber really did exist, and that his works were numerous and important, +goes on to quote the titles of some 500 treatises attributed to him. He +is said to have resided most frequently at Kufa, where he prepared the +"elixir," but, according to others, he never spent long in one place, +having reason to keep his whereabouts unknown. His patron or master is +variously given as Ja'far ben Yahya, and as Ja'far es-Sadiq; in the +Arabic _Book of Royalty_, professedly written by him, he addresses the +last-named as his master. In addition to these details the Fihrist +mentions a tradition that he originally came from Khorasan. Another +story given by d'Herbelot (_Bibliothèque orientale_, s.v. "Giaber") +makes him a native of Harran in Mesopotamia and a Sabaean. Leo +Africanus, who in 1526 gave an account of the Alchemists of Fez in +Africa (see the English translation of his _Africae descriptio_ by John +Pory, _A Geographical History of Africa_, London, 1600, p. 155), states +that their principal authority was Geber, a Greek who had apostatized to +Mahommedanism and lived a century after Mahomet. In Albertus Magnus the +name Geber occurs only once and then with the epithet "of Seville"; +doubtless the reference is to the Arabian Jabir ben Aflah, who lived in +that city in the 11th century, and wrote an astronomy in 9 books which +is of importance in the history of trigonometry. + +The great puzzle connected with the name Geber lies in the character of +the writings attributed to him, their style and matter differentiating +them strongly from those of even the best authors of the later +alchemical period, and making it difficult to account for their +existence at all. The researches of M.P.E. Berthelot threw a great deal +of light on this question. Taking the six treatises enumerated above he +concluded, after critical examination, that the two last may be +disregarded as of later date than the others, and that the _De +investigatione perfectionis_, the _De inventione_ and the _Liber +fornacum_ are merely extracts from or summaries of the _Summa +perfectionis_ with later additions. The _Summa_ he therefore regarded as +representative of the work of the Latin Geber, and study of it convinced +him that it contains no indication of an Arabic origin, either in its +method, which is conspicuous for clearness of reasoning and logical +co-ordination of material, or in its facts, or in the words and persons +quoted. Without going so far as to deny that some words and phrases may +be taken from the writings of the Arabian Jaber, he was disposed to hold +that it is the original work of some unknown Latin author, who wrote it +in the second half of the 13th century and put it under the patronage of +the venerated name of Geber. The MS. of this work in the Bibliothèque +Nationale at Paris dates from about the year 1300. Berthelot further +investigated Arabic MSS. existing in the Paris library and in the +university of Leiden, and containing works attributed to Jaber, and had +translations made of six treatises--two, of which he gives the titles as +_Livre de la royauté_ and _Petit Livre de la miséricorde_,--from Paris, +and four--_Livre des balances, Livre de la miséricorde, Livre de la +concentration_ and _Livre de la mercure orientale_--from Leiden. +Berthelot was not prepared to assert that these treatises were actually +written by Jaber, but he held it certain that they are works written in +Arabic between the 9th and 12th centuries, at a period anterior to the +relations of the Latins with the Arabs. In style these treatises are +entirely different from the _Summa_ of Geber. Their language is vague +and allegorical, full of allusions and pious Mussulman invocations; the +author continually announces that he is about to speak without mystery +or reserve, but all the same never gives any precise details of the +secrets he professes to reveal. He holds the doctrine that everything +endowed with an apparent quality possesses an opposite occult quality in +much the same terms as it is found in Latin writers of the middle ages, +but he makes no allusion to the theory of the generation of the metals +by sulphur and mercury, a theory generally attributed to Geber, who also +added arsenic to the list. Again he fully accepts the influence of the +stars on the production of the metals, whereas the Latin Geber disputes +it, and in general the chemical knowledge of the two is on a different +plane. Here again the inference is that the Latin treatises printed from +the 15th century onwards as the work of Geber are not authentic, +regarded as translations of the Arabic author Jaber, always supposing +that the Arabic MSS. transcribed and translated for Berthelot are +really, as they profess to be, the work of Jaber, and as representative +of his opinions and attainments. + +But while Berthelot thus deprived the world of what were long regarded +as genuine Latin versions of Jaber's works, he also gave it something in +their place, for among the Paris MSS. he found a mutilated treatise, +hitherto unpublished, entitled _Liber de Septuaginta (Johannis), +translatus a Magistro Renaldo Cremonensi_, which he considered the only +known Latin work that can be regarded as a translation from the Arabic +Jaber. The latter states in the Arabic works referred to above that +under that title he collected 70 of the 500 little treatises or tracts +of which he was the author, and the titles of those tracts enumerated in +the _Kitab-al-Fihrist_ as forming the chapters of the _Liber de +Septuaginta_ correspond in general with those of the Latin work, which +further is written in a style similar to that of the Arabic Jaber and +contains the same doctrines. Hence Berthelot felt justified in assigning +it to Jaber, although no Arabic original is known. + +The evidence collected by Berthelot has an important bearing on the +history of chemistry. Most of the chemical knowledge attributed to the +Arabs has been attributed to them on the strength of the reputed Latin +writings of Geber. If, therefore, these are original works rather than +translations, and contain facts and doctrines which are not to be found +in the Arabian Jaber, it follows that, on the one hand, the chemical +knowledge of the Arabs has been overestimated and, on the other, that +more progress was made in the middle ages than has generally been +supposed. + + See M.P.E. Berthelot's works on the history of alchemy and especially + his _Chimie au moyen âge_ (3 vols., Paris, 1893), the third volume of + which contains a French translation of Jaber's works together with the + Arabic text. + + + + +GEBHARD TRUCHSESS VON WALDBURG (1547-1601), elector and archbishop of +Cologne, was the second son of William, count of Waldburg, and nephew of +Otto, cardinal bishop of Augsburg (1514-1573). Belonging thus to an old +and distinguished Swabian family, he was born on the 10th of November +1547, and after studying at the universities of Ingolstadt, Perugia, +Louvain and elsewhere began his ecclesiastical career at Augsburg. +Subsequently he held other positions at Strassburg, Cologne and +Augsburg, and in December 1577 was chosen elector of Cologne after a +spirited contest. Gebhard is chiefly noted for his conversion to the +reformed doctrines, and for his marriage with Agnes, countess of +Mansfeld, which was connected with this step. After living in +concubinage with Agnes he decided, perhaps under compulsion, to marry +her, doubtless intending at the same time to resign his see. Other +counsels, however, prevailed. Instigated by some Protestant supporters +he declared he would retain the electorate, and in December 1582 he +formally announced his conversion to the reformed faith. The marriage +with Agnes was celebrated in the following February, and Gebhard +remained in possession of the see. This affair created a great stir in +Germany, and the clause concerning ecclesiastical reservation in the +religious peace of Augsburg was interpreted in one way by his friends, +and in another way by his foes; the former holding that he could retain +his office, the latter that he must resign. Anticipating events Gebhard +had collected some troops, and had taken measures to convert his +subjects to Protestantism. In April 1583 he was deposed and +excommunicated by Pope Gregory XIII.; a Bavarian prince, Ernest, bishop +of Liége, Freising and Hildesheim, was chosen elector, and war broke out +between the rivals. The cautious Lutheran princes of Germany, especially +Augustus I., elector of Saxony, were not enthusiastic in support of +Gebhard, whose friendly relations with the Calvinists were not to their +liking; and although Henry of Navarre, afterwards Henry IV. of France, +tried to form a coalition to aid the deposed elector, the only +assistance which he obtained came from John Casimir, administrator of +the Palatinate of the Rhine. The inhabitants of the electorate were +about equally divided on the question, and Ernest, supported by Spanish +troops, was too strong for Gebhard. John Casimir, who acted as +commander-in-chief, returned to the Palatinate in October 1583, and +early in the following year Gebhard was driven from Bonn and took refuge +in the Netherlands. The electorate was soon completely in the possession +of Ernest, and the defeat of Gebhard was a serious blow to +Protestantism, and marks a stage in the history of the Reformation. +Living in the Netherlands he became very intimate with Elizabeth's +envoy, Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester, but he failed to get +assistance for renewing the war either from the English queen or in any +other quarter. In 1589 Gebhard took up his residence at Strassburg, +where he had held the office of dean of the cathedral since 1574. Before +his arrival some trouble had arisen in the chapter owing to the fact +that three excommunicated canons persisted in retaining their offices. +He joined this party, which was strongly supported in the city, took +part in a double election to the bishopric in 1592, and in spite of some +opposition retained his office until his death at Strassburg on the 31st +of May 1601. Gebhard was a drunken and licentious man, who owes his +prominence rather to his surroundings than to his abilities. + + See M. Lossen, _Der kölnische Krieg_ (Gotha, 1882), and the article on + Gebhard in band viii. of the _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_ + (Leipzig, 1878); J.H. Hennes, _Der Kampf um das Erzstift Köln_ + (Cologne, 1878); L. Ennen, _Geschichte der Stadt Köln_ (Cologne, + 1863-1880); and _Nuntiaturberichte aus Deutschland_. _Der Kampf um + Köln_, edited by J. Hansen (Berlin, 1892). + + + + +GEBWEILER (Fr. _Guebwiller_), a town of Germany in the imperial province +of Alsace-Lorraine, at the foot of the Vosges, on the Lauch, 13 m. S. of +Colmar, on the railway Bollweiler-Lautenbach. Pop. (1905) 13,259. Among +the principal buildings are the Roman Catholic church of St Leodgar, +dating from the 12th century, the Evangelical church, the synagogue, the +town-house, and the old Dominican convent now used as a market and +concert hall. The chief industries are spinning and dyeing, and the +manufacture of cloth and of machinery; quarrying is carried on and the +town is celebrated for its white wines. + +Gebweiler is mentioned as early as 774. It belonged to the religious +foundation of Murbach, and in 1759 the abbots chose it for their +residence. In 1789, at the outbreak of the Revolution, the monastic +buildings were laid in ruins, and, though the archives were rescued and +removed to Colmar, the library perished. + + + + +GECKO,[1] the common name applied to all the species of the _Geckones_, +one of the three sub-orders of the _Lacertilia_. The geckoes are small +creatures, seldom exceeding 8 in. in length including the tail. With the +head considerably flattened, the body short and thick, the legs not high +enough to prevent the body dragging somewhat on the ground, the eyes +large and almost destitute of eyelids, and the tail short and in some +cases nearly as thick as the body, the geckoes altogether lack the +litheness and grace characteristic of most lizards. Their colours also +are dull, and to the weird and forbidding aspect thus produced the +general prejudice against those creatures in the countries where they +occur, which has led to their being classed with toads and snakes, is no +doubt to be attributed. Their bite was supposed to be venomous, and +their saliva to produce painful cutaneous eruptions; even their touch +was thought sufficient to convey a dangerous taint. It is needless to +say that in this instance the popular mind was misled by appearances. +The geckoes are not only harmless, but are exceedingly useful creatures, +feeding on insects, which, owing to the great width of their oesophagus, +they are enabled to swallow whole, and in pursuit of which they do not +hesitate to enter human dwellings, where they are often killed on +suspicion. The structure of the toes in these lizards forms one of +their most characteristic anatomical features. + +[Illustration: Leaf-tailed Gecko (_Gymnodactylus platurus_) of +Australia.] + +[Illustration: Lower Surface of the Toe of (a) _Gecko_, (b) +_Hemidactylus_--enlarged.] + +Most geckoes have adhesive digits and toes, by means of which they are +enabled not only to climb absolutely smooth and vertical surfaces, for +instance a window-pane, but to run along a white-washed ceiling, back +downwards. The adhesion is not produced by sticky matter but by numerous +transverse lamellae, each of which is further beset with tiny hair-like +excrescences. The arrangement of the lamellae and pads differs much in +the various genera and is used for classificatory purposes. Those which +live on sandy ground have narrow digits without the adhesive apparatus. +Most species have sharp, curved claws, often retractile between some of +the lamellae or into a special sheath. The tail is very brittle and can +be quickly regenerated; it varies much in size and shape; the most +extraordinary is that of the leaf-tailed gecko. _Ptychozoon +homalocephalon_ of the Malay countries has membranous expansions on the +sides of the head, body, limbs and tail, which look like parachutes, but +more probably they aid in concealing the creature when it is closely +pressed to the similarly coloured bark of a tree. Most geckoes are dull +coloured, yellow to brown, and they soon change colour from lighter to +dark tints. They are insectivorous and chiefly nocturnal, but are fond +of basking in the sun, motionless on the bark of a tree, or on a rock +the colour of which is then imitated to a nicety. Some species are more +or less transparent. + +Geckoes, of which about 270 species are known, subdivided into about 50 +genera, are cosmopolitan within the warmer zones, including New Zealand, +and even the remotest volcanic islands. This wide distribution is due +partly to the great age of the suborder (although fossils are unknown), +partly to their being able to exist for several months without food so +that, concealed in hollow trunks of trees, they may float about for a +very long time. Ships, also, act as distributors. In south Europe occur +only _Hemidactylus turcicus_, _Tarentola mauritanica (Platydactylus +facetanus)_ and _Phyllodactylus europaeus_. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The Malay name _ge-koq_ imitates the animal's cry. + + + + +GED, WILLIAM (1690-1749), the inventor of stereotyping, was born at +Edinburgh in 1690. In 1725 he patented his invention, developed from the +simple process of soldering together loose types of Van der Mey. Ged, +although he succeeded in obtaining a cast in similar metal, of a type +page, could not persuade Edinburgh printers to take up his invention, +and finally entered into partnership with a London stationer named +Jenner and Thomas James, a typefounder. The partnership, however, turned +out very ill; and Ged, broken-hearted at his want of success due to +trade jealousy and the compositors' dislike of the innovation, died in +poverty on the 19th of October 1749. Two prayer-books for the university +of Cambridge and an edition of Sallust were printed from his stereotype +plates. In his time the best type was imported from Holland, and Ged's +daughter reports that he had repeated offers from the Dutch which, from +patriotic motives, he refused. His sons tried to carry out his patent, +and it was eventually perfected by Andrew Wilson. + + + + +GEDDES, ALEXANDER (1737-1802), Scottish Roman Catholic theologian, was +born in Rathven, Banffshire, on the 14th of September 1737. He was +trained at the Roman Catholic seminary at Scalan and at the Scottish +College in Paris, where he studied biblical philology, school divinity +and modern languages. In 1764 he officiated as a priest in Dundee, but +in May 1765 accepted an invitation to live with the earl of Traquair; +where, with abundance of leisure and the free use of an adequate +library, he made further progress in his favourite biblical studies. +After a second visit to Paris, which was employed by him in reading and +making extracts from rare books and manuscripts, he was appointed in +1769 priest of Auchinhalrig and Preshome in his native county. The +freedom with which he fraternized with his Protestant neighbours called +forth the rebuke of his bishop (George Hay), and ultimately, for hunting +and for occasionally attending the parish church of Cullen, where one of +his friends was minister, he was deprived of his charge and forbidden +the exercise of ecclesiastical functions within the diocese. This +happened in 1779; and in 1780 he went with his friend Lord Traquair to +London, where he spent the rest of his life. Before leaving Scotland he +had received the honorary degree of LL.D. from the university of +Aberdeen, and had been made an honorary member of the Society of +Antiquaries, in the institution of which he had taken a very active +part. In London Geddes soon received an appointment in connexion with +the chapel of the imperial ambassador, and was also helped by Lord Petre +in his scheme for a new Catholic version of the Bible. In 1786, +supported also by such scholars as Benjamin Kennicott and Robert Lowth, +Geddes published a _Prospectus of a new Translation of the Holy Bible_, +a considerable quarto volume, in which the defects of previous +translations were fully pointed out, and the means indicated by which +these might be removed. It was well received, and led to the publication +in 1788 of _Proposals for Printing_, with a specimen, and in 1790 of a +_General Answer to Queries, Counsels and Criticisms_. The first volume +of the translation itself, which was entitled _The Holy Bible ... +faithfully translated from corrected Texts of the Originals, with +various Readings, explanatory Notes and critical Remarks_, appeared in +1792, and was the signal for a storm of hostility on the part of both +Catholics and Protestants. It was obvious enough--no small offence in +the eyes of some--that as a critic Geddes had identified himself with +C.F. Houbigant (1686-1783), Kennicott and J.D. Michaelis, but others did +not hesitate to stigmatize him as the would-be "corrector of the Holy +Ghost." Three of the vicars-apostolic almost immediately warned all the +faithful against the "use and reception" of his translation, on the +ostensible ground that it had not been examined and approved by due +ecclesiastical authority; and by his own bishop (Douglas) he was in 1793 +suspended from the exercise of his orders in the London district. The +second volume of the translation, completing the historical books, +published in 1797, found no more friendly reception; but this +circumstance did not discourage him from giving forth in 1800 the volume +of _Critical Remarks on the Hebrew Scriptures_, which presented in a +somewhat brusque manner the then novel and startling views of Eichhorn +and his school on the primitive history and early records of mankind. + +Geddes was engaged on a critical translation of the Psalms (published in +1807) when he was seized with an illness of which he died on the 26th of +February 1802. Although under ecclesiastical censures, he had never +swerved from a consistent profession of faith as a Catholic; and on his +death-bed he duly received the last rites of his communion. + + Besides pamphlets on the Catholic and slavery questions, as well as + several fugitive _jeux d'esprit_, and a number of unsigned articles in + the _Analytical Review_, Geddes also published a free metrical version + of _Select Satires of Horace_ (1779), and a verbal rendering of the + _First Book of the Iliad of Homer_ (1792). The _Memoirs_ of his life + and writings by his friend John Mason Good appeared in 1803. + + + + +GEDDES, ANDREW (1783-1844), British painter, was born at Edinburgh. +After receiving a good education in the high school and in the +university of that city, he was for five years in the excise office, in +which his father held the post of deputy auditor. After the death of his +father, who had opposed his desire to become an artist, he came to +London and entered the Royal Academy schools. His first contribution to +the exhibitions of the Royal Academy, a "St John in the Wilderness," +appeared at Somerset House in 1806, and from that year onwards Geddes +was a fairly constant exhibitor of figure-subjects and portraits. His +well-known portrait of Wilkie, with whom he was on terms of intimacy, +was at the Royal Academy in 1816. He alternated for some years between +London and Edinburgh, with some excursions on the Continent, but in 1831 +settled in London, and was elected associate of the Royal Academy in +1832; and he died in London of consumption in 1844. A very able +executant, a good colourist, and a close student of character, he made +his chief success as a portrait-painter, but he produced occasional +figure subjects and landscapes, and executed some admirable copies of +the old masters as well. He was also a good etcher. His portrait of his +mother, and a portrait study, called "Summer," are in the National +Gallery of Scotland, and his portrait of Sir Walter Scott is in the +Scottish National Portrait Gallery. + + See _Art in Scotland: its Origin and Progress_, by Robert Brydall + (1889); _The Scottish School of Painting_, by William D. McKay, R.S.A. + (1906). + + + + +GEDDES, JAMES LORRAINE (1827-1887), American soldier and writer, was +born in Edinburgh, Scotland, on the 19th of March 1827. In his boyhood +he was taken to Canada, but in 1843 he returned to Scotland; then +studied at Calcutta in the military academy, entered the army, and after +distinguishing himself in the Punjab campaign, returned to Canada, +whence in 1857 he removed to Vinton, Iowa. In the American Civil War he +served in the Federal army first as lieutenant-colonel and after +February 1862 as colonel of volunteers, taking part in the fighting at +Shiloh, Vicksburg and Corinth. He was captured at Shiloh and was +imprisoned for a time at Madison, Ga., and in Libby prison, Richmond, +Va., and in 1865 was brevetted brigadier-general of volunteers. He was +principal of the College for the Blind at Vinton after the war, and +until his death was connected with the Iowa College of Agriculture at +Ames, being military instructor and cashier in 1870-1882, acting +president in 1876-1877, librarian in 1877-1875, vice-president and +professor of military tactics in 1880-1882, and treasurer in 1884-1887. +He died at Ames on the 21st of February 1887. He wrote a number of war +songs, including "The Soldiers' Battle Prayer" and "The Stars and +Stripes." + + + + +GEDDES, SIR WILLIAM DUGUID (1828-1900), Scottish scholar and +educationist, was born in Aberdeenshire. He was educated at Elgin +academy and university and King's College, Aberdeen, and after having +held various scholastic posts he was appointed in 1860 professor of +Greek and in 1885 principal of the (united) university of Aberdeen. He +was knighted in 1892. He died in Aberdeen on the 9th of February 1900. +It is chiefly as a teacher that Geddes will be remembered, and in his +enthusiastic and successful efforts to raise the standard of Greek at +the Scottish universities he has been compared with the humanists of the +Renaissance. Amongst other works he was the author of _A Greek Grammar_ +(1855; 17th edition, 1883; new and revised edition, 1893); a meritorious +edition of the _Phaedo_ of Plato (2nd ed., 1885); and _The Problem of +the Homeric Poems_ (1878), in which, while supporting Grote's view that +the _Iliad_ consisted of an original Achilleïs with insertions or +additions by later hands, he maintains that these insertions are due to +the author of the _Odyssey_. + + + + +GEDYMIN (d. 1342), grand-duke of Lithuania, was supposed by the earlier +chroniclers to have been the servant of Witen, prince of Lithuania, but +more probably he was Witen's younger brother and the son of Lutuwer, +another Lithuanian prince. Gedymin inherited a vast domain, comprising +Lithuania proper, Samogitia, Red Russia, Polotsk and Minsk; but these +possessions were environed by powerful and greedy foes, the most +dangerous of them being the Teutonic Knights and the Livonian knights of +the Sword. The systematic raiding of Lithuania by the knights under the +pretext of converting it had long since united all the Lithuanian tribes +against the common enemy; but Gedymin aimed at establishing a dynasty +which should make Lithuania not merely secure but mighty, and for this +purpose he entered into direct diplomatic negotiations with the Holy +See. At the end of 1322 he sent letters to Pope John XXII. soliciting +his protection against the persecution of the knights, informing him of +the privileges already granted to the Dominicans and the Franciscans in +Lithuania for the preaching of God's Word, and desiring that legates +should be sent to receive him also into the bosom of the church. On +receiving a favourable reply from the Holy See, Gedymin issued circular +letters, dated 25th of January 1325, to the principal Hanse towns, +offering a free access into his domains to men of every order and +profession from nobles and knights to tillers of the soil. The +immigrants were to choose their own settlements and be governed by their +own laws. Priests and monks were also invited to come and build churches +at Vilna and Novogrodek. Similar letters were sent to the Wendish or +Baltic cities, and to the bishops and landowners of Livonia and +Esthonia. In short Gedymin, recognizing the superiority of western +civilization, anticipated Ivan the Terrible and Peter the Great by +throwing open the semi-savage Russian lands to influences of culture. + +In October 1323 representatives of the archbishop of Riga, the bishop of +Dorpat, the king of Denmark, the Dominican and Franciscan orders, and +the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order assembled at Vilna, when Gedymin +confirmed his promises and undertook to be baptized as soon as the papal +legates arrived. A compact was then signed at Vilna, "in the name of the +whole Christian World," between Gedymin and the delegates, confirming +the promised privileges. But the christianizing of Lithuania was by no +means to the liking of the Teutonic Knights, and they used every effort +to nullify Gedymin's far-reaching design. This, unfortunately, it was +easy to do. Gedymin's chief object was to save Lithuania from +destruction at the hands of the Germans. But he was still a pagan +reigning over semi-pagan lands; he was equally bound to his pagan +kinsmen in Samogitia, to his orthodox subjects in Red Russia, and to his +Catholic allies in Masovia. His policy, therefore, was necessarily +tentative and ambiguous, and might very readily be misinterpreted. Thus +his raid upon Dobrzyn, the latest acquisition of the knights on Polish +soil, speedily gave them a ready weapon against him. The Prussian +bishops, who were devoted to the knights, at a synod at Elbing +questioned the authority of Gedymin's letters and denounced him as an +enemy of the faith; his orthodox subjects reproached him with leaning +towards the Latin heresy; while the pagan Lithuanians accused him of +abandoning the ancient gods. Gedymin disentangled himself from his +difficulties by repudiating his former promises; by refusing to receive +the papal legates who arrived at Riga in September 1323; and by +dismissing the Franciscans from his territories. These apparently +retrogressive measures simply amounted to a statesmanlike recognition of +the fact that the pagan element was still the strongest force in +Lithuania, and could not yet be dispensed with in the coming struggle +for nationality. At the same time Gedymin through his ambassadors +privately informed the papal legates at Riga that his difficult position +compelled him for a time to postpone his steadfast resolve of being +baptized, and the legates showed their confidence in him by forbidding +the neighbouring states to war against Lithuania for the next four +years, besides ratifying the treaty made between Gedymin and the +archbishop of Riga. Nevertheless in 1325 the Order, disregarding the +censures of the church, resumed the war with Gedymin, who had in the +meantime improved his position by an alliance with Wladislaus Lokietek, +king of Poland, whose son Casimir now married Gedymin's daughter Aldona. + +While on his guard against his northern foes, Gedymin from 1316 to 1340 +was aggrandizing himself at the expense of the numerous Russian +principalities in the south and east, whose incessant conflicts with +each other wrought the ruin of them all. Here Gedymin's triumphal +progress was irresistible; but the various stages of it are impossible +to follow, the sources of its history being few and conflicting, and the +date of every salient event exceedingly doubtful. One of his most +important territorial accretions, the principality of Halicz-Vladimir, +was obtained by the marriage of his son Lubart with the daughter of the +Haliczian prince; the other, Kiev, apparently by conquest. Gedymin also +secured an alliance with the grand-duchy of Muscovy by marrying his +daughter, Anastasia, to the grand-duke Simeon. But he was strong enough +to counterpoise the influence of Muscovy in northern Russia, and +assisted the republic of Pskov, which acknowledged his overlordship, to +break away from Great Novgorod. His internal administration bears all +the marks of a wise ruler. He protected the Catholic as well as the +orthodox clergy, encouraging them both to civilize his subjects; he +raised the Lithuanian army to the highest state of efficiency then +attainable; defended his borders with a chain of strong fortresses; and +built numerous towns including Vilna, the capital (c. 1321). Gedymin +died in the winter of 1342 of a wound received at the siege of Wielowa. +He was married three times, and left seven sons and six daughters. + + See Teodor Narbutt, _History of the Lithuanian nation_ (Pol.) (Vilna, + 1835); Antoni Prochaska, _On the Genuineness of the Letters of + Gedymin_ (Pol.) (Cracow, 1895); Vladimir Bonifatovich Antonovich, + _Monograph concerning the History of Western and South-western Russia_ + (Rus.) (Kiev, 1885). (R. N. B.) + + + + +GEE, THOMAS (1815-1898), Welsh Nonconformist preacher and journalist, +was born at Denbigh on the 24th of January 1815. At the age of fourteen +he went into his father's printing office, but continued to attend the +grammar school in the afternoons. In 1837 he went to London to improve +his knowledge of printing, and on his return to Wales in the following +year ardently threw himself into literary, educational and religious +work. Among his publications were the well-known quarterly magazine _Y +Traethodydd_ ("The Essayist"), _Gwyddoniadur Cymreig_ ("Encyclopaedia +Cambrensis"), and Dr Silvan Evans's _English-Welsh Dictionary_ (1868), +but his greatest achievement in this field was the newspaper _Baner +Cymru_ ("The Banner of Wales"), founded in 1857 and amalgamated with _Yr +Amserau_ ("The Times") two years later. This paper soon became an oracle +in Wales, and played a great part in stirring up the nationalist +movement in the principality. In educational matters he waged a long and +successful struggle on behalf of undenominational schools and for the +establishment of the intermediate school system. He was an enthusiastic +advocate of church disestablishment, and had a historic newspaper duel +with Dr John Owen (afterwards bishop of St David's) on this question. +The Eisteddfod found in him a thorough friend and a wise counsellor. His +commanding presence, mastery of diction, and resonant voice made him an +effective platform speaker. He was ordained to the Calvinistic Methodist +ministry at Bala in 1847, and gave his time and talents ungrudgingly to +Sunday school and temperance work. Throughout his life he believed in +the itinerant unpaid ministry rather than in the settled pastorate. He +died on the 28th of September 1898, and his funeral was the most +imposing ever seen in North Wales. + + + + +GEEL, JACOB (1789-1862), Dutch scholar and critic, was born at Amsterdam +on the 12th of November 1789. In 1823 he was appointed sub-librarian, +and in 1833 chief librarian and honorary professor at Leiden, where he +died on the 11th of November 1862. Geel materially contributed to the +development of classical studies in Holland. He was the author of +editions of Theocritus (1820), of the Vatican fragments of Polybius +(1829), of the [Greek: 'Olumpiakos] of Dio Chrysostom (1840) and of +numerous essays in the _Rheinisches Museum_ and _Bibliotheca critica +nova_, of which he was one of the founders. He also compiled a valuable +catalogue of the MSS. in the Leiden library, wrote a history of the +Greek sophists, and translated various German works into Dutch. + + + + +GEELONG, a seaport of Grant county, Victoria, Australia, situated on an +extensive land-locked arm of Port Phillip known as Corio Bay, 45 m. by +rail S.W. of Melbourne. Pop. of the city proper (1901) 12,399; with the +adjacent boroughs of Geelong West, and Newton-and-Chilwell, 23,311. +Geelong slopes to the bay on the north and to the Barwon river on the +south, and its position in this respect, as well as the shelter it +obtains from the Bellarine hills, renders it one of the healthiest towns +in Victoria. As a manufacturing centre it is of considerable importance. +The first woollen mill in the colony was established here, and the +tweeds, cloths and other woollen fabrics of the town are noted +throughout Australia. There are extensive tanneries, flour-mills and +salt works, while at Fyansford, 3 m. distant, there are important cement +works and paper-mills. The extensive vineyards in the neighbourhood of +the town were destroyed under the Phylloxera Act, but replanting +subsequently revived this industry. Corio Bay, a safe and commodious +harbour, is entered by two channels across its bar, one of which has a +depth of 23½ ft. There is extensive quayage, and the largest wool ships +are able to load alongside the wharves, which are connected by rail with +all parts of the colony. The facilities given for shipping wool direct +to England from this port have caused a very extensive wool-broking +trade to grow up in the town. The country surrounding Geelong is +agricultural, but there are large limestone quarries east of the town, +and in the Otway Forest, 23 m. distant, coal is worked. Geelong was +incorporated in 1849. + + + + +GEESTEMÜNDE, a seaport town of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Hanover, on the right bank of the Weser, at the mouth of the Geeste, +which separates it from Bremerhaven, 32 m. N. from Bremen by rail. Pop. +(1905) 23,625. The interest of the place is purely naval and commercial, +its origin dating no farther back than 1857, when the construction of +the harbour was begun. The great basin, which can accommodate large +sea-going vessels, was completed in 1863, the petroleum basin was opened +in 1874, and additional wharves have been constructed for the reception +of vessels engaged in the fishing industry. The fish market of +Geestemünde is the most important in Germany, and the auction hall +practically determines the price of fish throughout the empire. The +whole port is protected by powerful fortifications. Among the industrial +establishments of the town are shipbuilding yards, foundries, +engineering works and saw-mills. + + + + +GEFFCKEN, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH (1830-1896), German diplomatist and jurist, +was born on the 9th of December 1830 at Hamburg, of which city his +father was senator. After studying law at Bonn, Göttingen and Berlin, he +was attached in 1854 to the Prussian legation at Paris. For ten years +(1856-1866) he was the diplomatic representative of Hamburg in Berlin, +first as chargé d'affaires, and afterwards as minister-resident, being +afterwards transferred in a like capacity to London. Appointed in 1872 +professor of constitutional history and public law in the reorganized +university of Strassburg, Geffcken became in 1880 a member of the +council of state of Alsace-Lorraine. Of too nervous a temperament to +withstand the strain of the responsibilities of his position, he retired +from public service in 1882, and lived henceforth mostly at Munich, +where he died, suffocated by an accidental escape of gas into his +bedchamber, on the 1st of May 1896. Geffcken was a man of great +erudition and wide knowledge and of remarkable legal acumen, and from +these qualities proceeded the personal influence he possessed. He was +moreover a clear writer and made his mark as an essayist. He was one of +the most trusted advisers of the Prussian crown prince, Frederick +William (afterwards the emperor Frederick), and it was he (it is said, +at Bismarck's suggestion) who drew up the draft of the New German +federal constitution, which was submitted to the crown prince's +headquarters at Versailles during the war of 1870-71. It was also +Geffcken who assisted in framing the famous document which the emperor +Frederick, on his accession to the throne in 1888, addressed to the +chancellor. This memorandum gave umbrage, and on the publication by +Geffcken in the _Deutsche Rundschau_ (Oct. 1888) of extracts from the +emperor Frederick's private diary during the war of 1870-71, he was, at +Bismarck's instance, prosecuted for high treason. The Reichsgericht +(supreme court), however, quashed the indictment, and Geffcken was +liberated after being under arrest for three months. Publications of +various kinds proceeded from his pen. Among these are _Zur Geschichte +des orientalischen Krieges 1853-1856_ (Berlin, 1881); _Frankreich, +Russland und der Dreibund_ (Berlin, 1894); and _Staat und Kirche_ +(1875), English translation by E.F. Fairfax (1877). His writings on +English history have been translated by S.J. Macmullan and published as +_The British Empire, with essays on Prince Albert, Palmerston, +Beaconsfield, Gladstone, and reform of the House of Lords_ (1889). + + + + +GEFFROY, MATHIEU AUGUSTE (1820-1895), French historian, was born in +Paris. After studying at the École Normale Supérieure he held history +professorships at various lycées. His French thesis for the doctorate of +letters, _Étude sur les pamphlets politiques et religieux de Milton_ +(1848), showed that he was attracted towards foreign history, a study +for which he soon qualified himself by mastering the Germanic and +Scandinavian languages. In 1851 he published a _Histoire des états +scandinaves_, which is especially valuable for clear arrangement and for +the trustworthiness of its facts. Later, a long stay in Sweden +furnished him with valuable documents for a political and social history +of Sweden and France at the end of the 18th century. In 1864 and 1865 he +published in the _Revue des deux mondes_ a series of articles on +Gustavus III. and the French court, which were republished in book form +in 1867. To the second volume he appended a critical study on _Marie +Antoinette et Louis XVI apocryphes_, in which he proved, by evidence +drawn from documents in the private archives of the emperor of Austria, +that the letters published by Feuillet de Conches (_Louis XVI, Marie +Antoinette et Madame Elisabeth_, 1864-1873) and Hunolstein (_Corresp. +inédite de Marie Antoinette_, 1864) are forgeries. With the +collaboration of Alfred von Arneth, director of the imperial archives at +Vienna, he edited the _Correspondance secrète entre Marie-Thérèse et le +comte de Mercy-Argenteau_ (3 vols., 1874), the first account based on +trustworthy documents of Marie Antoinette's character, private conduct +and policy. The Franco-German War drew Geffroy's attention to the +origins of Germany, and his _Rome et les Barbares: étude sur la Germanie +de Tacite_ (1874) set forth some of the results of German scholarship. +He was then appointed to superintend the opening of the French school of +archaeology at Rome, and drew up two useful reports (1877 and 1884) on +its origin and early work. But his personal tastes always led him back +to the study of modern history. When the Paris archives of foreign +affairs were thrown open to students, it was decided to publish a +collection of the instructions given to French ambassadors since 1648 +(_Recueil des instructions données aux ambassadeurs et ministres de +France depuis le traité de Westphalie_), and Geffroy was commissioned to +edit the volumes dealing with Sweden (vol. ii., 1885) and Denmark (vol. +xiii., 1895). In the interval he wrote _Madame de Maintenon d'après sa +correspondance authentique_ (2 vols., 1887), in which he displayed his +penetrating critical faculty in discriminating between authentic +documents and the additions and corrections of arrangers like La +Beaumelle and Lavallée. His last works were an _Essai sur la formation +des collections d'antiques de la Suède_ and _Des institutions et des +moeurs du paganisme scandinave: l'Islande avant le Christianisme_, both +published posthumously. He died at Bièvre on the 16th of August 1895. + + + + +GEFLE, a seaport of Sweden on an inlet of the Gulf of Bothnia, chief +town of the district (_län_) of Gefleborg, 112 m. N.N.W. of Stockholm by +rail. Pop. (1900) 29,522. It is the chief port of the district of +Kopparberg, with its iron and other mines and forests. The exports +consist principally of timber and wood-pulp, iron and steel. The +harbour, which has two entrances about 20 ft. deep, is usually ice-bound +in mid-winter. Large vessels generally load in the roads at Gråberg, 6 +m. distant. There are slips and shipbuilding yards, and a manufacture of +sail-cloth. The town is an important industrial centre, having tobacco +and leather factories, electrical and other mechanical works, and +breweries. At Skutskär at the mouth of the Dal river are wood-pulp and +saw mills, dealing with the large quantities of timber floated down the +river; and there are large wood-yards in the suburb of Bomhus. Gefle was +almost destroyed by fire in 1869, but was rebuilt in good style, and has +the advantage of a beautiful situation. The principal buildings are a +castle, founded by King John III. (1568-1592), but rebuilt later, a +council-house erected by Gustavus III., who held a diet here in 1792, an +exchange, and schools of commerce and navigation. + + + + +GEGENBAUR, CARL (1826-1903), German anatomist, was born on the 21st of +August 1826 at Würzburg, the university of which he entered as a student +in 1845. After taking his degree in 1851 he spent some time in +travelling in Italy and Sicily, before returning to Würzburg as +_Privatdocent_ in 1854. In 1855 he was appointed extraordinary professor +of anatomy at Jena, where after 1865 his fellow-worker, Ernst Haeckel, +was professor of zoology, and in 1858 he became the ordinary professor. +In 1873 he was appointed to Heidelberg, where he was professor of +anatomy and director of the Anatomical Institute until his retirement in +1901. He died at Heidelberg on the 14th of June 1903. The work by which +perhaps he is best known is his _Grundriss der vergleichenden Anatomie_ +(Leipzig, 1874; 2nd edition, 1878). This was translated into English by +W.F. Jeffrey Bell (_Elements of Comparative Anatomy_, 1878), with +additions by E. Ray Lankester. While recognizing the importance of +comparative embryology in the study of descent, Gegenbaur laid stress on +the higher value of comparative anatomy as the basis of the study of +homologies, i.e. of the relations between corresponding parts in +different animals, as, for example, the arm of man, the foreleg of the +horse and the wing of a fowl. A distinctive piece of work was effected +by him in 1871 in supplementing the evidence adduced by Huxley in +refutation of the theory of the origin of the skull from expanded +vertebrae, which, formulated independently by Goethe and Oken, had been +championed by Owen. Huxley demonstrated that the skull is built up of +cartilaginous pieces; Gegenbaur showed that "in the lowest (gristly) +fishes, where hints of the original vertebrae might be most expected, +the skull is an unsegmented gristly brain-box, and that in higher forms +the vertebral nature of the skull cannot be maintained, since many of +the bones, notably those along the top of the skull, arise in the skin." +Other publications by Gegenbaur include a _Text-book of Human Anatomy_ +(Leipzig, 1883, new ed. 1903), the _Epiglottis_ (1892) and _Comparative +Anatomy of the Vertebrates in relation to the Invertebrates_ (Leipzig, 2 +vols., 1898-1901). In 1875 he founded the _Morphologisches Jahrbuch_, +which he edited for many years. In 1901 he published a short +autobiography under the title _Erlebtes und Erstrebtes_. + + See Fürbringer in _Heidelberger Professoren aus dem 19ten Jahrhundert_ + (Heidelberg, 1903). + + + + +GEGENSCHEIN (Ger. _gegen_, opposite, and _schein_, shine), an extremely +faint luminescence of the sky, seen opposite the direction of the sun. +Germany was the country in which it was first discovered and described. +The English rendering "counterglow" is also given to it. Its faintness +is such that it can be seen only by a practised eye under favourable +conditions. It is invisible during the greater part of June, July, +December and January, owing to its being then blotted out by the +superior light of the Milky Way. It is also invisible during moonlight +and near the horizon, and the neighbourhood of a bright star or planet +may interfere with its recognition. When none of these unfavourable +conditions supervene it may be seen at nearly any time when the air is +clear and the depression of the sun below the horizon more than 20°. +(See ZODIACAL LIGHT.) + + + + +GEIBEL, EMANUEL (1815-1884), German poet, was born at Lübeck on the 17th +of October 1815, the son of a pastor in the city. He was originally +intended for his father's profession, and studied at Bonn and Berlin, but +his real interests lay not in theology but in classical and romance +philology. In 1838 he accepted a tutorship at Athens, where he remained +until 1840. In the same year he brought out, in conjunction with his +friend Ernst Curtius, a volume of translations from the Greek. His first +poems, _Zeitstimmen_, appeared in 1841; a tragedy, _König Roderich_, +followed in 1843. In the same year he received a pension from the king of +Prussia, which he retained until his invitation to Munich by the king of +Bavaria in 1851 as honorary professor at the university. In the interim he +had produced _König Sigurds Brautfahrt_ (1846), an epic, and +_Juniuslieder_ (1848, 33rd ed. 1901), lyrics in a more spirited and +manlier style than his early poems. A volume of _Neue Gedichte_, published +at Munich in 1857, and principally consisting of poems on classical +subjects, denoted a further considerable advance in objectivity, and the +series was worthily closed by the _Spätherbstblätter_, published in 1877. +He had quitted Munich in 1869 and returned to Lübeck, where he died on the +6th of April 1884. His works further include two tragedies, _Brunhild_ +(1858, 5th ed. 1890), and _Sophonisbe_ (1869), and translations of French +and Spanish popular poetry. Beginning as a member of the group of +political poets who heralded the revolution of 1848, Geibel was also the +chief poet to welcome the establishment of the Empire in 1871. His +strength lay not, however, in his political songs but in his purely lyric +poetry, such as the fine cycle _Ada_ and his still popular love-songs. He +may be regarded as the leading representative of German lyric poetry +between 1848 and 1870. + + Geibel's _Gesammelte Werke_ were published in 8 vols. (1883, 4th ed. + 1906); his _Gedichte_ have gone through about 130 editions. An + excellent selection in one volume appeared in 1904. For biography and + criticism, see K. Goedeke, _E. Geibel_ (1869); W. Scherer's address on + Geibel (1884); K.T. Gaedertz, _Geibel-Denkwurdigkeiten_ (1886); C.C.T. + Litzmann, _E. Geibel, aus Erinnerungen, Briefen und Tagebüchern_ + (1887), and biographies by C. Leimbach (2nd ed., 1894), and K.T. + Gaedertz (1897). + + + + +GEIGE (O. Fr. _gigue_, _gige_; O. Ital. and Span. _giga_; Prov. _gigua_; +O. Dutch _gighe_), in modern German the violin; in medieval German the +name applied to the first stringed instruments played with a bow, in +contradistinction to those whose strings were plucked by fingers or +plectrum such as the cithara, rotta and fidula, the first of these terms +having been very generally used to designate various instruments whose +strings were plucked. The name _gîge_ in Germany, of which the origin is +uncertain,[1] and its derivatives in other languages, were in the middle +ages applied to rebecs having fingerboards. As the first bowed +instruments in Europe were, as far as we know, those of the rebab type, +both boat-shaped and pear-shaped, it seems probable that the name clung +to them long after the bow had been applied to other stringed +instruments derived from the cithara, such as the fiddle (videl) or +vielle. In the romances of the 12th and 13th centuries the _gîge_ is +frequently mentioned, and generally associated with the rotta. Early in +the 16th century we find definite information concerning the Geige in +the works of Sebastian Virdung (1511), Hans Judenkünig (1523), Martin +Agricola (1532), Hans Gerle (1533); and from the instruments depicted, +of two distinct types and many varieties, it would appear that the +principal idea attached to the name was still that of the bow used to +vibrate the strings. Virdung qualifies the word _Geige_ with _Klein_ +(small) and _Gross_ (large), which do not represent two sizes of the +same instrument but widely different types, also recognized by Agricola, +who names three or four sizes of each, discant, alto, tenor and bass. +Virdung's _Klein Geige_ is none other than the rebec with two C-shaped +soundholes and a raised fingerboard cut in one piece with the vaulted +back and having a separate flat soundboard glued over it, a change +rendered necessary by the arched bridge. Agricola's _Klein Geige_ with +three strings was of a totally different construction, having ribs and +wide incurvations but no bridge; there was a rose soundhole near the +tailpiece and two C-shaped holes in the shoulders. Agricola (_Musica +instrumentalis_) distinctly mentions three kinds of _Geigen_ with three, +four and five strings. From him we learn that only one position was as +yet used on these instruments, one or two higher notes being +occasionally obtained by sliding the little finger along. A century +later Agricola's _Geige_ was regarded as antiquated by Praetorius, who +reproduces one of the bridgeless ones with five strings, a rose and two +C-shaped soundholes, and calls it an old fiddle; under _Geige_ he gives +the violins. (K. S.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The words _gîge_, _gîgen_, _geic_ appear suddenly in the M. H. + German of the 12th century, and thence passed apparently into the + Romance languages, though some would reverse the process (e.g. + Weigand, _Deutsches Wörterbuch_). An elaborate argument in the + _Deutsches Wörterbuch_ of J. and W. Grimm (Leipzig, 1897) connects + the word with an ancient common Teut. root _gag_--meaning to sway to + and fro, as preserved in numerous forms: e.g. M.H.G _gagen_, _gugen_, + "to sway to and fro" (_gugen_, _gagen_, the rocking of a cradle), the + Swabian _gigen_, _gagen_, in the same sense, the Tirolese _gaiggern_, + to sway, doubt, or the old Norse _geiga_, to go astray or crooked. + The reference is to the swaying motion of the violin bow. The English + "jig" is derived from _gîge_ through the O. Fr. _gigue_ (in the sense + of a stringed instrument); the modern French gigue (a dance) is the + English "jig" re-imported (Hatzfeld and Darmesteter, _Dictionnaire_). + This opens up another possibility, of the origin of the name of the + instrument in the dance which it accompanied. (W. A. P.) + + + + +GEIGER, ABRAHAM (1810-1874), Jewish theologian and orientalist, was born +at Frankfort-on-Main on the 24th of May 1810, and educated at the +universities of Heidelberg and Bonn. As a student he distinguished +himself in philosophy and in philology, and at the close of his course +wrote on the relations of Judaism and Mahommedanism a prize essay which +was afterwards published in 1833 under the title _Was hat Mohammed aus +dem Judentum aufgenommen?_ (English trans. _Judaism and Islam_, Madras, +1898). In November 1832 he went to Wiesbaden as rabbi of the synagogue, +and became in 1835 one of the most active promoters of the _Zeitschrift +für jüdische Theologie_ (1835-1839 and 1842-1847). From 1838 to 1863 he +lived in Breslau, where he organized the reform movement in Judaism and +wrote some of his most important works, including _Lehr- und Lesebuch +zur Sprache der Mischna_ (1845), _Studien_ from Maimonides (1850), +translation into German of the poems of Juda ha-Levi (1851), and +_Urschrift und Übersetzungen der Bibel in ihrer Abhängigkeit von der +innern Entwickelung des Judentums_ (1857). The last-named work attracted +little attention at the time, but now enjoys a great reputation as a new +departure in the methods of studying the records of Judaism. The +_Urschrift_ has moreover been recognized as one of the most original +contributions to biblical science. In 1863 Geiger became head of the +synagogue of his native town, and in 1870 he removed to Berlin, where, +in addition to his duties as chief rabbi, he took the principal charge +of the newly established seminary for Jewish science. The _Urschrift_ +was followed by a more exhaustive handling of one of its topics in _Die +Sadducäer und Pharisäer_ (1863), and by a more thorough application of +its leading principles in an elaborate history of Judaism (_Das Judentum +und seine Geschichte_) in 1865-1871. Geiger also contributed frequently +on Hebrew, Samaritan and Syriac subjects to the _Zeitschrift der +deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft_, and from 1862 until his death +(on the 23rd of October 1874) he was editor of a periodical entitled +_Jüdische Zeitschrift für Wissenschaft und Leben_. He also published a +Jewish prayerbook (_Israëlitisches Gebetbuch_) and a variety of minor +monographs on historical and literary subjects connected with the +fortunes of his people. (I. A.) + +An _Allgemeine Einleitung_ and five volumes of _Nachgelassene Schriften_ +were edited in 1875 by his son LUDWIG GEIGER (b. 1848), who in 1880 became +extraordinary professor in the university of Berlin. Ludwig Geiger +published a large number of biographical and literary works and made a +special study of German humanism. He edited the _Goethe-Jahrbuch_ from +1880, _Vierteljahrsschrift für Kultur und Litteratur der Renaissance_ +(1885-1886), _Zeitschr. für die Gesch. der Juden im Deutschland_ +(1886-1891), _Zeitschr. für vergleichende Litteraturgeschichte und +Renaissance-Litteratur_ (1887-1891). Among his works are _Johann Reuchlin, +sein Leben und seine Werke_ (Leipzig, 1871); and _Johann Reuchlin's +Briefwechsel_ (Tübingen, 1875); _Renaissance und Humanismus in Italien und +Deutschland_ (1882, 2nd ed. 1901); _Gesch. des geistigen Lebens der +preussischen Hauptstadt_ (1892-1894); _Berlin's geistiges Leben_ +(1894-1896). + + See also J. Derenbourg in _Jüd. Zeitschrift_, xi. 299-308; E. + Schrieber, _Abraham Geiger als Reformator des Judentums_ (1880), art. + (with portrait) in _Jewish Encyclopedia_. + +Abraham Geiger's nephew LAZARUS GEIGER (1829-1870), philosopher and +philologist, born at Frankfort-on-Main, was destined to commerce, but +soon gave himself up to scholarship and studied at Marburg, Bonn and +Heidelberg. From 1861 till his sudden death in 1870 he was professor in +the Jewish high school at Frankfort. His chief aim was to prove that the +evolution of human reason is closely bound up with that of language. He +further maintained that the origin of the Indo-Germanic language is to +be sought not in Asia but in central Germany. He was a convinced +opponent of rationalism in religion. His chief work was his _Ursprung +und Entwickelung der menschlichen Sprache und Vernunft_ (vol. i., +Stuttgart, 1868), the principal results of which appeared in a more +popular form as _Der Ursprung der Sprache_ (Stuttgart, 1869 and 1878). +The second volume of the former was published in an incomplete form +(1872, 2nd ed. 1899) after his death by his brother Alfred Geiger, who +also published a number of his scattered papers as _Zur Entwickelung der +Menschheit_ (1871, 2nd ed. 1878; Eng. trans. D. Asher, _Hist. of the +Development of the Human Race_, Lond., 1880). + + See L.A. Rosenthal, _Laz. Geiger: seine Lehre vom Ursprung d. Sprache + und Vernunft und sein Leben_ (Stuttgart, 1883); E. Peschier, _L. + Geiger, sein Leben und Denken_ (1871); J. Keller, _L. Geiger und d. + Kritik d. Vernunft_ (Wertheim, 1883) and _Der Ursprung d. Vernunft_ + (Heidelberg, 1884). + + + + +GEIJER, ERIK GUSTAF (1783-1847), Swedish historian, was born at Ransäter +in Värmland, on the 12th of January 1783, of a family that had +immigrated from Austria in the 17th century. He was educated at the +university of Upsala, where in 1803 he carried off the Swedish Academy's +great prize for his _Äreminne öfver Sten Sture den äldre_. He graduated +in 1806, and in 1810 returned from a year's residence in England to +become _docent_ in his university. Soon afterwards he accepted a post in +the public record office at Stockholm, where, with some friends, he +founded the "Gothic Society," to whose organ _Iduna_ he contributed a +number of prose essays and the songs _Manhem_, _Vikingen_, _Den siste +kämpen_, _Den siste skalden_, _Odalbonden_, _Kolargossen_, which he set +to music. About the same time he issued a volume of hymns, of which +several are inserted in the Swedish Psalter. + +Geijer's lyric muse was soon after silenced by his call to be assistant +to Erik Michael Fant, professor of history at Upsala, whom he succeeded +in 1817. In 1824 he was elected a member of the Swedish Academy. A +single volume of a great projected work, _Svea Rikes Häfder_, itself a +masterly critical examination of the sources of Sweden's legendary +history, appeared in 1825. Geijer's researches in its preparation had +severely strained his health, and he went the same year on a tour +through Denmark and part of Germany, his impressions from which are +recorded in his _Minnen_. In 1832-1836 he published three volumes of his +_Svenska folkets historia_ (Eng. trans. by J.H. Turner, 1845), a clear +view of the political and social development of Sweden down to 1654. The +acute critical insight, just thought, and finished historical art of +these incomplete works of Geijer entitle him to the first place among +Swedish historians. His chief other historical and political writings +are his _Teckning af Sveriges tillsånd_ 1718-1772 (Stockholm, 1838), and +_Feodalism och republikanism, ett bidrag till Samhällsförfattningens +historia_ (1844), which led to a controversy with the historian Anders +Fryxell regarding the part played in history by the Swedish aristocracy. +Geijer also edited, with the aid of J.H. Schröder, a continuation of +Fant's _Scriptores rerum svecicarum medii aevi_ (1818-1828), and, by +himself, Thomas Thorild's _Samlade skrifter_ (1819-1825), and _Konung +Gustaf III_.'s _efterlemnade Papper_ (4 vols., 1843-1846). Geijer's +academic lectures, of which the last three, published in 1845 under the +title _Om vår tids inre samhällsforhållanden, i synnerhet med afseende +på Fäderneslandet_, involved him in another controversy with Fryxell, +but exercised a great influence over his students, who especially +testified to their attachment after the failure of a prosecution against +him for heresy. A number of his extempore lectures, recovered from +notes, were published in 1856. He also wrote a life of Charles XIV. +(Stockholm, 1844). Failing health forced Geijer to resign his chair in +1846, after which he removed to Stockholm for the purpose of completing +his _Svenska folkets historia_, and died there on the 23rd of April +1847. His _Samlade skrifter_ (13 vols., 1840-1855; new ed., 1873-1877) +include a large number of philosophical and political essays contributed +to reviews, particularly to _Litteraturbladet_ (1838-1839), a periodical +edited by himself, which attracted great attention in its day by its +pronounced liberal views on public questions, a striking contrast to +those he had defended in 1828-1830, when, as again in 1840-1841, he +represented Upsala University in the Swedish diet. His poems were +collected and published as _Skaldestycken_ (Upsala, 1835 and 1878). + +Geijer's style is strong and manly. His genius bursts out in sudden +flashes that light up the dark corners of history. A few strokes, and a +personality stands before us instinct with life. His language is at once +the scholar's and the poet's; with his profoundest thought there beats +in unison the warmest, the noblest, the most patriotic heart. Geijer +came to the writing of history fresh from researches in the whole field +of Scandinavian antiquity, researches whose first-fruits are garnered in +numerous articles in _Iduna_, and his masterly treatise _Om den gamla +nordiska folkvisan_, prefixed to the collection of Svenska folkvisor +which he edited with A.A. Afzelius (3 vols., 1814-1816). The development +of freedom is the idea that gives unity to all his historical writings. + + For Geijer's biography, see his own _Minnen_ (1834), which contains + copious extracts from his letters and diaries; B.E. Malmström, + _Minnestal öfver E.G. Geijer_, addressed to the Upsala students (June + 6, 1848), and printed among his _Tal och esthetiska afhandlingar_ + (1868), and _Grunddragen af Svenska vitterhetens häfder_ (1866-1868); + and S.A. Hollander, _Minne af E.G. Geijer_ (Örebro, 1869). See also + lives of Geijer by J. Hellstenius (Stockholm, 1876) and J. Niekson + (Odense, 1902). + + + + +GEIKIE, SIR ARCHIBALD (1835- ), Scottish geologist, was born at +Edinburgh on the 28th of December 1835. He was educated at the high +school and university of Edinburgh, and in 1855 was appointed an +assistant on the Geological Survey. Wielding the pen with no less +facility than the hammer, he inaugurated his long list of works with +_The Story of a Boulder; or, Gleanings from the Note-Book of a +Geologist_ (1858). His ability at once attracted the notice of his +chief, Sir Roderick Murchison, with whom he formed a lifelong +friendship, and whose biographer he subsequently became. With Murchison +some of his earliest work was done on the complicated regions of the +Highland schists; and the small geological map of Scotland published in +1862 was their joint work: a larger map was issued by Geikie in 1892. In +1863 he published an important essay "On the Phenomena of the Glacial +Drift of Scotland," _Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow_, in which the effects of +ice action in that country were for the first time clearly and +connectedly delineated. In 1865 appeared Geikie's _Scenery of Scotland_ +(3rd edition, 1901), which was, he claimed, "the first attempt to +elucidate in some detail the history of the topography of a country." In +the same year he was elected F.R.S. At this time the Edinburgh school of +geologists--prominent among them Sir Andrew Ramsay, with his _Physical +Geology and Geography of Great Britain_--were maintaining the supreme +importance of denudation in the configuration of land-surfaces, and +particularly the erosion of valleys by the action of running water. +Geikie's book, based on extensive personal knowledge of the country, was +an able contribution to the doctrines of the Edinburgh school, of which +he himself soon began to rank as one of the leaders. + +In 1867, when a separate branch of the Geological Survey was established +for Scotland, he was appointed director. On the foundation of the +Murchison professorship of geology and mineralogy at the university of +Edinburgh in 1871, he became the first occupant of the chair. These two +appointments he continued to hold till 1881, when he succeeded Sir +Andrew Ramsay in the joint offices of director-general of the Geological +Survey of the United Kingdom and director of the museum of practical +geology, London, from which he retired in February 1901. A feature of +his tenure of office was the impetus given to microscopic petrography, a +branch of geology to which he had devoted special study, by a splendid +collection of sections of British rocks. Later he wrote two important +and interesting Survey Memoirs, _The Geology of Central and Western Fife +and Kinross_ (1900), and _The Geology of Eastern Fife_ (1902). + +From the outset of his career, when he started to investigate the +geology of Skye and other of the Western Isles, he took a keen interest +in volcanic geology, and in 1871 he brought before the Geological +Society of London an outline of the Tertiary volcanic history of +Britain. Many difficult problems, however, remained to be solved. Here +he was greatly aided by his extensive travels, not only throughout +Europe, but in western America. While the canyons of the Colorado +confirmed his long-standing views on erosion, the eruptive regions of +Wyoming, Montana and Utah supplied him with valuable data in explanation +of volcanic phenomena. The results of his further researches were given +in an elaborate and charmingly written essay on "The History of Volcanic +Action during the Tertiary Period in the British Isles," _Trans. Roy. +Soc. Edin._, (1888). His mature views on volcanic geology were given to +the world in his presidential addresses to the Geological Society in +1891 and 1892, and afterwards embodied in his great work on _The Ancient +Volcanoes of Great Britain_ (1897). Other results of his travels are +collected in his _Geological Sketches at Home and Abroad_ (1882). + +His experience as a field geologist resulted in an admirable text-book, +_Outlines of Field Geology_ (5th edition, 1900). After editing and +practically re-writing Jukes's _Student's Manual of Geology_ in 1872, he +published in 1882 a _Text-Book_ and in 1886 a _Class-Book_ of geology, +which have taken rank as standard works of their kind. A fourth edition +of his _Text-Book_, in two vols., was issued in 1903. His writings are +marked in a high degree by charm of style and power of vivid +description. His literary ability has given him peculiar qualifications +as a writer of scientific biography, and the _Memoir of Edward Forbes_ +(with G. Wilson), and those of his old chiefs, Sir R.I. Murchison (2 +vols., 1875) and Sir Andrew Crombie Ramsay (1895), are models of what +such works should be. His _Founders of Geology_ consists of the +inaugural course of Lectures (founded by Mrs G.H. Williams) at Johns +Hopkins University, Baltimore, delivered in 1897. In 1897 he issued an +admirable _Geological Map of England and Wales, with Descriptive Notes_. +In 1898 he delivered the Romanes Lectures, and his address was published +under the title of _Types of Scenery and their Influence on Literature_. +The study of geography owes its improved position in Great Britain +largely to his efforts. Among his works on this subject is _The Teaching +of Geography_ (1887). His _Scottish Reminiscences_ (1904) and _Landscape +in History and other Essays_ (1905) are charmingly written and full of +instruction. He was foreign secretary of the Royal Society from 1890 to +1894, joint secretary from 1903 to 1908, president in 1909, president of +the Geological Society in 1891 and 1892, and president of the British +Association, 1892. He received the honour of knighthood in 1891. + + + + +GEIKIE, JAMES (1839- ), Scottish geologist, younger brother of Sir +Archibald Geikie, was born at Edinburgh on the 23rd of August 1839. He +was educated at the high school and university of Edinburgh. He served +on the Geological Survey from 1861 until 1882, when he succeeded his +brother as Murchison professor of geology and mineralogy at the +university of Edinburgh. He took as his special subject of investigation +the origin of surface-features, and the part played in their formation +by glacial action. His views are embodied in his chief work, _The Great +Ice Age and its Relation to the Antiquity of Man_ (1874; 3rd ed., 1894). +He was elected F.R.S. in 1875. James Geikie became the leader of the +school that upholds the all-important action of land-ice, as against +those geologists who assign chief importance to the work of pack-ice and +icebergs. Continuing this line of investigation in his _Prehistoric +Europe_ (1881), he maintained the hypothesis of five inter-Glacial +periods in Great Britain, and argued that the palaeolithic deposits of +the Pleistocene period were not post- but inter- or pre-Glacial. His +_Fragments of Earth Lore: Sketches and Addresses, Geological and +Geographical_ (1893) and _Earth Sculpture_ (1898) are mainly concerned +with the same subject. His _Outlines of Geology_ (1886), a standard +text-book of its subject, reached its third edition in 1896; and in 1905 +he published an important manual on _Structural and Field Geology_. In +1887 he displayed another side of his activity in a volume of _Songs and +Lyrics by H. Heine and other German Poets, done into English Verse_. +From 1888 he was honorary editor of the _Scottish Geographical +Magazine_. + + + + +GEIKIE, WALTER (1795-1837), Scottish painter, was born at Edinburgh on +the 9th of November 1795. In his second year he was attacked by a +nervous fever by which he permanently lost the faculty of hearing, but +through the careful attention of his father he was enabled to obtain a +good education. Before he had the advantage of the instruction of a +master he had attained considerable proficiency in sketching both +figures and landscapes from nature, and in 1812 he was admitted into the +drawing academy of the board of Scottish manufactures. He first +exhibited in 1815, and was elected an associate of the Royal Scottish +Academy in 1831, and a fellow in 1834. He died on the 1st of August +1837, and was interred in the Greyfriars churchyard, Edinburgh. Owing to +his want of feeling for colour, Geikie was not a successful painter in +oils, but he sketched in India ink with great truth and humour the +scenes and characters of Scottish lower-class life in his native city. A +series of etchings which exhibit very high excellence were published by +him in 1829-1831, and a collection of eighty-one of these was +republished posthumously in 1841, with a biographical introduction by +Sir Thomas Dick Lauder, Bart. + + + + +GEILER (or GEYLER) VON KAISERSBERG, JOHANN (1445-1510), "the German +Savonarola," one of the greatest of the popular preachers of the 15th +century, was born at Schaffhausen on the 16th of March 1445, but from +1448 passed his childhood and youth at Kaisersberg in Upper Alsace, from +which place his current designation is derived. In 1460 he entered the +university of Freiburg in Baden, where, after graduation, he lectured +for some time on the _Sententiae_ of Peter Lombard, the commentaries of +Alexander of Hales, and several of the works of Aristotle. A living +interest in theological subjects, awakened by the study of John Gerson, +led him in 1471 to the university of Basel, a centre of attraction to +some of the most earnest spirits of the time. Made a doctor of theology +in 1475, he received a professorship at Freiburg in the following year; +but his tastes, no less than the spirit of the age, began to incline him +more strongly to the vocation of a preacher, while his fervour and +eloquence soon led to his receiving numerous invitations to the larger +towns. Ultimately he accepted in 1478 a call to the cathedral of +Strassburg, where he continued to work with few interruptions until +within a short time of his death on the 10th of March 1510. The +beautiful pulpit erected for him in 1481 in the nave of the cathedral, +when the chapel of St Lawrence had proved too small, still bears witness +to the popularity he enjoyed as a preacher in the immediate sphere of +his labours, and the testimonies of Sebastian Brant, Beatus Rhenanus, +Johann Reuchlin, Melanchthon and others show how great had been the +influence of his personal character. His sermons--bold, incisive, +denunciatory, abounding in quaint illustrations and based on texts by no +means confined to the Bible,--taken down as he spoke them, and +circulated (sometimes without his knowledge or consent) by his friends, +told perceptibly on the German thought as well as on the German speech +of his time. + + Among the many volumes published under his name only two appear to + have had the benefit of his revision, namely, _Der Seelen Paradies von + waren und volkomnen Tugenden_, and that entitled _Das irrig Schaf_. Of + the rest, probably the best-known is a series of lectures on his + friend Seb. Brant's work, _Das Narrenschiff_ or the _Navicula_ or + _Speculum fatuorum_, of which an edition was published at Strassburg + in 1511 under the following title:--_Navicula sive speculum fatuorum + praestantissimi sacrarum literarum doctoris Joannis Geiler + Keysersbergii_. + + See F.W. von Ammon, _Geyler's Leben, Lehren und Predigten_ (1826); L. + Dacheux, _Un Réformateur catholique à la fin du XV^e siècle_, J.G. de + K. (Paris, 1876); R. Cruel, _Gesch. der deutschen Predigt_, pp. + 538-576 (1879); P. de Lorenzi, _Geiler's ausgewählte Schriften_ (4. + vols., 1881); T.M. Lindsay, _History of the Reformation_, i. 118 + (1906); and G. Kawerau in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_, vi. 427. + + + + +GEINITZ, HANS BRUNO (1814-1900), German geologist, was born at +Altenburg, the capital of the duchy of Saxe-Altenburg, on the 16th of +October 1814. He was educated at the universities of Berlin and Jena, +and gained the foundations of his geological knowledge under F.A. +Quenstedt. In 1837 he took the degree of Ph.D. with a thesis on the +Muschelkalk of Thuringia. In 1850 he became professor of geology and +mineralogy in the Royal Polytechnic School at Dresden, and in 1857 he +was made director of the Royal Mineralogical and Geological Museum; he +held these posts until 1894. He was distinguished for his researches on +the Carboniferous and Cretaceous rocks and fossils of Saxony, and in +particular for those relating to the fauna and flora of the Permian or +Dyas formation. He described also the graptolites of the local Silurian +strata; and the flora of the Coal-formation of Altai and Nebraska. From +1863 to 1878 he was one of the editors of the _Neues Jahrbuch_. He was +awarded the Murchison medal by the Geological Society of London in 1878. +He died at Dresden on the 28th of January 1900. His son FRANZ EUGENE +GEINITZ (b. 1854), professor of geology in the university of Rostock, +became distinguished for researches on the geology of Saxony, +Mecklenburg, &c. + + H.B. Geinitz's publications were _Das Quadersandsteingebirge oder + Kreidegebirge in Deutschland_ (1849-1850); _Die Versteinerungen der + Steinkohlenformation in Sachsen_ (1855); _Dyas, oder die + Zechsteinformation und das Rothliegende_ (1861-1862); _Das + Elbthalgebirge in Sachsen_ (1871-1875). + + + + +GEISHA (a Chino-Japanese word meaning "person of pleasing +accomplishments"), strictly the name of the professional dancing and +singing girls of Japan. The word is, however, often loosely used for the +girls and women inhabiting Shin Yoshiwara, the prostitutes' quarter of +Tokyo. The training of the true Geisha or singing girl, which includes +lessons in dancing, begins often as early as her seventh year. Her +apprenticeship over, she contracts with her employer for a number of +years, and is seldom able to reach independence except by marriage. +There is a capitation fee of two _yen_ per month on the actual singing +girls, and of one _yen_ on the apprentices. + + See Jukichi Inouye, _Sketches of Tokyo Life_. + + + + +GEISLINGEN, a town of Germany in the kingdom of Württemberg, on the +Thierbach, 38 m. by rail E.S.E. of Stuttgart. Pop. (1905) 7050. It has +shops for the carving and turning of bone, ivory, wood and horn, besides +iron-works, machinery factories, glass-works, brewing and bleaching +works, &c. The church of St Mary contains wood-carving by Jörg Syrlin +the Younger. Above the town lie the ruins of the castle of Helfenstein, +which was destroyed in 1552. Having been for a few years in the +possession of Bavaria, the town passed to Württemberg in 1810. + + See Weitbrecht, _Wanderungen durch Geislingen und seine Umgebung_ + (Stuttgart, 1896). + + + + +GEISSLER, HEINRICH (1814-1879), German physicist, was born at the +village of Igelshieb in Saxe-Meiningen on the 26th of May 1814 and was +educated as a glass-blower. In 1854 he settled at Bonn, where he +speedily gained a high reputation for his skill and ingenuity of +conception in the fabrication of chemical and physical apparatus. With +Julius Plücker, in 1852, he ascertained the maximum density of water to +be at 3.8° C. He also determined the coefficient of expansion for ice +between -24° and -7°, and for water freezing at 0°. In 1869, in +conjunction with H.P.J. Vogelsang, he proved the existence of liquid +carbon dioxide in cavities in quartz and topaz, and later he obtained +amorphous from ordinary phosphorus by means of the electric current. He +is best known as the inventor of the sealed glass tubes which bear his +name, by means of which are exhibited the phenomena accompanying the +discharge of electricity through highly rarefied vapours and gases. +Among other apparatus contrived by him were a vaporimeter, mercury +air-pump, balances, normal thermometer, and areometer. From the +university of Bonn, on the occasion of its jubilee in 1868, he received +the honorary degree of doctor of philosophy. He died at Bonn on the 24th +of January 1879. + + See A.W. Hofmann, _Ber. d. deut. chem. Ges._ p. 148 (1879). + + + + +GELA, a city of Sicily, generally and almost certainly identified with +the modern Terranova (q.v.). It was founded by Cretan and Rhodian +colonists in 688 B.C., and itself founded Acragas (see AGRIGENTUM) in +582 B.C. It also had a treasure-house at Olympia. The town took its name +from the river to the east (Thucydides vi. 2), which in turn was so +called from its winter frost ([gamma][epsilon][lambda][alpha] in the +Sicel dialect; cf. Lat. _gelidus_). The Rhodian settlers called it +Lindioi (see LINDUS). Gela enjoyed its greatest prosperity under +Hippocrates (498-491 B.C.), whose dominion extended over a considerable +part of the island. Gelon, who seized the tyranny on his death, became +master of Syracuse in 485 B.C., and transferred his capital thither with +half the inhabitants of Gela, leaving his brother Hiero to rule over the +rest. Its prosperity returned, however, after the expulsion of +Thrasybulus in 466 B.C.,[1] but in 405 it was besieged by the +Carthaginians and abandoned by Dionysius' order, after his failure +(perhaps due to treachery) to drive the besiegers away (E.A. Freeman, +_Hist. of Sic._ iii. 562 seq.). The inhabitants later returned and +rebuilt the town, but it never regained its position. In 311 B.C. +Agathocles put to death 5000 of its inhabitants; and finally, after its +destruction by the Mamertines about 281 B.C., Phintias of Agrigentum +transferred the remainder to the new town of Phintias (now Licata, +q.v.). It seems that in Roman times they still kept the name of Gelenses +or Geloi in their new abode (Th. Mommsen in _C.I.L._ x., Berlin, 1883, +p. 737). (T. As.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Aeschylus died there in 456 B.C. + + + + +GELADA, the Abyssinian name of a large species of baboon, differing from +the members of the genus _Papio_ (see BABOON) by the nostrils being +situated some distance above the extremity of the muzzle, and hence made +the type of a separate genus, under the name of _Theropithecus gelada_. +In the heavy mantle of long brown hair covering the fore-quarters of the +old males, with the exception of the bare chest, which is reddish +flesh-colour, the gelada recalls the Arabian baboon (_Papio hamadryas_), +and from this common feature it has been proposed to place the two +species in the same genus. The gelada inhabits the mountains of +Abyssinia, where, like other baboons, it descends in droves to pillage +cultivated lands. A second species, or race, _Theropithecus obscurus_, +distinguished by its darker hairs and the presence of a bare +flesh-coloured ring round each eye, inhabits the eastern confines of +Abyssinia. (R. L.*) + + + + +GELASIUS, the name of two popes. + +GELASIUS I., pope from 492 to 496, was the successor of Felix III. He +confirmed the estrangement between the Eastern and Western churches by +insisting on the removal of the name of Acacius, bishop of +Constantinople, from the diptychs. He is the author of _De duabus in +Christo naturis adversus Eutychen et Nestorium_. A great number of his +letters has also come down to us. His name has been attached to a _Liber +Sacramentorum_ anterior to that of St Gregory, but he can have composed +only certain parts of it. As to the so-called _Decretum Gelasii de +libris recipiendis et non recipiendis_, it also is a compilation of +documents anterior to Gelasius, and it is difficult to determine +Gelasius's contributions to it. At all events, as we know it, it is of +Roman origin, and 6th-century or later. (L. D.*) + +GELASIUS II. (Giovanni Coniulo), pope from the 24th of January 1118 to +the 29th of January 1119, was born at Gaeta of an illustrious family. He +became a monk of Monte Cassino, was taken to Rome by Urban II., and made +chancellor and cardinal-deacon of Sta Maria in Cosmedin. Shortly after +his unanimous election to succeed Paschal II. he was seized by Cencius +Frangipane, a partisan of the emperor Henry V., but freed by a general +uprising of the Romans in his behalf. The emperor drove Gelasius from +Rome in March, pronounced his election null and void, and set up +Burdinus, archbishop of Braga, as antipope under the name of Gregory +VIII. Gelasius fled to Gaeta, where he was ordained priest on the 9th of +March and on the following day received episcopal consecration. He at +once excommunicated Henry and the antipope and, under Norman protection, +was able to return to Rome in July; but the disturbances of the +imperialist party, especially of the Frangipani, who attacked the pope +while celebrating mass in the church of St Prassede, compelled Gelasius +to go once more into exile. He set out for France, consecrating the +cathedral of Pisa on the way, and arrived at Marseilles in October. He +was received with great enthusiasm at Avignon, Montpellier and other +cities, held a synod at Vienne in January 1119, and was planning to hold +a general council to settle the investiture contest when he died at +Cluny. His successor was Calixtus II. + + His letters are in J.P. Migne, _Patrol. Lat._ vol. 163. The original + life by Pandulf is in J.M. Watterich, _Pontif. Roman. vitae_ (Leipzig, + 1862), and there is an important digest of his bulls and official acts + in Jaffé-Wattenbach, _Regesta pontif. Roman._ (1885-1888). + + See J. Langen, _Geschichte der römischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis + Innocenz III._ (Bonn, 1893); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle + Ages_, vol. 4, trans. by Mrs G.W. Hamilton (London, 1896); A. Wagner, + _Die unteritalischen Normannen und das Papsttum, 1086-1150_ (Breslau, + 1885); W. von Giesebrecht, _Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit_, Bd. + iii. (Brunswick, 1890); G. Richter, _Annalen der deutschen Geschichte + im Mittelalter_, iii. (Halle, 1898); H.H. Milman, _Latin + Christianity_, vol. 4 (London, 1899). (C. H. Ha.) + + + + +GELATI, a Georgian monastery in Russian Transcaucasia, in the government +of Kutais, 11 m. E. of the town of Kutais, standing on a rocky spur (705 +ft. above sea-level) in the valley of the Rion. It was founded in 1109 +by the Georgian king David the Renovator. The principal church, a +sandstone cathedral, dates from the end of the preceding century, and +contains the royal crown of the former Georgian kingdom of Imeretia, +besides ancient MSS., ecclesiological furniture, and fresco portraits of +the kings of Imeretia. Here also, in a separate chapel, is the tomb of +David the Renovator (1089-1125) and part of the iron gate of the town of +Ganja (now Elisavetpol), which that monarch brought away as a trophy of +his capture of the place. + + + + +GELATIN, or GELATINE, the substance which passes into solution when +"collagen," the ground substance of bone, cartilage and white fibrous +tissue, is treated with boiling water or dilute acids. It is especially +characterized by its property of forming a jelly at ordinary +temperature, becoming liquid when heated, and resolidifying to a jelly +on cooling. The word is derived from the Fr. _gélatine_, and Ital. +_gelatina_, from the Lat. _gelata_, that which is frozen, congealed or +stiff. It is, therefore, in origin cognate with "jelly," which came +through the Fr. _gélee_ from the same Latin original. + +The "collagen," obtained from tendons and connective tissues, also +occurs in the cornea and sclerotic coat of the eye, and in fish scales. +Cartilage was considered to be composed of a substance chondrigen, which +gave chondrin or cartilage-glue on boiling with water. Recent researches +make it probable that cartilage contains (1) chondromucoid, (2) +chondroitin-sulphuric acid, (3) collagen, (4) an albumoid present in old +but not in young cartilage; whilst chondrin is a mixture of gelatin and +mucin. "Bone collagen," or "ossein," constitutes, with calcium salts, +the ground substance of bones. Gelatin consists of two substances, +glutin and chondrin; the former is the main constituent of skin-gelatin, +the latter of bone-gelatin. + +True gelatigenous tissue occurs in all mature vertebrates, with the +single exception, according to E.F.I. Hoppe-Seyler, of the _Amphioxus +lanceolatus_. Gelatigenous tissue was discovered by Hoppe-Seyler in the +cephalopods _Octopus_ and _Sepiola_, but in an extension of his +experiments to other invertebrates, as cockchafers and _Anodon_ and +_Unio_, no such tissue could be detected. Neither glutin nor chondrin +occurs ready formed in the animal kingdom, but they separate when the +tissues are boiled with water. A similar substance, vegetable gelatin, +is obtained from certain mosses. + +Pure gelatin is an amorphous, brittle, nearly transparent substance, +faintly yellow, tasteless and inodorous, neutral in reaction and +unaltered by exposure to dry air. Its composition is in round numbers C += 50, H = 7, N = 18, O = 25%; sulphur is also present in an amount +varying from 0.25 to 0.7%. + + Nothing is known with any certainty as to its chemical constitution, + or of the mode in which it is formed from albuminoids. It exhibits in + a general way a connexion with that large and important class of + animal substances called _proteids_, being, like them, amorphous, + soluble in acids and alkalis, and giving in solution a left-handed + rotation of the plane of polarization. Nevertheless, the ordinary + well-recognized reactions for proteids are but faintly observed in the + case of gelatin, and the only substances which at once and freely + precipitate it from solution are mercuric chloride, strong alcohol and + tannic acid. + + Although gelatin in a dry state is unalterable by exposure to air, its + solution exhibits, like all the proteids, a remarkable tendency to + putrefaction; but a characteristic feature of this process in the case + of gelatin is that the solution assumes a transient acid reaction. The + ultimate products of this decomposition are the same as are produced + by prolonged boiling with acid. It has been found that oxalic acid, + over and above the action common to all dilute acids of preventing the + solidification of gelatin solutions, has the further property of + preventing in a large measure this tendency to putrefy when the + gelatin is treated with hot solutions of this acid, and then freed + from adhering acid by means of calcium carbonate. Gelatin so treated + has been called _metagelatin_. + + In spite of the marked tendency of gelatin solutions to develop + ferment-organisms and undergo putrefaction, the stability of the + substance in the dry state is such that it has even been used, and + with some success, as a means of preserving perishable foods. The + process, invented by Dr Campbell Morfit, consists in impregnating the + foods with gelatin, and then drying them till about 10% or less of + water is present. Milk gelatinized in this way is superior in several + respects to the products of the ordinary condensation process, more + especially in the retention of a much larger proportion of + albuminoids. + + Gelatin has a marked affinity for water, abstracting it from admixture + with alcohol, for example. Solid gelatin steeped for some hours in + water absorbs a certain amount and swells up, in which condition a + gentle heat serves to convert it into a liquid; or this may be readily + produced by the addition of a trace of alkali or mineral acid, or by + strong acetic acid. In the last case, however, or if we use the + mineral acids in a more concentrated form, the solution obtained has + lost its power of solidifying, though not that of acting as a glue. + This property is utilized in the preparation of liquid glue (see + GLUE). By prolonged boiling of strong aqueous solutions at a high, or + of weak solutions at a lower temperature, the characteristic + properties of gelatin are impaired and ultimately destroyed. After + this treatment it acts less powerfully as a glue, loses its tendency + to solidify, and becomes increasingly soluble in cold water; + nevertheless the solutions yield on precipitation with alcohol a + substance identical in composition with gelatin. + + By prolonged boiling in contact with hydrolytic agents, such as + sulphuric acid or caustic alkali, it yields quantities of leucin and + glycocoll (so-called "sugar of gelatin," this being the method by + which glycocoll was first prepared), but no tyrosin. In this last + respect it differs from the great body of proteids, the characteristic + solid products of the decomposition of which are leucin and tyrosin. + +Gelatin occurs in commerce in varying degrees of purity; the purer form +obtained from skins and bones (to which this article is restricted) is +named gelatin; a preparation of great purity is "patent isinglass," +while isinglass (q.v.) itself is a fish-gelatin; less pure forms +constitute glue (q.v.), while a dilute aqueous solution appears in +commerce as size (q.v.). The manufacture follows much the same lines as +that of glue; but it is essential that the raw materials must be +carefully selected, and in view of the consumption of most of the +gelatin in the kitchen--for soups, jellies, &c.--great care must be +taken to ensure purity and cleanliness. + + In the manufacture of bone-gelatin the sorted bones are degreased as + in the case of glue manufacture, and then transferred to vats + containing a dilute hydrochloric acid, by which means most of the + mineral matter is dissolved out, and the bones become flexible. + Instead of hydrochloric acid some French makers use phosphoric acid. + After being well washed with water to remove all traces of + hydrochloric acid, the bones are bleached by leading in sulphur + dioxide. They are now transferred to the extractors, and heated by + steam, care being taken that the temperature does not exceed 85° C. + The digestion is repeated, and the runnings are clarified, + concentrated, re-bleached and jellied as with glue. Skin-gelatin is + manufactured in the same way as skin-glue. After steeping in lime pits + the selected skins are digested three times; the first and second + runnings are worked up for gelatin, while the third are filtered for + "size." + + Vegetable gelatin is manufactured from a seaweed, genus _Laminaria_; + from the tengusa, an American seaweed, and from Irish moss. The + _Laminaria_ is first extracted with water, and the residue with sodium + carbonate; the filtrate is acidified with hydrochloric acid and the + precipitated alginic acid washed and bleached. It is then dissolved in + an alkali, the solution concentrated, and cooled down by running over + horizontal glass plates. Flexible colourless sheets resembling animal + gelatin are thus obtained. In America the weed is simply boiled with + water, the solution filtered, and cooled to a thick jelly. Irish moss + is treated in the same way. Both tengusa and Irish moss yield a + gelatin suitable for most purposes; tengusa gelatin clarifies liquids + in the same way as isinglass, and forms a harder and firmer jelly than + ordinary gelatin. + + _Applications of Gelatin._--First and foremost is the use of gelatin + as a food-stuff--in jellies, soups, &c. Referring to the articles + GLUE, ISINGLASS and SIZE for the special applications of these forms + of gelatin, we here enumerate the more important uses of ordinary + gelatin. In photography it is employed in carbon-processes, its use + depending on the fact that when treated with potassium bichromate and + exposed to light, it is oxidized to insoluble compounds; it plays a + part in many other processes. A solution of gelatin containing readily + crystallized salts--alum, nitre, &c.--solidifies with the formation of + pretty designs; this is the basis of the so-called "crystalline glass" + used for purposes of ornamentation. It is also used for coating pills + to prevent them adhering together and to make them tasteless. + Compounded with various mineral salts, the carbonates and phosphates + of calcium, magnesium and aluminium, it yields a valuable ivory + substitute. It also plays a part in the manufacture of artificial + leather, of India inks, and of artificial silk (the Vanduara Company + processes). + + + + +GELDERLAND, GELDERS, or GUELDERS, formerly a duchy of the Empire, on the +lower Rhine and the Yssel, bounded by Friesland, Westphalia, Brabant, +Holland and the Zuider Zee; part of which has become the province of +Holland, dealt with separately below. The territory of the later duchy +of Gelderland was inhabited at the beginning of the Christian era by the +Teutonic tribes of the Sicambri and the Batavi, and later, during the +period of the decline of the Roman empire, by the Chamavi and other +Frank peoples. It formed part of the Caroling kingdom of Austrasia, and +was divided into _pagi_ or _gauen_, ruled by official counts +(_comites-graven_). In 843, by the treaty of Verdun, it became part of +Lotharingia (Lorraine), and in 879 was annexed to the kingdom of East +Francia (Germany) by the treaty of Meerssen. The nucleus of the later +county and duchy was the _gau_ or district surrounding the town of +Gelder or Gelre, lying between the Meuse and the Niers, and since 1715 +included in Rhenish Prussia. + +The early history is involved in much obscurity. There were in the 11th +century a number of counts ruling in various parts of what was +afterwards known as Gelderland. Towards the close of that century Gerard +of Wassenburg, who besides the county of Gelre ruled over portions of +Hamalant and Teisterbant, acquired a dominant position amongst his +neighbours. He is generally reckoned as the first hereditary count of +Gelderland (d. 1117/8). His son, Gerard II.--the Long--(d. 1131), +married Irmingardis, daughter and heiress of Otto, count of Zutphen, and +their son, Henry I. (d. 1182), inherited both countships. His successors +Otto I. (1182-1207) and Gerard III. (1207-1229) were lovers of peace and +strong supporters of the Hohenstaufen emperors, through whose favour +they were able to increase their territories by acquisitions in the +districts of Veluwe and Betuwe. He acted as guardian to his nephew +Floris IV. of Holland during his minority. Otto II., the Lame +(1220-1271), fortified several towns and bestowed privileges upon them +for the purpose of encouraging trade. He became a person of so much +importance that he was urged to be a candidate for the dignity of +emperor. He preferred to support the claims of his cousin, William II. +of Holland. In return for the loan of a considerable sum of money +William gave to him the city of Nijmwegen in pledge. His son Reinald I. +(d. 1326) married Irmingardis, heiress of Limburg, and in right of his +wife laid claim to the duchy against Adolf of Berg, who had sold his +rights to John I. of Brabant. War followed, and on the 5th of June 1288 +Reinald, who meantime had also sold his rights to the count of +Luxemburg, was defeated and taken prisoner at the battle of Woeringen. +In this battle the count of Luxemburg was slain, and Reinald had to +surrender his claims as the price of his defeat to John of Brabant. In +1310, in return for his support, Reinald received from the emperor Henry +VII. for all his territories _privilegium de non evocando_, i.e. the +exemption of his subjects from the liability to be sued before any court +outside his jurisdiction. In 1317 he was made a prince of the Empire. A +wound received at the battle of Woeringen had affected his brain, and an +insurrection against him was in 1316 headed by his son Reinald, who +assumed the government under the title of "Son of the Count." Reinald I. +was finally in 1320 immured in prison, where he died in 1326. + +Reinald II., the Black (1326-1343), was one of the foremost princes in +the Netherlands of his day. He married (1) Sophia, heiress of Mechlin, +and (2) in 1331 Eleanor, sister of Edward III. of England. By purchase +or conquest he added considerably to his territories. He did much to +improve the condition of the country, to foster trade, to promote the +prosperity of the towns, and to maintain order and security in his lands +by wise laws and firm administration. In 1338 the title of duke was +bestowed upon him by the emperor Louis the Bavarian, who at the same +time granted to him the fief of East Friesland. He died in 1343, leaving +three daughters by his first marriage, and two sons, Reinald and Edward, +both minors, by Eleanor of England. His elder son was ten years of age, +and succeeded to the duchy under the guardianship of his mother Eleanor. +Declared of age two years later, the youthful Reinald III. found himself +involved in many difficulties through the struggles between the rival +factions named after the two noble families of Bronkhorst and Hekeren. +What was the quarrel between them, and what the causes they represented, +cannot now be ascertained with certainty. There is good reason, however, +to believe that they were the counterparts of the contemporary Cod and +Hook parties in Holland, and of the Schieringers and Vetkoopers in +Friesland. In Gelderland the quarrel between them was converted into a +dynastic struggle, the Hekeren recognizing Duke Reinald, while the +Bronkhorsten set up his younger brother Edward. At the battle of Tiel +(1361) Reinald was defeated and taken prisoner, and Edward held the +duchy till 1371. He was a good and successful ruler, and his death by an +arrow wound, after a brilliant victory over the duke of Brabant near +Baesweller (August 1371), was a loss to his country. He was in his +thirty-fifth year and left no heirs. Reinald was now taken from the +prison in which he had been confined to reign once more, but his health +was broken and he died childless three years afterwards. The war of +factions again broke out, the half-sisters of Reinald III. and Edward +both claiming the inheritance; the elder, Matilda (Machteld), in her +own right, the younger Maria on behalf of her seven-year-old boy William +of Jülich, as the only male representative of the family. The Hekeren +supported Matilda, the Bronkhorsten William of Jülich. The war of +succession lasted till 1379, and ended in William's favour, the emperor +Wenceslas (Wenzel) recognizing him as duke four years later. + +Duke William was able, restless and adventurous, an ideal knight of the +palmy days of chivalry. He took part in no less than five crusades with +the Teutonic order against the heathen Lithuanians and Prussians. In +1393 he inherited the duchy of Jülich, and died in 1402. He was +succeeded by his brother, Reinald IV. (d. 1423), in the united +sovereignty of Gelderland, Zutphen and Jülich, who, in accordance with a +promise made before his accession, ceded the town of Emmerich to Duke +Adolf of Cleves. He took the part of his brother-in-law, John of Arkel, +against William VI. of Holland, and in a war of several years' duration +was not successful in preventing the Arkel territory being incorporated +in Holland. On his death without legitimate issue, Gelderland passed to +the young Arnold of Egmont, grandson of his sister Johanna, who had +married John, lord of Arkel, their daughter Maria (d. 1415) being the +wife of John, count of Egmont (d. 1451). Arnold was recognized as duke +in 1424 by the emperor Sigismund, but in the following year the emperor +revoked his decision and bestowed the duchy upon Adolf of Berg. Arnold +in retaliation laid claim to the duchy of Jülich, which had likewise +been granted to Adolf by Sigismund, and a war followed in which the +cities and nobles of Gelderland stood by Arnold; it ended in Arnold +retaining Gelderland and Zutphen, and Gerard, the son of Adolf (d. +1437), being acknowledged as duke of Jülich. To gain the support of the +estates of Gelderland in this war of succession, Arnold had been +compelled to make many concessions limiting the ducal prerogatives, and +granting large powers to a council consisting of representatives of the +nobles and the four chief cities, and his extravagance and exactions led +to continual conflicts, in which the prince was compelled to yield to +the demands of his subjects. In his later years a conspiracy was formed +against him, headed by his wife, the violent and ambitious Catherine of +Cleves, and his son Adolf. Arnold was at first successful and Adolf had +to go into exile; but he returned, and in 1465, having taken his father +prisoner by treachery, interned him in the castle of Buren. Charles the +Bold of Burgundy now seized the opportunity to intervene. In 1471 he +forced Adolf to release his father, who sold the reversion of the duchy +to the duke of Burgundy for 92,000 golden gulden. On the 23rd of +February 1473 Arnold died, and Charles of Burgundy became duke of +Gelderland. His succession was not unopposed. Nijmwegen offered an +heroic resistance and only fell after a long siege. After Charles's +death in 1477 Adolf was released from the captivity in which he had been +held, and placed himself at the head of a party in the powerful city of +Ghent, which sought to settle the disputed succession by forcing a match +between him and Mary, the heiress of Burgundy. On the 29th of June 1477, +however, he was killed at the siege of Tournai; and Mary gave her hand +to Maximilian of Austria, afterwards emperor. Catherine, Adolf's sister, +made an attempt to assert the rights of his son Charles to the duchy, +but by 1483 Maximilian had crushed all opposition and established +himself as duke of Gelderland. + +Charles of Egmont, however, did not surrender his claims, but with the +aid of the French collected an army, and in the course of 1492 and 1493 +succeeded in reconquering his inheritance. The efforts of Maximilian to +recover the country were vain, and the successive governors of the +Netherlands, Philip the Fair and his sister Margaret, fared no better. +In 1507 Charles of Egmont invaded Holland and Brabant, captured +Harderwijk and Bommel in 1511, threatened Amsterdam in 1512, and took +Groningen. It was, undoubtedly, a great and heroic achievement for the +ruler of a petty state like Gelderland thus to assert and maintain his +independence for a long period against the overwhelming power of the +house of Austria. It was not till 1528 that the emperor Charles V. could +force him to accept the compromise of the treaty of Gorichen, by which +he received Gelderland and Zutphen for life as fiefs of the Empire. In +1534 the duke, who was childless, attempted to transfer the reversion of +Gelderland to France, but this project was violently resisted by the +estates of the duchy, and Charles was compelled by them in 1538 to +appoint as his successor William V.--the Rich--of Cleves (d. 1592). +Charles died the same year, and William, with the aid of the French, +succeeded in maintaining his position in Gelderland for several years. +The Habsburg power was, however, in the end too great for him, and he +was forced to cede the duchy to Charles V. by the treaty of Venloo, +signed on the 7th of September 1543. + +Gelderland was now definitely amalgamated with the Habsburg dominions in +the Netherlands, until the revolt of the Low Countries led to its +partition. In 1579 the northern and greater part, comprising the three +"quarters" of Nijmwegen, Arnhem and Zutphen, joined the Union of Utrecht +and became the province of Gelderland in the Dutch republic. Only the +quarter of Roermonde remained subject to the crown of Spain, and was +called Spanish Gelderland. By the treaty of Utrecht (1715) this was +ceded to Prussia with the exception of Venloo, which fell to the United +Provinces, and Roermonde, which, with the remaining Spanish Netherlands, +passed to Austria. Of this, part was ceded to France at the peace of +Basel in 1795, and the whole by the treaty of Lunéville in 1801, when it +received the name of the department of the Roer. By the peace of Paris +of 1814 the bulk of Gelderland was incorporated in the United +Netherlands, the remainder falling to Prussia, where it forms the circle +of Düsseldorf. + +The rise of the towns in Gelderland began in the 13th century, river +commerce and markets being the chief cause of their prosperity, but they +never attained to the importance of the larger cities in Holland and +Utrecht, much less to that of the great Flemish municipalities. They +differed also from the Flemish cities in the nature of their privileges +and immunities, as they did not possess the rights of communes, but only +those of "free cities" of the Rhenish type. The power of the feudal lord +over them was much greater. The states of Gelderland first became a +considerable power in the land during the reign of Arnold of Egmont +(1423-1473). Their claim to large privileges and a considerable share in +the government of the county were formulated in a document drawn up at +Nijmwegen in April 1436. These the duke had to concede, and to agree +further to the appointment of a council to assist him in his +administration. From this time the absolute authority of the sovereign +in Gelderland was broken. The states consisted of two members--the +nobility and the towns. The towns were divided into four separate +districts or "quarters" named after the chief town in each--Nijmwegen, +Arnhem, Zutphen and Roermonde. In the time of the republic, as has been +stated above, the province of Gelderland comprised the three first-named +"quarters" only. The three quarters had each of them peculiar rights and +customs, and their representatives met together in a separate assembly +before taking part in the diet (_landdag_) of the states. The nobility +possessed great influence in Gelderland and retained it in the time of +the republic. (G. E.) + + + + +GELDERLAND (_Guelders_), a province of Holland, bounded S. by Rhenish +Prussia and North Brabant, W. by Utrecht and South Holland, N. by the +Zuider Zee, N.E. by Overysel, and S.E. by the Prussian province of +Westphalia. It has an area of 1906 sq. m. and a pop. (1900) of 566,549. +Historically it was part of the duchy of Gelderland, which is treated +separately above. + +The main portion of Gelderland north of the Rhine and the Old Ysel forms +as it were an extension of the province of Overysel, being composed of +diluvial sand and gravel, covered with sombre heaths and patches of fen. +South of this line, however, the soil consists of fertile river-clay. +The northern portion is divided by the New (or Gelders) Ysel into two +distinct regions, namely, the Veluwe ("bad land") on the west, and the +former countship of Zutphen on the east. In this last division the +ground slopes downwards from south-east to north-west (131 to 26 ft.) +and is intersected by several fertilizing streams which flow in the same +direction to join the Ysel. The extreme eastern corner is occupied by +older Tertiary loam, which is used for making bricks, and upon this and +the river-banks are the most fertile spots, woods, cultivated land, +pastures, towns and villages. The highlands of the Veluwe lying west of +the Ysel really extend as far as the Crooked Rhine and the Vecht in the +province of Utrecht, but are slightly detached from the Utrecht hills by +the so-called Gelders valley, which forms the boundary between the two +provinces. This valley extends from the Rhine along the Grift, the +Luntersche Beek, and the Eem to the Zuider Zee, and would still offer an +outlet in this direction to the Rhine at high water if it were not for +the river dikes. The two main ridges of the Veluwe hills (164 and 360 +ft.) extend from the neighbourhood of Arnhem north to Harderwyk and +north-east to Hattem. In the south they stretch themselves along the +banks of the Rhine, forming a strip of picturesque river scenery made up +of the varied elements of sandhills and trees, clay-lands and pastures. +A large number of country-houses and villas are to be found here, and +the riverside villages of Dieren, Velp and Renkum. All over the Veluwe +are heaths, scantily cultivated, with fields of rye and buckwheat, +cattle of inferior quality, and sheep, and a sparse population. There is +also a considerable cultivation of wood, especially of fir and copse, +while tobacco plantations are found at Nykerk and Wageningen. + +The southern division of the province presents a very different aspect, +and contains many old towns and villages. It is watered by the three +large rivers, the Rhine, the Waal and the Maas, and has a level clay +soil, varied only by isolated hills and a sandy, wooded stretch between +Nijmwegen and the southern border. The region enclosed between the Rhine +and the Waal and watered by the Linge is called the Betuwe ("good +land"), and gave its name to the Germanic tribe of Batavians, who are +sometimes wrongly regarded as the parent stock of the Dutch people. +There is here a denser population, occupied in the cultivation of wheat, +beetroot and fruit, the breeding of excellent cattle, shipping and +industrial pursuits. The principal centres of population, such as +Zutphen, Arnhem (the chief town of the province), Nijmwegen and Tiel, +lie along the large rivers. Smaller, but of equal antiquity, are the +riverside towns of Doesburg, which is strongly fortified; Wageningen, +with the State agricultural schools; Doetinchem, with a bridge over the +Old Ysel which is mentioned as early as the 14th century; Zalt-Bommel, +with an old church (1304), and a railway bridge over the Waal; and +Kuilenburg, with a fine railway bridge (1863-1868) over the Rhine. Five +m. S. of Zalt-Bommel, on the Maas, is the medieval castle of Ammerzode +or Ammersooi, also called Amelroy during the French occupation in 1674. +It is in an excellent state of preservation and has been restored in +modern times. The first authentic record of the castle is its possession +by John de Herlar of the noble family of Loo at the end of the 13th +century. In 1480 it passed by marriage to the powerful lords van Arkel, +and was partly destroyed by fire at the end of the 16th century. The +chapel dates from the 15th century, and the keep from 1564. Among the +family portraits are works by Albert Dürer. Zetten, on the railway +between Nijmwegen and Tiel, is famous for the charitable institutions +founded here by the preacher Otto Gerhard Heldring (d. 1876). They +comprise a penitentiary (1849) for women; an educational home (1858) for +girls; a theological training college (1864); and a Magdalen hospital. +Nykerk, Harderwyk and Elburg are fishing towns on the Zuider Zee. +Apeldoorn is situated on the edge of the sand-grounds. Heerenberg on the +south-eastern border is remarkable for its ancient castle near the seat +of the powerful lords van den Bergh. Other ancient and historical towns +bordering on the Prussian frontier are Zevenaar, which was for long the +cause of dispute between the houses of Cleves and Gelder and was finally +attached to the kingdom of the Netherlands in 1816; Breedevoort, once +the seat of a lordship of the same name belonging to the counts van Loon +or Lohn, who built a castle here in the beginning of the 13th century +which was destroyed in 1646--the lordship was presented to Prince +William III. in 1697; Winterswyk, now an important railway junction, and +of growing industrial importance; and Borkeloo, or Borkulo, the seat of +an ancient lordship dating from the first half of the 12th century, +which finally came into the possession of Prince William V. of Orange +Nassau in 1777. The castle was formerly of importance. + +Gelderland is intersected by the main railway lines, which are largely +supplemented by steam-tram railways. Steam-tramways connect Arnhem and +Zutphen, Wageningen, Nijmwegen, Velp, Doetinchem (by way of Dieren and +Doesburg), whence there are various lines to Emmerich and Gendringen on +the Prussian borders. Groenlo and Lichtenvorde, Borkulo and Deventer are +also connected. + + + + +GELDERN, a town of Germany, in Rhenish Prussia, on the Niers, 28 m. N. +W. of Düsseldorf, at the junction of railways to Wesel and Cologne. Pop. +(1905) 6551. It has an Evangelical and two Roman Catholic churches and a +town hall with a fine council chamber. Its industries include the +manufacture of buttons, shoes, cigars and soap. The town dates from +about 1100 and was early an important fortified place; until 1371 it was +the residence of the counts and dukes of Gelderland. Having passed to +Spain, its fortifications were strengthened by Philip II., but they were +razed by Frederick the Great, the town having been in the possession of +Prussia since 1703. + + See Nettesheim, _Geschichte der Stadt und des Amtes Geldern_ (Crefeld, + 1863); Henrichs, _Beiträge zur innern Geschichte der Stadt Geldern_ + (Geldern, 1893); and Real, _Chronik der Stadt und Umgegend von + Geldern_ (Geldern, 1897). + + + + +GELL, SIR WILLIAM (1777-1836), English classical archaeologist, was born +at Hopton in Derbyshire. He was educated at Jesus College, Cambridge, +and subsequently elected a fellow of Emmanuel College (B.A. 1798, M.A. +1804). About 1800 he was sent on a diplomatic mission to the Ionian +islands, and on his return in 1803 he was knighted. He went with +Princess (afterwards Queen) Caroline to Italy in 1814 as one of her +chamberlains, and gave evidence in her favour at the trial in 1820 (see +G.P. Clerici, _A Queen of Indiscretions_, Eng. trans., London, 1907). He +died at Naples on the 4th of February 1836. His numerous drawings of +classical ruins and localities, executed with great detail and +exactness, are preserved in the British Museum. Gell was a thorough +dilettante, fond of society and possessed of little real scholarship. +None the less his topographical works became recognized text-books at a +time when Greece and even Italy were but superficially known to English +travellers. He was a fellow of the Royal Society and the Society of +Antiquaries, and a member of the Institute of France and the Berlin +Academy. + + His best-known work is _Pompeiana; the Topography, Edifices and + Ornaments of Pompeii_ (1817-1832), in the first part of which he was + assisted by J.P. Gandy. It was followed in 1834 by the _Topography of + Rome and its Vicinity_ (new ed. by E.H. Bunbury, 1896). He wrote also + _Topography of Troy and its Vicinity_ (1804); _Geography and + Antiquities of Ithaca_ (1807); _Itinerary of Greece, with a Commentary + on Pausanias and Strabo_ (1810, enlarged ed. 1827); _Itinerary of the + Morea_ (1816; republished as _Narrative of a Journey in the Morea_, + 1823). All these works have been superseded by later publications. + + + + +GELLERT, CHRISTIAN FÜRCHTEGOTT (1715-1769), German poet, was born at +Hainichen in the Saxon Erzgebirge on the 4th of July 1715. After +attending the famous school of St Afra in Meissen, he entered Leipzig +University in 1734 as a student of theology, and on completing his +studies in 1739 was for two years a private tutor. Returning to Leipzig +in 1741 he contributed to the _Bremer Beiträge_, a periodical founded by +former disciples of Johann Christoph Gottsched, who had revolted from +the pedantry of his school. Owing to shyness and weak health Gellert +gave up all idea of entering the ministry, and, establishing himself in +1745 as _privatdocent_ in philosophy at the university of Leipzig, +lectured on poetry, rhetoric and literary style with much success. In +1751 he was appointed extraordinary professor of philosophy, a post +which he held until his death at Leipzig on the 13th of December 1769. + +The esteem and veneration in which Gellert was held by the students, and +indeed by persons in all classes of society, was unbounded, and yet due +perhaps less to his unrivalled popularity as a lecturer and writer than +to his personal character. He was the noblest and most amiable of men, +generous, tender-hearted and of unaffected piety and humility. He wrote +in order to raise the religious and moral character of the people, and +to this end employed language which, though at times prolix, was always +correct and clear. He thus became one of the most popular German +authors, and some of his poems enjoyed a celebrity out of proportion to +their literary value. This is more particularly true of his _Fabeln und +Erzählungen_ (1746-1748) and of his _Geistliche Oden und Lieder_ (1757). +The fables, for which he took La Fontaine as his model, are simple and +didactic. The "spiritual songs," though in force and dignity they cannot +compare with the older church hymns, were received by Catholics and +Protestants with equal favour. Some of them were set to music by +Beethoven. Gellert wrote a few comedies: _Die Betschwester_ (1745), _Die +kranke Frau_ (1748), _Das Los in der Lotterie_ (1748), and _Die +zärtlichen Schwestern_ (1748), the last of which was much admired. His +novel _Die schwedische Gräfin von G._ (1746), a weak imitation of +Richardson's _Pamela_, is remarkable as being the first German attempt +at a psychological novel. Gellert's _Briefe_ (letters) were regarded at +the time as models of good style. + + See Gellert's _Sämtliche Schriften_ (first edition, 10 vols., Leipzig, + 1769-1774; last edition, Berlin, 1867). _Sämtliche Fabeln und + Erzählungen_ have been often published separately, the latest edition + in 1896. A selection of Gellert's poetry (with an excellent + introduction) will be found in F. Muncker, _Die Bremer Beiträge_ + (Stuttgart, 1899). A translation by J.A. Murke, _Gellert's Fables and + other Poems_ (London, 1851). For a further account of Gellert's life + and work see lives by J.A. Cramer (Leipzig, 1774), H. Döring (Greiz, + 1833), and H.O. Nietschmann (2nd ed., Halle, 1901); also _Gellerts + Tagebuch aus dem Jahre 1761_ (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1863) and _Gellerts + Briefwechsel mit Demoiselle Lucius_ (Leipzig, 1823). + + + + +GELLERT, or KILLHART, in Welsh traditional history, the dog of +Llewellyn, prince of Wales. The dog, a greyhound, was left to guard the +cradle in which the infant heir slept. A wolf enters, and is about to +attack the child, when Gellert flies at him. In the struggle the cradle +is upset and the infant falls underneath. Gellert kills the wolf, but +when Prince Llewellyn arrives and sees the empty cradle and blood all +around, he does not for the moment notice the wolf, but thinks Gellert +has killed the baby. He at once stabs him, but almost instantly finds +his son safe under the cradle and realizes the dog's bravery. Gellert is +supposed to have been buried near the village of Beddgelert ("grave of +Gellert"), Snowdon, where his tomb is still pointed out to visitors. The +date of the incident is traditionally given as 1205. The incident has +given rise to a Welsh proverb, "I repent as much as the man who slew his +greyhound." The whole story is, however, only the Welsh version of a +tale long before current in Europe, which is traced to the Indian +Panchatantra and perhaps as far back as 200 B.C. + + See W.A. Clouston, _Popular Tales and Fictions_ (1887); D.E. Jenkins, + _Beddgelert, its Facts, Fairies and Folklore_ (Portmadoc, 1899). + + + + +GELLIUS, AULUS (c. A.D. 130-180), Latin author and grammarian, probably +born at Rome. He studied grammar and rhetoric at Rome and philosophy at +Athens, after which he returned to Rome, where he held a judicial +office. His teachers and friends included many distinguished +men--Sulpicius Apollinaris, Herodes Atticus and Fronto. His only work, +the _Noctes Atticae_, takes its name from having been begun during the +long nights of a winter which he spent in Attica. He afterwards +continued it at Rome. It is compiled out of an Adversaria, or +commonplace book, in which he had jotted down everything of unusual +interest that he heard in conversation or read in books, and it +comprises notes on grammar, geometry, philosophy, history and almost +every other branch of knowledge. The work, which is utterly devoid of +sequence or arrangement, is divided into twenty books. All these have +come down to us except the eighth, of which nothing remains but the +index. The _Noctes Atticae_ is valuable for the insight it affords into +the nature of the society and pursuits of those times, and for the +numerous excerpts it contains from the works of lost ancient authors. + + Editio princeps (Rome, 1469); the best editions are those of Gronovius + (1706) and M. Hertz (1883-1885; editio minor, 1886, revised by C. + Hosius, 1903, with bibliography). There is a translation in English by + W. Beloe (1795), and in French by various hands (1896). See Sandys, + _Hist. Class. Schol._ i. (1906), 210. + + + + +GELLIVARA [GELLIVARE], a mining town of Sweden in the district (_län_) +of Norrbotten, 815 m. N. by E. of Stockholm by rail. It lies in the +well-nigh uninhabited region of Swedish Lapland, 43 m. N. of the Arctic +Circle. It owes its importance to the iron mines in the mountain +Malmberget 4½ m. to the north, rising to 2024 ft. above sea-level (830 +ft. above Gellivara town). During the dark winter months work proceeds +by the aid of electric light. In 1864 the mines were acquired by an +English company, but abandoned in 1867. In 1884 another English company +took them up and completed a provisional railway from Malmberget to +Luleå at the head of the Gulf of Bothnia (127 m. S.S.E.), besides +executing a considerable portion of the preliminary works for the +continuation of the line on the Norwegian side from Ofoten Fjord upwards +(see NARVIK). But this company, after extracting some 150,000 tons of +ore in 1888-1889, went into liquidation in the latter year. Two years +later the mines passed into the hands of a Swedish company, and the +railway was acquired by the Swedish Government. The output of ore was +insignificant until 1892, when it stood at 178,000 tons; but in 1902 it +amounted to 1,074,000 tons. Three miles S.W. rises the hill Gellivara +Dundret (2700 ft.), from which the sun is visible at midnight from June +5 to July 11. The population of the parish (about 6500 sq. m.) in 1900 +was 11,745; the greater part of the population being congregated at the +town of Gellivara and at Malmberget. + + + + +GELNHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, +on the Kinzig, 27 m. E.N.E. of Frankfort-on-Main, on the railway to +Bebra. Pop. 4500. It is romantically situated on the slope of a +vine-clad hill, and is still surrounded by ancient walls and towers. On +an island in the river are the ivy-covered ruins of the imperial palace +which Frederick I. (Barbarossa) built before 1170, and which was +destroyed by the Swedes during the Thirty Years' War. It has an +interesting and beautiful church (the Marien Kirche), with four spires +(of which that on the transept is curiously crooked), built in the 13th +century, and restored in 1876-1879; also several other ancient +buildings, notably the town-hall, the Fürstenhof (now administrative +offices), and the Hexenthurm. India-rubber goods are manufactured, and +wine is made. Gelnhausen became an imperial town in 1169, and diets of +the Empire were frequently held within its walls. In 1634 and 1635 it +suffered severely from the Swedes. In 1803 the town became the property +of Hesse-Cassel, and in 1866 passed to Prussia. + + + + +GELO, son of Deinomenes, tyrant of Gela and Syracuse. On the death of +Hippocrates, tyrant of Gela (491 B.C.), Gelo, who had been his commander +of cavalry, succeeded him; and in 485, his aid having been invoked by +the Gamori (the oligarchical landed proprietors) of Syracuse who had +been driven out by the populace, he seized the opportunity of making +himself despot. From this time Gelo paid little attention to Gela, and +devoted himself to the aggrandizement of Syracuse, which attained +extraordinary wealth and influence. When the Greeks solicited his aid +against Xerxes, he refused it, since they would not give him command of +the allied forces (Herodotus vii. 171). In the same year the +Carthaginians invaded Sicily, but were totally defeated at Himera, the +result of the victory being that Gelo became lord of all Sicily. After +he had thus established his power, he made a show of resigning it; but +his proposal was rejected by the multitude, and he reigned without +opposition till his death (478). He was honoured as a hero, and his +memory was held in such respect that when all the brazen statues of +tyrants were condemned to be sold in the time of Timoleon (150 years +later) an exemption was made in favour of the statue of Gelo. + + Herodotus vii.; Diod. Sic. xi. 20-38; see also SICILY: _History_, and + SYRACUSE; for his coins see NUMISMATICS: _Sicily_. + + + + +GELSEMIUM, a drug consisting of the root of _Gelsemium nitidum_, a +clinging shrub of the natural order Loganiaceae, having a milky juice, +opposite, lanceolate shining leaves, and axillary clusters of from one +to five large, funnel-shaped, very fragrant yellow flowers, whose +perfume has been compared with that of the wallflower. The fruit is +composed of two separable jointed pods, containing numerous flat-winged +seeds. The stem often runs underground for a considerable distance, and +indiscriminately with the root it is used in medicine. The plant is a +native of the United States, growing on rich clay soil by the side of +streams near the coast, from Virginia to the south of Florida. In the +United States it is commonly known as the wild, yellow or Carolina +jessamine, although in no way related to the true jessamines, which +belong to the order Oleaceae. It was first described in 1640 by John +Parkinson, who grew it in his garden from seed sent by Tradescant from +Virginia; at the present time it is but rarely seen, even in botanical +gardens, in Great Britain. + +The drug contains a volatile oil and two potent alkaloids, gelseminine +and gelsemine. Gelseminine is a yellowish, bitter substance, readily +soluble in ether and alcohol. It is not employed therapeutically. +Gelsemine has the formula C11H19NO2, and is a colourless, odourless, +intensely bitter solid, which is insoluble in water, but readily forms a +soluble hydrochloride. The dose of this salt is from 1/60th to 1/20th of +a grain. The British Pharmacopoeia contains a tincture of gelsemium, the +dose of which is from five to fifteen minims. + +[Illustration: _Gelsemium nitidum_, half natural size; flower, nat. +size.] + +The drug is essentially a nerve poison. It has no action on the skin and +no marked action on the alimentary or circulatory systems. Its action on +the cerebrum is slight, consciousness being retained even after toxic +doses, but there may be headache and giddiness. The drug rapidly causes +failure of vision, diplopia, ptosis or falling of the upper eyelid, +dilatation of the pupil, and a lowering of the intra-ocular tension. +This last action is doubtful. The symptoms appear to be due to a +paralysis of the motor cells that control the internal and external +ocular muscles. The most marked action of the drug is upon the anterior +cornua of grey matter in the spinal cord. It can be shown by a process +of experimental exclusion that to an arrest of function of these cells +is due the paralysis of all the voluntary muscles of the body that +follows the administration of gelsemium or gelsemine. Just before death +the sensory part of the spinal cord is also paralysed, general +anaesthesia resulting. The drug kills by its action on the respiratory +centre in the medulla oblongata. Shortly after the administration of +even a moderate dose the respiration is slowed and is ultimately +arrested, this being the cause of death. In cases of poisoning the +essential treatment is artificial respiration, which may be aided by the +subcutaneous exhibition of strychnine. + +Though the drug is still widely used, the rational indications for its +employment are singularly rare and uncertain. The conditions in which it +is most frequently employed are convulsions, bronchitis, severe and +purposeless coughing, myalgia or muscular pain, neuralgia and various +vague forms of pain. + + + + +GELSENKIRCHEN, a town of Germany in the Prussian province of Westphalia, +27 m. W. of Dortmund on the railway Duisburg-Hamm. Pop. (1905) 147,037. +It has coal mines, iron furnaces, steel and boiler works, and soap, +glass and chemical factories. In 1903 various neighbouring industrial +townships were incorporated with the town. + + + + +GEM (Lat. _gemma_, a bud,--from the root _gen_, meaning "to +produce,"--or precious stone; in the latter sense the Greek term is +[Greek: psêphos]), a word applied in a wide sense to certain minerals +which, by reason of their brilliancy, hardness and rarity, are valued +for personal decoration; it is extended to include pearl. In a +restricted sense the term is applied only to precious stones after they +have been cut and polished as jewels, whilst in their raw state the +minerals are conveniently called "gem-stones." Sometimes, again, the +term "gem" is used in a yet narrower sense, being restricted to engraved +stones, like seals and cameos. + +The subject is treated here in two sections: (1) Mineralogy and general +properties; (2) Gems in Art, i.e. engraved gems, such as seals and +cameos. The artificial products which simulate natural gem-stones in +properties and chemical composition are treated in the separate article +GEM, ARTIFICIAL. + + +1. MINERALOGY AND GENERAL PROPERTIES + +The gem-stones form a small conventional group of minerals, including +principally the diamond, ruby, sapphire, emerald and opal. Other stones +of less value--such as topaz, spinel, chrysoberyl, chrysolite, zircon +and tourmaline--are sometimes called "fancy stones." Many minerals still +less prized, yet often used as ornamental stones,--like moonstone, +rock-crystal and agate,--occasionally pass under the name of +"semi-precious stones," but this is rather a vague term and may include +the stones of the preceding group. The classification of gem-stones is, +indeed, to some extent a matter of fashion. + +Descriptions of the several gem-stones will be found under their +respective headings, and the present article gives only a brief review +of the general characters of the group. + + + Hardness. + +A high degree of hardness is an essential property of a gem-stone, for +however beautiful and brilliant a mineral may be it is useless to the +jeweller if it lack sufficient hardness to withstand the abrasion to +which articles of personal decoration are necessarily subjected. Even if +not definitely scratched, the polished stone becomes dull by wear. +Imitations in paste may be extremely brilliant, but being comparatively +soft they soon lose lustre when rubbed. In the article MINERALOGY it is +explained that the varying degrees of hardness are registered on a +definite scale. The exceptional hardness of the diamond gives it a +supreme position in this scale, and to it the arbitrary value of 10 has +been assigned. The corundum gem-stones (ruby and sapphire), though +greatly inferior in hardness to the diamond, come next, with the value +of 9; and it is notable that the sapphire is usually rather harder than +ruby. Then follows the topaz, which, with spinel and chrysoberyl, has a +hardness of 8; whilst quartz falls a degree lower. Most gem-stones are +harder than quartz, though precious opal, turquoise, moonstone and +sphene are inferior to it in hardness. Those stones which are softer +than quartz have been called by jewellers _demi-dures_. To test the +hardness of a cut stone, one of its sharp edges may be drawn, with firm +pressure, across the smooth surface of a piece of quartz; if it leave a +scratch its hardness must be above 7. The stone is then applied in like +manner to a fragment of topaz, preferably a cleavage-piece, and if it +fail to leave a distinct scratch its hardness is between 7 and 8, +whereas if the topaz be scratched it is above 8. An expert may obtain a +fair idea of hardness by gently passing the stone over a fine steel +file, and observing the feel of the stone and the grating sound which it +emits. If a stone be scratched by a steel knife its hardness is below 6. +The degree of hardness of a precious stone is soon ascertained by the +lapidary when cutting it. + + + Specific gravity. + +Gem-stones differ markedly among themselves in density or specific +weight; and although this is a character which does not directly affect +their value for ornamental purposes, it furnishes by its constancy an +important means of distinguishing one stone from another. Moreover, it +is a character very easily determined and can be applied to cut stones +without injury. The relative weightiness of a stone is called its +specific gravity, and is often abbreviated as S.G. The number given in +the description of a mineral as S.G. shows how many times the stone is +heavier than an equal bulk of the standard with which it is compared, +the standard being distilled water at 4° C. If, for example, the S.G. of +diamond is said to be 3.5 it means that a diamond weighs 3½ times as +much as a mass of water of the same bulk. The various methods of +determining specific gravity are described under DENSITY. The readiest +method of testing precious stones, especially when cut, is to use dense +liquids. Suppose it be required to determine whether a yellow stone be +true topaz or false topaz (quartz), it is merely necessary to drop the +stone into a liquid made up to the specific gravity of about 3; and +since topaz has S.G. of 3.5 it sinks in this medium, but as quartz has +S.G. of only 2.65 it floats. The densest gem-stone is zircon, which may +have S.G. as high as 4.7, whilst the lowest is opal with S.G. 2.2. +Amber, it is true, is lighter still, being scarcely denser than water, +but this substance can hardly be called a gem. + + + Crystalline form and cleavage. + +Although the great majority of precious stones occur crystallized, the +characteristic form is destroyed in cutting. The crystal-forms of the +several stones are noticed under their respective headings, and the +subject is discussed fully under CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. A few substances used +as ornamental stones--like opal, turquoise, obsidian and amber--are +amorphous or without crystalline form; whilst others, like the various +stones of the chalcedony-group, display no obvious crystal-characters, +but are seen under the microscope to possess a crystalline structure. +Gem-stones are frequently found in gravels or other detrital deposits, +where they occur as rolled crystals or fragments of crystals, and in +many cases have been reduced to the form of pebbles. By the +disintegration of the rock which formed the original matrix, its +constituent minerals were set free, and whilst many of them were worn +away by long-continued attrition, the gem-stones survived by virtue of +their superior hardness. + +Many crystallized gem-stones exhibit cleavage, or a tendency to split in +definite directions. The lapidary recognizes a "grain" in the stone. +When the cleavage is perfect, as in topaz, it may render the working of +the stone difficult, and produce incipient cracks in the cut gem. Flaws +due to the cleavage planes are called "feathers." The octahedral +cleavage of the diamond is taken advantage of in dressing the stone +before cutting it. The cutting of gem-stones is explained under +LAPIDARY. + + + Colour. + +The beauty and consequent value of gems depend mainly on their colour. +Some stones, it is true, are valued for entire absence of colour, as +diamonds of pure "water." Certain kinds of sapphire and topaz, too, are +"water clear," as also is pure rock-crystal; but in most stones colour +is a prime element of attraction. The colour, however, is not generally +an essential property of the mineral, but is due to the presence of +foreign pigmentary matter, often in very small proportion and in some +cases eluding determination. Thus, corundum when pure is colourless, but +the presence of traces of certain mineral substances imparts to it not +only the red of ruby and the blue of sapphire, but almost every other +colour. The tinctorial matter may be distributed either uniformly +throughout the stone or in regular zones, or in quite irregular patches. +A tourmaline, for instance, may be red at one end of a prismatic crystal +and green at the other extremity, or the colour may be so disposed that +in transverse section the centre will be red and the outer zone green. A +beryl may be yellow and green in the same crystal. Sapphire, again, is +often parti-coloured, one portion of the stone being blue and other +portions white or yellow; and the skilful lapidary, in cutting the +stone, will take advantage of the blue portion. The character of the +pigment is in many cases not definitely known. It by no means follows +that the material capable of imparting a certain tint to glass is +identical with that which naturally colours a stone of the same tint; +thus a glass of sapphire-blue may be obtained by the use of cobalt, yet +cobalt has not been detected in the sapphire. Probably the most common +mineral pigments are compounds of iron, manganese, copper and chromium. +If the colour of the stone be discharged by heat, an organic pigment is +presumably present. Some ornamental stones change their colour, or even +lose it, on exposure to sunlight and air: such is the case with +rose-quartz, chrysoprase and certain kinds of topaz and turquoise. +Exposure to heat alters the colour of some stones so readily that the +change is taken advantage of commercially; thus, sherry-yellow topaz may +be rendered pink, smoky and amethystine quartz may become yellow, and +coloured zircons may be decolorized, so as to resemble diamonds. + +The colours of some gem-stones are greatly affected by radioactivity, +and Prof. F. Bordas has found this to be particularly the case with +sapphire. From his experiments he believes that yellow corundum, or +oriental topaz, may have been formed from blue corundum under the +influence of radioactive substances present in the soil in which the +sapphire was embedded. Different shades of colour may be presented by +different stones of the same species; and it was formerly the custom of +lapidaries to regard the darker stones as masculine and the paler as +feminine, a full blue sapphire, for instance, being called a "male +sapphire" and a delicate blue stone a "female sapphire." It is notable +that some stones appear to change colour by candle-light and by most +other artificial means of illumination; some amethysts thus become inky, +and certain sapphires acquire a murky tint, whilst others become +amethystine. For an example of a remarkable change of this character, +see ALEXANDRITE. + + + Refraction. + +As the optical properties of minerals are fully explained under +CRYSTALLOGRAPHY, little need be said here on this subject. The +brilliancy of a cut stone depends on the amount of light reflected from +its faces; and in the form known as the "brilliant" the gem is so cut +that much of the incident light, after entering the stone and suffering +refraction, is totally reflected from the facets at the back. The amount +of light which is thus returned to the eye of the observer will be +greater as the angle of total reflection, or critical angle, is smaller, +but this angle will be small if the refractive power of the stone is +great, so that the brilliancy directly depends on the refractivity. The +diamond has the highest refractive index of any gem-stone (2.42). +Jargoon, or zircon, has also a high index (mean 1.95), and sphene, which +is occasionally cut as a gem, is likewise very notable in this respect. +The index of refraction generally bears a relation to the specific +gravity of the stone, the heaviest gems having the highest indices, +though a few minerals offer exceptions. The refractive index, which is +thus a very important character in the scientific discrimination of +gem-stones, may be conveniently determined, within certain limits, by +means of the refractometer devised by Dr G.F. Herbert Smith. This +instrument is an improved form of the total reflectometer, in which the +refractive power of a given substance is determined by the method of +total reflection. It may be used for indices ranging from 1.300 to +1.775, and may be applied to faceted stones without removal from their +settings. + + + Dispersion. + +The play of prismatic colours exhibited by a cut stone, often known as +its "fire," is due to the decomposition of the white light which enters +the stone, and is returned, by internal reflection, after resolution in +to its coloured components. This decomposition depends on the dispersive +power of the substance. The exceptional beauty of the fiery flashes in +the diamond is due to its high dispersion, in other words, to the +difference between the refractive indices for the red rays and the +violet rays at the extremities of the spectrum. The peculiar lustre +exhibited by the diamond is called adamantine, and is shared to some +extent by certain other stones which have a high refractive index and +high dispersion, such as zircon. + + + Spectroscopic characters. + +The use of the spectroscope may be valuable in discriminating between +certain precious stones. It was shown by Sir A.H. Church that almandine +garnet and zircon when simply viewed through this instrument give, under +proper conditions, characteristic absorption spectra, due to the light +reflected from the stone having penetrated to some extent into the +substance of the mineral and suffered absorption. It is sometimes +useful to examine the behaviour of a stone under the action of the +Röntgen rays. + + + Dichroism. + +A very useful means of discriminating between certain stones is found in +their dichroism, or, to use a more general term, pleochroism. Neither +amorphous minerals, like opal, nor minerals crystallizing in the cubic +system, like spinel and garnet, possess this property; but coloured +minerals which are doubly refracting may show different colours, when +properly examined, in different directions. Occasionally this is so +marked as to be detected by the naked eye, as in iolite or dichroite, +but usually the stone needs to be examined with such an instrument as +Haidinger's dichroscope (see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY). It must be remembered +that in the direction of an optic axis the two images will be of the +same colour in all positions of the instrument, and it is therefore +necessary before reaching a definite conclusion to turn the stone about +and examine it in various directions. The use of the dichroscope is so +simple that it can be applied by any one to the examination of a cut +stone, but there are other means of determining the nature of a stone by +its optical properties available to the mineralogist and more suitably +discussed under CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. + + + Chemical composition. + +In chemical composition the gem-stones present great variety. Diamond is +composed of only a single element; ruby, sapphire and the quartz-group +are oxides; spinel and chrysoberyl may be regarded as aluminates; +turquoise and beryllonite are phosphates; and a great number of +ornamental stones are silicates of greater or less complexity, such as +emerald, topaz, chrysolite, garnet, zircon, tourmaline, kunzite, sphene +and benitoite. In the examination of a cut stone chemical tests are not +available, since they usually involve the partial destruction of the +mineral. The artificial production of certain gems by chemical processes +which yield products identical in composition and physical properties +with the natural stones, is described in the article GEM, ARTIFICIAL. + +Doublets and triplets are composite stone, sometimes prepared for +fraudulent purposes. In a doublet a slab of real gem-stone covers the +face of a paste, whilst in a triplet the paste is both faced and backed +by a slice of genuine stone. By the action of a suitable solvent, such +as chloroform or in some cases even hot water, the cement uniting the +pieces gives way and the compound character of the structure is +detected. + +Before the chemical composition of gem-stones was understood, their +classification remained vague and unscientific. As the ancients depended +almost entirely on the eye, the colour of the stone naturally became the +chief factor in classification. A variety of stones agreeing roughly in +colour would be grouped together under a common name, widely as they +might differ in other respects. Thus the emerald, the peridot, green +fluorspar, malachite, and certain kinds of quartz and jade seem to have +been united under the general name of [Greek: smaragdos] whilst the +ruby, red spinel and garnet were probably grouped together as +_carbunculus_. In this way minerals radically different were associated +on the ground of what is generally a superficial and accidental +character, and rarely of any classificatory value. On the other hand, a +grouping based only on colour led to several names being in some cases +applied to the same mineral species. Thus the ruby and sapphire are +essentially identical in chemical composition and in all physical +characters, save colour. + + + Superstitions. + +Descriptions of precious stones by ancient writers generally are too +vague for exact diagnosis. The principal classical authorities are +Theophrastus and the elder Pliny. Stones were formerly held in esteem +not only for their beauty and rarity but for the medicinal and magical +powers with which they were reputed to be endowed. Up to comparatively +recent years the toadstone, for example, was worn not for beauty but for +sake of occult virtue; and even at the present day certain stones, like +jade, are valued for a similar reason. Prof. W. Ridgeway has suggested +that jewelry took its origin not, as often supposed, in an innate love +of personal decoration, but rather in the belief that the objects used +possessed magical virtue. Small stones peculiar in colour or shape, +especially those with natural perforations, are usually valued by +uncivilized peoples as amulets. The Orphic poem [Greek: Lithika], +reputed to be of very early though unknown date, is rich in allusions to +the virtues of many of the gem-stones. Many of the medical and other +virtues of precious stones were evidently attributed to them on the +well-known doctrine of signatures. Thus, the blood-red colour of a fine +jasper suggested that the stone would be useful in haemorrhage; a green +jasper would bring fertility to the soil; and the purple wine-colour of +amethyst pointed to its value as a preventive of intoxication. Many of +the superstitions came down to modern times, and even at the present day +the belief in "lucky stones" is by no means extinct. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The most comprehensive work on gem-stones is Professor + Max Bauer's _Edelsteinkunde_ (1896), translated, with additions, by + L.J. Spencer under the title _Precious Stones_ (1904). Less detailed + are Professor P. Groth's _Grundriss der Edelsteinkunde_ (1887) and + Professor C. Doelter's _Edelsteinkunde_ (1893). Sir A. H. Church's + _Precious Stones_ (1905), intended as a guide to the collections in + the Victoria and Albert Museum, is a convenient introduction: and + Professor H.A. Miers's Cantor Lectures at the Society of Arts on + _Precious Stones_ (1896) may be studied with advantage. For American + stones, the valuable work of Dr G.F. Kunz, _The Gems and Precious + Stones of N. America_, is a standard authority; and the Annual Reports + of this writer and others, published by the Geological Survey of the + United States in the _Mineral Resources_, form a repertory of valuable + information on precious stones in general. The articles in _The + Mineral Industry_ (founded by R.P. Rothwell) should also be consulted. + See likewise O.C. Farrington, _Gems and Gem Minerals_ (Chicago, 1903). + For optical characters reference should be made to G.F.H. Smith, _The + Herbert Smith Refractometer_ (London, 1907); L. Claremont, _The + Gem-Cutter's Craft_ (London, 1906); W. Goodchild, _Precious Stones_ + (London, 1908). (F. W. R.*) + + +2. GEMS IN ART + +In art, the word Gem is the general term for precious stones when +engraved with designs, whether adapted for sealing ([Greek: sphragis], +_sigillum_, _intaglio_), or mainly for artistic effect (_imagines +ectypae_, _cameo_). They exist in a very large number of undoubtedly +genuine old examples, extending from the mists of Babylonian antiquity +to the decline of Roman civilization, and again starting with a new, but +less original impulse on the revival of art. Apart from workmanship they +possess the charms of colour deep, rich, and varied, of material +unequalled for its endurance, and of scarcity, which in many instances +has been enhanced by the remoteness of the lands whence they came or the +fortuity of their occurrence. These qualities united within the small +compass of a gem were precisely such as were required in a seal as a +thing of constant use, so inalienable in its possession as to become +naturally a personal ornament and an attractive medium of artistic +skill, no less than the centre of traditions or of religious and +legendary associations. As regards the nations of classical antiquity, +all seals are classed as gems, though in many cases the material is not +such as would strictly come under that heading, and precious stones in +the modern sense are hardly known to occur. On the other hand it must +not be supposed that gems engraved in intaglio were necessarily employed +as seals. At all periods many intaglios are found which could not have +been so employed without great difficulty. In Greece and Rome, within +historic times, gems were worn engraved with designs to show that the +bearer was an adherent of a particular worship, the follower of a +certain philosopher, or the attached subject of an emperor. However, +speaking generally, the intaglio engraving is a means to an end, namely, +a seal-impression, while an engraving in relief is complete in itself. + +_Methods of Engraving_ (see also under LAPIDARY).--In gem-engraving the +principal modern implement is a wheel or minute copper disk, driven in +the manner of a lathe, and moistened with olive oil mixed with emery or +diamond dust. There is no clear proof of the use among the ancients of a +wheel mounted lathewise, but we have abundant indications of drilling +with a revolving tool, which might be either a tubular drill making a +ring-like depression, a pointed tool making a cup-like sinking, or a +small wheel with a cutting edge, making a boat-shaped depression. + +We have one sepulchral monument from Philadelphia showing the tool of an +intaglio engraver ([Greek: daktylokoilogyphos]; see _Athenische +Mitteilungen des Arch. Inst._ xv. p. 333). Unfortunately the relief is +incomplete, and the published illustration inadequate. It would seem, +however, that a revolving tool was supported by a kind of mandrel, and +actuated in primitive fashion by a bow. An alternative plan of working +was to use a splinter of diamond set in a handle and applied like a +graver. Both systems are clearly indicated by Pliny, who in one passage +(_H.N._ xxxvii. 60) states that diamond splinters are sought out by gem +engravers and set in iron, and so easily hollow out stones of any degree +of hardness; while elsewhere (_H.N._ xxxvii. 200) he speaks of the +special efficacy of the _fervor terebrarum_, the vehement action of +drills. A third method is also indicated by Pliny (_ibid._) when he +speaks of the use of a blunted tool, which must have been moistened and +supplied with emery of Naxos. + +A four-sided pendant of the Hellenistic period published by Furtwängler +(_Antike Gemmen, Gesch._ p. 400) shows clearly the successive stages of +the operation. On side a the subject is slightly sketched in with the +diamond point. On side b the deepest parts of the figure have also been +roughly scooped out with the wheel. On sides c and d the wheel work is +fairly complete, but the finer internal work has not been begun. + +After the design had been completed the stone must have received a final +polish on its surface, to obliterate any erroneous strokes of the first +sketch; but this process was not carried as far as in modern work. It is +a popular error to suppose that a high degree of internal polish is a +proof of antiquity. If the interior of the design has a high degree of +polish it may be either ancient or modern, or it may be an ancient stone +repolished in modern times. If it has a matt surface uniformly produced +by intention, it is probably modern. If the design is slightly dimmed +and worn or scratched the stone may be antique, but is not necessarily +so, since modern engravers have observed this peculiarity, and have +imitated it with a success which, were there no other grounds of +suspicion, might escape detection. + +_History._--It has been a subject of controversy whether the first +infancy of the art was passed in Egypt or in Babylonia, but it seems +highly probable that it was developed in Babylonia, whence at any rate +the oldest examples of engraved gems at present known are obtained. It +does not necessarily follow, however, that Egypt was therefore a pupil. +It may well be that the art was developed independently in the two +countries, although certain points of possible contact in respect of the +forms employed will be described below in the section dealing with +primitive Egypt. + +_Babylonia._--At a very remote period the cylindrical form of stone was +introduced and became the approved shape, while the technical skill of +the artist was still slight, and the traces of the tools employed (drill +and pencil point) were still unconcealed. + +The cylinder was suspended by a string and used as a seal. Impressions +of cylinders are frequent on contract tablets. If one of the parties +cannot use a seal he makes a nail-mark in lieu thereof, as is recorded +in the document. + +But from a time that was still comparatively early the engravers could +work with considerable skill in the hard stone. In particular a cylinder +may be quoted in the de Clercq Collection bearing the name of Sargon I. +of Agade, who is placed about 3500 B.C. The cylinder is engraved with +the king's name and titles and two symmetrically disposed renderings of +Izdubar, with a vase of flowing water giving drink to a bull. The whole +is treated in a conventionalized style that indicates long traditions. +An important early cylinder in the British Museum is inscribed with the +name of a viceroy of Ur-Gur, king of Ur (about 2500 B.C.). The engraving +shows Ur-Gur being led into the presence of Sin, the moon-god. + +The cylinder seal was adopted by the Assyrians, and so was carried on +continuously till the time of the Persian conquest of Babylon (538 +B.C.). Meanwhile, as an alternative form the conoidal seal, rounded at +the top and having a flat base for the intaglio, came into use beside +the cylinder. + +In style the Assyrians carried on the Babylonian tradition, but with no +freedom of design. Subjects and treatment became rigidly conventional. + +[Illustration: PLATE I. + + 1-5.--ORIENTAL. + + 1. Babylonian (late Sumerian) Cylinder of a Viceroy of Ur-Gur (or + Ur-Engur), 2500 B.C. + 2. Assyrian Cylinder. Woman adoring Goddess. + 3. Assyrian Cylinder. Assur worshipped by two Assyrian kings, and + divine Attendants. + 4. Persian Seal of Darius (500 B.C.). Lion Hunt. + 5. Graeco-Persian Scarabaeoid. Boar Hunt. + + 6-15.--CRETAN AND MYCENAEAN INTAGLIOS. + + 6. Cretan Symbols. + 7. Man and Bull. Crete. + 8. Lions and Column. Ialysus. + 9. Daemon. Crete. + 10. Lioness and Deer. + 11-13. Three-sided Stone. Peloponnesus. + 14. Man and Bull. Crete. + 15. Bull and Palm. Ialysus. + + 16-18.--GEMS OF THE ISLANDS. + + 16. Goddess on Waves. Birds. + 17. Lion and Goat. + 18. Heracles and Nereus. + + 19.--PHOENICIAN SEAL, inscribed. + + 20-26.--GRAECO-PHOENICIAN SCARABS FROM THARROS. + + 20. King, enthroned. + 21. Bes with Antelope and Hound. + 22. Bes with Lions. + 23. Warrior. + 24. Egyptian Device. + 25. Bes and Goats. + 26. Hawk of Horus. + + All the above are in the British Museum.] + +[Illustration: PLATE II. + + 27-34.--EARLY GREEK SCARABS AND SCARABAEOIDS. + + 27. Pluto and Persephone. (New York.) + 28. Boreas and Oreithyia. (New York.) + 29. Youth and Dog. + 30. Archer feeling Arrow Tip. (Lord Southesk.) + 31. Satyr and Wine Cup. + 32. Archer and Dog. + 33. Satyr with Wineskin. + 34. Athena with Gorgon Spoils. + + 35-44.--FINEST GREEK SCARABS AND SCARABAEOIDS. + + 35. Head of Young Warrior. + 36. Lyre Player. (Cockerell Coll.) + 37. Crane, with Deer's Antler. + 38. Head of Eos. + 39. Lyre Player. (Woodhouse Coll. and B.M.) + 40. Lyre Player, signed by Syries. + 41. Stork and Grasshopper, signed by Dexamenos. (St. Petersburg.) + 42. Flying Crane, signed by Dexamenos. (St. Petersburg.) + 43. Flying Goose. + 44. Lion and Stag. + + 45-54.--ETRUSCAN SCARABS. + + 45. Achilles in Retirement. + 46. Victory. + 47. Capaneus struck by the Bolt. + 48. Heracles. + 49. Capaneus struck by the Bolt. + 50. Achilles. + 51. Heracles and Cycnus. + 52. Heracles. + 53. Heracles and the Lion. + 54. Machaon bandaging Philoctetes. + + 55-57.--GREEK GEMS. + + 55. Girl with Scroll and Lyre. + 56. Girl with Water-Jar. + 57. Head of Aristippus--Deities. + + 58-61.--SIGNED GEMS. + + 58. Asclepius of Aulos. + 59. Citharist of Allion. + 60. Medusa of Solon. + 61. Heracles of Gnaios. + + 62-70.--ROMAN GEMS. + + 62. Portrait. + 63. Head of Trajan Decius. + 64. Ares and Aphrodite. + 65. Jupiter of Heliopolis. + 66. Artemis of Ephesus. + 67. So-called Psyche. + 68. So-called Psyche. + 69. Minerva with Mask, Stamp for the Eye Balsam of Herophilus. + 70. Helios. + + 71-72.--CHRISTIAN GEMS. + + 71. Crucifixion. + 72. Good Shepherd. Jonah. + + 73-76.--EIGHTEENTH CENTURY GEMS. + + 73. Achilles of Pamphilus, copied from the antique. + 74. Eros and Psyche, by Pichler. + 75. Head of Athena. + 76. Athena, from Townley Bust by Marchant.] + +After the Persian conquest the victors adopted the cylinder form of the +conquered, and continued to use it. A Persian cylinder seal of Darius +(probably about 500 B.C.) in the British Museum shows the king in his +chariot, transfixing a lion with his arrows, in a palm wood. Above is +the winged emblem of the Persian deity Ahuramazda. The inscription gives +the name and titles of Darius in the Persian, Scythic and Babylonian +languages. The style is accurate and minute. The idea of the lion hunt +is borrowed from the Assyrian monuments, but the engraver has been +careful to make the necessary changes of costume and treatment. The +cylinder was, as might be anticipated, imitated to a certain extent by +peoples of the Eastern world in touch with Babylonia. It occurs in +Armenia, Media and Elam. It has been found in Crete (_British School +Annual_, viii. p. 77) and is frequent in the early Cypriote deposits. In +some instances it has been found unfinished and therefore must be +supposed to be of local manufacture. Sometimes a direct imitation of +cuneiform characters occurs on the Cypriote cylinders. The same form was +also employed by the Phoenicians (about the 8th century-7th century +B.C.). By the Greeks and Etruscans it was used, but only rarely, and by +way of exception. + +_Egypt._--We must go back to the remotest periods for the origin of +intaglio engraving in Egypt. Recent discoveries of tombs of the earliest +dynasties at Abydos and Nagada have thrown much light on the early +stages of Egyptian art, and have revealed the remarkable fact that in +Egypt (as in Babylonia) the cylinder was the earliest form used for the +purpose of a seal. The cylinders that have been found are comparatively +few in number; but a large number of jar-stoppings of clay are preserved +on which cylinder designs have been rolled off while the clay was still +soft. Such early incised cylinders as are extant are made either of hard +wood or (as in an instance in the British Museum) of stone. The identity +of form has been thought to indicate a connexion with Babylonia, but +none can be traced in the designs of the respective cylinders. + +The Egyptians of the earliest dynasties had an admirable command of hard +stones, as shown by their beads and stone vases, but with the exception +of the cylinders quoted they are not known to have applied their skill +to the production of intaglios. At this early period the scarab (or +beetle) was still unknown as a gem-form. It was only about the time of +the 4th dynasty that the scarab (q.v.) was first introduced, and +gradually took the place of the cylinder as the prevailing shape. + +The _Scarabaeus sacer_ (Egyptian, _Kheperer_), rolling its eggs in a +ball of mud, became the accepted emblem of the sun-god, and so the form +had an amuletic value. Scarabs of obsidian and crystal date back to the +4th dynasty. Others, coarse and uninscribed, belong to the beginning of +the first Theban empire. After the 18th dynasty they are counted by +thousands. While the beetle form was naturalistically treated, the flat +surface underneath was well adapted to receive a hieroglyphic sign. The +scarabs, however, are by no means the only product of the art. We have +also figures of all kinds in the round and in intaglio--statuettes, +figures of animals and of deities, and sacred emblems such as the ankh +(or _crux ansata_) and the eye. Among interesting variations from the +scarab form is the oblong intaglio of green jasper in the Louvre +(_Gazette arch._, 1878, p. 41) with a design on both sides. It +represents on the obverse Tethmosis (Thothmes) II. (1800 B.C.) slaying a +lion, and identified by his cartouche. On the reverse we have the same +king drawing his bow against his enemies from a war chariot. The scarabs +of Egypt though uninteresting in themselves, considered as examples of +engraving, have this accidental importance in the history of art, that +they furnished the Phoenicians with a model which they were able to +improve as regards the intaglio by a more free spirit of design, +gathered partly from Egypt and partly from Assyria. The scarab thus +improved exercised a lasting influence on the later history, since, as +will be seen below, it was adopted and modified both by Greeks and +Etruscans. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Jewish High Priest's Breastplate.] + +_Engraved Gems in the Bible._--While the Phoenicians have left actual +specimens to show with what skill they could adopt the systems of +gem-engraving prevailing at their time in Egypt and Assyria, the +Israelites, on the other hand, have left records to prove, if not their +skill, at least the estimation in which they held engraved gems. "The +sin of Judah is written with a pen of iron and with the point of a +diamond" (Jerem. xvii. 1). To pledge his word Judah gave Tamar his +signet, with its cord for suspension, and staff (Gen. xxxviii. 18); +whence if this passage be compared with the frequent use of "seal" in a +metaphorical sense in the Bible, and with the usage of the Babylonians +of carrying a seal with an emblem engraved on it recorded by Herodotus, +it may be concluded that among the Israelites also every man of mark at +least wore a signet. Their acquaintance with the use of seals in Egypt +and Assyria is seen in the statement that Pharaoh gave Joseph his signet +ring as a badge of investiture (Gen. xli. 42), and that the stone which +closed the den of lions was sealed by Darius with his own signet and +with the signet of his lords (Daniel vi. 17). Then as to the stones +which were most prized, Ezekiel (xxviii. 13), speaking of the prince of +Tyre, mentions "the sardius, the topaz and the diamond, the beryl, the +onyx, and the jasper, the sapphire, the emerald and the carbuncle," +stones which again occur in that most memorable of records, the +description of the breastplate of the high priest (Exodus xxviii. 16-21, +and xxxix. 8-14). Twelve stones grouped in four rows, each with three +specimens, may be arranged on a square, so as to have the rows placed +either vertically or horizontally. If they are to cover the whole +square, then, unless the gold mounts supplied the necessary +compensation, they must be cut in an oblong form, and if the names +engraved on them are to run lengthwise, as is the manner of Assyrian +cylinders, then the stones, to be legible, must be grouped in four +horizontal rows of three each. There is in fact no reason to suppose +that the gems of the breastplate were in any other form than that of +cylinders such as abounded to the knowledge of the Israelites, with this +possibility, however, that they may have been cut lengthways into +half-cylinders like a fragmentary one of sard in the British Museum, +which has been mounted in bronze, and, as a remarkable exception, has +been set with three small precious stones now missing. It could not have +been a seal, because of this setting, and because the inscription is not +reversed. The names of the twelve tribes, not their standards, as has +been thought, may have been engraved in this fashion, just as on the two +onyx stones in the preceding verses (Exodus xxviii. 9-11), where there +can be no question but that actual names were incised. On these two +stones the order of the names was according to primogeniture, and this, +it is likely, would apply to the breastplate also. The accompanying +diagram will show how the stones, supposing them to have been cylinders +or half-cylinders, may have been arranged consistently with the +descriptions of the Septuagint. In the arrangement of Josephus (iii. 7. +5) the jasper is made to change places with the sapphire, the amethyst +with the agate, and the onyx with the beryl, while our version differs +partly in the order and partly in the names of the stones; but probably +in all these accounts the names had in some cases other meanings than +those which they now carry. It must be remembered that we have two +series of equivalents, namely, the Hebrew compared with the Septuagint, +and the Greek words of the Septuagint compared with the modern names, +which in many cases, though derived from the Greek, have changed their +applications. From the fact that to each tribe was assigned a stone of +different colour, it may be taken that in each case the colour was one +which belonged prescriptively to the tribe and was symbolic, as in +Assyria, where the seven planets appropriated each a special colour [see +Brandis in _Hermes_, 1867, p. 259 seq., and de Saulcy, _Revue +archéologique_, 1869, ii. p. 91; and compare Revelation xxi. 12, 13, +where the twelve gates, which have the names of the twelve tribes +written upon them, are grouped in four threes, and 19, 20, where the +twelve precious stones of the walls are given]. The precious stones +which occur among the cylinders of the British Museum are sard, emerald, +lapis lazuli (sapphire of the ancients), agate, onyx, jasper and rock +crystal. + +_Gem-Engraving in Greek Lands._--We must now turn to the history of +gem-engraving in Greek lands. The excavations in Crete in the first +years of the 20th century revealed a previously unknown culture, which +lasted on the lowest computation for more than two thousand years, and +was only interrupted by the national upheavals which preceded the +opening of Greek history proper. (See CRETE; ARCHAEOLOGY; and AEGEAN +CIVILIZATION.) Throughout the whole period the products of the +gem-engraver occupy an important place among the surviving remains. It +must suffice, however, in this place to indicate the chief groups of +stones. + +The earliest engraved stones of Minoan Crete are three-sided prism +seals, made of a soft steatite, native in S.E. Crete (_Journ. of +Hellenic Studies_, xvii. p. 328). These are incised with pictorial signs +evidently belonging to a rudimentary hieroglyphic system, and are dated +before 3000 B.C. At a period placed by A.J. Evans between 2800 and 2200 +the method was fully systematized and employed on the signets, as well +as on tablets and other materials. This development of the hieroglyphic +system was accompanied by an increasing power of working in hard +material, and cornelian and chalcedony superseded soft steatite (_Journ. +of Hell. Studies_, xvii. p. 334). + +Towards 2000 B.C. a highly developed linear form began to supersede the +pictorial signs. It is abundant on the tablets, but the gems thus +inscribed are comparatively rare. The linear form in turn died out some +six hundred years later. + +The signs of the pictorial script incised on the gems are +representations of objects, expressed with precision, but giving little +scope for the higher side of the gem-engraver's art. Simultaneously, +however, with the use of the script, a high degree of skill was acquired +by the engravers in rendering animal and human forms. Scenes occur of +ritual observance, hunting, animal life, and strange compounded forms of +demons. The excavations did not yield a large number of original gems of +this class, but a great number of clay sealings from such signets were +discovered. That they were synchronous with the use of the forms of +script described above is proved by the fact that in the palace at +Cnossus deposits were found, both in the linear and the hieroglyphic +script, sealed with these signets, the seal impressions being again +endorsed in the script (_Brit. School Annual_, xi. pp. 56, 62). For a +remarkable group of sealings found at Zakro see _Journ. of Hell. +Studies_, xxii. pll. 6-10. The finest naturalistic engravings are placed +towards the close of the "Mid-Minoan" and beginning of the "Late-Minoan" +periods (about 2200-1800 B.C.). During the progress of the "Late-Minoan" +period the subjects tended to assume a more formal and heraldic +character. The forms of stones in favour were the disk convex on each +side (lenticular or lentoid stones), and during the "Mid-Minoan" period, +elaborate signets in the form of modern fob-seals. Apart from the use of +intaglios for sealing, the excavations have shown that the Cretan +lapidaries were largely employed in the working of gems for purposes of +decoration. Fragments of lapis lazuli and crystal for inlaying (the +crystals having coloured designs on their lower surfaces) were found in +the throne room at Cnossus; the royal gaming-board, also from the palace +at Cnossus, had inlaid crystal disks and plaques. The workshop of a +lapidary, with unfinished works in marble, steatite, jasper and beryl, +was also found within the precincts of the palace (_Brit. School +Annual_, vii. pp. 20, 77). Examples were also found of work in relief, +substantially anticipating the art of cameo-cutting. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Lenticular Rock-Crystal from Ialysus. (Brit. +Mus.)] + +The area over which the Cretan influence extended was wide. Its +manifestations in Greek lands proper, first revealed by Schliemann's +excavation of the royal tombs of Mycenae, ran parallel with and +outlasted the later periods of the Cretan culture to which it stood in +close relation (see AEGEAN CIVILIZATION). Its gems and intaglio works in +gold are known to us from the finds at Mycenae, and at analogous sites, +such as Menidi, Vaphio and Ialysus. They have much in common with the +finer class of Cretan stones already described. The engraved gems fall +principally into two groups in respect of form, namely, the lenticular +(or lentoid) stones already mentioned, and (more rarely) glandular +stones, so called from their resemblance to a _glans_ or sling bolt. A +Cretan fresco shows a figure wearing an agate lenticular stone suspended +from the left wrist. The finer specimens of the Aegean gems are engraved +with the wheel and the point in hard stones, such as chalcedony, +amethyst, sard, rock-crystal and haematite. A lapidary's workshop +similar to that at Cnossus has been found at Mycenae, with a store of +unused gems, and an unfinished lenticular stone (_Ephemeris +Archaiologikè_, 1897, p. 121). The characteristic of the Aegean engraver +is the free expression of living forms. His subjects are figures of +animals, men and demons in combat, and heraldic compositions recalling +the Gate of Lions at Mycenae. It was almost inevitable that the scarab +should be found in the Cretan and Aegean deposits, but in such cases we +have the Egyptian scarab directly imported, and not, as at a later +period, non-Egyptian adaptations of the form. The cylinder also (except +in Cyprus, the borderland between east and west) only occurs as an +importation, and not as a currently manufactured shape. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Lenticular Sard from Ialysus. (Brit. Mus.)] + +_The "Island Gems."_--The Aegean culture was swept away probably by that +dimly seen upheaval which separated Mycenaean from historical Greece, +and which is commonly known as the Dorian invasion. One of the few facts +which indicate a certain continuity of tradition in later Greece is +this, that we again find the same characteristic forms, the glandular +and lenticular stones, in the cemeteries, of Melos and elsewhere. It is +only recently that archaeologists have learnt to distinguish between the +later lenticular and glandular stones "of the Greek Islands," as they +are commonly called, and those of the Aegean age. Engravings of the +later class are worked in soft materials only, such as steatite. They +have not the power of expressing action peculiar to the Aegean artist. +In general, the continuity of tradition between the gems of the +Mycenaean and the historical periods is in respect of shape rather than +of art. The subjects are for the most part decorative forms (the +Gryphon, the winged Sphinx, the winged horse, &c.) in course of +development into characters of Greek myth. + +_The Phoenicians and the Greeks._--About the end of the 8th and +beginning of the 7th century B.C. the Phoenicians began to exercise a +powerful influence as intermediaries between Egypt and Assyria and the +Mediterranean. Porcelain and other imitations of Egyptian ornaments, +and especially of Egyptian scarabs, are found in great numbers on such +sites as Amathus in Cyprus, Camirus in Rhodes, in Etruria, and at +Tharros in Sardinia. The Egyptian hieroglyphics are imitated with +mistakes, the figures introduced are stiff and formal, the animals as a +rule heraldic. The scarab form, which in Egypt had had its sacred +significance, was now become nothing more than a convenient shape for an +object of jewelry or for the reverse side of a stone. It was adopted +from the Phoenicians both by Greeks and Etruscans. By the Greeks, with +whom we are at present concerned, its use was occasional, and about 500 +B.C. it was superseded by the scarabaeoid. Under this name two forms, +somewhat similar but independent in origin, are usually grouped without +sufficient discrimination. The scarabaeoid proper is a simplification of +the scarab, effected by the omission of all details of the beetle. But +many of the stones known as scarabaeoids, with a flat and oval base and +a convex back, are in respect of their form probably of North Syrian +origin (so Furtwängler). The earliest examples of archaic Greek +gem-engraving (other than the later "Island gems" already described) are +works of Ionian art. They show a desire, only limited by imperfect power +of expression, to represent the human figure, though the particular +theme may be a god or other mythical personages. By the beginning of the +5th century the engravers had reached the point of full development, and +the scarabaeoids of the time embody its results. As an example of fine +scarabaeoids the Woodhouse intaglio of a seated citharist (fig. 5; _Cat. +of Gems in Brit. Mus._ No. 555) may be quoted as perhaps the very finest +example of Greek gem-engraving that has come down to us. It would stand +early in the 5th century B.C., a date which would also suit the head of +Eos from Ithome in Messenia (fig. 6). The number, however, of fine +scarabaeoids known to us has been considerably increased in recent +years. They are marked by a broad and simple treatment, which attains a +large effect without excessive minuteness or laboured detail. In these +respects the style has something in common with the reliefs of the 5th +century. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Victory. Early Greek Scarab. (Brit. Mus.)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Citharist. Early Greek Scarabaeoid. (Brit. +Mus.)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Head of Eos. (Brit. Mus.)] + +_Literary History._--The literary references to the early gem-engravers +are no longer of the same importance as before in view of the fuller +knowledge we possess as to the quality of early gem-engraving, but it is +necessary that they should be taken into account. + +The records of gem-engravers in Greece begin in the island of Samos, +where Mnesarchus, the father of the philosopher Pythagoras, earned by +his art more of praise than of wealth. "Not to carry the image of a god +on your seal," was a saying of Pythagoras; and, whatever his reason for +it may have been, it is interesting to observe him founding a maxim on +his father's profession of gem-engraving (Diogenes Laërt. viii. 1, 17). +From Samos also came Theodorus, who made for Polycrates the seal of +emerald (Herodotus iii. 41), which, according to the curious story, was +cast in vain into the deep sea on purpose to be lost. That the design on +it was a lyre, as is stated in one authority, is unlikely, at least if +we accept Benndorf's ingenious interpretation of Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ +xxxiv. 83). He has suggested that the portrait statue of Theodorus made +by himself was in all probability a figure holding in one hand a graving +tool, and in the other, not, as previously supposed, a quadriga so +diminutive that a fly could cover it with its wings, but a scarab with +the engraving of a quadriga on its face (_Zeitschrift für die +österreich. Gymnasien_, 1873, pp. 401-411), whence it is not +unreasonable to conclude that this scarab in fact represented the famous +seal of Polycrates. Shortly after 600 B.C. there was a law of Solon's +forbidding engravers to retain impressions of the seals they made, and +this date would fall in roundly with that of Theodorus and Mnesarchus, +as if there had in fact been at that time a special activity and unusual +skill. That the use of seals had been general long before, in Cretan and +Mycenaean times, we have seen above, and it is singular to find, as +Pliny points out (xxxiii. 4), no direct mention of seals in Homer, not +even in the passage (_Iliad_, vi. 168) where Bellerophon himself carries +the tablets on which were written the orders against his life. From the +time of Theodorus to that of Pyrgoteles in the 4th century B.C. is a +long blank as to names, but not altogether as to gems, the production of +which may be judged to have been carried on assiduously from the +constant necessity of seals for every variety of purpose. The references +to them in Aristophanes, for example, and the lists of them in the +ancient inventories of treasures in the Parthenon and the Asclepieion at +Athens confirm this frequent usage during the period in question. The +mention of a public seal for authenticating state documents also becomes +frequent in the inscriptions. In the reign of Alexander the Great we +meet the name of Pyrgoteles, of whom Pliny records that he was no doubt +the most famous engraver of his time, and that Alexander decreed that +Pyrgoteles alone should engrave his portrait. Nothing else is known of +Pyrgoteles. A portrait of Alexander in the British Museum (No. 2307), +purporting to be signed by him, is palpably modern. + +From literary sources we also learn the names of the engravers +Apollonides, Chronius and Dioscorides, but the date of the +last-mentioned only is certain. He is said to have made an excellent +portrait of Augustus, which was used as a seal by that emperor in the +latter part of his reign and also by his successors. Inscriptions on +extant gems make it probable that Dioscorides was a native of Aegeae in +Cilicia, and that three sons, Hyllos, Herophilus and Eutyches, followed +their father's occupation. We have also a few scattered notices of +amateurs and collectors of gems, but it will be seen that for the whole +period of classical antiquity the literary notices give little aid, and +we must return to the gems. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7--Scarabaeioid by Syries. (Brit. Mus.)] + +_Early Inscribed Gems._--Various early gems are inscribed with proper +names, which may be supposed to indicate either the artist or the owner +of the gem. In some cases there is no ambiguity, e.g. on a scarab is +inscribed, "I am the seal of Thersis. Do not open me"; and a scarabaeoid +(fig. 7) is inscribed, "Syries made me." But when we have the name +alone, the general principle on which we must distinguish between owner +and artist is that the name of the owner is naturally meant to be +conspicuous (as in a gem in the British Museum inscribed in large +letters with the name of Isagor[as]), while the name of an artist is +naturally inconspicuous and subordinate to the design. + +The early engravers known to us by their signatures are: Syries, who was +author of the modified scarab in the British Museum, mentioned above, +with a satyr's head in place of the beetle, and a citharist on the +base--a work of the middle of the 6th century; Semon, who engraved a +black jasper scarab now at Berlin, with a nude woman kneeling at a +fountain filling her pitcher, of the close of the 6th century; Epimenes, +who was the author of an admirable chalcedony scarabaeoid of a nude +youth restraining a spirited horse--formerly in the Tyszkiewicz +Collection, and of about the beginning of the 5th century. But better +known to us than any of these artists is the 5th-century engraver, +Dexamenus of Chios, of whose work four examples[1] survive, viz.:-- + +1. A chalcedony scarabaeoid from Greece, in the Fitzwilliam Museum at +Cambridge, with a lady at her toilet, attended by her maid. Inscribed +[Greek: DEXAMENOS], and with the name of the lady, [Greek: MIKÊS]. + +2. An agate with a stork standing on one leg, inscribed [Greek: +DEXAMENOS] simply. + +3. A chalcedony with the figure of a stork flying, and inscribed in two +lines, the letters carefully disposed above each other, [Greek: +DEXAMENOS EPOIE CHIOS]. + +4. A gem, apparently by the same Dexamenus, is a cornelian formerly +belonging to Admiral Soteriades in Athens, and subsequently in the +collection of Dr Arthur Evans. It has a portrait head, bearded and +inscribed [Greek: DEXAMENOS EPOIE]. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Greek Sard. 5th Cent. B.C. (Brit. Mus.)] + +The design of a stork flying occurs on an agate scarab in the British +Museum, from the old Cracherode Collection, and therefore beyond all +suspicion of having been copied from the more recently discovered Kertch +gem. + +For the period immediately following that early prime to which the gems +above described belong, our materials are less copious. Some of the +finest examples are derived from the Greek tombs in the Crimea and South +Russia. Reckoned among the best of the Crimean gems, and that is +equivalent to saying among the best of all gems, are the following: (1) +a burnt scarabaeoid with an eagle carrying off a hare; (2) a gem with +scarab border and the figure of a youth seated playing on the trigonon, +very much resembling the Woodhouse intaglio (both engraved, _Compte +rendu_, 1871, pl. vi. figs. 16, 17). In these, and in almost all Greek +gems belonging to this period of excellence, the material is of +indifferent quality, consisting of agate, chalcedony or cornelian, just +as in the older specimens. Brilliant colour and translucency are as yet +not a necessary element, and accordingly the design is worked out solely +with a view to its own artistic merit. The scarab tends to die out. The +scarabaeoid in its turn is abandoned for the simple ring stone. The +subjects chosen take by degrees a different character. Aphrodite (nude), +Eros, children and women tend to replace the older and severer themes. +The motives of 4th-century sculpture appear by degrees on the gems. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Amethyst Pendant. (Brit. Mus.)] + +_Etruscan Gems._--At this point it is convenient to discuss the +gem-engraving of the Etruscans, which came into being towards the close +of the archaic period of Greek art. In the early Etruscan deposits, such +as that of the Polledrara tomb in the British Museum (towards 600 B.C.), +we find nothing except Phoenician imports of porcelain or stone scarabs, +both strongly Egyptian in character. During the 6th century a few of the +semi-Egyptian stones of Sardinia make their appearance. But in the +latter part of the century these oriental products tend to die out, and +we have in their place the native works of Etruscan artists. These +engravings stand in the closest relation to Greek works of the close of +the 6th century and many imported Greek scarabs also occur. + +The Etruscan scarab has its beetle form more minutely engraved than that +of the Greeks. It is further distinguished in the better examples, alike +from the Greek and the Egyptian form, by a small border of a sort of +petal ornament round the lower edge of the beetle. Like the earlier +Greek scarabs it has the cable border round the design, but the border +continued in use in Etruria when it had been abandoned in Greece. The +scarabaeoid form does not occur in Etruscan deposits. Etruscan engraving +begins when Greek art was approaching maturity, with studies, sometimes +stiff and cramped, of the heroic nude form. Some of the Greek deities +such as Athena and Hermes occur, together with the winged personages of +Greek mythology. To the heroic types the names of Greek legend are +attached, with modifications of form, such as [Greek: TYTE] for Tydeus, +and [Greek: KAPNE] for Capaneus. Sometimes the names are appropriate and +sometimes they are assigned at random. The subjects include certain +favourite incidents in the Trojan and Theban cycles (e.g. the death of +Capaneus); myths of Heracles; athletes, horsemen, a few scenes of daily +life. Certain schemes of composition are frequent. In particular, a +figure too large for the field, standing and bending over, is made to +serve for many types. The engraving of the finer Etruscan gems is minute +and precise, marked with elegance and command of the material. Its fault +is its want of original inspiration. Special mention must be made of a +very numerous group of cornelian scarabs, roughly engraved for the most +part with cup-shaped sinkings (whence they are known as gems _a globolo +tondo_) roughly joined together by furrows. Notwithstanding their +apparent rudeness, these gems are shown, by the conditions in which they +are found, to be comparatively late works of the 4th century. +Furtwängler ingeniously suggests that the rough execution was intended +to emphasize the shining surfaces of the cup-sinkings, rather than to +produce any particular intaglio subject. (For an elaborate +classification of the Etruscan scarabs see Furtwängler, _Geschichte_, p. +170.) + +_The Cameos._--After the beginning of the regal period, in the 4th +century B.C., the introduction of more splendid materials from the East +was turned to good account by the development of the cameo, i.e. of +gem-carving in relief (for the origin of the word see CAMEO). But in its +simpler forms the principle of the cameo necessarily dates from the +beginning of the art. Thus a lion in rock-crystal was found in the very +early royal tomb of Nagada (de Morgan, _Recherches, Tombeau de Negadah_, +p. 193). The Egyptian scarab, on its rounded side, had been +naturalistically carved in relief in beetle form. Steatite engravings in +relief (notably the harvest festival vase from Hagia Triada) were found +in the Cretan deposits. Subjects are found carved in the round in hard +stone in Mycenaean graves. When we come to historical Greece and to +Etruria the cameo of later times is anticipated by various attempts to +modify the traditional form of the scarab. An example in cornelian was +found at Orvieto in 1874 in a tomb along with vases dating from the +beginning of the 5th century B.C., and it will be seen from the +engraving of this gem (_Arch. Zeit._, 1877, pl. xi. fig. 3) that, while +the design on the face is in intaglio, the half-length figure of a +Gorgon on the back is engraved in relief. Compare a cornelian fragment, +apparently cut from the back of a scarabaeoid, now in the British +Museum. As further examples of the same rare form of cameo, the +following gems in the British Museum may be mentioned:--(1) a cornelian +cut from back of a scarabaeoid, with head of Gorgon surrounded by wings; +(2) cornelian scarabaeoid: Gorgon running to left; on face of the gem an +intaglio of Thetis giving armour to Achilles; (3) steatite scarabaeoid, +already mentioned, signed by Syries, head of a satyr, full face, with +intaglio of citharist. There is, however, no evidence at present +available to show that the cameo proper had been introduced in Greece +before the time of Alexander. The earliest examples found in known +conditions are derived from Crimean tombs of the middle of the 3rd +century B.C. + +Among the most splendid of ancient cameos are those at St Petersburg and +Vienna, each representing a monarch of the Diadochi and his consort +(Furtwängler, pl. 53). There is much controversy as to the persons +represented, but the cameos are probably works of the 3rd century. + +The materials which ancient artists used for cutting into cameos were +chiefly those siliceous minerals which, under a variety of names, +present various strata or bands of two or more distinct colours. The +minerals, under different names, are essentially the chalcedonic +variety of quartz, and the differences of colour they present are due to +the presence of variable proportions of iron and other foreign +ingredients. These banded stones, when cut parallel to the layers of +different colours, and when only two coloured bands--white and black, or +sometimes white and black and brown--are present, are known as onyxes; +but when they have with the onyx bands layers of cornelian or sard, they +are termed sardonyxes. The sardonyx, which was the favourite stone of +ancient cameo-engravers, and the material in which their masterpieces +were cut, was procured from India, and the increased intercourse with +the East after the death of Alexander the Great had a marked influence +on the development of the art. + +Akin in their nature to the great regal cameos, which from the nature of +the case are cut on a nearly plane surface, are the cups and vases cut +out of a homogeneous stone and therefore capable of being worked in the +round. A few examples of such works survive. The most famous are the +Farnese Tazza and the cup of the Ptolemies. The Tazza, which is now in +the National Museum at Naples, was bought by Lorenzo de' Medici from +Pope Paul II. in 1471. It is a large shallow bowl of sardonyx, 8 in. in +diameter. On its exterior surface is a Gorgoneion upon an aegis; in the +interior is an allegorical design, relating to the Nile flood. The cup +of the Ptolemies, formerly known as the cup of St Denis, is preserved in +the Cabinet des Médailles of the French Bibliothèque Nationale. It is a +cup 4¾ in. high and 5-1/8 in. in diameter, carved out of oriental +sardonyx, and richly decorated with Dionysiac emblems and attributes in +relief. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Actaeon. Fragment of Sardonyx Cameo. (Brit. +Mus.)] + +_The Cameo in the Roman Empire._--During the 1st century of the empire +the engraver's art alike in cameo and in intaglio was at a high degree +of excellence. The artist in cameo took full advantage of his rich +opportunities in the way of sumptuous materials, and of the requirements +of an imperial court. The two most famous examples of this art which +have come down to the present day are the Great Agate of the Sainte +Chapelle in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, and the Augustus Cameo in +the Vienna Collection. The former was pledged among other valuables in +1244 by Baldwin II. of Constantinople to Saint Louis. It is mentioned in +1344 as "Le Camahieu," having been sent in that year to Rome for the +inspection of Pope Clement VI. It is a sardonyx of five layers of +irregular shape, like all classical gems, measuring 12 in. by 10½ in. It +represents on its upper part the deified members of the Julian house. +The centre is occupied with the reception of Germanicus on his return +from his great German campaign by the emperor Tiberius and his mother +Livia. The lower division is filled with a group of captives in +attitudes expressive of woe and deep dejection. The Vienna gem (_Gemma +augustea_), an onyx of two layers measuring 8-5/8 in. by 7½, is a work +of still greater artistic interest. The upper portion is occupied with +an allegorical representation of the coronation of Augustus, the emperor +being represented as Jupiter with Livia as the goddess Roma at his side. +In the composition deities of Earth and Sea, and several members of the +family of Augustus, are introduced; on the exergue or lower portion are +Roman soldiers preparing a trophy, barbarian captives and female +figures. This gem was in the 15th century at the abbey of St Sernin at +Toulouse. According to tradition it had been placed there by +Charlemagne. It came into the possession of the emperor Rudolph II. in +the 16th century for the enormous sum of 12,000 gold ducats. The +principal cameo in the collection of the British Museum was acquired at +the final dispersion of the Marlborough Collection in 1899. It is a +sardonyx measuring 8¾ in. by 6 in., and appears to represent a Roman +emperor and empress in the forms of Serapis and Isis. Here also, in +imperial times as in the Hellenistic period, side by side with the great +cameos, we meet with works carved out in the round. Noted examples of +such work are the Brunswick vase (at Brunswick), with the subject of +Triptolemus; the Berlin vase with the lustration of a new-born imperial +prince; and the Waddesdon vase in the British Museum, with a vine in +relief set in a rich enamelled Renaissance mount. Hardly less precious +than the cameos in sardonyx were the imitations carved out of coloured +glass. The material was not costly, but its extreme fragility made the +work of extreme difficulty. Examples of such work are the Barberini or +Portland vase, deposited in the British Museum, with scenes supposed to +be connected with the story of Peleus and Thetis; and the "vase of blue +glass" from Pompeii, in the museum at Naples (see Mau and Kelsey, p. +408). The world's great cameos, which are hardly more than a dozen in +number, have not been found by excavation. They remained as precious +objects in imperial and ecclesiastical treasuries and passed thence to +the royal and national collections of modern Europe. + +_The Intaglio in the Roman Empire._--The art of engraving in intaglio +was also at a high level of excellence in the beginning of the Roman +empire. This is to be inferred alike from the admirable portraits of the +1st century A.D., and from the number of signed gems bearing Roman +artists' names, such as Aulus, Gnaius and the like, which could hardly +belong to any other period. It is impossible, however, to found any +argument upon the artists' signatures without taking into account the +intricate questions of authenticity which are discussed in the following +section. + +_Signed Gems._--The number of gems which have, or purport to have, the +name of the artist inscribed upon them is very large. A great many of +the supposed signatures are modern forgeries, dating from the period +between 1724 (when the book of Stosch, _Gemmae antiquae caelatae, +scalptorum nominibus insignitae_, first drew general attention to the +subject) and 1833, when the multitude of forged signatures (about 1800 +in number) in the collection of Prince Poniatowski made the whole +pursuit ridiculous. It is known, however, that forged signatures were +current before 1724 (see Stosch, p. xxi.), and in the period immediately +following they were very numerous. Thus Laurence Natter (_Méthode de +graver en pierres fines_ (1754), p. xxx.) confesses that, whenever +desired, he made copies. For example, he copied a Venus (Brit. Mus. No. +2296), converting the figure into a Danaë and affixing the name of Aulos +which he found on the Venus. Cf. Mariette, _Traité_ (1750), i. p. 101. + +The question which of the multitude of supposed signatures can be +accepted as genuine has been a subject of prolonged and intricate +controversy. In the period immediately following the Poniatowski +forgeries the extreme height of scepticism is represented by Koehler, +who only acknowledged five gems (Koehler, iii. p. 206) as having genuine +signatures. In recent years the subject has been principally dealt with +by Furtwängler, whose conclusion is to admit a considerable number of +gems rejected by his predecessors. + +It must suffice here to point out a few general principles. In the first +place a certain number of gems recently discovered have inscriptions +which are undoubtedly genuine and which record the names of the +engravers. The form of the signature may be a nominative with a verb, a +nominative without a verb or a genitive. The artists in this class are +Syries, Dexamenus, Epimenes and Semon, mentioned above, and a few +others. Another group of gems which must be accepted consists of stones +whose known history goes back to a period at which a forged inscription +was impossible. Thus a bust of Athena in the Berlin Collection, signed +by Eutyches, was seen by Cyriac of Ancona in 1445. A glass cameo signed +by Herophilus, son of Dioscorides, now at Vienna, was, in the 17th +century, in the monastery of Echternach, where it had probably been from +old times. The portrait of Julia, daughter of Titus, by Euodos (now in +the Bibliothèque Nationale) was formerly a part of a reliquary presented +to the abbey of St Denis by Charles the Bold. Another group of +undoubtedly genuine signatures occurs on cameos (in stone and paste) +which have the inscriptions in relief, and therefore as part of the +original design. Such are the works of Athenion, and of Quintus, son of +Alexas. + +For the great majority of signed gems which do not fall into these +categories the reader must refer to the discussions of Furtwängler and +others (see _Bibliography_ below). It must suffice to say that +Furtwängler arrives at the result that we have in all genuine signatures +of at least fifty ancient gem-engravers. + +[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Christian Gem. The Good Shepherd. (Brit. Mus.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Gnostic Gem. (Brit. Mus.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Sassanian Gem. (Brit. Mus.)] + +_Gem-Engraving in the Later Empire._--In the following centuries the art +of intaglio engraving, which was still at a high degree of perfection in +the first century of the Roman empire, became more mechanical. The +designs have a very characteristic appearance, due to the method of +production with rough and hasty strokes of the wheel only. A collection +of gems found in England, such as that in the possession of the +corporation of Bath, shows the feeble character in particular of the +gems current in the provinces. Except in portraiture, and in grylli or +conceits, in which various things are combined into one, often with much +skill, the subjects were as a rule only variations or adaptations of old +types handed down from the Greeks. When new and distinctly Roman +subjects occur, such as the finding of the head on the Capitol, or +Faustulus, or the she-wolf with the twins, both the stones and the +workmanship are poor. In such cases, where the design stirs a genuine +national interest, it may happen that very little of artistic rendering +will be acceptable rather than otherwise, and much more is this true +when the design is a symbol of some article of faith, as in the early +Christian gems. There both the art and the material are at what may be +called the lowest level. The usual subjects on the early Christian gems +are the fish, anchor, ship, dove, the good shepherd, and, according to +Clemens, the lyre. Under the Gnostics, however, with whom there was more +of speculation than of faith, symbolism was developed to an extent which +no art could realize without the aid of writing. A gem was to them a +talisman more or less elaborate with long, but for the most part quite +unintelligible, engraved formulae. The difficulty is to make out how the +stones were carried; many specimens exist, but none show signs of +mounting. The materials are usually haematite or jasper. As regards the +designs, it is clear that Egyptian sources have been most drawn upon. +But the symbolism is also largely associated with Mithraic worship. The +name Abraxas, or more correctly Abrasax, which, from its frequency on +these gems, has led to their being called also "Abraxas gems," is, when +the Greek letters of which it is composed are treated as Greek numerals, +equal to 365, the number of days in a year, and the same is the case +with [Greek: MEITHRAS]. + +More interesting, from the occasionally forcible portraiture and the +splendour of some of the jacinths employed, are the Sassanian gems, +which as a class may be said to represent the last stage of true +gem-engraving in ancient times. + +The art of cameo-engraving, which, as we have seen, attained its +greatest splendour at the beginning of the empire, followed on the whole +a similar course. It waned in the early part of the 3rd century after +the death of the emperor Severus, but under the first Christian emperor +Constantine it enjoyed a brief period of revival. Fine cameo portraits +of Constantine are extant; and it was during or shortly after his reign +that Christian Scripture subjects began to appear on cameos. That class +of subjects constituted the staple of such work--generally rude and +artistically debased--as continued to be cultivated under the Byzantine +empire down to nearly the epoch of the Renaissance. From the Byzantine +period downward one peculiarity of gem-engraving becomes noticeable. +Cameo-work as compared with intaglios in classical times was rare and +infrequent, but now and onwards the opposite is the case, +intaglio-sinking having almost died out, and cameos being chiefly +produced. Commercial intercourse with the East still secured for the +engravers a supply of magnificent sardonyxes, although blood-stone and +other non-banded stones were very commonly used for works in relief. +Cameos during the long dark ages were used chiefly for the decoration of +reliquaries and other altar furniture, and as such their designs were +purely ecclesiastical or scriptural. To this period also belongs the +class of complimentary or motto cameos, which, containing only +inscriptions and an ornamental border, executed in nicolo stones, were +used as personal gifts and adornments. + +In medieval times antique cameos were held in peculiar veneration on +account of the belief, then universal, in their potency as medicinal +charms. This power was supposed to be derived from their origin, of +which two theories, equally satisfactory, were current. By the one they +were held to be the work of the children of Israel during their sojourn +in the wilderness (hence the name _Pierres d'Israël_), while the other +theory held them to be direct products of nature, the engraved figures +pointing to the peculiar virtue lodged in them. Interpreters less +mystically inclined found Biblical interpretations for the subjects. +Thus the cameo of the Sainte Chapelle was supposed to represent the +triumph of Joseph in Egypt. A cameo with Poseidon, Athena and her +serpent was Adam and Eve. + +The revival of the glyptic arts in western Europe dates from the +pontificate of the Venetian Paul II. (1464-1471), himself an ardent +lover and collector of gems, to which passion, indeed, it is gravely +affirmed he was a martyr, having died of a cold caught by the +multiplicity of gems exposed on his fingers. The cameos of the early +part of the 16th century rival in beauty of execution the finest +classical works, and, indeed, many of them pass in the cabinets of +collectors for genuine antiques, which they closely imitated. The +Oriental sardonyx was not available for the purposes of the Renaissance +artists, who were consequently obliged to content themselves with the +colder German agate onyx. The scarcity of worthy materials led them to +use the backs of ancient cameos, or to improve on classical works of +inferior value executed on good material, and probably to this cause +must also be assigned the development of shell cameos, which are rarely +found, of an older period. + +Among the means of distinguishing antique cameos from cinquecento work, +the kind of stone is one of the best tests, the classical artists having +used only rich and warm-tinted Oriental stones, which further are +frequently drilled through their diameter with a minute hole, from +having been used by their original Oriental possessors in the form of +beads. The cinquecento artists also, as a rule, worked their subjects in +high relief, and resorted to undercutting, no case of which is found in +the flat low work of classical times. The projecting portions of antique +work exhibit a dull chalky appearance, which, however, fabricators +learned to imitate in various ways, one of which was by cramming the +gizzards of turkey fowls with the gems. Another index of antiquity is +found in the different methods of working adopted in classical and +Renaissance times. The tools employed by the Renaissance engraver were +the drill and the wheel, while the ancient artist also employed the +diamond point. + +[Illustration: Fig. 14--Muse, by Pichler. (Brit. Mus.)] + +The gem-engraver's art again during the 18th century revived under an +even greater amount of encouragement from men of wealth and rank. In +this last period the names of engravers who succeeded best in imitating +classical designs were Natter, Pichler (fig. 14), and the Englishmen +Marchant (fig. 15) and Burch. Compared with Greek gems, it will be seen +that what at first sight is attractive as refined and delicate is after +all an exaggerated minuteness of execution, entirely devoid of the +ancient spirit. The success with which modern engravers imposed on +collectors is recorded in many instances, of which one may be taken as +an instructive type. In the Bibliothèque Nationale is a gem +(Chabouillet's catalogue, No. 2337), familiarly known as the signet of +Michelangelo, the subject being a Bacchanalian scene. So much did he +admire it, the story says, that he copied from it one of the groups in +his paintings in the Sistine chapel. The gem, however, is evidently in +this part of it a mere copy from Michelangelo's group, and therefore a +subsequent production, probably by da Pescia. + +[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Nereid and Sea-bull by Marchant. (Brit. Mus.)] + +In our own day the engraving of cameos has practically ceased to be +pursued as an art. Roman manufacturers cut stones in large quantities to +be used as shirt-studs and for setting in finger-rings; and in Rome and +Paris an extensive trade is carried on in the cutting of shell cameos, +which are largely imported into England and mounted as brooches by +Birmingham jewelry manufacturers. The principal shell used is the large +bull's-mouth shell (_Cassis rufa_), found in East Indian seas, which has +a sard-like underlayer. The black helmet (_Cassis tuberosa_) of the West +Indian seas, the horned helmet (_C. cornuta_) of Madagascar, and the +pinky queen's conch (_Strombus gigas_) of the West Indies are also +employed. The famous potter Josiah Wedgwood introduced a method of +making imitations of cameos in pottery by producing white figures on a +coloured ground, this constituting the peculiarity of what is now known +as Wedgwood ware. + +_Gem Collectors._--The habit of gem-collecting is recorded first in the +instance of Ismenias, a musician of Cyprus, who appears to have lived in +the 4th century B.C. But though individual collectors are not again +mentioned till the time of Mithradates, whose cabinet was carried off to +Rome by Pompey, still it is to be inferred that they existed, if not +pretty generally, yet in such places as Cyrene, where the passion for +gems was so great that the thriftiest person owned one worth 10 minas, +and where, according to Aelian (_Var. hist._ xii. 30), the skill in +engraving was astonishing. The first cabinet (_dactyliotheca_) in Rome +was that of Scaurus, a stepson of Sulla. Caesar is said to have formed +six cabinets for public exhibition, and from the time of Augustus all +men of refinement were supposed to be judges both of the art and of the +quality of the stones. + +In the middle ages the chief collections were incorporated in works of +art in the church treasuries. The first collector of modern times was, +as already mentioned, Pope Paul II., who was followed by a long +succession of princely and noble collectors such as Lorenzo de' Medici +and the great earl of Arundel. The collection of the latter passed into +the hands of the dukes of Marlborough and thence into the possession of +Mr David Bromilow. The collection was finally dispersed by auction in +June 1899. + +In modern times the principal collections are contained in state +museums. The cabinets of Vienna and of the Bibliothèque Nationale are +incomparably rich in the historic cameos. Those of the British Museum +and of Berlin are the strongest in their range over the whole field of +the gem-engraver's art. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For the fullest general account of the subject (with + especial attention to the gems of classical antiquity) see A. + Furtwängler, _Die antiken Gemmen, Geschichte der Steinschneiderkunst + im klassischen Altertum_, in 3 vols (1900). See also E. Babelon, _La + Gravure en pierres fines, camées et intailles_ (1894); A.H. Smith, + "Gemma" and "Sculptura," in the 3rd edition of Smith's _Dict. of + Antiquities_; J.H. Middleton, _The Engraved Gems of Classical Times_ + (1891). Much curious information is in the works of C.W. King: + _Handbook of Engraved Gems_ (1866); _Antique Gems_ (1866); _The + Natural History, Ancient and Modern, of Precious Stones and Gems, and + of the Precious Metals_ (1865); _Antique Gems and Rings_ (2 vols., + 1872). + + Special Periods:--_Babylonia, &c._--Menant, "Les Pierres gravées de la + haute Asie," _Recherches sur la glyptique orientale_ (1883-1886). + + _Egypt._--For the early cylinder sealings, &c. see Petrie, "Royal + Tombs of the First Dynasty" (_Egypt Explor. Fund, XVIIIth Memoir_), p. + 24; pls. 12, figs. 3 to 7, and pls. 18-29; Amélineau, "Nouvelles + Fouilles d'Abydos, 1897-1898," _Compte rendu_, pp. 78, 423; pl. 25, + figs. 1-3. + + _The Bible._--Petrie, "Stones (Precious)," in Hastings' _Dict. of the + Bible_. + + _Phoenician._--See M.A. Levy, _Siegel und Gemmen_, with three plates + of gems having Phoenician, Aramaic, old Hebrew and other inscriptions + (Breslau, 1869); and, on the same subject, De Voguë, in the _Revue + archéologique_, 2nd series (1868), xvii. p. 432, pls. 14-16. + + _Crete._--Articles by A.J. Evans in _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, + xiv., xvii., xxi., and in _Annual of British School at Athens_, vi. + and onwards. + + _Classical Gems._--See Furtwängler, op. cit. + + _Gnostic Gems._--Cabrol, _Dict. d'archéologie chrétienne_, s.v. + "Abrasax." + + For the controversy as to gems with artists' signatures, see Koehler, + _Abhandlung über die geschnittenen Steine, mit den Namen der + Künstler_; Koehler's collected works, ed. Stephani, vol. iii. (1851); + Stephani, Notes to Koehler as above; also _Über einige angebliche + Steinschneider des Alterthums_ (St Petersburg, 1851); Brunn, + _Geschichte der griechischen Künstler_, ii. (1859), pp. 442-637; + Furtwängler, _Jahrbuch d. k. deutsch. arch. Inst._ iii. (1888), pp. + 105, 193, 297; iv. (1889), p. 46, and _Geschichte_, passim. + + For the history of the Poniatowski gems, see Reinach, _Pierres + gravées_, p. 151. + + _Catalogues._--The chief catalogues dealing with modern public + collections are: Berlin, A. Furtwängler, _Beschreibung der + geschnittenen Steine im Antiquarium_ (1896); British Museum, A.H. + Smith, _A Catalogue of Engraved Gems in the British Museum_ (_Dept. of + Greek and Roman Antiquities_) (1888); Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale, + Chabouillet, _Catalogue ... des camées et pierres gravées de la + Bibliothèque Impériale_ (1858); E. Babelon, _Catalogue des camées ... + de la Bibliothèque Nationale_ (1897). + + _Modern Engraving._--Vasari vii. p. 113 (ed. Siena, 1792); continued + by Mariette, _Traité des pierres gravées_ (1750), i. p. 105. The older + books on gems are very numerous, but those of present-day importance + are not many. Faber, _Illustrium imagines ... apud Fulvium Ursinum_ + (Antwerp, 1606); Stosch, _Gemmae antiquae caelatae, scalptorum + nominibus insignitae_ (Amsterdam, 1724); Winckelmann, _Description des + pierres gravées du feu Baron de Stosch_ (1760); Krause, _Pyrgoteles, + oder die edlen Steine der Alten_ (1856); a convenient reissue of + Stosch, and seven others of the older works, by S. Reinach, _Pierres + gravées, &c. ... réunies et rééditées, avec un texte nouveau_ (1895). + + _Pastes._--The principal collection of glass and sulphur pastes from + gems was that issued by James Tassie of Glasgow, with _A Descriptive + Catalogue of a General Collection of ... Engraved Gems ... arranged + and described by R.E. Raspe_ (the author of _Baron Munchausen_) + (1791). (A. S. M.; A. H. Sm.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] For Nos. 1-4 see Furtwängler, pl. 14; for Nos. 2-4 see Evans, + _Rev. archéologique_, xxxii. (1898) pl. 8. + + + + +GEM, ARTIFICIAL. The term "Artificial Gems" does not mean _imitations_ +of real gems, but the actual formation by artificial means of the real +precious stone, so that the product is identical, chemically, physically +and optically, with the one found in nature. For instance, in chemical +composition the lustrous diamond is nothing but crystallized carbon. +Could we take black amorphous carbon in the form of charcoal or +lampblack and dissolve it in a liquid, and by the slow evaporation of +that liquid allow the dissolved carbon to separate out, it would +probably crystallize in the transparent form of diamond. This would be a +true synthesis of diamond, and the product would be just as much +entitled to the name as the choicest products of Kimberley or Golconda. +But this is a very different thing from the imitation diamond so common +in shop windows. Here the chemist has only succeeded in making a paste +or glass having limpidity and a somewhat high refractivity, but wanting +the hardness and "fire" of the real stone. + +_The Diamond._--Within recent years chemists have actually succeeded in +making the real diamond by artificial means, and although the largest +yet made is not more than one-fiftieth of an inch across, the process +itself and the train of reasoning leading up to such an achievement are +sufficiently interesting to warrant a somewhat full description. +Attempts to make diamonds artificially have been numerous, but, with the +sole exception of those of Henri Moissan, all have resulted in failure. +The nearest approach to success was attained by J.B. Hannay in 1880 and +R.S. Marsden in 1881; but their results have not been verified by others +who have tried to repeat them, and the probability is that what was then +thought to be diamond was in reality carborundum or carbide of silicon. + +Attempts have been made by two methods to make carbon crystallize in the +transparent form. One is to crystallize it slowly from a solution in +which it has been dissolved. The difficulty is to find a solvent. Many +organic and some inorganic bodies hold carbon so loosely combined that +it can be separated out under the influence of chemical action, heat or +electricity, but invariably the carbon assumes the black amorphous form. +The other method is to try to fuse the carbon by fierce heat, when from +analogy it is argued that on cooling it will solidify to a clear limpid +crystal. The progress of science in other directions has now made it +pretty certain that the true mode of making diamond artificially is by a +combination of these two methods. Until recently it was assumed that +carbon was non-volatile at any attainable temperature, but it is now +known that at a temperature of about 3600° C. it volatilizes readily, +passing without liquefying directly from the solid to the gaseous state. +Very few bodies act in this manner, the great majority when heated at +atmospheric pressure to a sufficient temperature passing through the +intermediate condition of liquidity. Some few, however, which when +heated at atmospheric pressure do not liquefy, when heated at higher +pressures in closed vessels obey the common rule and first become liquid +and then volatilize. Sir James Dewar found the critical pressure of +carbon to be about 15 tons on the sq. in.; that is to say, if heated to +its critical temperature (3600° C.), and at the same time subjected to a +pressure of 15 tons to the sq. in., it will assume the liquid form. +Enormous as such pressures and temperatures may appear to be, they have +been exceeded in some of Sir Andrew Noble's and Sir F. Abel's +researches; in their investigations on the gases from gunpowder and +cordite fired in closed steel chambers, these chemists obtained +pressures as great as 95 tons to the sq. in., and temperatures as high +as 4000° C. Here then, if the observations are correct, we have +sufficient temperature and enough pressure to liquefy carbon; and, were +there only sufficient time for these to act on the carbon, there is +little doubt that the artificial formation of diamonds would soon pass +from the microscopic stage to a scale more likely to satisfy the +requirements of science, if not those of personal adornment. + +It has long been known that the metal iron in a molten state dissolves +carbon and deposits it on cooling as black opaque graphite. Moissan +carried out a laborious and systematic series of experiments on the +solubility of carbon in iron and other metals, and came to the +conclusion that whereas at ordinary pressures the carbon separates from +the solidifying iron in the form of graphite, if the pressure be greatly +increased the carbon on separation will form liquid drops, which on +solidifying will assume the crystalline shape and become true diamond. +Many other metals dissolve carbon, but molten iron has been found to be +the best solvent. The quantity entering into solution increases with the +temperature of the metal. But temperature alone is not enough; pressure +must be superadded. Here Moissan ingeniously made use of a property +which molten iron possesses in common with some few other +liquids--water, for instance--of increasing in volume in the act of +passing from the liquid to the solid state. Pure iron is mixed with +carbon obtained from the calcination of sugar, and the whole is rapidly +heated in a carbon crucible in an electric furnace, using a current of +700 amperes and 40 volts. The iron melts like wax and saturates itself +with carbon. After a few minutes' heating to a temperature above 4000° +C.--a temperature at which the lime furnace begins to melt and the iron +volatilizes in clouds--the dazzling, fiery crucible is lifted out and +plunged beneath the surface of cold water, where it is held till it +sinks below a red heat. The sudden cooling solidifies the outer skin of +molten metal and holds the inner liquid mass in an iron grip. The +expansion of the inner liquid on solidifying produces enormous pressure, +and under this stress the dissolved carbon separates out in a hard, +transparent, dense form--in fact, as diamond. The succeeding operations +are long and tedious. The metallic ingot is attacked with hot _aqua +regia_ till no iron is left undissolved. The bulky residue consists +chiefly of graphite, together with translucent flakes of +chestnut-coloured carbon, hard black opaque carbon of a density of from +3.0 to 3.5, black diamonds--carbonado, in fact--and a small quantity of +transparent colourless diamonds showing crystalline structure. Besides +these there may be corundum and carbide of silicon, arising from +impurities in the materials employed. Heating with strong sulphuric +acid, with hydrofluoric acid, with nitric acid and potassium chlorate, +and fusing with potassium fluoride--operations repeated over and over +again--at last eliminate the graphite and impurities and leave the true +diamond untouched. The precious residue on microscopic examination shows +many pieces of black diamond, and other colourless transparent pieces, +some amorphous, others crystalline. Although many fragments of crystals +are seen, the writer has scarcely ever met with a complete crystal. All +appear broken up, as if, on being liberated from the intense pressure +under which they were formed, they burst asunder. Direct evidence of +this phenomenon has been seen. A very fine piece of diamond, prepared in +the way just described and carefully mounted on a microscopic slide, +exploded during the night and covered the slide with fragments. This +bursting paroxysm is not unknown at the Kimberley mines. + +Sir William Crookes in 1906 communicated to the Royal Society a paper on +a new formation of diamond. Sir Andrew Noble has shown that in the +explosion of cordite in closed steel cylinders pressures of over 50 tons +to the sq. in. and a temperature probably reaching 5400° were obtained. +Here then we have conditions favourable for the liquefaction of carbon, +and if the time of explosion were sufficient to allow the reactions to +take place we should expect to get liquid carbon solidified in the +crystalline state. Experiment proved the truth of these anticipations. +Working with specially prepared explosive containing a little excess of +carbon Sir Andrew Noble collected the residue left in the steel +cylinder. This residue was submitted by Sir William Crookes to the +lengthy operations already described in the account of H. Moissan's +fused iron experiment. Finally, minute crystals were obtained which +showed octahedral planes with dark boundaries due to high refracting +index. The position and angles of their faces, and cleavages, the +absence of bi-refringence, and their high refractive index all showed +that the crystals were true diamond. + +The artificial diamonds, so far, have not been larger than microscopic +specimens, and none has measured more than about half a millimetre +across. That, however, is quite enough to show the correctness of the +train of reasoning leading up to the achievement, and there is no reason +to doubt that, working on a larger scale, larger diamonds will result. +Diamonds so made burn in the air when heated to a high temperature, with +formation of carbonic acid; and in lustre, crystalline form, optical +properties, density and hardness, they are identical with the natural +stone. + +It having been shown that diamond is formed by the separation of carbon +from molten iron under pressure, it became of interest to see if in some +large metallurgical operations similar conditions might not prevail. A +special form of steel is made at some large establishments by cooling +the molten metal under intense hydraulic pressure. In some samples of +the steel so made Professor Rosel, of the university of Bern, has found +microscopic diamonds. The higher the temperature at which the steel has +been melted the more diamonds it contains, and it has even been +suggested that the hardness of steel in some measure may be due to the +carbon distributed throughout its mass being in this adamantine form. +The largest artificial diamond yet formed was found in a block of steel +and slag from a furnace in Luxembourg; it is clear and crystalline, and +measures about one-fiftieth of an inch across. + +A striking confirmation of the theory that natural diamonds have been +produced from their solution in masses of molten iron, the metal from +which has gradually oxidized and been washed away under cycles of +atmospheric influences, is afforded by the occurrence of diamonds in a +meteorite. On a broad open plain in Arizona, over an area of about 5 m. +in diameter, lie scattered thousands of masses of metallic iron, the +fragments varying in weight from half a ton to a fraction of an ounce. +There is little doubt that these fragments formed part of a meteoric +shower, although no record exists as to when the fall took place. Near +the centre, where most of the fragments have been found, is a crater +with raised edges, three-quarters of a mile in diameter and 600 ft. +deep, bearing just the appearance which would be produced had a mighty +mass of iron--a falling star--struck the ground, scattered it in all +directions, and buried itself deeply under the surface, fragments eroded +from the surface forming the pieces now met with. Altogether ten tons of +this iron have been collected, and specimens of the Canyon Diablo +meteorite are in most collectors' cabinets. Dr A.E. Foote, a +mineralogist, when cutting a section of this meteorite, found the tools +injured by something vastly harder than metallic iron, and an emery +wheel used for grinding it was ruined. He attacked the specimen +chemically, and soon afterwards announced to the scientific world that +the Canyon Diablo meteorite contained diamonds, both black and +transparent. This startling discovery was subsequently verified by +Professors C. Friedel and H. Moissan, and also by Sir W. Crookes. + +_The Ruby._--It is evident that of the other precious stones only the +most prized are worth producing artificially. Apart from their inferior +hardness and colour, the demand for what are known as "semi-precious +stones" would not pay for the necessarily great expenses of the factory. +Moreover, were it to be known that they were being produced artificially +the demand--never very great--would almost cease. The only other gems, +therefore, which need be mentioned in connexion with their artificial +formation are those of the corundum or sapphire class, which include all +the most highly prized gems, rivalling, and sometimes exceeding, the +diamond in value. Here a remarkable and little-known fact deserves +notice. Excepting the diamond and sapphire, each of the precious +stones--the emerald, the topaz and amethyst--possesses a more noble, a +harder, and more highly-prized counterpart of itself, alike in colour, +but superior in brilliancy and hardness; still more strange, the +precious stone to which its special name is usually attached is the +variety the least prized. The ruby itself might almost be included in +the same category. The true ruby consists of the earth alumina, in a +clear, crystalline form, having a minute quantity of the element +chromium as the colouring matter. It is often called the "Oriental +Ruby," or red sapphire, and when of a paler colour, the "Pink Sapphire." +But the ruby as met with in jewellers' shops of inferior standing is +usually no true ruby, but a "spinel ruby" or "balas ruby," sometimes +very beautiful in colour, but softer than the Oriental ruby, and +different in chemical composition, consisting essentially of alumina and +magnesia and a little silica, with the colouring matter chromium. The +colourless basis of the true Oriental precious stones being taken as +crystallized alumina or white sapphire, when the colouring matter is red +the stone is called ruby, when blue sapphire, when green Oriental +emerald, when orange-yellow Oriental topaz, and when violet Oriental +amethyst. Clear, colourless crystals are known as white sapphire, and +are very valuable. It is evident, therefore, that whosoever succeeds in +making artificially clear crystals of white sapphire has the power, by +introducing appropriate colouring matter, to make the Oriental ruby, +sapphire, emerald, topaz and amethyst. All of these stones, even when of +small size, are costly and readily saleable, while when they are of fine +quality and large size they are highly prized, a ruby of fine colour, +and free from flaws, a few carats in weight, being of more value than a +diamond of the same weight. + +This being the case, it is not surprising that repeated attempts have +been made to effect the crystallization of alumina. This is not a matter +of difficulty, but unfortunately the crystals generally form thin +plates, of good colour, but too thin to be useful as gems. In 1837 +M.A.A. Gaudin made true rubies, of microscopic size, by fusing alum in a +carbon crucible at a very high temperature, and adding a little chromium +as colouring matter. In 1847 J.J. Ebelmen produced the white sapphire +and rose-coloured spinel by fusing the constituents at a high +temperature in boracic acid. Shortly afterwards he produced the ruby by +employing borax as the solvent. The boracic acid was found to be too +volatile to allow the alumina to crystallize, but the use of borax made +the necessary difference. But it was not till about the year 1877 that +E. Frémy and C. Feil first published a method whereby it was possible to +produce a crystallized alumina from which small stones could be cut. +They first formed lead aluminate by the fusion together of lead oxide +and alumina. This was kept in a state of fusion in a fireclay crucible +(in the composition of which silica enters largely). Under the influence +of the high temperature the silica of the crucible gradually decomposes +the lead aluminate, forming lead silicate, which remains in the liquid +state, and alumina, which crystallizes as white sapphire. By the +admixture of 2 or 3% of a chromium compound with original materials the +resulting white sapphire became ruby. More recently Edmond Frémy and A. +Verneuil obtained artificial rubies by reacting at a red heat with +barium fluoride on amorphous alumina containing a small quantity of +chromium. The rubies obtained in this manner are thus described by Frémy +and Verneuil: "Their crystalline form is regular; their lustre is +adamantine; they present the beautiful colour of the ruby; they are +perfectly transparent, have the hardness of the ruby, and easily scratch +topaz. They resemble the natural ruby in becoming dark when heated, +resuming their rose-colour on cooling." Des Cloizeaux says of them that +"under the microscope some of the crystals show bubbles. In converging +polarized light the coloured rings and the negative black cross are of a +remarkable regularity." + +Other experimentalists have attacked the problem in other directions. +Besides those already mentioned, L. Eisner, H.H. De Senarmont, +Sainte-Claire Deville, and H. Caron and H. Debray have succeeded with +more or less success in producing rubies. The general plan adopted has +been to form a mixture of salts fusible at a red heat, forming a liquid +in which alumina will dissolve. Alumina is now added till the fused mass +will take up no more, and the crucible is left in the furnace for a long +time, sometimes extending over weeks. The solvent slowly volatilizes, +and the alumina is deposited in crystals, coloured by whatever colouring +oxide has been added. + +Mention has been made above of a stone frequently substituted for the +true ruby, called the "spinel" or "balas" ruby. The spinel and ruby +occur together in nature, stones from Burma being as often spinel as +true Oriental ruby. In the artificial production of the ruby it +sometimes happens that spinel crystallizes out when true Oriental ruby +is expected. The fusion bath is so arranged that only red-coloured +alumina shall crystallize out, but it is difficult to have all the +materials of such purity as to ensure the complete absence of silica and +magnesia. In this case, when these impurities have accumulated to a +certain point they unite with the alumina, and spinel then separates, as +it crystallizes more easily than ruby. When all the magnesia and silica +have been eliminated in this way the bath resumes its deposition of +crystalline ruby. Rubies of fine colour and of considerable size have +been shown in London, made on the Continent by a secret process. The +writer has seen several cut stones so made weighing over a carat each, +the uncut crystals measuring half an inch along a crystal edge, and +weighing over 70 grains, and a clear plate of ruby cut from a single +crystal weighing over 10 grains. Ruby has been made by Sir W. +Roberts-Austen as a by-product in the production of metallic chromium. +Oxide of chromium and aluminium powder are intimately mixed together in +a refractory crucible, and the mixture is ignited at the upper part. The +aluminium and chromium oxide react with evolution of so much heat that +the reduced chromium is melted. Such is the intensity of the reaction +that the resulting alumina is also completely fused, floating as a +liquid on the molten chromium. Sometimes the alumina takes tip the right +amount of chromium to enable it to assume the ruby colour. On cooling +the melted alumina crystallizes in large flakes, which on examination by +transmitted light are seen to be true ruby. The development of the red +colour is said by C. Greville-Williams only to take place at a white +heat. It is not due to the presence of chromic acid, but to a reaction +between alumina and chromic oxide, which requires an elevated +temperature. + +Artificially made but real rubies have been put on the market, prepared +by a process of fusion by A. Verneuil. He finds that certain conditions +have to be fulfilled in order to get the alumina in a transparent form. +The temperature must not be higher than is absolutely necessary for +fusion. The melted product must always be in the same part of the +oxyhydrogen flame, and the point of contact between the melted product +and the support should be reduced to as small an area as possible. M. +Verneuil uses a vertical blowpipe flame directed on a support capable of +movement up and down by means of a screw, so that the fused product may +be removed from the zone of fusion as it gets higher by addition of +fresh material. The material employed is either composed of small, +valueless rubies, or alumina coloured with the right amount of chromium. +It is very finely powdered and fed in through the blowpipe orifice, +whence it is blown in a highly heated condition into the zone of fusion. +The support is a small cylinder of alumina placed in the axis of the +blowpipe. As the operation proceeds the fine grains of powder driven on +to the support in the zone of fusion form a cone which gradually rises +and broadens out until it becomes of sufficient size to be used for +cutting. Rubies prepared in this way have the same specific gravity and +hardness as the natural ruby, and they are also dichroic, and in the +vacuum tube under the influence of the cathode stream they phosphoresce +with a discontinuous spectrum showing the strong alumina line in the +red. When properly cut and mounted it is almost impossible to +distinguish them from natural stones. + +_The Sapphire._--Auguste Daubrée has shown that when a full quantity of +chromium is added to the bath from which white sapphire crystallizes the +colour is that of ruby, but when much less chromium is added the colour +is blue, forming the true Oriental sapphire. The real colouring matter +of the Oriental sapphire is not definitely known, some chemists +considering it to be chromium and others cobalt. Artificial sapphires +have been made of a fair size and perfectly transparent by the addition +of cobalt to the igneous bath of alumina, but the writer does not +consider them equal in colour to true Oriental sapphire. + +_The Oriental Emerald._--The stone known as emerald consists chemically +of silica, alumina and glucina. Like the ruby, it owes its colour to +chromium, but in a different state of oxidation. As already mentioned, +there is another stone which consists of crystallized alumina coloured +with chromium, but holding the chromium in a different state of +oxidation. This is called the Oriental emerald, and, owing to its beauty +of colour, its hardness and rarity, it is more highly prized than the +emerald itself and commands higher prices. The Oriental emerald has been +produced artificially in the same way as the ruby, by adding a larger +amount of chromium to the alumina bath and regulating the temperature. + +_The Oriental Amethyst._--The amethyst is rock crystal (quartz) of a +bluish-violet colour. It is one of the least valuable of the precious +stones. The sapphire, however, is found occasionally of a beautiful +violet colour; it is then called the Oriental amethyst, and, on account +of its beauty and rarity, is of great value. It is evident that if to +the igneous bath of alumina some colouring matter, such as manganese, is +added capable of communicating a violet colour to the crystals of +alumina, the Oriental amethyst will be the result. Oriental amethyst has +been so formed artificially, but the stone being known only as a +curiosity to mineralogists and experts in precious stones, and the +public not being able to discriminate between the violet sapphire and +amethystine quartz, there is no demand for the artificial stone. + +_The Oriental Topaz._--The topaz is what is called a semi-precious +stone. It occurs of many colours, from clear white to pink, orange, +yellow and pale green. The usual colour is from straw-yellow to sherry +colour. The exact composition of the colouring matter is not known; it +is not entirely of mineral origin, as it changes colour and sometimes +fades altogether on exposure to light. Chemically the topaz consists of +alumina, silica and fluorine. It is not so hard as the sapphire. There +is also a yellow variety of quartz, which is sometimes called "false +topaz." The Oriental topaz, on the other hand, is a precious stone of +great value. It consists of clear crystalline sapphire coloured with a +small quantity of ferric oxide. It has been produced artificially by +adding iron instead of chromium to the matrix from which the white +sapphire crystallizes. + +_The Zircon._--The zircon is a very beautiful stone, varying in colour, +like the topaz, from red and yellow to green and blue. It is sometimes +met with colourless, and such are its refractive powers and brilliancy +that it has been mistaken for diamond. It is a compound of silica and +zirconia. H. Sainte-Claire Deville formed the zircon artificially by +passing silicon fluoride at a red heat over the oxide zirconia in a +porcelain tube. Octahedral crystals of zircon are then produced, which +have the same crystalline form, appearance and optical qualities as the +natural zircon. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Sir William Crookes, "A New Formation of Diamond," + _Proc. Roy. Soc._ vol. lxxvi. p. 458; "Diamonds," a lecture delivered + before the British Association at Kimberley, South Africa, 5th + September, 1905, _Chemical News_, vol. xcii. pp. 135, 147, 159; J.J. + Ebelmen, "Sur la production artificielle des pierres dures," _Comptes + rendus_, vol. xxv. p. 279; "Sur une nouvelle méthode pour obtenir, par + la voie sèche, des combinations crystallisées, et sur ses applications + à la réproduction de plusieurs espèces minérales," _Comptes rendus_, + vol. xxv. p. 661; Edmond Frémy and C. Feil, "Sur la production + artificielle du corindon, du rubis, et de différents silicates + crystallisées," _Comptes rendus_, vol. lxxxv. p. 1029; C. Friedel, + "Sur l'existence du diamant dans le fer météorique de Cañon Diablo," + _Comptes rendus_, vol. cxv. p. 1037, vol. cxvi. p. 290; H. Moissan, + "Étude de la météorite de Cañon Diablo," _Comptes rendus_, vol. cxvi. + p. 288; "Expériences sur la réproduction du diamant," _Comptes + rendus_, vol. cxviii. p. 320; "Sur quelques expériences relatives à la + préparation du diamant," _Comptes rendus_, vol. cxxiii. p. 206; _Le + Four électrique_ (Paris, 1897); H. Sainte-Claire Deville and H. Caron, + "Sur un nouveau mode de production à l'état cristallisé d'un certain + nombre d'espèces chimiques et minéralogiques," _Comptes rendus_, vol. + xlvi. p. 764; A. Verneuil, "Production artificielle des rubis par + fusion," ibid. vol. cxxxv. p. 791; J. Boyer, _La Synthèse des pierres + précieuses_ (Paris, 1909). (W. C.) + + + + +GEMBLOUX, a town in the province of Namur and on the borders of Brabant, +Belgium, 25 m. S.E. of Brussels on the main line to Namur and Luxemburg. +Pop. (1904) 4643. It is a busy place with large railway and engine +works, and the junction for several branch lines. On the 31st of January +1578 Don John of Austria gained here a signal victory over the army of +the provinces led by Antony de Goignies. + + + + +GEMINI ("The Twins," i.e. Castor and Pollux), in astronomy, the third +sign in the zodiac, denoted by the symbol II. It is also a +constellation, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd +century B.C.), and catalogued by Ptolemy, 25 stars, Tycho Brahe 25, and +Hevelius 38. By the Egyptians this constellation was symbolized as a +couple of young kids; the Greeks altered this symbol to two children, +variously said to be Castor and Pollux, Hercules and Apollo, or +Triptolemus and Iasion; the Arabians used the symbol of a pair of +peacocks. Interesting objects in this constellation are: [alpha] +Geminorum or Castor, a very fine double star of magnitudes 2.0 and 2.8, +the fainter component is a spectroscopic binary; [eta] Geminorum, a long +period (231 days) variable, the extreme range in magnitude being 3.2 to +4; [zeta] Geminorum, a short period variable, 10.15 days, the extreme +range in magnitude being 3.7 to 4.5; _Nova_ Geminorum, a "new" star +discovered in 1903 by H.H. Turner of Oxford; and the star cluster M.35 +Geminorum, a fine and bright, but loose, cluster, with very little +central condensation. + + + + +GEMINIANI, FRANCESCO (c. 1680-1762), Italian violinist, was born at +Lucca about 1680. He received lessons in music from Alessandro +Scarlatti, and studied the violin under Lunati (Gobbo) and afterwards +under Corelli. In 1714 he arrived in London, where he was taken under +the special protection of the earl of Essex, and made a living by +teaching and writing music. In 1715 he played his violin concertos with +Handel at the English court. After visiting Paris and residing there for +some time, he returned to England in 1755. In 1761 he went to Dublin, +where a servant robbed him of a musical manuscript on which he had +bestowed much time and labour. His vexation at this loss is said to have +hastened his death on the 17th of September 1762. He appears to have +been a first-rate violinist, but most of his compositions are dry and +deficient in melody. His _Art of Playing the Violin_ is a good work of +its kind, but his _Guida armonica_ is an inferior production. He +published a number of solos for the violin, three sets of violin +concertos, twelve violin trios, _The Art of Accompaniment on the +Harpsichord, Organ_, &c., _Lessons for the Harpsichord_ and some other +works. + + + + +GEMISTUS PLETHO [or PLETHON], GEORGIUS (c. 1355-1450), Greek Platonic +philosopher and scholar, one of the chief pioneers of the revival of +learning in Western Europe, was a Byzantine by birth who settled at +Mistra in the Peloponnese, the site of ancient Sparta. He changed his +name from Gemistus to the equivalent Pletho ("the full"), perhaps owing +to the similarity of sound between that name and that of his master +Plato. He invented a religious system founded on the speculative +mysticism of the Neoplatonists, and founded a sect, the members of which +believed that the new creed would supersede all existing forms of +belief. But he is chiefly memorable for having introduced Plato to the +Western world. This took place upon his visit to Florence in 1439, as +one of the deputies from Constantinople on occasion of the general +council. Cardinal Bessarion became his disciple; he produced a great +impression upon Cosimo de' Medici; and though not himself making any +very important contribution to the study of Plato, he effectually shook +the exclusive domination which Aristotle had exercised over European +thought for eight centuries. He promoted the union of the Greek and +Latin Churches as far as possible, but his efforts in this direction +bore no permanent fruit. He probably died before the capture of +Constantinople. The most important of his published works are treatises +on the distinction between Plato and Aristotle as philosophers +(published at Venice in 1540); on the religion of Zoroaster (Paris, +1538); on the condition of the Peloponnese (ed. A. Ellissen in +_Analekten der mittel- und neugriechischen Literatur_, iv.); and the +[Greek: Nomoi] (ed. C. Alexandre, Paris, 1858). In addition to these he +compiled several volumes of excerpts from ancient authors, and wrote a +number of works on geography, music and other subjects, many of which +still exist in MS. in various European libraries. + + See especially F. Schultze, _Geschichte der Philosophie der + Renaissance_, i. (1874); also J.A. Symonds, _The Renaissance in Italy_ + (1877), ii. p. 198; H.F. Tozer, "A Byzantine Reformer," in _Journal of + Hellenic Studies_, vii. (1886), chiefly on Pletho's scheme of + political and social reform for the Peloponnese, as set forth in the + pamphlets addressed to Manuel II. Palaeologus and his son Theodore, + despot of the Morea; W. Gass, _Gennadius und Pletho_ (1844). Most of + Pletho's works will be found in J.P. Migne, _Patrologia Graeca_, clx.; + for a complete list see Fabricius, _Bibliotheca Graeca_ (ed. Harles), + xii. + + + + +GEMMI PASS, a pass (7641 ft.) leading from Frutigen in the Swiss canton +of Bern to Leukerbad in the Swiss canton of the Valais. It is much +frequented by travellers in summer. From Kandersteg (7½ m. by road above +Frutigen, which is 12 m. by rail from Spiez on the Berne-Interlaken +line) a mule path leads to the summit of the pass, passing over the +Spitalmatte plain, where in 1782 and again in 1895 a great avalanche +fell from the Altels (11,930 ft.) to the S.E., causing on both occasions +great loss of life and property. The mule path descends on the south +side of the pass by an extraordinary series of zigzags, made accessible +for mules (though no rider is now allowed to descend on mule-back) by a +band of Tirolese workmen in 1740-1741. They are cut in a very steep wall +of rock, about 1800 ft. in height, and lead down to the village of +Leukerbad, which is 9½ m. by carriage road past Leuk above the Susten +station in the Rhône valley and on the Simplon line. (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +GENDARMERIE, originally a body of troops in France composed of +_gendarmes_ or men-at-arms. In the days of chivalry they were mounted +and armed cap-à-pie, exactly as were the lords and knights, with whom +they constituted the most important part of an army. They were attended +each by five soldiers of inferior rank and more lightly armed. In the +later middle ages the men-at-arms were furnished by owners of fiefs. But +after the Hundred Years' War this feudal gendarmerie was replaced by the +_compagnies d'ordonnance_ which Charles VII. formed when the English +were driven out of France, and which were distributed throughout the +whole extent of the kingdom for preserving order and maintaining the +king's authority. These companies, fifteen in number, were composed of +100 lances or gendarmes fully equipped, each of whom was attended by at +least three archers, one _coutillier_ (soldier armed with a cutlass) and +one _varlet_ (soldier's servant). The states-general of Orleans (1439) +had voted a yearly subsidy of 1,200,000 livres in perpetuity to keep up +this national soldiery, which replaced, and in fact was recruited +chiefly amongst, the bands of mercenaries who for about a century had +made France their prey. The number and composition of the _compagnies +d'ordonnance_ were changed more than once before the reign of Louis XIV. +This sovereign on his accession to the throne found only eight companies +of gendarmes surviving out of an original total of more than one +hundred, but after the victory of Fleurus (1690), which had been decided +by their courage, he increased their number to sixteen. The four first +companies (which were practically guard troops) were designated by the +names of _Gendarmes écossais_, _Gendarmes anglais_, _Gendarmes +bourguignons_ and _Gendarmes flamands_, from the nationality of the +soldiers who had originally composed them; but at that time they +consisted entirely of French soldiers and officers. These four companies +had a captain-general, who was the king. The fifth company was that of +the queen; and the others bore the name of the princes who respectively +commanded them. This organization was dissolved in 1788. The Revolution +swept away all these institutions of the monarchy, and, with the +exception of a short revival of the _Gendarmes de la garde_ at the +Restoration, henceforward the word "gendarmerie" possesses an altogether +different significance--viz. military police. + + + + +GENEALOGY (from the Gr. [Greek: genos], family, and [Greek: logos], +theory), a pedigree or list of ancestors, or the study of family +history. + +1. _Biblical Genealogies._--The aims and methods of ancient genealogists +require to be carefully considered before the value of the numerous +ancestral lists in the Bible can be properly estimated. Many of the old +"genealogies," like those of Greece, have arisen from the desire to +explain the origin of the various groups which they include. Information +relating to the subdivision of tribes, their relation to each other, the +intermingling of populations and the like are thus frequently +represented in the form of genealogies. The "sons" of a "father" often +stand merely for the branches of a family as they existed at some one +period, and since in course of time tribal relations would vary, lists +which have originated at different periods will present discrepancies. +It is obvious that many of the Biblical names are nothing more than +personifications of nations, tribes, towns, &c., which are grouped +together to convey some idea of the bond by which they were believed to +be connected. + + For the personification of a people or tribe, cp. Gen. xxxiv. 30 + ("Jacob said ... I am a few men"), Josh. xvii. 14 ("the children of + Joseph said ... I am a numerous people"), Ex. xiv. 25 ("Egypt said, + let me flee"), Jos. ix. 7, 1 Sam. v. 10, &c.; see G.B. Gray on + Numbers, xx. 14 (_Internat. Crit. Comm._). Thus we find among the + "sons" of Japhet: (the nations) Gomer, Javan, Tubal; Canaan "begat" + Sidon and Heth; the "sons" of Ishmael include the well-known tribes + Kedar and Jetur; Jacob, or the synonym Israel, personifies the + "children of Israel" (cf. use of "I," "thou" of the Israelites in + Deut., and in poetical passages). The recognition of this + characteristic usage often furnishes an ethnological interpretation to + those genealogical stories which obviously do not relate to persons, + but to tribes or peoples personified. The Edomites and Israelites are + regarded as "brothers" (cf. Num. xx. 14, Deut. ii. 4, Am. i. 11), and + since Esau (Edom) was born before Jacob (Israel) it would appear that + the Edomites were held to be the older nation. The union of two clans + is expressed as a marriage, or the wife is the territory which is + dominated by the husband (tribe); see CALEB. If the woman is not of + noble blood, but is a handmaiden or concubine, her children are + naturally not upon the same footing as those of the wife; consequently + the descendants of Ishmael, the son of Hagar (Sarah's maid), are + inferior to Isaac and his descendants, whilst the children of Keturah + ("incense"), Abraham's concubine, are still lower--from the Israelite + point of view. This application of the terms of relationship is + characteristic of the Semites. The "father" of the Rechabites is their + head or founder (cf. 1 Sam. x. 12: "who is their father?"), and a + common bond, which is not necessarily physical, unites all "sons," + whether they are "sons of the prophets" (members of prophetic guilds) + or "sons of Belial" (worthless men). + +The interpretation of ethnological or statistical genealogies may easily +be pushed too far. Every case has to be judged upon its own merits, and +due allowance must be made both for the ambition of the weaker to claim +or to strengthen an alliance with the stronger, and for the not +unnatural desire of clans or individuals to magnify the greatness of +their ancestry. The first step must always be the careful comparison of +related lists in order to test the consistency of the tradition. Next, +these must be critically studied in the light of all available +historical material, though indeed such evidence is not necessarily +conclusive. Finally, (a) literary criticism must be employed to +determine if possible the dates of such lists, since obviously a +contemporary register is more trustworthy than one which is centuries +later; (b) a critical estimate of the character of the names and of +their use in various periods of Old Testament history is of importance +in estimating the antiquity of the list[1]--for example, many of the +names in Chronicles attributed to the time of David are indubitably +exilic or post-exilic; and (c) principles of ordinary historical +probability are as necessary here as in dealing with the genealogies of +other ancient peoples, and attention must be paid to such features as +fluctuation in the number of links, representation of theories +inconsistent with the growth of national life, schemes of relationship +not in accordance with sociological conditions, &c. + +The Biblical genealogies commence with "the generations of the heaven +and earth," and by a process of elimination pass from Adam and Eve by +successive steps to Jacob and to his sons (the tribes), and finally to +the subdivisions of each tribe (cp. 1 Chron. i.-ix. 1). According to +this theory every Israelite could trace back his descent to Jacob, the +common father of the whole nation (Josh. vii. 17 seq., 1 Sam. x. 21). +Such a scheme, however, is full of manifest improbabilities. It demands +that every tribe and every clan should have been a homogeneous group +which had preserved its unity from the earliest times, that family +records extending back for several centuries were in existence, and that +such a tribe as Simeon was able to maintain its independence in spite of +the tradition that it lost its autonomy in very early times (Gen. xlix. +7). The whole conception of the unity of the tribes cannot be referred +to a date previous to the time of David, and in the older writings a +David or a Jeroboam was sufficiently described as the son of Jesse or of +Nebat. The genealogical zeal as represented in the Old Testament is +chiefly of later growth, and the exceptions are due to interpolation +(Josh. vii. 1 18, contrast v. 24), or to the desire to modify or qualify +an older notice. This, in the case of Saul (1 Sam. ix. 1), has led to +textual corruption; a list of such a length as his should have reached +back to one of the "sons" of Benjamin (cf. e.g. Gen. xlvi. 21), else it +were purposeless. The genealogies, too, are often inconsistent amongst +themselves and in contradiction to their object. They show, for example, +that the population of southern Judah, so far from being "Israelite" was +half-Edomite (see Judah), and several of the clans in this district bear +names which indicate their original affinity with Midian or Edom. +Moreover, there was a free intermixture of races, and many cities had a +Canaanite (i.e. pre-Israelite) population which must have been gradually +absorbed by the Israelites (cf. Judg. 1.). That spirit of religious +exclusiveness which marked later Judaism did not become prominent before +the Deuteronomic reformation (see DEUTERONOMY), and it is under its +influence that the writings begin to emphasize the importance of +maintaining the purity of Israelite blood, although by this time the +fusion was complete (see Judg. iii. 6) and for practical purposes a +distinction between Canaanites and Israelites within the borders of +Palestine could scarcely be discerned. + + Many of the genealogical data are intricate. Thus, the interpretation + of Gen. xxxiv. is particularly obscure (see LEVITES _ad fin._; + SIMEON). As regards the sons of Jacob, it is difficult to explain + their division among the four wives of Jacob; viz. (a) the sons of + Leah are Reuben, Simeon, Levi and Judah (S. Palestine), Issachar and + Zebulun (in the north), and Dinah (associated with Shechem); (b) of + Leah's maid Zilpah, Gad and Asher (E. and N. Palestine); (c) of + Rachel, Joseph (Manasseh and Ephraim, i.e. central Palestine) and + Benjamin; (d) of Rachel's maid Bilhah, Dan and Naphtali (N. + Palestine). It has been urged that (b) and (d) stood upon a lower + footing than the rest, or were of later origin; or that Bilhan points + to an old clan associated with Reuben (Gen. xxxv. 22) or Edom (Bilhan, + Gen. xxxvi. 27), whilst Zilpah represents an Aramaean strain. + Tradition may have combined distinct schemes, and the belief that the + wives were Aramaean at least coincides with the circumstance that + Aramaean elements predominated in certain of the twelve tribes. The + number "twelve" is artificial and can be obtained only by counting + Manasseh and Ephraim as one or by omitting Levi, and a careful study + of Old Testament history makes it extremely difficult to recover the + tribes as historical units. See, on these points, the articles on the + several tribes, B. Luther, _Zeit. d. alttest. Wissens_. (1901), pp. 1 + sqq.; G.B. Gray, _Expositor_ (March 1902), pp. 225-240, and in _Ency. + Bib._, art. "Tribes"; and H.W. Hogg's thorough treatment of the tribes + in the last-mentioned work. + +The ideal of purity of descent shows itself conspicuously in portions of +Deuteronomic law (Deut. vii. 1-3, xxiii. 2-8), and in the reforms of +Nehemiah and Ezra (Ezr. ix. 1-4, 11 sqq.; Neh. xiii. 1-3). The desire to +prove the continuity of the race, enforced by the experience of the +exile, gave the impetus to genealogical zeal, and many of the extant +lists proceed from this age when the true historical succession of names +was a memory of the past. This applies with special force to the lists +in Chronicles which present finished schemes of the Levitical divisions +by the side of earlier attempts, with consequent confusion and +contradiction. Thus the immediate ancestors of Ethan appear in the time +of Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxix. 12), but he with Asaiah and Heman are +contemporaries of David, and their genealogies from Levi downwards +contain a very unequal number of links (1 Chron. vi.). By another +application of genealogical method the account of the institution of +priests and Levites by David (1 Chron. xxiv.) presents many names which +belong solely to post-exilic days, thus suggesting that the scribes +desired to show that the honourable families of their time were not +unknown centuries previously. Everywhere we find the results of much +skill and labour, often in accordance with definite theories, but a +thorough investigation reveals their weakness and often quite +incidentally furnishes valuable evidence of another nature. + + The intricate Levitical genealogies betray the result of successive + genealogists who sought to give effect to the development of the + hierarchal system (see LEVITES). The climax is reached when all + Levites are traced back to Gershon, Kehath and Merari, to which are + ascribed respectively Asaph, Heman and Ethan (or Jeduthun). The last + two were not originally Levites in the later accepted sense of the + term (see 1 Kings iv. 31). To Kehath is reckoned an important + subdivision descended from Korah, but in 2 Chron. xx. 19 the two are + distinct groups, and Korah's name is that of an Edomite clan (Gen. + xxxvi. 5, 14, 18) related to Caleb, and thus included among the + descendants of Judah (1 Chron. ii. 43). Cases of adjustment, + redistribution and "Levitizing" of individuals are frequent. There are + traces of varying divisions both of the singers (Neh. xi. 17) and of + the Levites (Num. xxvi. 58; Ezr. ii. 40, iii. 9; 1 Chron. xv. 5-10, + xxiii.), and it is noteworthy that in the case of the latter we have + mention of such families as Hebroni (Hebronite), Libni (from + Libnah)--ethnics of South Judaean towns. In fact, a significant number + of Levitical names find their analogy in the lists of names belonging + to Judah, Simeon and even Edom, or are closely connected with the + family of Moses; e.g. Mushi (i.e. Mosaïte), Gershon and Eleazar (cp. + Gershom and Eliezer, sons of Moses). The Levites bear a class-name, + and the genealogies show that many of them were connected with the + minor clans and families of South Palestine which included among them + Moses and his kin. Hence, it is not unnatural that Obed-edom, for + example, obviously a southerner, should have been reckoned later as a + Levite, and the work ascribed by the chronicler's history to the + closing years of David's life may be influenced by the tradition that + it was through him these mixed populations first attained importance. + See further DAVID; JEWS; LEVITES. + +In the time of Josephus every priest was supposed to be able to prove +his descent, and perhaps from the time of Ezra downwards lists were +carefully kept. But when Anna is called an Asherite (Luke ii. 36), or +Paul a Benjamite (Rom. xi. 1), family tradition was probably the sole +support to the claim, although the tribal feeling had not become +entirely extinct. The genealogies of Jesus prefixed to two of the +gospels are intended to prove that He was a son of David. But not that +alone, for in Matt. i. he is traced back to Abraham the father of the +Jews, whilst in Luke iii. He, as the second Adam, is traced back to the +first man. The two lists are hopelessly inconsistent; not because one of +them follows the line of Mary, but because they represent independent +attempts. That in Matthew is characteristically arranged in three +series of fourteen generations each through the kings of Judah, whilst +Luke's passes through an almost unknown son of David; in spite of this, +however, both converge in the person of Zerubbabel. + + See further, A.C. Hervey, _Genealogies of Our Lord_; H. von Soden, + _Ency. Bib._ ii. col. 1666 sqq.; B.W. Bacon, Hastings' _Dict. Bib._ + ii. pp. 138 seq. On the subject generally see J.F. M'Lennan's + _Studies_ (2nd ser., ch. ix., "fabricated genealogies"); S.A. Cook, + _Ency. Bib._ ii. col. 1657 sqq. (with references); W.R. Smith, + _Kinship and Marriage_ (2nd ed., especially ch. i.). (S. A. C.) + +2. _Greek and Roman Genealogies._--A passing reference only is needed to +the intricate genealogies of gods and sons of gods which form so +conspicuous a feature in classical literature.[2] In every one of the +numerous states into which ancient Greece was divided there were +aristocratic families, whose genealogies as a rule went back to +prehistoric times, their first ancestor being some hero of divine +descent, from whom, or from some distinguished younger ancestor, they +derived their names. Many of these families were, as families, +undoubtedly of great antiquity even at the beginning of the historical +period; and in several instances they continued to maintain a +conspicuous and separate existence for centuries. The element of family +pride is prominent in the poetry of the Megarian Theognis; and in an +inscription belonging to the 2nd century B.C. the recipient of certain +honours from the community of Gythium is represented as the thirty-ninth +in direct descent from the Dioscuri and the forty-first from Heracles. +Even in Athens, long after the constitution had become thoroughly +democratic, some of the clans continued to be known as Eupatridae (of +noble family); and Alcibiades, for example, as a member of the phratria +of the Eurysacidae, traced his origin through many generations to +Eurysaces, who was represented as having been the first of the Aeacidae +to settle in Attica. The Corinthian Bacchiadae traced their descent back +to Heracles, but took their name from Bacchis, a younger ancestor. It is +very doubtful, however, whether such pedigrees as this were very +seriously put forward by those who claimed them; and it is certain that, +almost along the whole line, they were unsupported by evidence.[3] We +have the authority of Pollux (viii. 111) for stating that the Athenian +[Greek: genê], of which there were thirty in each [Greek: phratria], +were organized without any exclusive regard being had to +blood-relationship; they were constantly receiving accessions from +without; and the public written registers of births, adoptions and the +like do not appear to have been preserved with such care as would have +made it possible to verify a pedigree for any considerable portion even +of the strictly historical period.[4] + +The great antiquity of the early Roman (patrician) _gentes_, who +universally traced themselves back to illustrious ancestors, is +indisputable; and the rigid exclusiveness with which each preserved its +_hereditates gentiliciae_ or _sacra gentilicia_ is sufficiently +illustrated by the fact that towards the close of the republic there +were not more than fifty patrician families (Dion. Halic. i. 85). Yet +even in these it is obvious that, owing to the frequency of resort to +the well-recognized practice of adoption, while there was every +guarantee for the historical identity of the family, there was none +(documents apart) for the personal genealogy of the individual. There is +no evidence that sufficient records of pedigree were kept during the +earlier centuries of the Roman commonwealth, although the leading houses +drew up genealogical tables, and their family pedigree was painted on +the walls of the entrance hall. In later times, it is true, even +plebeian families began to establish a prescriptive right (known as the +_jus imaginum_) to preserve in small wooden shrines in their halls the +busts (or rather, wax portrait masks fastened on to busts) of those of +their members who had attained to curule office, and to exhibit these in +public on appropriate occasions. Under these _imagines majorum_[5] it +became usual to inscribe on the wall their respective _tituli_, the +relationship of each to each being indicated by means of connecting +lines; and thus arose the _stemmata gentilicia_, which at a later time +began to be copied into family records. In the case of plebeian families +(whose stemmata in no case went farther back than 366 B.C.) these +written genealogies were probably trustworthy enough; but in the case of +patricians who went back to Aeneas,[6] so much cannot, it is obvious, be +said; and from a comparatively early period it was clearly recognized +that such records lent themselves too readily to the devices of the +falsifier and the forger to deserve confidence or reverence (Pliny, +_H.N._ xxxv. 2; Juv. viii. 1). + +Thus, parvenus were known to place the busts of fictitious ancestors in +the shrines and to engage needy literary men to trace back their descent +even to Aeneas himself. + +The many and great social changes which marked the closing centuries of +the Western empire almost invariably militated with great strength +against the maintenance of an aristocracy of birth; and from the time of +Constantine the dignity of patrician ceased to be hereditary.[7] + +3. _Modern._--Two forces have combined to give genealogy its importance +during the period of modern history: the laws of inheritance, +particularly those which govern the descent of real estate, and the +desire to assert the privileges of a hereditary aristocracy. But it is +long before genealogies are found in the possession of private families. +The succession of kings and princes are in the chronicle book; the line +of the founders and patrons of abbeys are recorded by the monks with +curious embellishment of legend. But the famous suit of Scrope against +Grosvenor will illustrate the late appearance of private genealogies in +England. In 1385 Sir Richard Scrope, lord of Bolton, displaying his +banner in the host that invaded Scotland, found that his arms of a +golden bend in a blue field were borne by a knight of the Chester +palatinate, one Sir Robert Grosvenor. He carried the dispute to a court +of chivalry, whose decision in his favour was confirmed on appeal to the +king. Grosvenor asserted that he derived his right from an ancestor, Sir +Gilbert Grosvenor, who had come over with the Conqueror, while an +intervening claimant, a Cornish squire named Thomas Carminowe, boasted +that his own ancestors had borne the like arms since the days of King +Arthur's Round Table. It is remarkable that in support of the false +statements made by the claimants no written genealogy is produced. The +evidence of tombs and monuments and the reports of ancient men are +advanced, but no pedigree is exhibited in a case which hangs upon +genealogy. It is possible that the art of pedigree-making had its first +impulse in England from the many genealogies constructed to make men +familiar with the claims of Edward III. to the crown of France, a second +crop of such royal pedigrees being raised in later generations during +the contests of York and Lancaster. But it is not until after the close +of the middle ages that genealogies multiply in men's houses and are +collected into volumes. The medieval baron, knight or squire, although +proud of the nobility of his race, was content to let it rest upon +legend handed down the generations. The exact line of his descent was +sought only when it was demanded for a plea in the king's courts to +support his title to his lands. + +From the first the work of the genealogist in England had that taint of +inaccuracy tempered with forgery from which it has not yet been +cleansed. The medieval kings, like the Welsh gentry of later ages, +traced their lines to the household of Eden garden, while lesser men, +even as early as the 14th century, eagerly asserted their descent from a +companion of the Conqueror. Yet beside these false imaginations we find +the law courts, whose business was often a clash of pedigrees, dealing +with genealogies centuries long which, constructed as it would seem from +worthy evidences, will often bear the test of modern criticism. + +Genealogies in great plenty are found in manuscripts and printed volumes +from the 16th century onward. Remarkable among these are the descents +recorded in the Visitation Books of the heralds, who, armed with +commissions from the crown, the first of which was issued in 20 Hen. +VIII., perambulated the English counties, viewing arms and registering +pedigrees. The notes in their register books range from the simple +registration of a man's name and arms to entries of pedigrees many +generations long. To the heralds these visitations were rare +opportunities of obtaining fees from the visited, and the value of the +pedigrees registered is notably unequal. Although it has always been the +boast of the College of Arms that Visitation records may be produced as +evidence in the law courts, few of these officially recorded genealogies +are wholly trustworthy. Many of the officers of arms who recorded them +were, even by the testimony of their comrades, of indifferent character, +and even when the visiting herald was an honourable man and an +industrious he had little time to spare for the investigation of any +single genealogy. Deeds and evidences in private hands may have been +hastily examined in some instances--indeed, a herald's summons invites +their production--and monuments were often viewed in the churches, but +for the most part men's memories and the hearsay of the country-side +made the backbone of the pedigree. The further the pedigree is carried +beyond the memory of living men the less trustworthy does it become. The +principal visitations took place in the reigns of Elizabeth, James I. +and Charles II. No commission has been issued since the accession of +William and Mary, but from that time onwards large numbers of +genealogies have been recorded in the registers of the College of Arms, +the modern ones being compiled with a care which contrasts remarkably +with the unsupported statements of the Tudor heralds. + +Outside the doors of the College of Arms genealogy has now been for some +centuries a favourite study of antiquaries, whose researches have been +of the utmost value to the historian, the topographer and the +biographer. County histories, following the example of Dugdale's +Warwickshire folios, have given much space to the elucidation of +genealogies and to the amassing of material from which they may be +constructed. Dugdale's great work on the English baronage heads another +host of works occupied with the genealogy of English noble families, and +the second edition of "G.E.C.'s" _Complete Peerage_ shows the mighty +advance of the modern critical spirit. Nevertheless, the 20th century +has not yet seen the abandoning of all the genealogical fables nourished +by the Elizabethan pedigree-mongers, and the ancestry of many noble +houses as recorded in popular works of reference is still derived from +mythical forefathers. Thus the dukes of Norfolk, who, by their office of +earl marshal are patrons of the heralds, are provided with a +10th-century Hereward for an ancestor; the dukes of Bedford, descendants +of a 15th-century burgess of Weymouth, are traced to the knightly house +of Russell of Kingston Russell, and the dukes of Westminster to the +mythical Gilbert le Grosvenor who "came over in the train of the +Conqueror." + +Genealogical research has, however, made great advance during the last +generation. The critical spirit shown in such works as Round's _Studies +in Peerage and Family History_ (1901) has assailed with effective +ridicule the methods of dishonest pedigree-makers. Much raw material of +genealogy has been made available for all by the publication of parish +registers, marriage-licence allegations, monumental inscriptions and the +like, and above all by the mass of evidences contained in the volumes +issued by the Public Record Office. + +Within a small space it is impossible to set forth in detail the methods +by which an English genealogy may be traced. But those who are setting +out upon the task may be warned at the outset to avoid guesswork based +upon the possession of a surname which may be shared by a dozen families +between whom is no tie of kinship. A man whose family name is Howard may +be presumed to descend from an ancestor for whom Howard was a personal +name: it may not be presumed that this ancestor was he in whom the dukes +of Norfolk have their origin. A genealogy should not be allowed to stray +from facts which can be supported by evidence. A man may know that his +grandfather was John Stiles who died in 1850 at the age of fifty-five. +It does not follow that this John is identical with the John Stiles who +is found as baptized in 1795 at Blackacre, the son of William Stiles. +But if John the grandfather names in his letters a sister named Isabel +Nokes, while the will of William Stiles gives legacies to his son and +daughter John Stiles and Isabel Nokes, we may agree that reasonable +proof has been given of the added generation. A new pedigree should +begin with the carefully tested statements of living members of a +family. The next step should be to collate such family records as bible +entries, letters and diaries, and inscriptions on mourning rings, with +monumental inscriptions of acknowledged members of the family. From such +beginnings the genealogist will continue his search through the +registers of parishes with which the family has been connected; wills +and administrations registered in the various probate courts form, with +parish registers, the backbone of most middle-class family histories. +Court rolls of manors in which members of the family were tenants give, +when existing and accessible, proofs which may carry back a line, +however obscure, through many descents. When these have been exhausted +the records of legal proceedings, and notably those of the court of +chancery, may be searched. Few English households have been able in the +past to avoid an appeal to the chancery court, and the bill and answer +of a chancery plaintiff and defendant will often tell the story of a +family quarrel in which a score of kinsfolk are involved, and the +pleadings may contain the material for a family tree of many branching +generations. Coram Rege and De Banco rolls may even, in the course of a +dispute over a knight's fee or a manor carry a pedigree to the Conquest +of England, although such good fortune can hardly be expected by the +searcher out of an undistinguished line. In proving a genealogy it must +be remembered that in the descent of an estate in land must be sought +the best evidence for a pedigree. + +At the present time the study of genealogy grows rapidly in English +estimation. It is no less popular in America, where societies and +private persons have of late years published a vast number of +genealogies, many of which combine the results of laborious research in +American records with extravagant and unfounded claims concerning the +European origin of the families dealt with. A family with the surname of +Cuthbert has been known to hail St Cuthbert of Lindisfarne as its +progenitor, and one surnamed Eberhardt has incorporated in its pedigree +such German princes of old times as were found to have Eberhardt for a +Christian name. + +Genealogy in modern France has, with a few honourable exceptions, fallen +into the hands of the popular pedigree-makers, whose concern is to +gratify the vanity of their employers. Italy likewise has not yet shaken +off the influence of those venal genealogists who, three hundred years +ago, sold pedigrees cheaply to all comers. But much laborious +genealogical inquiry had been made in Germany since the days of Hübner, +and even in Russia there has been some attempt to apply modern standards +of criticism to the chronicles of the swarming descendants of the blood +of Rurik. + +In no way is the gap made by the Dark Ages between ancient and modern +history more marked than by the fact that no European family makes a +serious claim to bridge it with its genealogy. The unsupported claim of +the Roman house of Massimo to a descent from Fabius Maximus is +respectable beside such legends as that which made Lévis-Mirepoix head +of the priestly tribe of Levi, but even the boast of such remote +ancestry has now become rare. The ancient sovereign houses of Europe +are, for the most part, content to attach themselves to some ancestor +who, when the mist that followed the fall of the Western empire begins +to lift, is seen rallying with his sword some group of spearmen. + + AUTHORITIES.--Genealogical works have been published in such abundance + that the bibliographies of the subject are already substantial + volumes. Amongst the earlier books from the press may be noted + Benvenuto de San Georgio's _Montisferrati marchionum et principum + regiae propagium successionumque series_ (1515); Pingonius's _Arbor + gentilitiae Sabaudiae Saxoniaeque domus_ (1521); Gebweiler's _Epitome + regii ac vetustissimi ortus Caroli V. et Ferdinandi I., omniumque + archiducum Austriae et comitum Habsburgiensium_ (1527): Meyer's work + on the counts of Flanders (1531), and Du Boulay's genealogies of the + dukes of Lorraine (1547). Later in the same century Reineck of + Helmstadt put forth many works having a wider genealogical scope, and + we may cite Henninges's _Genealogiae Saxonicae_ (1587) and _Theatrum + genealogicum_ (1598), and Reusner's _Opus genealogicum catholicum_ + (1589-1592). For the politically inconvenient falseness of François de + Rosières' _Stemmata Lotharingiae ac Barri ducum_ (1580), wherein the + dukes of Lorraine were deduced from the line of Charlemagne, the + author was sent to the Bastille by the parlement of Paris and his book + suppressed. + + The 17th century saw the production in England of Dugdale's great + _Baronage_ (1675-1676), a work which still holds a respectable place + by reason of its citation of authorities, and of Sandford's history of + the royal house. In the same century André Duchesne, the historian of + the Montmorencys, Pierre d'Hozier, the chronicler of the house of La + Rochefoucauld, Rittershusius, Imhoff, Spener, Lohmeier and many others + contribute to the body of continental genealogies. Pierre de Guibours, + known as Père Anselme de Ste Marie, published in 1674 the first + edition of his magnificent _Histoire généalogique de la maison royale + de France, des pairs, grands officiers de la couronne et de la maison + du roy et des anciens barons du royaume_. Of this encyclopaedic work a + third and complete edition appeared in 1726-1733. A modern edition + under the editorship of M. Potier de Courcy began to be issued in + 1873, but remains incomplete. Among 18th-century work Johann Hübner's + _Bibliotheca genealogica_ (1729) and _Genealogische Tabellen_ + (1725-1733), with Lenzen's commentary on the latter work (c. 1756), + may be signalized, with Gatterer's _Handbuch der Genealogie_ (1761) + and his Abriss der Genealogie (1788), the latter an early manual on + the science of genealogy. Hergott's _Genealogia diplomatica augustae + gentis Habsburgicae_ (1737) is the imperial genealogy compiled by the + emperor's own historiographer. + + Modern peerages in England may be said to date from that of Arthur + Collins, whose one-volume first edition was published in 1709. The + fifth edition appeared in 1778, in eight volumes, to be republished in + 1812 by Sir Egerton Brydges, the "Baptist Hatton" of Disraeli's novel, + who corrected many legendary pedigrees, besides inserting his own + forged descent from a common ancestor with the dukes of Chandos. From + this work and from the Irish peerage of Lodge (as re-edited by + Archdall) most of the later peerages have quarried their material. + With these may be named the baronetages of Wotton and Betham. Of + modern popular peerages and baronetages that of Burke has been + published since 1822 in many editions and now appears yearly. Most + important for the historian are the _Complete Peerage_ of G.E. + C[ockayne] (2nd ed., 1910), and the _Complete Baronetage_ of the same + author. The _Peerage of Scotland_ (1769) of Sir Robert Douglas of + Glenbervie came to a second edition in 1813, edited by J.P. Wood, and + the whole work has been revised and re-edited by Sir James Balfour + Paul (1904, &c.). Of the popular manuals of English untitled families, + Burke's _Genealogical and Heraldic Dictionary of the Commoners_ + (1833-1838) is now brought up to date from time to time and reissued + as the _Landed Gentry_. + + Lists of pedigrees in English printed works are supplied by Marshall's + _Genealogist's Guide_ (1903), while pedigrees in the manuscript + collections of the British Museum are indexed in the list of R. Sims + (1849). Valuable genealogical material will be found in such + periodicals as the _Genealogist_, the _Herald and Genealogist_, the + _Topographer and Genealogist_, _Collectanea topographica et + genealogica_, _Miscellanea genealogica et heraldica_ and the + _Ancestor_. In Germany the _Deutscher Herold_ is the organ of the + Berlin Heraldic and Genealogical Society. The _Nederlandsche Leeuw_ is + a similar publication in the Low Countries. + + Modern criticism of the older genealogical methods will be found in + J.H. Round's _Peerage and Pedigree_, 2 vols. (London, 1910), and in + other volumes by the same author. The Harleian Society has published + many volumes of the Herald's Visitations; and the British Record + Society's publications, supplying a key to a vast mass of wills, + Chancery suits and marriage licences, are of still greater importance. + The _Victoria History of the Counties of England_ includes + genealogies of the ancient English county families still among the + land-owning classes. English pedigrees of the age before the Conquest + are collected in W.G. Searle's _Anglo-Saxon Bishops, Kings and Nobles_ + (1899). + + Genealogical dictionaries of noble French families include Victor de + Saint Allais's _Nobiliaire universel_ (21 vols., 1872-1877) and Aubert + de la Chenaye-Desbois' _Dictionnaire de la noblesse_ (15 vols., + 1863-1876). A sumptuous work on the genealogy and heraldry of the + ancient duchy of Savoy by Count Amédée de Foras began to appear in + 1863. Spain has Lopez de Haro's _Nobiliario genealogico de los reyes y + títulos de España_. Italy has the _Teatro araldico_ of Tettoni and + Saladini (1841-1848), Litti's _Famiglie celebri_ and an _Annuario + della nobilità_. Such annuals are now published more or less + intermittently in many European countries. Finland has a _Ridderscap + och Adels Kalender_, Belgium the _Annuaire de la noblesse_, the Dutch + Netherlands an _Adelsboek_, Denmark the _Adels-Garbog_ and Russia the + _Annuaire_ of Ermerin. But chief of all such publications is the + ancient _Almanach de Gotha_, containing the modern kinship of royal + and princely houses, and now accompanied by volumes dealing with the + houses of German and Austrian counts and barons, and with houses + ennobled in modern times by patent. A useful modern reference book for + students of history is Stokvis's _Manuel d'histoire et de généalogie + de tous les états du globe_ (1888-1893). The best manual for the + English genealogist is Walter Rye's _Records and Record Searching_ + (1897), while an ill-arranged but valuable bibliography of English and + foreign works on the subject is that of George Gatfield (1892). + (O. Ba.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] G.B. Gray's _Hebrew Proper Names_ (1896), with his article in the + _Expositor_ (Sept. 1897), pp. 173-190, should be consulted for the + application and range of Hebrew names in O. T. genealogies and lists. + + [2] On the subject generally see articles "Genos" and "Gens," by A.H. + Greenidge, in Smith's _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities_ + (3rd ed., 1890), where the chief authorities are given. + + [3] The fondness of Euripides for genealogies is ridiculed by + Aristophanes (_Acharnians_, 47). + + [4] All the earlier Greek historians appear to have constructed their + narratives on assumed genealogical bases. The four books of Hecataeus + of Miletus dealt respectively with the traditions about Deucalion, + about Heracles and the Heraclidae, about the early settlements in + Peloponnesus, and about those in Asia Minor; he further made a + pedigree for himself, in which his sixteenth ancestor was a god. The + works of Hellanicus of Lesbos bore titles ([Greek: Deukaliôneia] and + the like) which sufficiently explain their nature; his disciple, + Damastes of Sigeum, was the author of genealogical histories of + Trojan heroes; Apollodorus of Athens made use of three books of + [Greek: Genealogika] by Acusilaus of Argos; Pherecydes of Leros also + wrote [Greek: genealogiai]. See J.A.F. Töpffer, _Attische Genealogie_ + (1889); also J.H. Schubart, _Quaestt. geneal. historicae_ (1832); G. + Marckscheffel, _De genealogica Graecorum poësi_ (1840). + + [5] The chief authority on this subject is Polybius (vi. 53); see + also T. Mommsen, _Römisches Staatsrecht_, i. (1887), p. 442. + + [6] At the funeral of Drusus the images of Aeneas, of the Alban + kings, of Romulus, of the Sabine nobles, of Attus Clausus, and of + "the rest of the Claudians" were exhibited (Tac. _Ann._ iv. 9). + + [7] The Roman stemmata had, as will be seen afterwards, great + interest for the older modern genealogists. Reference may be made to + J. Glandorp's _Descriptio gentis Antoniae_ (1557); to the _Descriptio + gentis Juliae_ (1576) of the same author; and to J. Hübner's + _Genealogische Tabellen_. See also G.A. Ruperti's _Tabulae + genealogicae sive stemmata nobiliss_. gent. Rom. (1794). (X.) + + + + +GENELLI, GIOVANNI BUONAVENTURA (1798-1868), German painter, was born at +Berlin on the 28th of September 1798. He was the son of Janus Genelli, a +painter whose landscapes are still preserved in the Schloss at Berlin, +and grandson to Joseph Genelli, a Roman embroiderer employed to found a +school of gobelins by Frederick the Great. Buonaventura Genelli first +took lessons from his father and then became a student of the Berlin +academy. After serving his time in the guards he went with a stipend to +Rome, where he lived ten years, a friend and assistant to Koch the +landscape painter, a colleague of the sculptor Ernst Hähnel (1811-1891), +Reinhart, Overbeck and Führich, all of whom made a name in art. In 1830 +he was commissioned by Dr Härtel to adorn a villa at Leipzig with +frescoes, but quarrelling with this patron he withdrew to Munich, where +he earned a scanty livelihood at first, though he succeeded at last in +acquiring repute as an illustrative and figure draughtsman. In 1859 he +was appointed a professor at Weimar, where he died on the 13th of +November 1868. Genelli painted few pictures, and it is very rare to find +his canvases in public galleries, but there are six of his compositions +in oil in the Schack collection at Munich. These and numerous +water-colours, as well as designs for engravings and lithographs, reveal +an artist of considerable power whose ideal was the antique, but who was +also fascinated by the works of Michelangelo. Though a German by birth, +his spirit was unlike that of Overbeck or Führich, whose art was +reminiscent of the old masters of their own country. He seemed to hark +back to the land of his fathers and endeavour to revive the traditions +of the Italian Renaissance. Subtle in thought and powerfully conceived, +his compositions are usually mythological, but full of matter, energetic +and fiery in execution, and marked almost invariably by daring effects +of foreshortening. Impeded by straitened means, the artist seems +frequently to have drawn from imagination rather than from life, and +much of his anatomy of muscle is in consequence conventional and false. +But none the less Genelli merits his reputation as a bold and +imaginative artist, and his name deserves to be remembered beyond the +narrow limits of the early schools of Munich and Weimar. + + + + +GENERAL (Lat. _generalis_, of or relating to a _genus_, kind or class), +a term which, from its pointing to all or most of the members of a +class, the whole of an area, &c. as opposed to "particular" or to +"local," is hence used in various shades of meaning, for that which is +prevalent, usual, widespread or miscellaneous, indefinite, vague. It has +been added to the titles of various officials, military officers and +others; thus the head of a religious order is the "superior-general," +more usually the "general," and we find the same combination in such +offices as that of "accountant-general," "postmaster-general," +"attorney-" or "solicitor-general," and many others, the additional word +implying that the official in question is of superior rank, as having a +wider authority or sphere of activity. This is the use that accounts +for the application of the term, as a substantive, to a military officer +of superior rank, a "general officer," or "general," who commands or +administers bodies of troops larger than a regiment, or consisting of +more than one arm of the service (see also OFFICERS). It was towards the +end of the 16th century that the word began to be used in its present +sense as a noun, and in the armies of the time the "general" was +commander-in-chief, the "lieutenant-general" commander of the horse and +second in command of the army, and the "major-general" (strictly +"sergeant-major-general") commander of the foot and chief of the staff. +Field marshals, who have now the highest rank, were formerly subordinate +to the general officers. These titles--general, lieutenant-general and +major-general--are still applied in most armies to the first, second and +third grades of general officer, and in the French service until 1870 +the chief of the staff of the army bore the title of major-general. In +the German and Russian services the three grades are qualified by the +addition of the words "of cavalry," "of infantry" and "of artillery." +The French service possesses only two grades, "general of brigade" and +"general of division." The Austrian service has two ranks of general +officers peculiar to itself, "lieutenant field marshal," equivalent to +lieutenant-general, and _Feldzeugmeister_ (master of the ordnance), +equivalent to the German general of infantry or artillery. There is also +the rank of "general of cavalry." The Spanish army still retains the old +term "captain-general." In the German service _General Oberst_ +(colonel-general) and _General Feldzeugmeister_ (master-general of +ordnance) are ranks intermediate between that of full general and that +of general field marshal. It may be noted that during the 17th century +"general" was not confined to a commanding officer of an army, and was +also equivalent to "admiral"; thus when under the Protectorate the +office of lord high admiral was put into commission, the three first +commissioners, Blake, Edward Popham and Richard Deane, were styled +"generals at sea." + + + + +GENERATION (from Lat. _generare_, to beget, procreate; _genus_, stock, +race), the act of procreation or begetting, hence any one of the various +methods by which plants, animals or substances are produced. As applied +to the result of procreation, "generation" is used of the offspring of +the same parents, taken as one degree in descent from a common ancestor, +or, widely, of the body of living persons born at or near the same time; +thus the word is also used of the age or period of a generation, usually +taken as about thirty years, or three generations to a century. As a +term in biology or physiology, generation is synonymous with the Gr. +[Greek: biogenesis] and the Ger. _Zeugung_, and may comprehend the whole +history of the first origin and continued reproduction of living bodies, +whether plants or animals; but it is frequently restricted to the sexual +reproduction of animals. The subject may be divided into the following +branches, viz.: (1) the first origin of life and living beings, (2) +non-sexual or agamic reproduction, and (3) gamic or sexual reproduction. +For the first two of these topics see ABIOGENESIS, BIOGENESIS and +BIOLOGY; for the third and more extensive division, including (1) the +formation and fecundation of the ovum, and (2) the development of the +embryo in different animals, see REPRODUCTION and EMBRYOLOGY. + + + + +GENESIS (Gr. [Greek: genesis], becoming; the term being used in English +as a synonym for origin or process of coming into being), the name of +the first book in the Bible, which derives its title from the Septuagint +rendering of ch. ii. 4. It is the first of the five books (the +Pentateuch), or, with the inclusion of Joshua, of the six (the +Hexateuch), which cover the history of the Hebrews to their occupation +of Canaan. The "genesis" of Hebrew history begins with records of +antediluvian times: the creation of the world, of the first pair of +human beings, and the origin of sin (i.-iii.), the civilization and +moral degeneration of mankind, the history of man to the time of Noah +(iv.-vi. 8), the flood (vi. 9-ix.), the confusion of languages and the +divisions of the human race (x.-xi.). Turning next to the descendants of +Shem, the book deals with Abraham (xii.-xxv. 18), Isaac and Jacob (xxv. +19-xxxv.), the "fathers" of the tribes of Israel, and concludes with +the personal history of Joseph, and the descent of his father Jacob (or +Israel) and his brethren into the land of Egypt (xxxvii.-l.). The book +of Genesis, as a whole, is closely connected with the subsequent +oppression of the sons of Israel, the revelation of Yahweh the God of +their fathers (Ex. iii. 6, 15 seq., vi. 2-8), the "exodus" of the +Israelites to the land promised to their fathers (Ex. xiii. 5, Deut. i. +8, xxvi. 3 sqq., xxxiv. 4) and its conquest (Josh. i. 6, xxiv.); cf. +also the summaries Neh. ix. 7 sqq., Ps. cv. 6 sqq. + + + Analysis. + + The words, "these are the generations of the heavens and of the earth + when they were created" (ii. 4), introduce an account of the creation + of the world, which, however, is preceded by a relatively later and + less primitive record (i. 1-ii. 3). The differences between the two + accounts lie partly in the style and partly in the form and contents + of the narratives. i. 1-ii. 3 is marked by stereotyped formulae ("and + God [_Elohim_] said ... and it was so ... and God saw that it was + good, and there was evening and there was morning," &c.); it is + precise and detailed, whereas ii. 4b-iii. is less systematic, fresher + and more anthropomorphic. The former is cosmic, the latter is local. + It is the latter which mentions the mysterious garden and the + wonderful trees which Yahweh planted, and depicts Yahweh conversing + with man and walking in the garden in the cool of the evening. The + former, on the other hand, has an enlightened conception of _Elohim_; + the Deity, though grand, is a lifeless figure; several antique ideas + are nevertheless preserved. The account of the creation, too, is + different; for example, in chap. i. man and woman are created + together, whereas in ii. man is at first alone. The naiveness of the + story of the creation of woman is in line with the interest which this + more popular source takes in the origin or existence of phenomena, + customs and contemporary beliefs (the garden, the naming of animals, + &c.). The primitive record is continued in the story of Cain and Abel + (iv.), where the old-time problem of Cain's wife and the reference to + other human beings (iv. 14 seq.) gave rise in pre-critical days to the + theory of pre-Adamites, as though Adam and Eve were not the only + inhabitants of the earth. But all the indications go to show that + there were at least two distinct popular narratives, one of which + ignores the flood. Cain the murderer, doomed to be a wanderer, now + becomes the builder of a city, and his descendants introduce various + arts (iv. 16b-24).[1] (See the articles ABEL; ADAM; CAIN; COSMOGENY; + ENOCH; EVE; LAMECH.) From the "generations" of the heavens and the + earth (which one would have expected at the head of ch. i.) we pass to + the "generations of Adam" (v. 1). The list of the "Sethites," with its + characteristically stereotyped framework, has an older parallel in iv. + 25 seq. (with the origin of the worship of Yahweh contrast Ex. vi. 2. + seq.), and a fragment from the same source is found in v. 29. + + After the birth of Noah the son of Lamech (v. 29, contrast iv. 19 + sqq.) comes the brief story of the demigods (vi. 1-4). It is no part + of the account of the fall or of the flood (note verse 4 and Num. + xiii. 33), least of all does it furnish grounds for the old view of + the division of the human race into evil Cainites and God-fearing + Sethites. The excerpt with its description of the fall of the angels + is used to form a prelude to the wickedness of man and the avenging + flood (vi. 5). Noah, the father of Ham, Shem and Japheth, appears as + the hero in the Hebrew version of the flood (see DELUGE; NOAH). + Duplicates (vi. 5-8, 9-13) and discrepancies (vi. 19 sq. contrasted + with vii. 2; or vii. 11, viii. 14 contrasted with viii. 8, 10, 12) + point to the use of two sources (harmonizing passages in vii. 3, 7-9). + The later narrative, which begins with "the generations" of Noah (vi. + 9-22; vii. 6, 11, 13-17a, 18-21, 24; viii. 1-2a, 3b-5, 13a, 14-19; ix. + 1-17), is almost complete; note the superscription and the length of + the flood (365 days; according to other notices the flood apparently + lasted only 61 or 68 days). In the earlier source Noah collects seven + pairs of clean animals, one of each kind; he sacrifices after leaving + the ark, and Yahweh promises not to curse the ground or to smite + living things again. But in the later, he takes only one pair, and + subsequently Elohim blesses Noah and makes a covenant never again to + destroy all flesh by a flood.[2] The covenant (characteristic of the + latest narratives in Genesis) also prohibits the shedding of blood + (cf. the story of Cain and Abel in the earlier source). Mankind is now + made to descend from the three sons of Noah. The older story, however, + continues with another step in the history of civilization, and to + Noah is ascribed the cult of the vine, the abuse of which leads to the + utterance of a curse upon Canaan and a blessing upon Shem and Japheth + (ix. 20-27). The table of nations in x. ("the generations of the sons + of Noah") preserves several signs of composite origin (contrast e.g. + x. 7 with vv. 28 sq., Ludim v. 13 with v. 22, and the Canaanite + families v. 16 with the dispersion "afterwards," v. 18, &c.); see + CANAAN; GENEALOGY; NIMROD. The history of the primitive age concludes + with the story of the tower of Babel (xi. 1-9), which, starting from + a popular etymology of Babel ("gate of God"), as though from Balbel + ("confusion"), tells how Yahweh feared lest mankind should become too + powerful (cf. iii. 22-24), and seeks to explain the origin of the + numerous languages in use. It is independent of x., which already + assumes a confusion of tongues (vv. 5, 20, 31), the existence of Babel + (v. 10), and gives a different account of the rise of the various + races. This incident in the journey eastwards (xi. 2) is equally + independent of the story of the Deluge and of Noah's family (see + Wellhausen, _Prolegomena_, p. 316). The continuation of the chapter, + "the generations of Shem" (xi. 10-27, see the Shemite genealogy in x. + 21 sqq., and contrast the ages with vi. 3), is in the same stereotyped + style as ch. v., and prepares the way for the history of the + patriarchs. + + The "generations of Terah" (xi. 27) lead to the introduction of the + first great patriarch Abraham (q.v.).[3] There is a twofold account of + his migration to Bethel with his nephew Lot; the more statistical form + in xi. 31 sq., xii. 4b, 5 belongs to the latest source. The statement + that the Canaanite was then in the land (xii. 6, cf. xiii. 7) points + to a time long after the Israelite conquest, when readers needed such + a reminder (so Hobbes in his _Leviathan_, 1651). A famine forces him + to descend into Egypt, where a story of Sarai (here at least 65 years + of age; see xii. 4, xvii. 17) is one of three variants of a similar + peculiar incident (cf. xx. 1-17, xxvi. 6-14). The passage is an + insertion (xii. 10-xiii. 2; xii. 9, xiii. 3 seq. being harmonistic). + The thread is resumed in the account of the separation of the + patriarch and his nephew Lot, who divide the land between them. + Abraham occupies Canaan, but moves south to Hebron, which, according + to Josh. xiv. 15, was formerly known as Kirjath-Arba. Lot dwells in + the basin of the Jordan, and his history is continued in the story of + the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah (xviii.-xix.; Hos. xi. 8, Deut. + xxix. 23 speak of Admah and Zeboim). Lot is saved and becomes the + ancestor of the Moabites and Ammonites, who are thus closely related + to the descendants of Abraham (note xix. 37, "unto this day"). The + great war with Amraphel and Chedorlaomer--the defeat of a + world-conquering army by 318 men--with the episode of Melchizedek, + noteworthy for the reference to Jerusalem (xiv. 18, cf. Ps. lxxvi. 2), + has nothing in common with the context (see ABRAHAM; MELCHIZEDEK). It + treats as individuals the place-names Mamre and Eshcol (xiv. 13, cf. + Num. xiii. 23 seq.), and by mentioning Dan (v. 14) anticipates the + events in Josh. xix. 47, Judg. xviii. 29.[4] A cycle of narratives + deals with the promise that the barren Sarai (Sarah) should bear a + child whose descendants would inhabit the land of Canaan. The + importance of the tradition for the history of Israel explains both + the prominence given to it (cf. already xii. 7, xiii. 14-17) and their + present complicated character (due to repeated revision). The older + narratives comprise (a) the promise that Abraham shall have a son of + his own flesh (xv.)--the account is composite;[5] (b) the birth of + Ishmael, Abraham's son by Hagar, their exile, and Yahweh's promise + (xvi., with a separate framework in vv. 1a. 3, 15 seq.)--before the + birth of Isaac; and (c) the promise of a son to Sarai (xviii. 1-15), + now combined with the story of Lot and the overthrow of Sodom. The + latest source (xvii.) is marked by the solemn covenant between Yahweh + and Abraham, the revelation of God Almighty (El-Shaddai, cf. Ex. vi. + 3), and the institution of circumcision (otherwise treated in Ex. iv. + 26, Josh. v. 2 seq.). The more elevated character of this source as + contrasted with xv. and xviii. is as striking as the difference of + religious tone in the two accounts of the creation (above). Abraham + now travels thence (xx. 1, Hebron, see xviii. 1), and his adventure in + the land of Abimelech, king of Gerar (xx.), is a duplicate of xii. + (above). It is continued in xxi. 22-34, which has a close parallel in + the life of Isaac (xxvi., below). Isaac is born in accordance with the + divine promise (xviii. 10 at Hebron); the scene is the south of + Palestine. The story of the dismissal of Hagar and Ishmael, and the + revelation (xxi. 8-21) cannot be separated from xvi. 4-14, where vv. 9 + seq. are intended to harmonize the passages. Although about sixteen + years intervene (see xvi. 16; xxi. 5, 8), Ishmael is a young child who + has to be carried (xxi. 15), but the Hebrew text of xxi. 14 (not, + however, the Septuagint) endeavours to remove the discrepancy.[6] + "After these things" comes the offering of Isaac which implicitly + annuls the sacrifice of the first-born, a not unfamiliar rite in + Palestine as the denunciations prove (cf. Ezek. xvi. 20 seq., xx. 26; + Mic. vi. 7; Is. lvii. 5), and thus marks an advance, e.g. upon the + story of Jephthah's daughter (Judg. xi.). The story may be contrasted + with the Phoenician account of the sacrifice by Cronos (to be + identified with El) of his only son, which practically justified the + horrid custom. The detailed account of the purchase of the cave of + Machpelah (contrast the brevity of xxxiii. 19) is of great importance + for the traditions of the patriarchs, and, like the references to the + death of Sarah and Abraham, belongs to the latest source (xxiii., xxv. + 7-11a).[7] The idyllic picture of life in xxiv. presupposes that Isaac + is sole heir (v. 36); since this is first stated in xxv. 5, it is + probable that xxv. 5, 11b (and perhaps vv. 6, 18) are out of place. It + is noteworthy that the district is Abraham's native place (xxiv. 4, 7, + 10; contrast the Babylonian home specified in xi. 28, 31; xv. 7). In + xxv. 1 sqq. Abraham takes as wife (but _concubine_, 1 Chron. i. 32 + seq.) Keturah ("incense") and becomes the father of various Arab + tribes, e.g. Sheba and Dedan (grandsons of Cush in x. 7). + + After "the generations of Ishmael" (xxv. 12 sqq.) the narrative turns + to "the generations of Isaac" (xxv. 19 sqq.). The story of the events + at the court of Abimelech (xxvi.) finds a parallel in the now + disjointed xx., xxi. 22-34; note the new explanation of Beersheba, the + reference in xxvi. 1 to the parallel story in xii., the absence of + allusion to xx., and the apparent editorial references to xxi. in vv. + 15, 18. On the whole, the story of Isaac's wife at Gerar is briefer + and not so elevated as that of Sarah, but the parallel to xxi. 22-34 + is more detailed. The birth of Esau and Jacob (xxv. 21-34) introduces + the story of Jacob's craft when Isaac is on the point of death + (xxvii.). Jacob flees to Laban at Haran to escape Esau's hatred + (xxvii. 41-45); but, according to the latest source (P), he is charged + by Isaac to go to Paddan-Aram, and take a wife there, and his father + transfers to him the blessing of Abraham (xxvii. 46-xxviii. 9). On his + way to Haran he stops at Bethel (formerly Luz, according to Judg. i. + 22-26), where a vision prompts him to accept the God of the place + should he return in peace to his father's home (xxviii. 10-22). He + passes to the land of "the children of the east" (xxix. 1), and the + scenes which follow are scarcely situated at Haran, the famous and + ancient seat of the worship of the moon-god, but in the desert. Here + he resides fifteen years or more, and by the daughters of Laban and + their handmaidens becomes the "father" of the tribes of Israel. There + are numerous traces of composition from different sources, but a + satisfactory analysis is impossible.[8] The flight of Jacob and his + household (from Paddan-Aram, xxxi. 18 P) leads over "the River" (v. + 21, i.e. the Euphrates); though the seven days' journey of this + concourse of men and cattle suggests that he came to Gilead, not from + Haran (300 m. distant), but from some nearer locality. This is to be + taken with the evidence against Haran already noticed, with the use of + the term "children of the east" (xxix. 1; cf. Jer. xlix. 28; Ezek. + xxv. 4, 10), and with the details of Laban's kindred (xxii. 20-24).[9] + The arrival at Mahanaim ("[two?] camps") gives rise to specific + allusions to the meaning of the name (xxxii. 1 seq., 7-12, 13-21); cf. + also the plays upon Jabbok, Israel and Peniel in xxxii. 22-32. He + meets Esau (xxxii. 3-21, xxxiii. 1-16, another reference to Peniel, + "face of God," in v. 10), but they part. Jacob now comes to Shechem + "in peace" (cf. the phrase in xxviii. 21), where he buys land and + erects an altar (xxxiii. 18-20, cf. Abraham in xii. 6 seq.). There is + a remarkable story of the violation of his daughter Dinah by Shechem, + the son of Hamor the Hivite (xxxiv.). It has been heavily revised; + note the alternating prominence of Hamor and Shechem, the condemnation + of Simeon and Levi for their vengeance (cf. the curse in xlix. 5-7), + the destruction of the city Shechem by all the sons of Jacob, and the + survival of the Hamorites as a family centuries later (xxxiii. 19, + Judg. ix. 28). The narrative continues with Jacob's journey to Bethel, + the death of Deborah (who accompanied Rebekah to Palestine 140 years + previously, see xxiv. 59, and the latest source in xxv. 20, xxxv. 28), + the death of Rachel (xxxv. 16-20, contrast xxxvii. 10), and ceases + abruptly in the middle of a sentence (xxxv. 22, but see xlix. 3-4). + The latest source (xxxv. 9-13, 15, 22b-29) gives another account of + the origin of the names Israel (cf. xxxii. 28) and Bethel (cf. xxviii. + 19), and the genealogy wrongly includes Benjamin among the sons born + outside Palestine (vv. 24-26). In narrating Jacob's leisurely return + to Isaac at Hebron, the writers quite ignore the many years which have + elapsed since he left his father at the point of death in Beersheba + (xxvii. 1, 2, 7, 10, 41). + + "The generations of Esau, the same is Edom," provide much valuable + material for the study of Israel's rival (xxxvi.). The chapter gives + yet another account of the separation of Jacob and Esau (with vv. 6-8, + cf. Abraham and Lot, xiii. 5 seq.), and describes the latter's + withdrawal to Seir (cf. already xxxii. 3; xxxiii. 14, 16). It includes + lists of diverse origin (e.g. vv. 2-5, contrast xxvi. 34, xxviii. 9); + various "dukes" (R.V. marg. "chiefs"), or rather "thousands" or + "clans"; and also the "sons" of Seir the Horite, i.e. Horite clans + (vv. 20 seq. and vv. 29 seq.). A summary of Edomite kings is ascribed + to the period before the Israelite monarchy (vv. 31-39), and the + record concludes with the "dukes" of Esau, the father of the Edomites + (vv. 40-43, cf. names in vv. 10-14, 15-19).[10] + + Finally, Genesis turns from the patriarchs to the "generations of + Jacob" (xxxvii. 2), and we have stories of the "sons," the ancestors + of the tribes. (In xxxiv. the incidents which primarily concerned + Simeon and Levi alone have, however, been adjusted to the general + history of Jacob and his family.) The first place is given to Joseph + (xxxvii.), although xxxviii. crowds the early history of the family of + Judah into the twenty-two years between xxxvii. 2 and Jacob's descent + into Egypt (see xli. 46, 47; xlv. 6).[11] In xxxvii., xxxix. sqq. we + have an admirable specimen of writing quite distinct in stamp from the + patriarchal stories. The romance which has here been utilized shows an + acquaintance with Egypt; the narratives are discursive, not laconic, + everything is more detailed, and more under the influence of literary + art. The Reuben and Simeon which appear in it are not the characters + which we meet in xxxiv., xxxv. 22, or in the poem xlix. 3-7; and the + tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh do not scruple to claim ancestry from + Joseph and the daughter of an Egyptian priest at the seat of the + worship of the sun-god (xli. 45). The narratives are composite. Joseph + incurs the ill-will of his brethren because of Israel's partiality or + because of his significant dreams. He is at Shechem or at Dothan; and + when the brothers seek to slay him, Judah proposes that he should be + sold to Ishmaelites, or Reuben suggests that he should be cast into a + pit, where Midianites find and kidnap him (xxxvii., cf. xl. 15). The + latter sell him to the eunuch Potiphar, but he appears in the service + of a married householder (xxxix., the second clause of v. 1 + harmonizes). Among other signs of dual origin are the alternation of + "Jacob" and "Israel," and the prominence of Judah (xliii. 3, 8; xliv. + 14, 18) or of Reuben (xlii. 22, 37). The money is found in a "bag" as + the brothers encamp (xlii. 27, 28a; xliii.), or in a "sack" when they + reach home (xlii. 8-26, 29-35, 28b, 36 sq.). When Israel and his + family descend into Egypt, the latest source gives a detailed list + which agrees in the main with the Israelite subdivisions (xlvi. 6-27, + cf. Num. xxvi. and 1 Chron. ii.-viii.). The families dwell in the land + of Goshen, east of the Delta, "for every shepherd is an abomination + unto the Egyptians" (xlv. 10; xlvi. 28-34; xlvii. 1-6); or they are in + the "land of Rameses" (xlvii. 11, and Septuagint in xlvi. 28);[12] + Joseph's policy during the famine is next described (xlvii. 13-26), + although it would have been more in place after xli. (see _ib._ 34). + There are several difficulties in Jacob's blessing of the sons of + Joseph (xlviii.).[13] The blessing in xlix. is a collection of + poetical passages praising or blaming the various tribes, and must + certainly date after the Israelite settlement in Palestine; see + further the articles on the tribes. Jacob's dying instructions to + Joseph (xlvii. 29-31) are continued in l. 1 sqq., his charge to his + sons (xlix. 28 sqq., P) in l. 12 seq. It is significant that Jacob's + body is taken to Palestine, but the brethren return to Egypt; in spite + of a possible allusion to the famine in v. 21, the late chronological + scheme would imply that it had long ceased (see xlv. 6, xlvii. 28). + The book closes with the death of Joseph about fifty years later, + after the birth of the children of Machir, who himself was a + contemporary of Moses forty years after the Exodus (Num. xxxii. + 39-41). Joseph's body is embalmed, but it is not until the concluding + chapter of the book of Joshua (xxiv. 32) that his bones find their + last resting-place. + + + A composite work. + +Only on the assumption that the book of Genesis is a composite work is +it possible to explain the duplication of events, the varying use of the +divine names _Yahweh_ and _Elohim_, the linguistic and stylistic +differences, the internal intricacies of the subject matter, and the +differing standpoints as regards tradition, chronology, morals and +religion.[14] The cumulative effect of the whole evidence is too strong +to be withstood, and already in the 17th century it was recognized that +the book was of composite origin. Immense labour has been spent in the +critical analysis of the contents, but it is only since the work of Graf +(1866) and Wellhausen (1878) that a satisfactory literary hypothesis has +been found which explained the most obvious intricacies. The +Graf-Wellhausen literary theory has gained the assent of almost all +trained and unbiased biblical scholars, it has not been shaken by the +more recent light from external evidence, and no alternative theory has +as yet been produced. The internal features of Genesis demand some +formulated theory, more precise than the indefinite concessions of the +17th century, beyond which the opponents of modern literary criticism +scarcely advance, and the Graf-Wellhausen theory, in spite of the +numerous difficulties which it leaves untouched, is the only adequate +starting-point for the study of the book. According to this, Genesis is +a post-exilic work composed of a post-exilic priestly source (P) and +non-priestly earlier sources which differ markedly from P in language, +style and religious standpoint, but much less markedly from one and +another.[15] These sources can be traced elsewhere in the Pentateuch and +Joshua, and P itself is related to the post-exilic works Chronicles, +Ezra and Nehemiah. In its _present_ form Genesis is an indispensable +portion of the biblical history, and consequently its literary growth +cannot be viewed apart from that of the books which follow. On internal +grounds it appears that the Pentateuch and Joshua, as they now read, +virtually come in between an older history by "Deuteronomic" compilers +(easily recognizable in Judges and Kings), and the later treatment of +the monarchy in Chronicles, where the influence of the circle which +produced P and the present Mosaic legislation is quite discernible. +There have been stages where earlier extant sources have been cut down, +adjusted or revised by compilers who have incorporated fresh material, +and it is the later compilers of Genesis who have made the book a fairly +knit whole. The technical investigation of the _literary_ problems +(especially the extent of the earlier sources) is a work of great +complexity, and, for ordinary purposes, it is more important to obtain a +preliminary appreciation of the general features of the contents of +Genesis. + + + Value of traditions. + +That the records of the pre-historic ages in Gen. i.-xi. are at complete +variance with modern science and archaeological research is +unquestionable.[16] But although it is impossible to regard them any +longer either as genuine history or as subjects for an allegorical +interpretation (which would prove the accuracy of _any_ record) they are +of distinct value as human documents. They reflect the ideas and +thoughts of the Hebrews, they illustrate their conceptions of God and +the universe, and they furnish material for a comparison of the moral +development of the Hebrews with that of other early races. Some of the +traditions are closely akin to those current in ancient Babylonia, but a +careful and impartial comparison at once illustrates in a striking +manner the relative moral and spiritual superiority of our writers. On +these subjects see further COSMOGONY; DELUGE.[17] + +The records of the patriarchal age, xii.-l. are very variously +estimated, although the great majority of scholars agree that they are +not contemporary and that they cannot be used, as they stand, for +pre-Mosaic times. Apart from the ordinary arguments of historical +criticism, it is to be noticed that external evidence does not support +the assumption that the records preserve genuine pre-Mosaic history. +There are no grounds for any arbitrary distinction between the +"pre-historic" pre-Abrahamic age and the later age. External evidence, +which recognizes no universal deluge and no dispersal of mankind in the +third millennium B.C., throws its own light upon the opening centuries +of the second. It has revealed conditions which are not reflected in +Genesis, and important facts upon which the book is silent--unless, +indeed, there is a passing allusion to the great Babylonian monarch +Khammurabi in the Amraphel of Gen. xiv. Any careful perusal of modern +attempts to recover historical facts or an historical outline from the +book will show how very inadequate the material proves to be, and the +reconstructions will be found to depend upon an interpretation of the +narratives which is often liberal and not rarely precarious, and to +imply such reshaping and rewriting of the presumed facts that the +cautious reader can place little reliance on them. Whatever future +research may bring, it cannot remove the _internal_ peculiarities which +combine to show that Genesis preserves, not literal history, but popular +traditions of the past. External evidence has proved the antiquity of +various elements, but not that of the form or context in which they now +appear; and the difference is an important one. We have now a background +upon which to view the book, and, on the one hand, it has become obvious +that the records preserve--as is only to be expected--Oriental customs, +beliefs and modes of thought. But it has not been demonstrated that +these are exclusively pre-Mosaic. On the other hand, a better +acquaintance with the ancient political, sociological and religious +conditions has made it increasingly difficult to interpret the records +as a whole literally, or even to find a place in pre-Mosaic Palestine +for the lives of the patriarchs as they are depicted.[18] Nevertheless, +though one cannot look to Genesis for the history of the early part of +the second millennium B.C., the study of what was thought of the past, +proves in this, as in many other cases, to be more instructive than the +facts of the past, and it is distinctly more important for the biblical +student and the theologian to understand the thought of the ages +immediately preceding the foundation of Judaism in the 5th century B.C. +than the actual history of many centuries earlier. + + + Fusion of diverse features. + +A noteworthy feature is the frequent _personification_ of peoples, +tribes or clans (see GENEALOGY: _Biblical_). Midian (i.e. the +Midianites) is a son of Abraham; Canaan is a son of Ham (ix. 22), and +Cush the son of Ham is the father of Ramah and grandfather of the famous +S. Arabian state Sheba and the traders of Dedan (x. 6 sq., cf. Ezek. +xxvii. 20-22). Bethuel the father of Rebekah is the brother of the +tribal names Uz and Buz (xxii. 21 sqq., cf. Jer. xxv. 20, 23). Jacob is +otherwise known as Israel and becomes the father of the tribes of +Israel; Joseph is the father of Ephraim and Manasseh, and incidents in +the life of Judah lead to the birth of Perez and Zerah, Judaean clans. +This personification is entirely natural to the Oriental, and though +"primitive" is not necessarily an ancient trait.[19] It gives rise to +what may be termed the "prophetical interpretation of history" (S.R. +Driver, _Genesis_, p. 111), where the character, fortunes or history of +the apparent individual are practically descriptive of the people or +tribe which, according to tradition, is named after or descended from +him. The utterance of Noah over Canaan, Shem and Japheth (ix. 25 sqq.), +of Isaac over Esau and Jacob (xxvii.), of Jacob over his sons (xlix.) or +grandsons (xlviii.), would have no meaning to Israelites unless they had +some connexion with and interest for contemporary life and thought. +Herein lies the force of the description of the wild and independent +Ishmael (xvi. 12), the "father" of certain well-known tribes (xxv. +13-15); or the contrast between the skilful hunter Esau and the quiet +and respectable Jacob (xxv. 27), and between the tiller Cain who +becomes the typical nomad and the pastoral Abel (iv. 1-15). The interest +of the struggles between Jacob and Esau lay, not in the history of +individuals of the distant past, but in the fact that the names actually +represented Israel and its near rival Edom. These features are in entire +accordance with Oriental usage and give expression to current belief, +existing relationships, or to a poetical foreshadowing of historical +vicissitudes. But in the effort to understand them as they were +originally understood it is very obvious that this method of +interpretation can be pressed too far. It would be precarious to insist +that the entrances into Palestine of Abraham and Jacob (or Israel) +typified two distinct immigrations. The separation of Abraham from Lot +(cf. Lotan, an Edomite name), of Isaac from Hagar-Ishmael, or of Jacob +from Esau-Edom scarcely points to the relative antiquity of the origin +of these non-Israelite peoples who, to judge from the evidence, were +closely related. Or, if the "sons" of Jacob had Aramaean mothers, to +prove that those which are derived from the wives were upon a higher +level than the "sons" of the concubines is more difficult than to allow +that certain of the tribes must have contained some element of Aramaean +blood (cf. 1 Chron. vii. 14, and see ASHER; GAD; MANASSEH). Some of the +names are clearly not those of known clans or tribes (e.g. Abraham, +Isaac), and many of the details of the narratives obviously have no +natural ethnological meaning. Stories of heroic ancestors and of tribal +eponyms intermingle; personal, tribal and national traits are +interwoven. The entrance of Jacob or Israel with his sons suggests that +of the children of Israel. The story of Simeon and Levi at Shechem is +clearly not that of two individuals, sons of the patriarch Israel; in +fact the story actually uses the term "wrought folly in Israel" (cf. +Jud. xx. 6, 10), and the individual Shechem, the son of Hamor, cannot be +separated from the city, the scene of the incidents. Yet Jacob's life +with Laban has many purely individual traits. And, further, there +intervenes a remarkable passage with an account of his conflict with the +divine being who fears the dawn and is unwilling to reveal his name. In +a few verses the "wrestling" ('-b -k) of Jacob (_ya'aqob_) is associated +with the Jabbok (_yabboq_); his "striving" explains his name Israel; at +Peniel he sees "the face of God," and when touched on his vulnerable +spot--the hollow of the thigh--he is lamed, hence "the children of +Israel eat not the sinew of the hip which is upon the hollow of the +thigh unto this day" (xxxii. 24-32). Other examples of the fusion of +different features can be readily found. Three divine beings appear to +Abraham at the sacred tree of Hebron, and when the birth of Isaac (from +_sahaq_, "laugh") is foretold, the account of Sarah's behaviour is +merely a popular and trivial story suggested by the child's name (xviii. +12-15; see also xvii. 17, xxi. 6, 9). An extremely fine passage then +describes the patriarch's intercession for Sodom and Gomorrah, and the +narrative passes on to the catastrophe which explains the Dead Sea and +its desert region and has parallels elsewhere (e.g. the Greek legend of +Zeus and Hermes in Phrygia). Lot escapes to Zoar, the name gives rise to +the pun on the "little" city (xix. 20), and his wife, on looking back, +becomes one of those pillars of salt which still invite speculation. +Finally the names of his children Moab and Ammon are explained by an +incident when he is a cave-dweller on a mountain. + + To primitive minds which speculated upon the "why and wherefore" of + what they saw around them, the narratives of Genesis afforded an + answer. They preserve, in fact, some of the popular philosophy and + belief of the Hebrews. They furnish what must have been a satisfactory + origin of the names Edom, Moab and Ammon, Mahanaim and Succoth, + Bethel, Beersheba, &c. They explain why Shechem, Bethel and Beersheba + were ancient sanctuaries (see further below); why the serpent writhes + along the ground (iii. 14); and why the hip sinew might not be eaten + (xxxii. 32). To these and a hundred other questions the national and + tribal stories--of which no doubt only a few have survived, and of + which other forms, earlier or later, more crude or more refined, were + doubtless current--furnish an evidently adequate answer. Myth and + legend, fact and fiction, the common stock of oral tradition, have + been handed down, and thus constitute one of the most valuable sources + for popular Hebrew thought. + + The book is not to be judged from any one-sided estimate of its + contents. By the side of much that seems trivial, and even + non-moral--for the patriarchs themselves are not saints--it is + noteworthy how frequently the narratives are didactic. The + characteristic sense of collective responsibility, which appears more + incidentally in xx. 7, is treated with striking intensity in a passage + (xviii. 23-33) which uses the legend of Sodom and Gomorrah as a + vehicle for the statement of a familiar problem (cf. Ezek. xviii., Ps. + lxxiii., Job). It will be observed that interviews with divine beings + presented as little difficulty to the primitive minds of old as to the + modern native; even the idea of intercourse of supernatural beings + with mortals (vi. 1-4) is to-day equally intelligible. The modern + untutored native has a not dissimilar undeveloped and childlike + attitude towards the divine, a naive theology and a simple cultus. The + most circumstantial tales are told of imaginary figures, and the most + incredible details clothe the lives of the historical heroes of the + past. So abundant is the testimony of modern travellers to the extent + to which Eastern custom and thought elucidate the interpretation of + the Bible, that it is very important to notice those features which + illustrate Genesis. "The Oriental," writes S.I. Curtiss (_Bibl. + sacra_, Jan. 1901, pp. 103 sqq.), "is least of all a scientific + historian. He is the prince of story-tellers, narratives, real and + imaginative, spring from his lips, which are the truest portraiture of + composite rather than individual Oriental life, though narrated under + forms of individual experience." There are, therefore, many + preliminary points which combine to show that the critical student + cannot isolate the book from Oriental life and thought; its uniqueness + lies in the manner in which the material has been shaped and the use + to which it has been put. + + + Questions of date. + +The Book of Jubilees (not earlier than the 2nd century B.C.) presents +the history in another form. It retains some of the canonical matter, +often with considerable reshaping, omits many details (especially those +to which exception could be taken), and adds much that is novel. The +chronological system of the latest source in Genesis becomes an +elaborate reckoning of heavenly origin. Written under the obvious +influence of later religious aims, it is especially valuable because one +can readily compare the two methods of presenting the old +traditions.[20] There is the same kind of personification, fresh +examples of the "prophetical interpretation of history," and by the side +of the older "primitive" thought are ideas which can only belong to this +later period. In each case we have merely a selection of current +traditional lore. For example, Gen. vi. 1-4 mentions the marriage of +divine beings with the daughters of men and the birth of Nephilim or +giants (cf. Num. xiii. 33). Later allusions to this myth (e.g. Baruch +iii. 26-28, Book of Enoch vi. sqq., 2 Peter ii. 4, &c.) are not based +upon this passage; the fragment itself is all that remains of some more +organic written myth which, as is well-known, has parallels among other +peoples.[21] Old myths underlie the account of the creation and the +garden of Eden, and traces of other versions or forms appear elsewhere +in the Old Testament. Again, the Old Testament throws no light upon the +redemption of Abraham (Is. xxix. 22), although the Targums and other +sources profess to be well-informed. The isolated reference to Jacob's +conquest of Shechem in Gen. xlviii. 22 must have belonged to another +context, and later writings give in a later and thoroughly incredible +form allied traditions. In Hosea xii. 4, Jacob's wrestling is mentioned +before the scene at Bethel (Gen. xxxii. 24 sqq., xxviii. 11 sqq.). The +overthrow of Sodom and Gomorrah is described in Genesis (xviii. seq.), +but Hosea refers only to that of Admah and Zeboim (xi. 8, cf. Deut. +xxix. 23, Gen. x. 19)--different versions of the great catastrophe were +doubtless current. Consequently investigation must start with the +particular details which happen to be preserved, and these not +necessarily in their original or in their only form. Since the antiquity +of elements of tradition is independent of the shape in which they +appear before us, a careful distinction must be drawn between those +details which do not admit of being dated or located and those which do. +There is evidence for the existence of the _names_ Abram, Jacob and +Joseph previous to 900 B.C., but this does not prove the antiquity of +the present narratives encircling them. Babylonian tablets of the +creation date from the 7th century B.C., but their contents are many +centuries earlier (viz. the age of Khammurabi), whereas the Phoenician +myths of the origin of things are preserved in a late form by the late +writers Damascius and Philo of Byblus. Gen. xiv., which may preserve +some knowledge of the reign of Khammurabi, is on internal literary +grounds of the post-exilic age, and it is at least a coincidence that +the Babylonian texts, often quoted in support of the genuineness of the +narrative, belong to about the same period and use early Babylonian +history for purely didactic purposes.[22] In general, just as the Book +of Jubilees, while presenting many elements of old tradition, betrays on +decisive internal grounds an age later than Genesis itself, so, in turn, +there is sufficient conclusive evidence that Genesis in its present form +includes older features, but belongs to the age to which (on quite +independent grounds) the rest of the Pentateuch must be ascribed. + + + Historical backgrounds. + +Popular tradition often ignores events of historical importance, or, as +repeated experience shows, will represent them in such a form that the +true historical kernel could never have been recovered without some +external clue. The absence of definite references to the events of the +Israelite monarchy does not necessarily point to the priority of the +traditions in Genesis or their later date. Nevertheless, some allusion +to national fortunes is reflected in the exaltation of Jacob (Israel) +over Esau (Edom), and in the promise that the latter should break the +yoke from his neck.[23] Israelite kings are foreshadowed (xvii. 6, xxxv. +11, P), and Israel's kingdom has the ideal limits as ascribed to Solomon +(xv. 18, see 1 Kings iv. 21; but cf. art. SOLOMON). Judah is promised a +world-wide king (xlix. 8-10), though elsewhere the supremacy of Joseph +rouses the jealousy of his "brothers" (xxxvii. 8). Different dates and +circles of interest are thus manifest. The cursing and dispersion of +Simeon and Levi (xlix. 5-7) recall the fact that Simeon's cities were in +the territory of Judah (Josh. xix. 1, 9), and that the Levitical priests +are later scattered and commended to the benevolence of the Israelites. +But the curse obviously represents an attitude quite opposed to the +blessing pronounced upon Levi by Moses (Deut. xxxiii. 8-11). The Edomite +genealogies (xxxvi.) represent a more extensive people than the +references in the popular stories suggest, and the latter by no means +indicate that Edom had so important a career as we actually gather from +a few allusions to its kings (xxxvi. 31-39).[24] The references to +Philistines are anachronistic for the pre-Mosaic age, and it is clear +that the tradition of a solemn covenant with a Philistine king and his +general (xxi. 22 seq., xxvi. 26 sqq.) does not belong to the age or the +circle which remembered the grievous oppressions of the Philistines or +felt contempt for these "uncircumcised" enemies of Israel[25]. Finally, +the thread of the tradition unmistakably represents a national unity of +the twelve sons (tribes) of Israel; but this unity was not felt at +certain periods of disorganization, and the idea of including Judah +among the sons of Israel could not have arisen at a time when Israel and +Judah were rival kingdoms.[26] In so far as the traditions can be read +in the light of biblical history it is evident that they belong to +different ages and represent different national, tribal, or local +standpoints. + + + Interest in holy places. + +Another noteworthy feature is the interest taken in _sacred sites_. +Certain places are distinguished by theophanies or by the erection of an +altar (_lit._ place of sacrificial slaughter), and incidents are +narrated with a very intelligible purpose. _Mizpah_ in Gilead is the +scene of a covenant or treaty between Jacob and his Aramaean relative +commemorated by a pillar (_Massebah_). It was otherwise known for an +annual religious ceremony, the traditional origin of which is related in +the story of Jephthah's vow and sacrifice (Judg. xi.), and its priests +are denounced by Hosea (v. i). _Shechem_, the famous city of the +Samaritans ("the foolish nation," Ecclus. I. 26), where Joseph was +buried (Josh. xxiv. 32), had a sanctuary and a sacred pillar and tree. +It was the scene of the coronation (a religious ceremony) of Abimelech +(Judg. ix.), and Rehoboam (1 Kings xii. 1). The pillar was ascribed to +Joshua (Josh. xxiv. 26 seq.), and although Jacob set up at Shechem an +"altar," the verb suggests that the original object was a pillar (Gen. +xxxiii. 20). The first ancestor of Israel, on the other hand, is merely +associated with a theophany at an oracular tree (xii. 6). The Benjamite +_Bethel_ was especially famous in Israelite religious history. The story +tells how Jacob discovered its sanctity,--it was the gate of +heaven,--made a covenant with its God, established the sacred pillar, +and instituted its tithes (xxviii.). The prophetess Deborah dwelt under +a palm-tree near Bethel (Judg. iv. 5), and her name is also that of the +foster-mother of Rebekah who was buried near Bethel beneath the "oak of +weeping" (xxxv. 8). _Bochim_ ("weeping") elsewhere receives its name +when an angel appeared to the Israelites (Judg. ii. 1, Septuagint adds +Bethel). To the prophets Hosea and Amos the cultus of Bethel was +superstitious and immoral, even though it was Yahweh himself who was +worshipped there (see BETHEL). South of Hebron lay _Beersheba_, an +important centre and place of pilgrimage, with a special numen by whom +oaths were taken (Amos viii. 14, see Sept. and the commentaries). Isaac +built its altar, and Isaac's God guarded Jacob in his journeying (xxxi. +29, xlvi. 1). This patriarch and his "brother" Ishmael are closely +associated with the district south of Judah, both are connected with +_Beer-lahai-roi_ (xxiv. 62, Sept. xxv. 11), whose fountain was the scene +of a theophany (xvi.), and their traditions are thus localized in the +district of Kadesh famous in the events of the Exodus (cf. xvi. 14, xxi. +21, xxv. 18, Ex. xv. 22). (See EXODUS, THE.) Abraham planted a sacred +tree at Beersheba and invoked "the everlasting God" (xxi. 33). But the +patriarch is more closely identified with _Hebron_, which had a +sanctuary (cf. 2 Sam. xv. 7 seq.), and an altar which he built "unto +Yahweh" (xiii. 18). The sacred oak of Mamre was famous in the time of +Josephus (_B. J._ iv. 9, 7), it was later a haunt of "angels" (Sozomen), +and Constantine was obliged to put down the heathenish cultus. The place +still has its holy tree. Beneath the oak there appeared the three divine +beings, and in the cave of Machpelah the illustrious ancestor and his +wife were buried. The story of his descent into Egypt and the plaguing +of Pharaoh is a secondary insertion (xii. 10-xiii. 2), and where the +patriarch appears at Beersheba it is in incidents which tend to connect +him with his "son" Isaac. There is a very distinct tendency to emphasize +the importance of Hebron. Taken from primitive giants by the +non-Israelite clan Caleb (q.v.) it has now become predominant in the +patriarchal traditions. Jacob leaves his dying father at Beersheba +(xxviii. 10), but according to the _latest_ source he returns to him at +Hebron (xxxv. 27), and here, north of Beersheba, he continues to live +(xxxvii. 14, xlvi. 1-5). The cave of Machpelah became the grave of +Isaac, Rebekah and Leah (but not Rachel); and though Jacob appears to +be buried beyond the Jordan, it is the latest source which places his +grave at Hebron (1. i-11 and 12 seq.). So in still later tradition, all +the sons of Jacob with the exception of Joseph find their last +resting-place at Hebron, and in Jewish prayers for the dead it is +besought that their souls may be bound up with those of the patriarchs, +or that they may go to the cave of Machpelah and thence to the +Cherubim.[27] The increasing prominence of the old Calebite locality is +not the least interesting phase in the comparative study of the +patriarchal traditions. + +The association of the ancestors of Israel with certain sites is a +feature which finds analogies even in modern Palestine. There are old +centres of cult which have never lost the veneration of the people; the +shrines are known as the tombs of saints or _walis_ (patrons) with such +orthodox names as St George, Elijah, &c. Traditions justify the +reputation for sanctity, and not only are similar stories told of +distinct figures, but there are varying traditions of a single +figure.[28] The places have retained their sacred character despite +political and religious vicissitudes; they are far older than their +present names, and such is the conservatism of the east that it is not +surprising when, for example, a sacred tomb at Gezer stands quite close +to the site of an ancient holy place, about 3000 years old, the +existence of which was first made known in the course of excavation. +Genesis preserves a selection of traditions relating to a few of the old +Palestinian centres of cult. We cannot suppose that these first gained +their sacred character in the pre-Mosaic "patriarchal" age; there is in +any case the obvious difficulty of bridging the gap between the descent +into Egypt and the Exodus, and it is clear that when the Israelites +entered Palestine they came among a people whose religion, tradition and +thought were fully established. It is only in accordance with analogy if +stories were current in Israel of the institution of the sacred places, +and closer study shows that we do not preserve the original version of +these traditions.[29] + +A venerated tree in modern Palestine will owe its sanctity to some +tradition, associating it, it may be, with some saint; the Israelites in +their turn held the belief that the sacred tree at Hebron was one +beneath which their first ancestor sat when three divine beings revealed +themselves to him. But it is noteworthy that Yahweh alone is now +prominent; the tradition has been revised, apparently in writing, and, +later, the author of Jubilees (xvi.) ignores the triad. At +Beer-lahai-roi an El ("god") appeared to Hagar, whence the name of her +child Ishmael; but the writer prefers the unambiguous proper name +Yahweh, and, what is more, the divine being is now Yahweh's angel--the +Almighty's subordinate (xvi.). The older traits show themselves partly +in the manifestation of various _Els_, and partly in the cruder +anthropomorphism of the earlier sources. Later hands have by no means +eliminated or modified them altogether, and in xxxi. 53 one can still +perceive that the present text has endeavoured to obscure the older +belief that the God of Abraham was not the God of his "brother" Nahor +(see the commentaries). The sacred pillar erected by Jacob at Bethel was +solemnly anointed with oil, and it (and not the place) was regarded as +the abode of the Deity (xxviii. 18, 22). This agrees with all that is +known of stone-cults, but it is quite obvious that this interesting +example of popular belief is far below the religious ideas of the writer +of the chapter in its present form.[30] There were many places where it +could be said that Yahweh had recorded his name and would bless his +worshippers (Ex. xx. 24). They were abhorrent to the advanced ethical +teaching of prophets and of those imbued with the spirit of Deuteronomy +(cf. 2 Kings xviii. 4 with v. 22), and it is patent from Jeremiah, +Ezekiel and Is. lvi.-lxvi. that even at a late date opinion varied as +to how Yahweh was to be served.[31] It is significant, therefore, that +the narratives in Genesis (apart from P) reflect a certain tolerant +attitude; there is much that is contrary to prophetical thought, but +even the latest compilers have not obliterated all features that, from a +strict standpoint, could appear distasteful. Although the priestly +source shows how the lore could be reshaped, and Jubilees represents +later efforts along similar lines, it is evident that for ordinary +readers the patriarchal traditions could not be presented in an entirely +new form, and that to achieve their aims the writers could not be at +direct variance with current thought. + + It will now be understood why several scholars have sought to recover + earlier forms of the traditions, the stages through which the material + has passed, and the place of the earlier forms and stages in the + history and religion of Israel. These labours are indispensable for + scientific biblical study, and are most fruitful when they depend upon + comprehensive methods of research. When, for example, one observes the + usual forms of hero-cult and the tendency to regard the occupant of + the modern sacred shrine as the ancestor of his clients, deeper + significance is attached to the references to the protective care of + Abraham and Israel (Is. lxiii. 16), or to the motherly sympathy of + Rachel (Jer. xxxi. 15). And, again, when one perceives the tendency to + look upon the alleged ancestor or _weli_ as an almost divine being, + there is much to be said for the view that the patriarchal figures + were endowed by popular opinion with divine attributes. But here the + same external evidence warns us that these considerations throw no + light upon the original significance of the patriarchs. It is + impossible to recover the earliest traditions from the present + narratives, and these alone offer sufficiently perplexing + problems.[32] + + + Southern interests. + +From a careful survey of all the accessible material it is beyond doubt +that Genesis preserves only a selection of traditions of various ages +and interests, and often not in their original form. We have relatively +little tradition from North Israel; Beersheba, Beer-lahai-roi and Hebron +are more prominent than even Bethel or Shechem, while there are no +stories of Gilgal, Shiloh or Dan. Yet in the nature of the case, there +must have been a great store of local tradition accessible to some +writers and at some periods.[33] Interest is taken not in Phoenicia, +Damascus or the northern tribes, but in the east and south, in Gilead, +Ammon, Moab and Ishmael. Particular attention is paid to Edom and Jacob, +and there is good evidence for a close relationship between Edomite and +allied names and those of South Palestine (including Simeon and Judah). +Especially significant, too, is the interest in traditions which +affected the South of Palestine, that district which is of importance +for the history of Israel in the wilderness and of the Levites.[34] It +is noteworthy, therefore, that while different peoples had their own +theories of their earliest history, the first-born of the first human +pair is Cain, the eponym of the Kenites, and the ancestor of the +beginnings of civilization (iv. 17, 20-22). This "Kenite" version had +its own view of the institution of the worship of Yahweh (iv. 26); it +appears to have ignored the Deluge, and it implies the existence of a +fuller corpus of written tradition. Elsewhere, in the records of the +Exodus, there are traces of specific traditions associated with Kadesh, +Kenites, Caleb and Jerahmeel, and with a movement into Judah, all +originally independent of their present context. Like the prominence of +the traditions of Hebron and its hero Abraham, these features cannot be +merely casual.[35] + + The fact that one is not dealing with literal history complicates the + question of the nomadic or semi-nomadic life of the Israelite + ancestors.[36] They are tent-dwellers, shepherds, sojourners (xvii. 8, + xxiii. 4, xxviii. 4, xxxvi. 7, xxxvii. 1), and we breathe the air of + the open country. But the impression gained from the narratives is of + course due to the narrators. The movements of the patriarchs serve + mainly to connect them with traditions which were originally + independent. When Abraham separates from Lot he settles in "the land + of Canaan," while Lot dwells in "the cities of the plain" (xiii. 12). + Isaac at Beersheba enters into an alliance with the Philistines (xxvi. + 12 sqq.), while Jacob seems to settle at Shechem (xxxiv.), and there + or at Dothan, a few miles north, his sons pasture their father's flock + (xxxvii. 12 sqq.).[37] Indeed, according to an isolated fragment Jacob + conquered Shechem and gave it to Joseph (xlviii. 22), and this + tradition underlies (and has not given birth to) the late and + fantastic stories of his warfare (Jub. xxxiv. 1-9, Test. of Judah + iii.). Judah, also, is represented as settling among the Canaanites + (xxxviii.), and Simeon marries a Canaanite--according to late + tradition, a woman of Zephath (xlvi. 10; Jub. xxxiv. 20, xliv. 13; see + Judg. i. 17). These representations have been subordinated to others, + in particular to the descent into Egypt of Jacob (Israel) and his + sons, and the Exodus of the Israelites. But the critical study of + these events raises very serious historical problems. Abraham's + grandson, with his family--a mere handful of people--went down into + Egypt during a famine (cf. Abraham xii. 10, and Isaac xxvi. 1 seq.); + 400 years pass, all memory of which is practically obliterated, and + the Israelite nation composed of similar subdivisions returns. + Although the later genealogies from Jacob to Moses allow only four + generations (cf. Gen. xv. 16), the difficulties are not removed. + Joseph lived to see the children of Machir (l. 23, note Ex. i. 8), + though Machir received Gilead from the hands of Moses (Num. xxxii. + 40); Levi descended with Kehath, who became the grandfather of Aaron + and Moses, while Aaron married a descendant in the fifth generation + from Judah (Ex. vi. 23). On the other hand the genealogies in 1 Chron. + ii. sqq. are independent of the Exodus; Ephraim's children raid Gath, + his daughter founds certain cities, and Manasseh has an Aramaean + concubine who becomes the mother of Machir (1 Chron. vii. 14, + 20-24).[38] Moreover the whole course of the invasion and settlement + of Israel (under Joshua) has no real connexion with pre-Mosaic + patriarchal history. If we reinterpret the history of the _family_ and + its descent into Egypt, and belittle its increase into a _nation_, and + if we figure to ourselves a more gradual occupation of Palestine, we + destroy the entire continuity of history as it was understood by those + who compiled the biblical history, and we have no evidence for any + confident reconstruction. With such thoroughness have the compilers + given effect to their views that only on closer examination is it + found that even at a relatively late period fundamentally differing + traditions still existed, and that those which belonged to circles + which did not recognize the Exodus have been subordinated and adjusted + by writers to whom this was the profoundest event in their past.[39] + + + The Southern nucleus. + +That the journey of Jacob-Israel from his Aramaean relatives into +Palestine hints at some pre-Mosaic immigration is possible, but has not +been either proved or disproved. The details point rather to a +reflection of the entrance of the children of Israel, elsewhere ascribed +to the leadership of Joshua (q.v.). Though the latter proceeded to +Gilgal, a variant tradition, now almost lost, seems to have recorded an +immediate journey to Shechem (Deut. xxvii. 1-10, Josh. viii. 30-35) +previous to Joshua's great campaigns (Josh. x. seq., cf. Jacob's wars). +His religious gathering at Shechem before the dismissal of the tribes +finds its parallel in Jacob's reforms before leaving for Bethel (xxiv.; +cf. v. 26, Gen. xxxv. 4). Owing, perhaps, to the locale of the writers, +we hear relatively little of the northern tribes. Judah and Simeon are +the first to conquer their lot, and the "house of Joseph" proceeds south +to Bethel, where the story of the "weeping" at Bochim finds a parallel +in the "oak of weeping" (Gen. xxxv. 8). In Gen. xxxviii. "at that time +Judah went down from his brethren"--in xxxvii. they are at Shechem or +Dothan--and settled among Canaanites, and there is a fragmentary +allusion to a similar alliance of Simeon (xlvi. 10). The trend of the +two series of traditions is too close to be accidental, yet the present +sequence of the narratives in Joshua and Judges associates them with the +Exodus. Further, Jacob's move to Shechem, Bethel and the south is +parallel to that of Abraham, but his history actually represents a +twofold course. On the one hand, he is the Aramaean (Deut. xxvi. 5), the +favourite son of his Aramaean mother. On the other, Rebekah is brought +to Beer-lahai-roi (xxiv.), Jacob belongs to the south and he leaves +Beersheba for his lengthy sojourn beyond the Jordan. His separation from +Esau, the revelation at Bethel, and the new name Israel are recorded +twice, and if the entrance into Palestine reflects one ethnological +tradition, the possibility that his departure from Beersheba reflects +another, finds support (a) in the genealogies which associate the nomad +"father" of the southern clans Caleb and Jerahmeel with Gilead (1 Chron. +ii. 21), and (b) in the hints of an "exodus" from the district of Kadesh +northwards. + +The history of an immigration into Palestine from beyond the Jordan +would take various shapes in local tradition. In Genesis it is preserved +from the southern point of view. The northern standpoint appears when +Rachel, mother of Joseph and Benjamin, is the favoured wife in contrast +to the despised Leah, mother of Judah and Simeon; when Joseph is supreme +among his brethren; and when Judah is included among the "sons" of +Israel. It is possible that the application of the traditional +immigration to the history of the tribes is secondary. This at all +events suggests itself when xxxiv. extends to the history of all the +sons, incidents which originally concerned Simeon and Levi alone, and +which may have represented the Shechemite version of a "Levitical" +tradition (see LEVITES). However this may be, it is necessary to account +for the nomadic colouring of the narratives (cf. Meyer, pp. 305, 472) +and the prominence of southern interests, and it would be in accordance +with biblical evidence elsewhere if northern tradition had been taken +over and adapted to the standpoint of the southern members of Israel, +with the incorporation of local tradition which could only have +originated in the south.[40] These and other indications point to a late +date in biblical history. There is a manifest difference between the +religious importance of Shechem in the traditions of Joshua (xxiv.) and +Jacob's reforms when he leaves behind him the heathen symbols before +journeying to the holy site of Bethel (Gen. xxxv. 4). There is even some +polemic against marriage with Shechemites (xxxiv.; more emphatic in Jub. +xxx.), while in the story of the Hebronite Abraham, Bethel itself is +avoided and Shechem is of little significance. Again, the present object +of xxxviii. is to trace the origin of certain Judaean subdivisions after +the death of the wicked Er and Onan. It is purely local and is +interested in Shelah, and more especially in Perez and Zerah, names of +families or clans of the post-exilic age.[41] Elsewhere, in 1 Chron. +ii. and iv., the genealogies represent a Judah composed of clans from +the south (Caleb and Jerahmeel) and of small families or guilds, Shelah +included. It is not the Judah of the monarchy or of the post-exilic +Babylonian-Israelite community. But the mixed elements were ultimately +reckoned among the descendants of Judah, through Hezron the "father" of +Caleb and Jerahmeel, and just as the southern groups finally became +incorporated in Israel, so it is to be observed that although Hebron and +Abraham have gained the first place in the patriarchal history, the +traditions are no longer specifically Calebite, but are part of the +common Israelite heritage. + +We are taken to a period in biblical history when, though the historical +sources are almost inexplicably scanty, the narratives of the past were +approaching their present shape. Some time after the fall of Jerusalem +(587 B.C.) there was a movement from the south of Judah northwards to +the vicinity of Jerusalem (Bethlehem, Kirjath-jearim, &c.), where, as +can be gathered from 1 Chron. ii., were congregated Kenite and Rechabite +communities and families of scribes. Names related to those of Edomite +and kindred groups are found in the late genealogies of both Judah and +Benjamin, and recur even among families of the time of Nehemiah.[42] The +same obscure period witnessed the advent of southern families,[43] the +revival of the Davidic dynasty and its mysterious disappearance, the +outbreak of fierce hatred of Edom, the return of exiles from Babylonia, +the separation of Judah from Samaria and the rise of bitter +anti-Samaritan feeling. It closes with the reorganization associated +with Ezra and Nehemiah and the compilation of the historical books in +practically their present form. It contains diverse interests and +changing standpoints by which it is possible to explain the presence of +purely southern tradition, the southern treatment of national history, +and the antipathy to northern claims. As has already been mentioned, the +specifically southern writings have everywhere been modified or adjusted +to other standpoints, or have been almost entirely subordinated, and it +is noteworthy, therefore, that in narratives elsewhere which reflect +rivalries and conflicts among the priestly families, there is sometimes +an animus against those whose names and traditions point to a southern +origin (see LEVITES). + + + Summary. + +Thus the book of Genesis represents the result of efforts to systematize +the earliest history, and to make it a worthy prelude to the Mosaic +legislation which formed the charter of Judaism as it was established in +or about the 5th century B.C. It goes back to traditions of the most +varied character, whose tone was originally more in accord with earlier +religion and thought. Though these have been made more edifying, they +have not lost their charm and interest. The latest source, it is true, +is without their freshness and life, but it is a matter for thankfulness +that the simple compilers were conservative, and have neither presented +a work entirely on the lines of P, nor rewritten their material as was +done by the author of Jubilees and by Josephus. It is obvious that from +Jubilees alone it would have been impossible to conceive the form which +the traditions had taken a few centuries previously--viz. in Genesis. +Also, from P alone it would have been equally impossible to recover the +non-priestly forms. But while there is no immeasurable gulf between the +canonical book of Genesis and Jubilees, the internal study of the former +reveals traces of earlier traditions most profoundly different as +regards thought and contents. It is not otherwise when one looks below +the traditional history elsewhere (e.g. Samuel, Kings). An explanation +may be found in the vicissitudes of the age. The movement from the +south, which seems to account for a considerable cycle of the +patriarchal traditions, belongs to the age after the downfall of the +Israelite and (later) the Judaean monarchies when there were vital +political and social changes. The removal of prominent inhabitants, by +Assyria and later by Babylonia, the introduction of colonists from +distant lands, and the movements of restless tribes around Palestine +were more fatal to the continuity of trustworthy tradition than to the +persistence of popular thought. New conditions arose as the population +was reorganized, a new Israel claimed to be the heirs of the past (cf. +e.g. the Samaritans, Ezr. iv. 2, Joseph. _Antiq_. ix. 14, 3; xi. 8, +6), and not until after these vicissitudes did the book of Genesis begin +to assume its present shape.[44] (See JEWS; PALESTINE: _History_.) + + The above pages handle only the more important details for the study + of a book which, as regards contents and literary history, cannot be + separated from the series to which it forms the introduction. As + regards the literary-critical problems it is clear that with the + elimination of P we have the sources (minor adjustment and revision + excepted) which were accessible to the last compiler in the + post-exilic age. Most critics have inclined to date these sources (J + and E) as early as possible, whereas the admitted presence of + secondary and of relatively late passages (e.g. xviii. 22 sqq., J; + xxii., E) shows that one must work back from the sources as known in + P's age, and that one can rely only upon those criteria which can be + approximately dated. It is usual to regard the more primitive + character of J and E as a mark of antiquity; but this ignores the + regular survival of primitive modes of thought and of popular + tradition outside more cultured circles. It is also recognized that J + and E are non-prophetical and non-Deuteronomic, but it has not been + proved that the present J and E are earlier than the prophets or the + Deuteronomic reforms of Josiah (2 Kings xxii. seq.). J and E are + linguistically almost identical (in contrast to P), and differ from P + in features which are often not of chronological but of sociological + significance (e.g. the mentality of the writers). Their language is + without some of the phenomena found in narratives which emanate from + the north (e.g. Judges v., stories of Elijah and Elisha), and their + stylistic variations may be, as Gunkel suggests, the mark of a + district or region; for this district one would look in the + neighbourhood of Jerusalem. The conclusion that P's narratives and + laws in the Pentateuch are post-exilic was found by biblical scholars + to be a necessary correction to the original hypothesis of Graf (1866) + that P's _narratives_ were to be retained (with J and E) at an early + date. This view was influenced by the close connexion between the + subject-matter, J, E and P representing the same trend of tradition. + But by still ascribing J and E as written sources to about the 9th or + 8th century (individual opinion varies), many difficulties and + inconsistencies are involved. The present J and E reflect a reshaping + and readjustment of earlier tradition which is found elsewhere, and + the suggestion that they are not far removed from the age of the + priestly writers and redactors does not conflict with what is known of + language, forms of religious thought, or tendencies of tradition. We + reach thus approximately the age when post-Deuteronomic editors were + able to utilize such records as Judg. i., xvii. sqq., 2 Sam. ix.-xx. + (see JUDGES; SAMUEL, BOOKS OF), which are equally valuable as + specimens of current thought and of written tradition. In conclusion, + the tendency of criticism has been to recognize "schools" of J and E + extending into the exile, thus making the three sources J, E and P + more nearly contemporaneous. The most recent conservative authority + also inclines to a similar contemporaneity ("collaboration" or + "co-operation"), but at an impossibly early date (J. Orr, _Problem of + the O. T_., 1905, pp. 216, 345, 354, 375 seq., 527). By admitting + possible revision in the post-exilic age (pp. 226, 369, 375 seq.), the + conservative theory recalls the old legend that Ezra rewrote the Old + Testament (2 Esd. xiv.) and thus restored the Law which had been lost; + a view which, through the early Christian Fathers, gained currency and + has enjoyed a certain popularity to the present day. But when once + revision or rewriting is conceded, there is absolutely no guarantee + that the present Pentateuch is in any way identical with the five + books which tradition ascribed to Moses (q.v.), and the necessity for + a comprehensive critical investigation of the _present_ contents makes + itself felt.[45] + + LITERATURE.--Only a few of the numerous works can be mentioned. Of + those written from a conservative or traditional standpoint the most + notable are: W.H. Green's _Unity of Genesis_ (1895); and J. Orr, + _Problem of the O. T_. (which is nevertheless a great advance upon + earlier non-critical literature). S.R. Driver's commentary + (_Westminster Series_) deals thoroughly with all preliminary problems + of criticism, and is the best for the ordinary reader; that of A. + Dillmann (6th ed.; Eng. trans.) is more technical, that of W.H. + Bennett (_Century Bible_) is more concise and popular. G.J. Spurrell, + Notes on the Text of Genesis, and C.J. Ball (in Haupt's _Sacred Books + of the O. T_.) appeal to Hebrew students. W.E. Addis, _Documents of + the Hexateuch_, Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, _The Hexateuch_, and + C.F. Kent, _Beginnings of Hebrew History_, are more important for the + literary analysis. J. Wellhausen's sketch in his _Proleg. to Hist. of + Israel_ (Eng. trans., pp. 259-342) is admirable, as also is the + general Introduction (trans. by W.H. Carruth, 1907) to H. Gunkel's + valuable commentary. Of recent works bearing upon the subject-matter + reference may be made to J.P. Peters, _Early Hebrew Story_ (1904), + A.R. Gordon, _Early Traditions of Genesis_ (1907), and T.K. Cheyne, + _Traditions and Beliefs of Ancient Israel_ (1907). Special mention + must be made of Eduard Meyer and B. Luther, to whose _Die Israëliten + und ihre Nachbarstämme_ (1906) the present writer is indebted for many + valuable suggestions and hints. Fuller bibliographical information + will be found in the works already mentioned, in the articles in the + _Ency. Bib_. (G.F. Moore), and Hastings's _Dict_. (G.A. Smith), and in + the volume by J. Skinner in the elaborate and encyclopaedic + _International Critical Series_. (S. A. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The abrupt introduction of a small poem (iv. 23 seq.) was long + ago regarded as due to the use of separate sources (so the Calvinist + Isaac de la Peyrère, 1654). + + [2] The divergences of detail, with corresponding stylistic + variations, were recognized long ago (e.g. by Father Simon in 1682). + + [3] As early as 1685 Jean le Clerc observed that Ur of the Chaldees + (_Chasdim_) in xi. 28 anticipates _Chesed_ in xxii. 22, and implied + some knowledge of the land of the Chaldaeans (cf. Ezek. i. 3, xi. + 24). + + [4] The Catholic priest Andrew du Maes (1570) already pointed to the + names Hebron and Dan as signs of post-Mosaic date. + + [5] Note the repetitions in vv. 2 and 3; Abraham's faith, vv. 4-6, + and his request, v. 8; contrast the time of day, v. 5 and v. 12, and + the dates, v. 13 and v. 16. In vv. 12-15 there is a reference to the + bondage in Egypt. + + [6] These and other chronological embarrassments, now recognized as + due to the framework of the post-exilic writer (P), have long been + observed--by Spinoza, 1671. + + [7] Points of resemblance in xxiii. with Babylonian usage have often + been exaggerated; comparison "shows noteworthy differences" (T.G. + Pinches, _The Old Testament_, p. 238); see Carpenter and + Harford-Battersby, _Hexateuch_, i. 64, Driver, Gen. p. 230, and + _Addenda_. + + [8] Note, e.g., the sudden introduction of xxix. 15, the curious + position of v. 24 (due to P), the double play upon the names Zebulun + and Joseph, xxx. 20, 23 seq., the internal intricacies in the + agreement, _ib._ vv. 31-43; the difficulties in the reference to the + latter in xxxi. 6 sqq. (especially v. 10). + + [9] See Ed. Meyer (and B. Luther), _Die Israëliten und ihre + Nachbarstämme_ (1906), pp. 238 sqq.; also the shrewd remarks of C.T. + Beke, _Origines biblicae_ (1834), pp. 123 sqq. + + [10] It is interesting to find that the Spanish Rabbi Isaac (of + Toledo, A.D. 982-1057), noticing that the royal list must be later + than the time of Saul (also recognized by Martin Luther and others), + proposed to assign the chapter to the age of Jehoshaphat. + + [11] But the chronology is hopeless, and only ten years are allowed + according to another and later scheme (xxv. 26, xxxv. 28, xlvii. 9). + + [12] Cf. the account of the Israelites in Egypt, where they are in + Goshen, unaffected by the plagues (Ex. viii. 22, ix. 26), or, + according to another view, are living in the midst of the Egyptians + (e.g. xii. 23). + + [13] V. 7 breaks the context; there is repetition in vv. 10b and 13b; + interchange of the names Jacob and Israel; v. 12 suggests a blessing + upon Joseph himself; and with vv. 15 seq. (the blessing of the sons, + not of Joseph), contrast vv. 20 sqq. (the singular "in thee," v. 20). + + [14] Only the more noticeable peculiarities have been mentioned in + the preceding columns. + + [15] On the course of modern criticism and on the various sources: P, + J (Judaean or Yahwist), E (Ephraimite or Elohist), see BIBLE (_Old + Test. Criticism_). The passages usually assigned to P in Genesis are: + i. 1-ii. 4a; v. 1-28, 30-32; vi. 9-22; vii. 6 (and parts of 7-9), 11, + 13-16a, 18-21, 24; viii. 1-2a, 3b-5, 13a, 14-19; ix. 1-17, 28-29; x. + 1-7, 20, 22-23, 31-32; xi. 10-27, 31-32; xii. 4b-5; xiii. 6, 11b-12a; + xvi. 1a, 3, 15-16; xvii.; xix. 29; xxi. 1b, 2b-5; xxiii.; xxv. 7-11a, + 12-17, 19-20, 26b; xxvi. 34-35; xxvii. 46-xxviii. 9; xxix. 24, 28b, + 29; xxxi. 18b; xxxiii. 18a; xxxiv. 1-2a, 4, 6, 8-10, 13-18, 20-24, + part of 25, 27-29; xxxv. 9-13, 15, 22b-29; xxxvi. (in the main); + xxxvii. 1-2a; xli. 46; xlvi. 6-27; xlvii. 5-6a, 7-11, 27b-28; xlviii. + 3-7; xlix. 1a, 28b-33, l. 12-13. + + [16] See on this, especially, S.R. Driver's _Genesis_ in the + "Westminster Commentaries" (seventh ed., 1909). + + [17] The above is typical of modern biblical criticism which is + compelled to recognize the human element (and can thus have no a + priori preconceptions in approaching the Old Testament), but at the + same time reveals ever more decisively the presence of purifying + influences, without which the records of Israel would have had no + permanent interest or value. They thus gain a new value which cannot + be impaired when it is realized that their significance is quite + independent of their origins. + + [18] See the remarks of W.R. Smith, _Eng. Hist. Rev._ (1888), pp. 128 + seq. (from the sociological side), and for general considerations, + A.A. Bevan, _Crit. Rev._ (1893), pp. 138 sqq.; S.R. Driver, + _Genesis_, pp. xliii. sqq. + + [19] Cf. Amos i. 11; 1 Chron. ii. iv. (note iv. 10), the Book of + Jubilees (see above), and also Arabian usage (W.R. Smith, _Kinship + and Marriage_, ch. i.). For modern examples, see E. Littmann, + _Orient. Stud. Theodor Nöldeke_ (ed. Bezold, 1906), pp. 942-958. + + [20] The Book of Jubilees also enables the student to test the + arguments based upon any study restricted to Genesis alone. Thus it + shows that the "primitive" features of Genesis afford a criterion + which is sociological rather than chronological. This is often + ignored. For example, the conveyance of the field of Machpelah + (xxiii.) is conspicuous for the absence of any reference to a written + contract in contrast to the "business" methods in Jer. xxxii. This + does not prove that Gen. xxiii. is early, because writing was used in + Palestine about 1400 B.C., and, on the other hand, the more simple + forms of agreement are still familiar after the time of Jeremiah + (e.g. Ruth, Proverbs). Similarly, no safe argument can be based upon + the institution of blood-revenge in Gen. iv., when one observes the + undeveloped conditions among the Trachonites of the time of Herod the + Great (Josephus, Ant. xvi. 9, 1), or the varying usages among modern + tribes. + + [21] On the Jewish forms, see R.H. Charles, _Book of Jubilees_ + (1902), pp. 33 seq. + + [22] A.H. Sayce, _Proc. of the Soc. of Bibl. Arch._ (1907), pp. + 13-17. + + [23] xxvii. 27-29, 39 seq. This is significantly altered in the later + writings (Jub. xxvi. 34 and the Targums). It is worth noticing that + in Jub. xxvi. 35 a new turn is given to Gen. xxvii. 41 by changing + Isaac's approaching death (which raises serious difficulties in the + history of Jacob) into Esau's wish that it may soon come. + + [24] See E. Meyer (and B. Luther), _Die Israëliten und ihre + Nachbarstämme_ (1906), pp. 386-389, 442-446. + + [25] See PHILISTINES. The covenant with Abimelech may be compared + with the friendship between David and Achish (1 Sam. xxvii.), who is + actually called Abimelech in the heading of Ps. xxxiv. (see 1 Sam. + xxi. 10). If this is a mistake (and not a variant tradition) it is a + very remarkable one. The treatment of the covenant by the author of + Jubilees (xxiv. 28 sqq.), on the other hand, is only intelligible + when one recalls the attitude of Judah to the Philistine cities in + the 2nd century B.C.; see R.H. Charles, ad loc. + + [26] In 2 Sam. xix. 43 (original text) the men of Israel claim to be + the first-born rather than Judah; cf. 1 Chron. v. 1 seq., where the + birthright (after Reuben was degraded) is explicitly conferred upon + Joseph (Ephraim and Manasseh). + + [27] Cf. Josephus, _Antiq._ ii. 8, 2; _Test. of xii. Patriarchs_; + Acts vii. 16 (where Shechem is an error); Oesterley and Box, + _Religion and Worship of the Synagogue_, pp. 340 seq.; M.G. Dampier, + in _Church and Synagogue_ (1909), p. 78. + + [28] See J.P. Peters, _Early Heb. Story_ (1904), pp. 81 sqq.; S.A. + Cook, _Relig. of Anc. Palestine_ (1908), pp. 19 sqq. + + [29] In like manner the Babylonian story of the flood has been + revised and adapted to the Hebrew Noah (cf. _Nippur, ad fin._). + + [30] The writer in Jub. xxvii. 27 treats the pillar as a "sign." + Another useful example of revision is to be found in Josh. xxii., + where what was regarded (by a reviser) as an object unworthy of the + religion of Yahweh is now merely commemorative. + + [31] For popular religious thought and practice (often described as + pre-prophetical, though non-prophetical would be a safer term), see + HEBREW RELIGION. + + [32] Among recent efforts to find and explain mythical elements, see + especially Stucken, _Astralmythen_: H. Winckler, _Geschichte + Israëls_, vol. ii.; and P. Jensen, _Das Gilgamesch-Epos in der + Weltlitteratur_. + + [33] Again the analogy of the modern East is instructive. Especially + interesting are the traditions associating the same figure or + incident with widely separated localities. + + [34] See EXODUS, THE; LEVITES. On this feature see Luther and Meyer, + _op. cit._ pp. 158 seq., 227 sqq., 259, 279, 305, 386, 443. Their + researches on this subject are indispensable for a critical study of + Genesis. + + [35] The notion of an Eve (_hawwah_, "serpent") as the first woman + may be conjecturally associated with (a) the frequent traditions of + the serpent-origin of clans, and (b) with evidence which seems to + connect the Levites and allied families with some kind of + serpent-cult (see Meyer, op. cit. pp. 116, 426 seq., 443, and art. + SERPENT-WORSHIP). The account of mankind as it now reads (ii. seq.) + is in several respects less primitive (contrast vi. 1 seq.), and the + present story of Cain and his murder of Abel really places the former + in an unfavourable light. + + [36] See the discussion between B.D. Eerdmans and G.A. Smith in the + _Expositor_ (Aug.-Oct. 1908), and the former's _Alttest. Studien_, + ii. (1908), _passim._ + + [37] xxxiv. (note v. 9) indicates a possible alliance with + Shechemites, and xxxv. 4 (taken literally) implies a residence long + enough for a religious reform to be necessary. Yet the present aim of + the narratives is to link together the traditions and emphasize + Jacob's return from Laban to his dying father (xxviii. 21; xxxi. 3, + 13, 18; xxxii. 9; xxxv. 1, 27). + + [38] Cf. Benjamin's descendants in 1 Chron. viii. 6 seq. and see on + the naive and primitive character of these traditions, Kittel, + comment. ad loc. + + [39] That there are traditions in Genesis which do not form the + prelude to Exodus is very generally recognized by those who agree + that the Israelites after entering Palestine took over some of the + indigenous lore (whether from the Canaanites or from a presumed + earlier layer of Israelites). This adoption of native tradition by + new settlers, however, cannot be confined to any single period. See + further, Luther and Meyer, op. cit. pp. 108, 110, 156, 227 seq., 254 + seq., 414 seq., 433; on traditions related to the descent into Egypt, + _ib._ 122 sqq., 151 seq., 260; and on the story of Joseph (ch. xxxv., + xxxvii. sqq.), as an independent cycle used to form a connecting + link, Luther, _ib._ pp. 142-154. + + [40] Cf. the late "Deuteronomic" form of Judges where a hero of + Kenizzite origin (and therefore closely connected with Caleb) stands + at the head of the Israelite "judges"; also, from another aspect, the + specifically Judaean and anti-Israelite treatment of the history of + the monarchy. But in each case the feature belongs to a relatively + late stage in the literary history of the books; see JUDGES; SAMUEL, + BOOKS OF; KINGS. + + [41] Mahalalel (son of Kenan, another form of Cain, v. 12) is also a + prominent ancestor in Perez (Neh. xi. 4), and Zerah claimed the + renowned sages of Solomon's day (1 Chron. ii. 6, 1 Kings iv. 31). The + story implies that Perez surpassed his "brother" clan Zerah (xxxviii. + 27-30), and in fact Perez is ultimately reckoned the head of the + Judaean subdivisions (1 Chron. ii. 4 sqq.), and thus is the reputed + ancestor of the Davidic dynasty (Ruth iv. 12, 18 sqq.). + + The sympathies of these traditions are as suggestive as their + presence in the canonical history, which, it must be remembered, + ultimately passed through the hands of Judaean compilers. + + [42] Neh. iii. 9, 14; see Meyer, pp. 300, 430; S.A. Cook, _Critical + Notes on O. T. History_, p. 58 n. 2. While the evidence points to an + early close relationship among S. Palestinian groups (Edom, Ishmael, + &c.; cf. Meyer, p. 446), there are many allusions to subsequent + treacherous attacks which made Edom execrable. Here again biblical + criticism cannot at present determine precisely when or precisely why + the changed attitude began; see EDOM; JEWS, §§ 20, 22. + + [43] Although the movement reflected in 1 Chron. ii. is scarcely + pre-exilic, yet naturally there had always been a close relation + between Judah and the south, as the Assyrian inscriptions of the + latter part of the 8th century B.C. indicate. + + [44] The south of Palestine, if less disturbed by these changes, may + well have had access to older authoritative material. + + [45] For Orr's other concessions bearing upon Genesis, see _op. + cit_., pp. 9 seq., 87, 93, and (on J, E, P) 196, 335, 340. These, + like the concessions of other apologetic writers, far outweigh the + often hypercritical, irrelevant, and superficial objections brought + against the literary and historical criticism of Genesis. + + + + +GENET, typically a south European carnivorous mammal referable to the +_Viverridae_ or family of civets, but also taken to include several +allied species from Africa. The true genet (_Genetta vulgaris_ or +_Genetta genetta_) occurs throughout the south of Europe and in +Palestine, as well as North Africa. The fur is of a dark-grey colour, +thickly spotted with black, and having a dark streak along the back, +while the tail, which is nearly as long as the body, is ringed with +black and white. The genet is rare in the south of France, but commoner +in Spain, where it frequents the banks of streams, and feeds on small +mammals and birds. It differs from the true civets in that the anal +pouch is a mere depression, and contains only a faint trace of the +highly characteristic odour of the former. In south-western Europe and +North Africa it is sought for its soft and beautifully spotted fur. In +some parts of Europe, the genet, which is easily tamed, is kept like a +cat for destroying mice and other vermin. + +[Illustration: The Genet (_Genetta vulgaris_).] + + + + +GENEVA, a city of Ontario county, New York, U.S.A., at the N. end of +Seneca Lake, about 52 m. S.E. of Rochester. Pop. (1890) 7557; (1900) +10,433 (of whom 1916 were foreign-born); (1910 census) 12,446. It is +served by the New York Central & Hudson River, and the Lehigh Valley +railways, and by the Cayuga & Seneca Canal. It is an attractively built +city, and has good mineral springs. Malt, tinware, flour and grist-mill +products, boilers, stoves and ranges, optical supplies, wall-paper, +cereals, canned goods, cutlery, tin cans and wagons are manufactured, +and there are also extensive nurseries. The total value of the factory +product in 1905 was $4,951,964, an increase of 82.3% since 1900. Geneva +has a public library, a city hospital and hygienic institute. It is the +seat of the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station and of Hobart +College (non-sectarian), which was first planned in 1812, was founded in +1822 (the majority of its incorporators being members of the Protestant +Episcopal church) as successor to Geneva Academy, received a full +charter as Geneva College in 1825, and was renamed Hobart Free College +in 1852 and Hobart College in 1860, in honour of Bishop John Henry +Hobart. The college had in 1908-1909 107 students, 21 instructors, and a +library of 50,000 volumes and 15,000 pamphlets. A co-ordinate woman's +college, the William Smith school for women, opened in 1908, was endowed +in 1906 by William Smith of Geneva, who at the same time provided for a +Hall of Science and for further instruction in science, especially in +biology and psychology. In 1888 the Smith Observatory was built at +Geneva, being maintained by William Smith, and placed in charge of Dr +William Robert Brooks, professor of astronomy in Hobart College. The +municipality owns its water-supply system. Geneva was first settled +about 1787 almost on the site of the Indian village of Kanadasega, which +was destroyed in 1779 during Gen. John Sullivan's expedition against the +Indians in western New York. It was chartered as a city in 1898. + + + + +GENEVA (Fr. _Genève_, Ger. _Genf_, Ital. _Ginevra_, Late Lat. _Gebenna_, +though _Genava_ in good Latin), a city and canton of Switzerland, +situated at the extreme south-west corner both of the country and of the +Lake of Geneva or Lake Leman. The canton is, save Zug, the smallest in +the Swiss Confederation, while the city, long the most populous in the +land, is now surpassed by Zürich and by Basel. + + + The canton. + +The canton has an area of 108.9 sq. m., of which 88.5 sq. m. are classed +as "productive" (forests covering 9.9 sq. m. and vineyards 6.8 sq. m., +the rest being cultivated land). Of the "unproductive" 20.3 sq. m., 11½ +are accounted for by that portion of the Lake of Geneva which belongs to +the canton. It is entirely surrounded by French territory (the +department of Haute Savoie lying to the south, and that of the Ain to +the west and the north), save for about 3½ m. on the extreme north, +where it borders on the Swiss canton of Vaud. The Rhone flows through it +from east to west, and then along its south-west edge, the total length +of the river in or within the canton being about 13 m., as it is very +sinuous. The turbid Arve is by far its largest tributary (left), and +flows from the snows of the chain of Mont Blanc, the only other affluent +of any size being the London (right). Market gardens, orchards, and +vineyards occupy a large proportion of the soil (outside the city), the +apparent fertility of which is largely due to the unremitting industry +of the inhabitants. In 1901 there were 6586 cows, 3881 horses, 2468 +swine and 2048 bee-hives in the canton. Besides building materials, such +as sandstone, slate, &c., the only mineral to be found within the canton +is bituminous shale, the products of which can be used for petroleum and +asphalt. The broad-gauge railways in the canton have a length of 18¾ m., +and include bits of the main lines towards Paris and Lausanne (for Bern +or the Simplon), while there are also 72¾ m. of electric tramways. The +canton was admitted into the Swiss Confederation in 1815 only, and ranks +as the junior of the 22 cantons. In 1815-1816 it was created by adding +to the old territory belonging to the city (just around it, with the +outlying districts of Jussy, Genthod, Satigny and Cartigny) 16 communes +(to the south and east, including Carouge and Chêne) ceded by Savoy, and +6 communes (to the north, including Versoix), cut off from the French +district of Gex. + + + Statistics of canton and city. + +In 1900 there were, not counting the city, 27,813 inhabitants in the +canton, or, including the city, 132,609, the city alone having thus a +population of 104,796. (In the following statistics those for the city +are enclosed within brackets.) In 1900 this population was thus divided +in point of religion: Romanists, 67,162 (49,965), Protestants, 62,400 +(52,121), and Jews 1119 (1081). In point of language 109,741 (84,259) +were French-speaking, 13,343 (12,004) German-speaking, and 7345 (6574) +Italian-speaking, while there were also 89 (76) Romonsch-speaking +persons. More remarkable are the results as to nationality: 43,550 +(31,607) were Genevese citizens, and 36,415 (30,582) Swiss citizens of +other cantons. Of the 52,644 (42,607) foreigners, there were 34,277 +(26,018) French, 10,211 (9126) Italians, 4653 (4283) subjects of the +German empire, 583 (468) British subjects, 832 (777) Russians, and 285 +(251) citizens of the United States of America. In the canton there were +10,821 (5683) inhabited houses, while the number of separate households +was 35,450 (28,621). Two points as to these statistics deserve to be +noted. The number of foreign residents is steadily rising, for in 1900 +there were only 79,965 (62,189) Swiss in all as against 52,644 (42,607) +foreigners. One result of this foreign immigration, particularly from +France and Italy, has been the rapid increase of Romanists, who now form +the majority in the canton, while in the city they were still slightly +less numerous than the Protestants in 1900; later (local) statistics +give in the Canton 75,400 Romanists to 64,200 Protestants, and in the +city 52,638 Romanists to 51,221 Protestants. Geneva has always been a +favourite residence of foreigners, though few can ever have expected to +hear that the "protestant Rome" has now a Romanist majority as regards +its inhabitants. Galiffe (_Genève hist. et archéolog_.) estimates the +population in 1356 at 5800, and in 1404 at 6490, in both cases within +the fortifications. In 1536 the old city acquired the outlying districts +mentioned above, as well as the suburb of St Gervais on the right bank +of the Rhone, so that in 1545 the number is given as 12,500, reduced by +1572 to 11,000. After the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) it +rose, by 1698, to 16,934. Thenceforward the progress was fairly steady: +18,500 (1711); 24,712 (1782); 26,140 (1789). After the creation of the +canton (1815) the numbers were (those for the city are enclosed within +brackets) 48,489 (25,289), the city rising in 1837 to 33,714, and in +1843 to 36,452. The result of the Federal censuses (begun in 1850) are +as follows: in 1850, 64,146 (42,127); in 1860, 82,876 (59,826); in 1870, +88,791 (65,606); in 1880, 99,712 (76,197), and in 1888, 105,509 +(81,407). + + + Government. + +The canton comprises 3 administrative districts: the 13 communes on the +right bank and the 34 on the left bank each form one, while the city +proper, on both sides of the river, forms one district and one commune. +From 1815 to 1842 the city and the cantonal government was the same. But +at that date the city obtained its independence, and is now ruled by a +town council of 41 members, and an executive of 5 members, the election +in each case being made direct by the citizens, and the term of office +being 4 years. The existing cantonal constitution dates, in most of its +main features, from 1847. The legislature or _Grand Conseil_ (now +composed of 100 members) is elected (in the proportion of 1 member for +every 1000 inhabitants or fraction over 500) for 3 years by a direct +popular vote, subject (since 1892) to the principles of proportional +representation, while the executive or _conseil d'état_ (7 members) is +elected (no proportional representation) by a popular vote for 3 years. +By the latest enactments (one dating from 1905) 2500 citizens can claim +a vote ("facultative referendum") as to any legislative project, or can +exercise the "right of initiative" as to any such project or as to the +revision of the cantonal constitution. The canton sends 2 members +(elected by a popular vote) to the Federal _Ständerath_, and 7 to the +Federal _Nationalrath_. + + + Religion. + +The Consistory rules the Established Protestant Church, and is now +composed of 31 members, 25 being laymen and 6 (formerly 15) clerics, +while the "venerable company of pastors" (pastors actually holding +cures) has greatly lost its former importance and can now only submit +proposals to the Consistory. The Christian Catholic Church is also +"established" at Geneva (since 1873) and is governed by the _conseil +supérieur_, composed of 25 lay members and 5 clerics. No other religious +denominations are "established" at Geneva. But the Romanists (who form +13% of the electors) are steadily growing in numbers and in influence, +while the Christian Catholics are losing ground rapidly, the highest +number of votes received by a candidate for the _conseil supérieur_ +having fallen from 2003 in 1874 to 806 in 1890 and 507 in 1906, while +they are abandoning the country churches (some were lost as early as +1892) which they had taken from the Romanists in the course of the +_Kulturkampf_. + + + Industry. + +The fairs of Geneva (held 4 times a year) are mentioned as early as +1262, and attained the height of their prosperity about 1450, but +declined after Louis XI.'s grants of 1462-1463 in favour of the fairs of +Lyons. Among the chief articles brought to these fairs (which were +largely frequented by Italian, French and Swiss merchants) were cloth, +silk, armour, groceries, wine, timber and salt, this last coming mainly +from Provence. The manufacturers of Geneva formed in 1487 no fewer than +38 gilds, including tailors, hatters, mercers, weavers, tanners, +saddle-makers, furriers, shoe-makers, painters on glass, &c. Goldsmiths +are mentioned as early as 1290. Printing was introduced in 1478 by +Steinschaber of Schweinfurth, and flourished much in the 16th century, +though the rigorous supervision exercised by the Consistory greatly +hampered the Estiennes (Stephanus) in their enterprises. Nowadays the +best known industry at Geneva is that of watchmaking, which was +introduced in 1587 by Charles Cusin of Autun, and two years later +regulations as to the trade were issued. In 1685 there were in Geneva +100 master watchmakers, employing 300 work-people, who turned out 5000 +pieces a year, while in 1760 this trade employed 4000 work-people. Of +recent years its prosperity has diminished greatly, so that the +watchmaking and jewelry trades in 1902 numbered respectively but 38 and +32 of the 394 establishments in Geneva which were subject to the factory +laws. Lately, huge establishments have been constructed for the +utilization of the power contained in the Rhone. The local commerce of +Geneva is much aided by the fact that the city is nearly entirely +surrounded by "free zones," in which no customs duties are levied, +though the districts are politically French: this privilege was given to +Gex in 1814, and to the Savoyard districts in 1860, when they were also +neutralized. + + + Celebrities. + +Considering the small size of Geneva, till recently, it is surprising +how many celebrated persons have been connected with it as natives or as +residents. Here are a few of the principal, special articles being +devoted to many of them in this work. In the 16th century, besides +Calvin and Bonivard, we have Isaac Casaubon, the scholar; Robert and +Henri Estienne, the printers, and, from 1572 to 1574, Joseph Scaliger +himself, though but for a short time. J.J. Rousseau is, of course, the +great Genevese of the 18th century. At that period, and in the 19th +century, Geneva was a centre of light, especially in the case of various +of the physical sciences. Among the scientific celebrities were de +Saussure, the most many-sided of all; de Candolle and Boissier, the +botanists; Alphonse Favre and Necker, the geologists; Marignac, the +chemist; Deluc, the physicist, and Plantamour, the astronomer. Charles +Bonnet was both a scientific man and a philosopher, while Amiel belonged +to the latter class only. Pradier and Chaponnière, the sculptors; +Arlaud, Diday and Calame, the artists; Mallet, who revealed Scandinavia +to the literary world; Necker, the minister; Sismondi, the historian of +the Italian republics; General Dufour, author of the great survey which +bears the name of the "Dufour Map," have each a niche in the Temple of +Fame. Of a less severe type were Cherbuliez, the novelist; Töpffer, who +spread a taste for pedestrianism among Swiss youth; Duchosal, the poet; +Marc Monnier, the littérateur; not to mention the names of any persons +still living, or of politicians of any date. + + + The city and its buildings. + +The city of Geneva is situated at the south-western extremity of the +beautiful lake of the same name, whence the "arrowy Rhone" flows +westwards under the seven bridges by which the two halves of the town +communicate with each other. To the south is the valley of the Arve +(descending from the snows of the Mont Blanc chain), which unites with +that of the Rhone a little below the town; while behind the Arve the +grey and barren rocks of the Petit Salève rise like a wall, which in +turn is overtopped by the distant and ethereal snows of Mont Blanc. Yet +the actual site of the town is not as picturesque as that of several +other spots in Switzerland. Though the cathedral crowns the hillock +round which clusters the old part of the town, a large portion of the +newer town is built on the alluvial flats on either bank of the Rhone. +Since the demolition of the fortifications in 1849 the town has extended +in every direction, and particularly on the right bank of the Rhone. It +possesses many edifices, public and private, which are handsome or +elegant, but it has almost nothing to which the memory reverts as a +masterpiece of architectural art. It is possible that this is, in part, +due to the artistic blight of the Calvinism which so long dominated the +town. But, while lacking the medieval appearance of Fribourg or Bern, or +Sion or Coire, the great number of modern fine buildings in Geneva, +hotels, villas, &c., gives it an air of prosperity and comfort that +attracts many visitors, though on others modern French architecture +produces a blinding glare. On the other hand, there are broad quays +along the river, while public gardens afford grateful shade. + +The cathedral (Protestant) of St Pierre is the finest of the older +buildings in the city, but is a second-rate building, though as E.A. +Freeman remarks, "it is an excellent example of a small cathedral of its +own style and plan, with unusually little later alteration." The hillock +on which it rises was no doubt the site of earlier churches, but the +present Transitional building dates only from the 12th and 13th +centuries, while its portico was built in the 18th century, after the +model of the Pantheon at Rome. It contains a few sepulchral monuments, +removed from the cloisters (pulled down in 1721), and a fine modern +organ, but the historical old bell _La Clémence_ has been replaced by a +newer and larger one which bears the same name. More interesting than +the church itself is the adjoining chapel of the Maccabees, built in the +15th century, and recently restored. Near the cathedral are the arsenal +(now housing the historical museum, in which are preserved many relics +of the "Escalade" of 1602, including the famous ladders), and the maison +de ville or town hall. The latter building is first mentioned in 1448, +but most of the present building dates from far later times, though the +quaint paved spiral pathway (taking the place of a staircase in the +interior) was made in the middle of the 16th century. In the _Salle du +Conseil d'État_ some curious 15th-century frescoes have lately been +discovered, while the old Salle des Festins is now known as the Salle de +l'Alabama, in memory of the arbitration tribunal of 1872. In the +15th-century Tour Baudet, adjoining the Town Hall, are preserved the +rich archives of the city. Not far away is the palais de justice, built +in 1709 as a hospital, but used as a court house since 1858. On the Île +in the Rhone stands the tower (built c. 1219) of the old castle +belonging to the bishop. Among the modern buildings we may mention the +following: the University (founded in 1559, but raised to the rank of a +University in 1873 only), the Athénée, the Conservatoire de Musique, the +Victoria Hall (a concert hall, presented in 1904 to the city by Mr +Barton, formerly H.B.M.'s Consul), the theatre, the Salle de la +Réformation (for religious lectures and popular concerts), the Bâtiment +Electoral, the Russian church and the new post office. At present the +museums of various kinds at Geneva are widely dispersed, but a huge new +building in course of construction (1906) will ultimately house most of +them. The Musée Rath contains pictures and sculptures; the Musée Fol, +antiquities of various dates; the Musée des Arts Décoratifs, _inter +alia_, a fine collection of prints; the Musée Industriel, industrial +objects and models; the Musée Archéologique, prehistoric and +archaeological remains; the Musée d'Histoire Naturelle, scientific +collections; and the Musée Epigraphique, a considerable number of +inscriptions. Some way out of the town is the Musée Ariana (extensive +art collections), left, with a fine park, in 1890 to the city by a rich +citizen, Gustave Revilliod. The public library is in the university +buildings and contains many valuable MSS. and printed books. Geneva +boasts also of a fine observatory and of a number of technical schools +(watchmaking, chemistry, medicine, commerce, fine arts, &c.), some of +which are really annexes of the university, which in June 1906 was +attended by 1158 matriculated students, of whom 903 were non-Swiss, the +Russians (475 in number) forming the majority of the foreign students. +Geneva is well supplied with charitable institutions, hospitals, &c. +Among other remarkable sights of the city may be mentioned the great +hydraulic establishment (built 1882-1899) of the _Forces Motrices du +Rhône_ (turbines), the singular monument set up to the memory of the +late duke of Brunswick who left his fortune to the city in 1873, and the +Île Jean-Jacques Rousseau now connected with the Pont des Bergues. The +house occupied by Rousseau is No. 40 in the Grand' Rue, while No. 13 in +the same street is on the site of Calvin's house, though not the actual +dwelling inhabited by him. + + + History. + +The real name of the city is _Genava_, that being the form under which +it appears in almost all the known documents up to the 7th century, +A.D., the variation _Genua_ (which has led to great confusion with +Genoa) being also found in the 6th century. But _Geneva_ and _Gebenna_ +are of later date. The first mention of the city is made by Caesar +(_Bell. Galli_. i. 6-7) who tells us that it was the last _oppidum_ of +the Allobroges, and the nearest to the territory of the Helvetii, with +which it was connected by a bridge that, for military reasons, he was +forced to destroy. Inscriptions of later date state that it was only a +_vicus_ of the Viennese province, while mentioning the fact that a gild +of boatmen flourished there. But the many Roman remains found on the +original site (in the region of the cathedral) of the city show that it +must have been of some importance, and that it possessed a considerable +commerce. About 400 the _Notitia Galliarum_ calls it a _civitas_ (so +that it then had a municipal administration of its own), and reckons it +as first among those of the Viennese. Probably this rise in dignity was +connected with the establishment of a bishop's see there, the first +bishop certainly known, Isaac, being heard of about 400 in a letter +addressed by St Eucherius to Salvius, while, in 450, a letter of St Leo +states that the see was then a suffragan of the archbishopric of Vienne. +It is possible that there may be some ground for the local tradition +that Christianity was introduced into this region by Dionysius and +Paracodus, who successively occupied the see of Vienne, but another +tradition that the first bishop was named St Nazarius rests on a +confusion, as that saint belongs to Genoa and not to Geneva. + +About the middle of the 5th century A.D. it came into the possession of +the Burgundians, who held it as late as 527 (thus leaving no room for +any occupation by the Ostrogoths), and in 534 passed into the hands of +the Franks. The Burgundian kings seem to have made Geneva one of their +principal residences, and the _Notitia_ (above named) tells us that the +city was _restaurata_ by King Gundibald (d. 516) which is generally +supposed to mean that he first surrounded it with a wall, the city then +comprising little more than the hill on which the present cathedral +stands. That building is of course of much later date, but it seems +certain that when (c. 513-516) Sigismund, son of King Gundibald, built a +stone church on the site, it took the place of an earlier wooden church, +constructed on Roman foundations, all three layers being clearly visible +at the present day. We know that St Avitus, archbishop of Vienne (d. +518), preached a sermon (preserved to us) at the dedication of a church +at Geneva which had been built on the site of one burnt by the enemy, +and the bits of half-burnt wood found in the second of the two layers +mentioned above, seem to make it probable that the reference is to +Sigismund's church. But Geneva was in no sense one of the great cities +of the region, though it is mentioned in the _Antonine Itinerary_ and in +the _Peutinger Table_ (both 4th century A.D.), no doubt owing to its +important position on the bank of the Rhone, which then rose to the foot +of the hill on which the original city stood. This is no doubt the +reason why, apart from some passing allusions (for instance, Charles the +Great held a council of war there in 773, on his first journey to +Italy), we hear very little about it. + +In 1032, with the rest of the kingdom of Burgundy or Arles, it reverted +to the emperor Conrad II., who was crowned king at Payerne in 1033, and +in 1034 was recognized as such at Geneva by a great assembly of nobles +from Germany, Burgundy and Italy, this rather unwilling surrender +signifying the union of those 3 kingdoms. It is said that Conrad +granted the temporal sovereignty of the city to the bishop, who, in +1162, was raised to the rank of a prince of the Holy Roman Empire, being +elected, from 1215, by the chapter, but, after 1418, named directly by +the pope himself. + +Like many other prince-bishops, the ruler of Geneva had to defend his +rights: without against powerful neighbours, and within against the +rising power of the citizens. These struggles constitute the entire +political history of Geneva up to about 1535, when a new epoch of unrest +opens with the adoption of Protestantism. The first foe without was the +family of the counts of the Genevois (the region south of the city and +in the neighbourhood of Annecy), who were also "protectors" (_advocati_) +of the church of Geneva, and are first heard of in the 11th and 12th +centuries. Their influence was probably never stronger than during the +rule as bishop (1118-1119) of Guy, the brother of the reigning count. +But his successor, Humbert de Grammont, resumed the grants made to the +count, and in 1125 by the Accord of Seyssel, the count fully +acknowledged the suzerainty of the bishop. A fresh struggle under Bishop +Ardutius (1135-1185) ended in the confirmation by Frederick Barbarossa, +as emperor, of the position of the bishop as subject to no one but +himself (1153), this declaration being strengthened by the elevation of +the bishop and his successors to the rank of princes of the empire +(1162). + +In 1250 the counts of Savoy first appear in connexion with Geneva, being +mortgagees of the Genevois family, and, in 1263, practically their heirs +as "protectors" of the city. It was thus natural that the citizens +should invoke the aid of Savoy against their bishop, Robert of the +Genevois (1276-1287). But Count Amadeus of Savoy not merely seized +(1287) the castle built by the bishops (about 1219) on the Île, but also +(1288) the office of _vicedominus_ [_vidomne_], the official through +whom the bishop exercised his minor judicial rights. The new bishop, +William of Conflans (1287-1295) could recover neither, and in 1290 had +to formally recognize the position of Savoy (which was thus legalized) +in his own cathedral city. It was during this struggle that about 1287 +(these privileges were finally sanctioned by the bishop in 1300) the +citizens organized themselves into a commune or corporation, elected 4 +syndics, and showed their independent position by causing a seal for the +city to be prepared. The bishop was thus threatened on two sides by foes +of whom the influence was rising, and against whom his struggles were of +no avail. In 1365 the count obtained from the emperor the office of +imperial vicar over Geneva, but the next bishop William of Marcossay +(1366-1377: he began the construction of a new wall round the greatly +extended city, a process not completed till 1428) secured the withdrawal +of this usurpation (1366-1367), which the count finally renounced +(1371). One of that bishop's successors, Adhémar Fabri (1385-1388) +codified and confirmed all the franchises, rights and privileges of the +citizens (1387), this grant being the _Magna Carta_ of the city of +Geneva. In 1401 Amadeus VIII. of Savoy bought the county of the +Genevois, as the dynasty of its rulers had become extinct. Geneva was +now surrounded on all sides by the dominions of the house of Savoy. + +Amadeus did homage, in 1405, to the bishop for those of the newly +acquired lands which he held from the bishop. But, after his power had +been strengthened by his elevation (1417) by the emperor to the rank of +a duke, and by his succession to the principality of Piedmont (1418, +long held by a cadet branch of his house), Amadeus tried to purchase +Geneva from its bishop, John of Pierre-Scisé or Rochetaillée +(1418-1422). This offer was refused both by the bishop and by the +citizens, while in 1420 the emperor Sigismund declared that he alone was +the suzerain of the city, and forbade any one to attack it or harm it in +any fashion. Oddly enough Amadeus did in the end get hold of the city, +for, having been elected pope under the name of Felix V., he named +himself to the vacant see of Geneva (1444), and kept it, after his +resignation of the Papacy in 1449, till his death in 1451. For the most +part of this period he resided in Geneva. From 1451 to 1522 the see was +almost continuously held by a cadet of the house of Savoy, which thus +treated it as a kind of appange. + +Most probably Geneva would soon have become an integral part of the +realms of the house of Savoy had it not been for the appearance of a new +protector on the scene--the Swiss confederation. In the early 15th +century the town of Fribourg made an alliance with Geneva for commercial +purposes (the cloth warehouses of Fribourg at Geneva being enlarged in +1432 and 1465), as the cloth manufactured at Fribourg found a market in +the fairs of Geneva (which are mentioned as early as 1262, and were at +the height of their prosperity about 1450). The duke, however, was no +better inclined towards the Swiss than towards Geneva. He struck a blow +at both, when, in 1462-1463, he induced his son-in-law, Louis XI. of +France, to forbid French merchants to attend the fairs of Geneva, +altering also the days of the fairs at Lyons (established in 1420 and +increased in number in 1463) so as to make them clash with those fixed +for the fairs of Geneva. This nearly ruined Geneva, which, too, in 1477 +had to pay a large indemnity to the Swiss army that, after the defeat of +Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, advanced to take vengeance on the +dominions of his ally, Yolande, dowager duchess of Savoy and sister of +Louis XI., as well as on the bishop of Geneva, her brother-in-law. But, +after this payment, the bishop made an alliance with the Swiss. A +prolonged attempt was made (1517-1530) by the reigning duke of Savoy, +Charles III. (1504-1553), to secure Geneva for his family, at first with +the help of his bastard cousin John (1513-1522), the last of his house +to hold the see. In this struggle the syndic, Philibert Berthelier, +succeeded in concluding (1519) an alliance with Fribourg, which, +however, had to be given up almost immediately. It split the citizens +into two parties; the _Eidgenots_ relying on the Swiss, while the +_Mamelus_ (mamelukes) supported the duke. Berthelier was executed in +1519, and Amé Lévrier in 1524, but Bezanson Hugues (d. 1532) took their +place, and in 1526 succeeded in renewing the alliance with Fribourg and +adding to it one with Bern. This much enraged the duke, who took active +steps against the citizens, and tried (1527) to carry off the bishop, +Pierre de la Baume (1522-1544), who soon found it best to make his +submission. + +The Genevese, thus abandoned by their natural protector, looked to the +Swiss for help. They sent (October 1530) a considerable army to save the +city. This armed intervention compelled the duke to sign the treaty of +St Julien (19th October) by which he engaged not to trouble the Genevese +any more, agreeing that if he did so the two towns of Fribourg and Bern +should have the right to occupy his barony of Vaud. The two towns also, +by the decision given as arbitrators at Payerne (30th December 1530), +upheld their alliance with Geneva, condemned the duke to pay all the +expenses of the war, and confirmed the clause as to their right to +occupy Vaud; they also surrounding the exercise of the powers of +_vidomne_ by the duke with so many restrictions that in 1532 the duke, +after much resistance, formally agreed to recognize the alliance of +Geneva with the two towns and not to annoy the Genevese any more. Thus a +legal tie between Geneva and two of the Swiss cantons was established, +while the duke did not any longer venture to annoy the Genevese, as he +clung to his fine barony of Vaud. In the course of this struggle (and +especially after the last episcopal _vidomne_ had left the town in 1526) +the municipal authorities of the city greatly developed, a _grand +conseil_ of 200 members being set up in imitation of those at Bern and +at Fribourg, while within the larger assembly there was a _petit +conseil_ of 60 members for more confidential business. Thus 1530 marks +the date at which Geneva became its own mistress within, while allied +externally with the Swiss confederation. But hardly had this settlement +been reached when a fresh element of discord threatened to wholly upset +matters--the adoption of Protestant principles by the city. Just before +this event, however, the fortifications were once more (1534) rebuilt +(bits still remain) and extended so as to take in several new suburbs, +including that of St Gervais on the right bank of the Rhone which, till +then, seems to have been unenclosed (1511-1527). + +In 1532 William Farel, a Protestant preacher from Dauphiné, who had +converted Vaud, &c. to the new belief, first came to Geneva and settled +there in 1533. But although Bern supported the Reform, Fribourg did +not, and in 1534 withdrew from its alliance with Geneva, while directly +afterwards the duke of Savoy made a fresh attempt to seize the city. On +the 10th of August 1535 the Protestant faith was formally adopted by +Geneva, but an offer of help from France having been refused, as the +city was unwilling to give up any of its sovereign rights, the duke's +party continued its intrigues. Finally Bern, fearing that Geneva might +fall to France instead of to itself, sent an army to protect the city +(January 1536), but, not being able to persuade the citizens to give up +their freedom, had to content itself with the conquest of the barony of +Vaud and of the bishopric of Lausanne, thus acquiring rich territories, +while becoming close neighbours of Geneva (January and March 1536). +Meanwhile Farel had been advancing the cause of religious reform, which +was definitively adopted on the 21st of May 1536. In July 1536 a French +refugee, John Calvin (q.v.), came to Geneva for a night, but was +detained by Farel who found in him a powerful helper. The opposition +party of the _Libertins_ succeeded in getting them both exiled in 1538, +but, in September 1541, Calvin was recalled (Farel spending the rest of +his life at Neuchâtel, where he died 1565) to Geneva. Born in 1509, he +was then about 32 years of age. He set up this theocracy in Geneva, and +ruled the reorganized republic with a strong hand till his death in +1564, when he was succeeded by the milder Théodore de Beza (1519-1605). + +The great blot on Calvin's rule was his intolerance of other thinkers, +as exemplified by his burning of Gruet (1547) and of Servetus (1553). +But, on the other hand, he founded (1559) the Academy, which, originally +meant as a seminary for his preachers, later greatly extended its scope, +and in 1873 assumed the rank of a University. The strict rule of Calvin +drove out many old Genevese families, while he caused to be received as +citizens many French, Italian and English refugees, so that Geneva +became not merely the "Protestant Rome" but also quite a cosmopolitan +little city. The Bernese often interfered with the internal affairs of +Geneva (while Calvin, a Frenchman, naturally looked towards France), and +refused to allow the city to conclude any alliances save with itself. +That alliance was finally renewed in 1558, while in 1560 the Romanist +cantons made one with the duke of Savoy, a zealous supporter of the old +faith. In 1564, after long negotiations, Bern restored to the duke part +of its conquests of 1536, viz. Gex, the Genevois and the Chablais, +Geneva being thus once more placed amid the dominions of the duke; +though by the same treaty (that of Lausanne, October 1564, Calvin having +died the preceding May) the alliance of Bern with Geneva was maintained. +In 1579 Geneva was included in the alliance concluded by France with +Bern and Soleure, while in 1584 Zürich joined Bern in another alliance +with Geneva. The struggle widened as Geneva became a pawn in the great +attempt of the duke of Savoy to bring back his subjects to the old +faith, his efforts being seconded by François de Sales, the "apostle of +the Chablais." But the king of France, for political reasons, opposed +Savoy, with whom, however, he made peace in 1601. In December 1602 +François de Sales was consecrated bishop of Geneva (since 1535 the +bishops had lived at Annecy), and a few days later the duke of Savoy +made a final attempt to get hold of the city by a surprise attack in the +night of 11-12th December 1602 (Old Style), known in history as the +"Escalade," as ladders were used to scale the city walls. It was +successfully repelled, over 200 of the foe being slain, while 17 +Genevese only perished. Filled with joy at their rescue from this +attack, the citizens crowded to their cathedral, where Beza (then 83 +years of age) bid them to sing the 124th Psalm which has ever since been +sung on the anniversary of this great delivery. The peace of St Julien +(21st of July 1603) marked the final defeat of the duke of Savoy in the +long struggle waged (since 1290) by his house against the city of +Geneva. + +In the charter of 1387 we hear only of the _conseil général_ (composed +of all male heads of families) which acted as the legislature, and +elected annually the executive of 4 syndics; no doubt this form of rule +existed earlier than 1387. Even before 1387 there was also the _petit +conseil_ or _conseil ordinaire_ or _conseil étroit_, a body not +recognized by the law, though it became very powerful; it was composed +of the 4 syndics, with several other counsellors, and acted originally +as the adviser of the syndics who were legally responsible for the rule +of the city. In 1457 we first hear of the Council of the Fifty +(re-established in 1502 and later known as the Sixty), and in 1526 of +the Council of the Two Hundred (established in imitation of those of +Bern and Fribourg), both being summoned in special cases of urgency. The +members of both were named by the _petit conseil_, of which, in turn, +the members were confirmed or not by the Two Hundred. By the +Constitution of 1543 the _conseil général_ had only the right of +choosing the 4 syndics out of a list of 8 presented by the _petit +conseil_ and the Two Hundred, which therefore really elected them, +subject to a formal approbation on the part of the larger body. This +system was slightly modified in 1568, the constitution of that date +lasting till 1794. The _conseil général_ fell more and more into the +background, the members of the other councils gradually obtained the +privilege of being irremovable, and the system of co-optation resulted +in the creation of a close monopoly of political offices in the hands of +a few leading families. + +During the 17th and 18th centuries, while the Romanist majority of the +Swiss cantons steadily refused to accept Geneva as even a subordinate +member of the Confederation, the city itself was distracted on several +occasions by attempts of the citizens, as a whole, to gain some share in +the aristocratic government of the town, though these attempts were only +partially successful. But the last half of the 18th century marks the +most brilliant period in the literary history of Geneva, whether as +regards natives or resident foreigners, while in the succeeding half +century the number of Genevese scientific celebrities is remarkable. In +1794 the effects of the French Revolution were shown in the more liberal +constitution granted by the city government. But in 1798 the city was +annexed to France and became the capital of the French department of +Léman (to be carefully distinguished from the Swiss _canton_ of Léman, +that is Vaud, of the Helvetic Republic, also set up in 1798), while in +1802, by the Concordat, the ancient bishopric of Geneva was suppressed. +On the fall of Napoleon (1813) the city recovered its independence, and +finally, in 1815, was received as the junior member of the Swiss +confederation, several bits of French and Savoyard territory (as pointed +out above) being added to the narrow bounds of the old Genevese Republic +in order to give the town some protection against its non-Swiss +neighbours. + +The constitution of 1814 set up a common form of government for the city +and the canton, the city not obtaining its municipal independence till +the constitution of 1842. From 1535 to 1798 public worship according to +the Romanist form had been strictly forbidden. In 1799 already the first +attempts were made to reestablish it, and in 1803 the church of St +Germain was handed over to the Romanists. The constitution of 1814, +looking forward to the annexation of Romanist districts to the city +territory to form the new canton, guaranteed to that body the freedom of +worship, at any rate in these newly gained districts. In 1819 the canton +(the new portions of which were inhabited mainly by Romanists) was +annexed to the bishopric of Lausanne, the bishop in 1821 being +authorized to add "and of Geneva" to his episcopal style. After the +adventure of the "Escalade" the fortifications were once more +strengthened and extended, these works being completed about 1726. But, +in 1822, some of the bastions were converted into promenades, while in +1849 the rest of the fortifications were pulled down so as to allow the +city to expand and gradually assume its present aspect. + +When Geneva recovered its political independence in 1814 a new +constitution was drawn up, but it was very reactionary, for there is no +mention in it of the sovereignty of the people. It set up a _conseil +représentatif_ or legislature of 250 members, which named the _conseil +d'état_ or executive, while it was itself elected by a limited class, +for the electoral qualification was the annual payment of direct taxes +to the amount of 20 Swiss livres or about 23 shillings. It was not till +1842 that this system, though much criticized, was modified. In the +early part of 1841 the "Third of March Association" was formed to watch +over the interests of the citizens, and in November of that year the +government was forced by a popular demonstration to summon an _assemblée +constituante_, which in 1842 elaborated a new constitution that was +accepted by the citizens. Besides bestowing on the city a government +distinct from that of the canton, it set up for the latter a _grand +conseil_ or legislature, and a conseil _d'état_ or executive of 13 +members, both elected for the term of 4 years. But this constitution did +not seem liberal enough to many citizens, so that in 1846 the government +gave way to the Radicals, led by James Fazy (1794-1878), who drew up a +constitution that was accepted by a popular vote on the 21st of May +1847. It was much more advanced than that of 1842, and in its main +features still prevails. From that date till 1864 the Radicals ruled the +state, their head, Fazy, being an able man, though extravagant and +inclined to absolutism. Under his sway the town was modernized and +developed, but the finances were badly administered, and Fazy became +more and more a radical dictator. "On voudrait faire de Genève," sighed +the conservative, de la Rive, "la plus petite des grandes villes, et +pour moi je préfère qu'elle reste la plus grande des petites villes." In +1861 and in 1864 Fazy failed to secure his re-election to the _conseil +d'état_, riots followed his defeat, and the Federal troops were forced +to intervene so as to restore order. + +The Democratic party (liberal-conservative) ruled from 1865 to 1870, and +did much to improve the finances of the state. In 1870 the Radicals +regained the supremacy under their new chief, Antoine Carteret +(1813-1889) and kept it till 1878. This was a period of religious +strife, due to the irritation caused by the Vatican council, and the +pope's attempt to revive the bishopric of Geneva. Gaspard Mermillod +(1824-1891) was named in 1864 _curé_ of Geneva, and made bishop of +Hebron _in partibus_, acting as the helper of the bishop of Lausanne. +Early in 1873 the pope named him "vicar apostolic of Geneva," but he was +expelled a few weeks later from Switzerland, not returning till 1883, +when he became bishop of Lausanne, being made cardinal in 1890. The +Radical government enacted severe laws as to the Romanists in Geneva, +and gave privileges to the Christian Catholic Church, which, organized +in 1874 in Switzerland, had absorbed the community founded at Geneva by +Père Hyacinthe, an ex-Carmelite friar. The Romanists therefore were no +longer recognized by the state, and were persecuted in divers ways, +though the tide afterwards turned in their favour. The Democrats ruled +from 1878 to 1880, and introduced the "Referendum" (1879) into the +cantonal constitution, but, their policy of the separation of church and +state having been rejected by the people at a vote, they gave way to the +Radicals. The Radicals went out in 1889, and the Democrats held the +reins of power till 1897, their leader being Gustave Ador. In 1891 they +introduced the "Initiative" into the cantonal constitution, and in 1892 +the principle of proportional representation so far as regards the +_grand conseil_, while Th. Turrettini did much to increase the +economical prosperity of the city. In 1897 the Radicals came in again, +their leaders being first Georges Favon (1843-1902) till his death, and +then Henri Fazy, a distant relative of James and an excellent historian. +They attempted to rule by aid of the Socialists, but their power +fluctuated as the demands of the Socialists became greater. On the 30th +of June 1907 the Genevese, by a popular vote, decided on the separation +of Church and State. + + AUTHORITIES.--D. Baud-Bovy, _Peintres genevois, 1702-1807_ (2 vols., + Geneva, 1903-1904); J.T. de Belloc, _Le Cardinal Mermillod_ (Fribourg, + 1892): M. Besson, Recherches _sur les origines des évêchés de Genève, + Lausanne et Sion_ (Fribourg, 1906); J.D. Blavignac, Armorial genevois + (Geneva, 1849), and _Études sur Genève depuis l'antiquité jusqu'à nos + jours_ (2 vols., Geneva, 1872-1874); Fr. Bonivard, _Chroniques de + Genève_ (Reprint) (2 vols., Geneva, 1867); F. Borel, _Les Foires de + Genève au XV^e siècle_ (Geneva, 1892); Ch. Borgeaud, _Histoire de + l'université de Genève, 1559-1798_ (Geneva, 1900); E. Choisy, _La + Théocratie à Genève au temps de Calvin_ (Geneva, 1898), and _L'État + chrétien Calviniste à Genève au temps de Théodore de Bèze_ (Geneva, + 1902); F. de Crue, _La Guerre féodale de Genève et l'établissement de + la Commune, 1205-1320_ (Geneva, 1907); H. Denkinger, _Histoire + populaire du canton de Genève_ (Geneva, 1905); E. Doumergue, _La + Genève Calviniste_ (containing a minute topographical description of + 16th-century Geneva, and forming vol. iii. of the author's _Jean + Calvin_) (Lausanne, 1905); E. Dunant, _Les Relations politiques de + Genève avec Berne et les Suisses, de 1536 à 1564_ (Geneva, 1894); + _Documents de l'Escalade de Genève_ (Geneva, 1903); G. Fatio and F. + Boissonnas, _La Campagne genevoise d'après nature_ (Geneva, 1899), and + _Genève à travers les siècles_ (Geneva, 1900); H. Fazy, _Histoire de + Genève à l'époque de l'Escalade, 1598-1603_ (Geneva, 1902), and _Les + Constitutions de la République de Genève_ (to 1847) (Geneva, 1890); + J.B.G. Galiffe, _Genève historique et archéologique_ (2 vols., Geneva, + 1869-1872); J.A. Gautier, _Histoire de Genève_ (to 1691) (6 vols., + 1896-1903); F. Gribble and J.H. and M.H. Lewis, _Geneva_ (London, + 1908); J. Jullien, Histoire de Genève (new ed.; Geneva, 1889); C. + Martin, _La Maison de Ville de Genève_ (Geneva, 1906); _Mémoires et + documents_ (publ. by the local Historical Society since 1821); F. + Mugnier, _Les Évêques de Genève-Annecy, 1535-1870_ (Paris, 1888); + _Pierre de Genève, St_ (monograph on the cathedral), 4 parts (Geneva, + 1891-1899); A. de Montet, _Dictionnaire biographique des Genevois, + &c._ (2 vols., Lausanne, 1878); C.L. Perrin, _Les Vieux Quartiers de + Genève_ (Geneva, 1904); A. Pfleghart, _Die schweizerische + Uhrenindustrie_ (Leipzig, 1908); _Régeste genevois avant 1312_ + (Geneva, 1866); _Registres du conseil de Genève_, vols. i. and ii., + 1409-1477 (Geneva, 1900-1906); A. Roget, _Histoire du peuple de Genève + depuis la Réforme jusqu'à l'Escalade_ (7 vols., from 1536-1568; + Geneva, 1870-1883); A. Rilliet, _Le Rétablissement du Catholicisme à + Genève il y a deux siècles_ (Geneva, 1880); P. Vaucher, _Luttes de + Genève contre la Savoie_, 1517-1530 (Geneva, 1889); _Recueil + généalogique suisse (Genève)_ (2 vols., Geneva, 1902-1907). + (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +GENEVA CONVENTION, an international agreement for the purpose of +improving the condition of wounded soldiers of armies in the field, +originally adopted at an international conference held at Geneva, +Switzerland, in 1864, and afterwards replaced by the convention of July +6, 1906, also adopted at Geneva. This later agreement is the one now +known as the Geneva Convention. The conference of 1864 was the result of +a movement which sprang from the publication in 1862 of a book entitled +_Un Souvenir de Solférino_ by Henri Dunant, a Genevese philanthropist, +in which he described the sufferings of the wounded at the battle of +Solférino with such vivid effect that the subject became forthwith one +of public interest. It was energetically taken up by M. Gustave Moynier, +whose agitation led to an unofficial congress being held at Geneva in +October 1863. This was followed by an official one at Geneva, called by +the Swiss government in 1864. The convention which was there signed +(22nd August 1864) on behalf of the states represented, afterwards +received the adherence of every civilized power. + +At a second conference on the same subject, held at Geneva in 1868, a +supplementary convention was drawn up, consisting of fourteen additional +articles, five of which related to war on land and nine to naval +warfare. The additional articles were not, however, ratified by the +chief states, and never became operative. The Brussels International +Conference (1874) for the codification of the law and customs of war +occupied itself with the Geneva Convention and again drew up a number of +articles which were submitted to the interested governments. But, as in +the case of the additional articles of 1868, no effect was ever given to +them. + +At the Peace Conference of 1899 Great Britain withdrew her objections to +the application of the convention to maritime warfare, and agreed to the +adoption of a special convention "adapting to Maritime warfare the +principles of the Geneva Convention." A _voeu_ was also adopted by the +conference expressing the wish that a special conference should be held +as soon as possible for the purpose of revising the convention of 1864. + +In deference to the above _voeu_ the Swiss government in 1901 sounded +the other parties to the convention of 1864 as to whether the time had +not come to call the proposed special conference, but the replies +received did not give much encouragement and the matter was dropped for +the time being. By a circular note of the 17th of February 1903, the +Swiss government invited all the states which had signed or adhered to +the Geneva Convention to send representatives to a conference to be held +at Geneva in the following September. Some governments did not accept +the invitation in time and the conference had to be postponed. At the +beginning of 1904, there being no apparent obstacle, the Swiss +government again invited the powers to send delegates to a conference in +the following May. Meanwhile war broke out between Russia and Japan and +there was again an adjournment. At length in March 1906 an invitation +was accepted by thirty-five states, only Turkey, Salvador, Bolivia, +Venezuela, Nicaragua and Colombia abstaining and the conference was +held at Geneva in July 1906, when a full revised convention was adopted, +which now takes the place of that of 1864.[1] The adoption of the new +Geneva Convention entailed a revision of the above-mentioned Hague +Convention and a new edition of the latter is one of the documents +adopted at the Peace Conference of 1907. + +The new Geneva Convention consists of thirty-three articles divided into +the following chapters, (i.) the wounded and sick; (ii.) medical units +and establishments; (iii.) personnel; (iv.) material; (v.) convoys of +evacuation; (vi.) the distinctive emblem; (vii.) application and +carrying out of the Convention; (viii.) prevention of abuses and +infractions; (ix.) general provisions. + +The essential parts of the new Hague Convention of 1907 (18th of +October) adapting the above conventions to maritime warfare as follows: +(N.B. The alterations are in italics. The parts of the older convention +of 1899 which have been suppressed are in brackets). + + i. Military hospital-ships, that is to say, ships constructed or + assigned by states specially and solely for the purpose of assisting + the wounded, sick or shipwrecked, and the names of which shall have + been communicated to the belligerent powers at the commencement or + during the course of hostilities, and in any case before they are + employed, shall be respected and cannot be captured while hostilities + last. + + These ships, moreover, are not on the same footing as men-of-war as + regards their stay in a neutral port. + + ii. Hospital-ships, equipped wholly or in part at the cost of private + individuals or officially-recognized Relief Societies, shall likewise + be respected and exempt from capture, provided the belligerent power + to whom they belong has given them an official commission and has + notified their names to the hostile power at the commencement of or + during hostilities, and in any case before they are employed. + + These ships should be furnished with a certificate from the competent + authorities, declaring that they had been under their control while + fitting out and on final departure. + + iii. Hospital-ships, equipped wholly or in part at the cost of private + individuals or officially-recognized Societies of neutral countries + shall be respected and exempt from capture [if the neutral power to + whom they belong has given them an official commission and notified + their names to the belligerent powers at the commencement of or during + hostilities, and in any case before they are employed] _on condition + that they are placed under the orders of one of the belligerents, with + the previous consent of their own Government and with the + authorization of the belligerent, and on condition that the latter + shall have notified their names to the enemy at the commencement or + during the course of hostilities, in any event, before they are + employed._ + + iv. The ships mentioned in Articles i., ii. and iii. shall afford + relief and assistance to the wounded, sick and shipwrecked of the + belligerents independently of their nationality. + + The governments engage not to use these ships for any military + purpose. + + These ships must not in any way hamper the movements of the + combatants. + + During and after an engagement they will act at their own risk and + peril. + + The belligerents will have the right to control and visit them; they + can refuse to help them, order them off, make them take a certain + course, and put a commissioner on board; they can even detain them, if + important circumstances require it. + + As far as possible the belligerents shall inscribe in the sailing + papers of the hospital-ships the orders they give them. + + v. The military hospital-ships shall be distinguished by being painted + white outside with a horizontal band of green about a metre and a half + in breadth. + + The ships mentioned in Articles ii. and iii. shall be distinguished by + being painted white outside with a horizontal band of red about a + metre and a half in breadth. + + The boats of the ships above mentioned, as also small craft which may + be used for hospital work, shall be distinguished by similar painting. + + All hospital-ships shall make themselves known by hoisting, together + with their national flag, the white flag with a red cross provided by + the Geneva Convention, _and, in addition, if they belong to a neutral + State, by hoisting on the mainmast the national flag of the + belligerent under whose direction they are placed._ + + _Hospital-ships which, under the terms of Article iv., are detained + by the enemy, must lower the national flag of the belligerent under + whom they were acting._ + + _The above-mentioned vessels and boats, desiring at night-time to + ensure the respect due to them, shall, with the consent of the + belligerent whom they are accompanying, take the necessary steps that + the special painting denoting them shall be sufficiently conspicuous._ + + vi. [Neutral merchantmen, yachts or vessels, having, or taking on + board, sick, wounded or shipwrecked of the belligerents, cannot be + captured for so doing, but they are liable to capture for any + violation of neutrality they may have committed.] + + _The distinctive signs provided by Article v. can only be used, + whether in time of peace or in time of war, to protect ships therein + mentioned._ + + vii. _In the case of a fight on board a war-ship, the hospitals shall + be respected and shall receive as much consideration as possible._ + + _These hospitals and their belongings are subject to the laws of war, + but shall not be employed for any other purpose so long as they shall + be necessary for the sick and wounded._ + + _Nevertheless, the commander who has them under his orders, may make + use of them in case of important military necessity, but he shall + first ensure the safety of the sick and wounded on board._ + + viii. _The protection due to hospital-ships and to hospitals on board + war-ships shall cease if they are used against the enemy._ + + _The fact that the crew of hospital-ships, and attached to hospitals + on war-ships, are armed for the maintenance of order and for the + defence of the sick or wounded, and the existence of a + radio-telegraphic installation on board, is not considered as a + justification for withdrawing the above-mentioned protection._ + + ix. _Belligerents may appeal to the charitable zeal of commanders of + neutral merchant vessels, yachts or other craft, to take on board and + look after the sick and wounded._ + + _Ships having responded to this appeal, as well as those who have + spontaneously taken on board sick, wounded or shipwrecked men, shall + have the advantage of a special protection and of certain immunities. + In no case shall they be liable to capture on account of such + transport; but subject to any promise made to them they are liable to + capture for any violation of neutrality they may have committed._ + + [vii.] x. The religious, medical or hospital staff of any captured + ship is inviolable, and its members cannot be made prisoners of war. + On leaving the ship they take with them the objects and surgical + instruments which are their own private property. + + This staff shall continue to discharge its duties while necessary, and + can afterwards leave when the commander-in-chief considers it + possible. + + The belligerents must guarantee to the staff that has fallen into + their hands [the enjoyment of their salaries intact] _the same + allowances and pay as those of persons of the same rank in their own + navy_. + + [viii.] xi. Sailors and soldiers, _and other persons officially + attached to navies or armies_, who are taken on board when sick or + wounded, to whatever nation they belong, shall be [protected] + respected and looked after by the captors. + + xii. _Every vessel of war of a belligerent party may claim the return + of the wounded, sick or shipwrecked who are on board military + hospital-ships, hospital-ships of aid societies or of private + individuals, merchant ships, yachts or other craft, whatever be the + nationality of these vessels._ + + xiii. _If the wounded, sick or shipwrecked are received on board a + neutral ship of war, it shall be provided, as far as possible, that + they may take no further part in war operations._ + + xiv. The shipwrecked, wounded or sick of one of the belligerents who + fall into the hands of the other, are prisoners of war. The captor + must decide, according to circumstances, if it is best to keep them or + send them to a port of his own country, to a neutral port, or even to + a hostile port. In the last case, prisoners thus repatriated cannot + serve as long as the war lasts. + + xv. The shipwrecked, wounded or sick who are landed at a neutral port + with the consent of the local authorities, must, failing a contrary + arrangement between the neutral State and the belligerents, be guarded + by the neutral State, so that they may not be again able to take part + in the military operations. + + _The expenses of hospital treatment and internment shall be borne by + the State to which the shipwrecked, wounded or sick belong._ + (T. Ba.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Another International Conference held in December 1904 at the + Hague dealt with the status of hospital-ships in time of war. Great + Britain did not take part in this Conference. Her abstention, + however, was not owing to any objection of principle, but purely to + considerations of domestic legislation. + + + + +GENEVA, LAKE OF, the largest lake of which any portion belongs to +Switzerland, and indeed in central Europe. It is called _Lacus Lemannus_ +by the old Latin and Greek writers, in 4th century A.D. _Lacus +Lausonius_ or _Losanetes_, in the middle ages generally _Lac de +Lausanne_, but from the 16th century onwards _Lac de Genève_, though +from the end of the 18th century the name _Lac Léman_ was +revived--according to Prof. Forel _Le Léman_ is the proper form. Its +area is estimated at 223 sq. m. (Swiss Topographical Bureau) or 225½ sq. +m. (Forel), of which about 140 sq. m. (134½ sq. m. Forel) are +politically Swiss (123½ sq. m. belonging to the canton of Vaud, 11½ sq. +m. to that of Geneva, and 5 sq. m. to that of the Valais), the remainder +(83 sq. m.) being French since the annexation of Savoy in 1860--the +entire lake is included in the territory (Swiss or Savoyard) neutralized +by the congress of Vienna in 1815. The French part takes in nearly the +whole of the south shore, save its western and eastern extremities, +which belong respectively to Geneva and to the Valais. + + The lake is formed by the Rhone, which enters it at its east end, + between Villeneuve (E.) and St Gingolph (W.), and quits it at its west + end, flowing through the city of Geneva. The only important + tributaries are the Drance (S.), the Venoge (N.) and the Veveyse (N.). + The form of the lake is that of a crescent, of which the east end is + broad and rounded, while the west end tapers towards the city of + Geneva. The bird's eye length of the whole lake, from Chillon to + Geneva, is 39½ m., but along its axis 45 m. The coast-line of the + north shore is 59 m. in length and that of the south shore 44¾ m. The + maximum depth is 1015½ ft., but the mean depth only 500 ft. The + surface is 1231¼ ft. (Swiss Topog. Bureau) or 1220 ft. (Forel) above + sea-level. The greatest width (between Morges and Amphion) is 8½ m., + but the normal width is 5 m. The lake forms two well-marked divisions, + separated by the strait of Promenthoux, which is 216½ ft. in depth, as + a bar divides the Grand Lac from the Petit Lac. The _Grand Lac_ + includes the greater portion of the lake, the _Petit Lac_ (to the west + of the strait or bar) being the special Genevese portion of the lake, + and having an area of but 30½ sq. m. The unusual blueness of the + waters has long been remarked, and the transparency increases the + farther we get from the point where the Rhone enters it, the deposits + which the river brings down from the Alps gradually sinking to the + bottom of the lake. At Geneva we recall Byron's phrase, "the blue + rushing of the arrowy Rhone" (_Childe Harold_, canto iii. stanza 71). + The limit of visibility of a white disk is 33 ft. in winter (in + February 1891 Prof. Forel observed an extreme of 70½ ft.) and 21¼ ft. + in summer. Apart from the seasonal changes in the level of the lake + (which is highest in summer, no doubt because of the melting of the + Alpine snows that feed the Rhone), there are also the remarkable + temporary disturbances of level known as the _seiches_, in which the + whole mass of water in the lake rhythmically swings from shore to + shore. According to Prof. Forel there are both longitudinal and + transverse _seiches_. The effect of the longitudinal _seiches_ at + Geneva is four times as great as at Chillon, at the other end of the + lake, while the extreme duration of this phenomenon is 73 minutes for + the uninodal longitudinal _seiches_ (35½ minutes for the binodal) and + 10 minutes for the transverse _seiches_ (5 minutes for the binodal). + The maximum height of a recorded _seiche_ at Geneva is rather over 6 + ft. (October 1841). The currents in the water itself are irregular. + The principal winds that blow over the lake are the _bise_ (from the + N.E.), the _vaudaire_ or _Föhn_ (from the S.E.), the _sudois_ or _vent + de pluie_ (from the S.W.) and the _joran_ (from the N.W.). The storm + winds are the _molan_ (from the Arve valley towards Geneva) and the + _bornan_ (from the Drance valley towards the central portion of the + lake). The lake is not as rich in fish as the other Swiss lakes, one + reason being the obstacle opposed by the Perte du Rhône to fish + seeking to ascend that river. Prof. Forel knows of but twenty + indigenous species (of which the _Féra_, or _Coregonus fera_, is the + principal) and six that have been introduced by man in the 19th + century. A number of lake dwellings, of varying dates, have been found + on the shores of the lake. The first steamer placed on the lake was + the "Guillaume Tell," built in 1823 at Geneva by an Englishman named + Church, while in 1873 the present Compagnie générale de navigation sur + le lac Léman was formed, and in 1875 constructed the first saloon + steamer, the "Mont Blanc." But despite this service and the railways + along each shore, the red lateen sails of minor craft still brighten + the landscape. The railway along the northern shore runs from Geneva + past Nyon, Rolle, Morges, Ouchy (the port of Lausanne), Vevey and + Montreux to Villeneuve (56½ m.). That on the south shore gains the + edge of the lake at Thonon only (22¼ m. from Geneva), and then runs + past Evian and St Gingolph to Le Bouveret (20 m. from Thonon). In the + harbour of Geneva two erratic boulders of granite project above the + surface of the water, and are named _Pierres du Niton_ (supposed to be + altars to Neptune). The lower of the two, which is also the farthest + from the shore, has been taken as the basis of the triangulation of + Switzerland: the official height is 376.86 mètres, which in 1891 was + reduced to 373.54 mètres, though 376.6 mètres is now said to be the + real figure. Of course the heights given on the Swiss Government map + vary with these different estimates of the point taken as basis. + + For all matters relating to the lake, see Prof. F.A. Forel's + monumental work, _Le Léman_ (3 vols. Lausanne, 1892-1904); also (with + fine illustrations) G. Fatio and F. Boissonnas, _Autour du lac Léman_ + (Geneva, 1902). (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +GENEVIÈVE, or GENOVEFA, ST (c. 422-512), patroness of Paris, lived +during the latter half of the 5th century. According to tradition, she +was born about 422 at Nanterre near Paris; her parents were called +Severus and Gerontia, but accounts differ widely as to their social +position. According to the legend, she was only in her seventh year when +she was induced by St Germain, bishop of Auxerre, to dedicate herself to +the religious life. On the death of her parents she removed to Paris, +where she distinguished herself by her benevolence, as well as by her +austere life. She is said to have predicted the invasion of the Huns; +and when Attila with his army was threatening the city, she persuaded +the inhabitants to remain on the island and encouraged them by an +assurance, justified by subsequent events, that the attack would come to +nothing (451). She is also said to have had great influence over +Childeric, father of Clovis, and in 460 to have caused a church to be +built over the tomb of St Denis. Her death occurred about 512 and she +was buried in the church of the Holy Apostles, popularly known as the +church of St Geneviève. In 1793 the body was taken from the new church, +built in her honour by Louis XV., when it became the Panthéon, and burnt +on the Place de Grève; but the relics were enshrined in a chapel of the +neighbouring church of St Étienne du Mont, where they still attract +pilgrims; her festival is celebrated with great pomp on the 3rd of +January. The frescoes of the Panthéon by Puvis de Chavannes are based +upon the legend of the saint. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The main source is the anonymous _Vita s. Genovefae + virginis Parisiorum_, published in 1687 by D.P. Charpentier. The + genuineness of this life was attacked by B. Krusch (_Neues Archiv_, + 1893 and 1894) and defended by L. Duchesne, _Bibliothèque de l'École + des Chartes_ (1893), _Bulletin critique_ (1897), p. 473. Krusch + continued to hold that the life was an 8th-century forgery + (_Scriptores rer. Merov_. iii. 204-238). See A. Potthast, _Bibliotheca + medii aevi_ (1331, 1332), and G. Kurth, _Clovis_, ii. 249-254. The + legends and miracles are given in the Bollandists' _Acta Sanctorum_, + January 1st; there is a short sketch by Henri Lesetre, _Ste + Geneviève_, in "Les Saints" series (Paris, 1900). + + + + +GENEVIÈVE, GENOVEVA or GENOVEFA, OF BRABANT, heroine of medieval legend. +Her story is a typical example of the widespread tale of the chaste wife +falsely accused and repudiated, generally on the word of a rejected +suitor. Genovefa of Brabant was said to be the wife of the palatine +Siegfried of Treves, and was falsely accused by the majordomo Golo. +Sentenced to death she was spared by the executioner, and lived for six +years with her son in a cave in the Ardennes nourished by a roe. +Siegfried, who had meanwhile found out Golo's treachery, was chasing the +roe when he discovered her hiding-place, and reinstated her in her +former honour. Her story is said to rest on the history of Marie of +Brabant, wife of Louis II., duke of Bavaria, and count-palatine of the +Rhine, who was tried by her husband and beheaded on the 18th of January +1256, for supposed infidelity, a crime for which Louis afterwards had to +do penance. The change in name may have been due to the cult of St +Geneviève, patroness of Paris. The tale first obtained wide popularity +in _L'Innocence reconnue, ou vie de Sainte Geneviève de Brabant_ (pr. +1638) by the Jesuit René de Cérisier (1603-1662), and was a frequent +subject for dramatic representation in Germany. With Genovefa's history +may be compared the Scandinavian ballads of _Ravengaard og Memering_, +which exist in many recensions. These deal with the history of Gunild, +who married Henry, duke of Brunswick and Schleswig. When Duke Henry went +to the wars he left his wife in charge of Ravengaard, who accused her of +infidelity. Gunild is cleared by the victory of her champion Memering, +the "smallest of Christian men." The Scottish ballad of Sir Aldingar is +a version of the same story. The heroine Gunhilda is said to have been +the daughter of Canute the Great and Emma. She married in 1036 King +Henry, afterwards the emperor Henry III., and there was nothing in her +domestic history to warrant the legend, which is given as authentic +history by William of Malmesbury (_De gestis regum Anglorum_, lib. ii. § +188). She was called Cunigund after her marriage, and perhaps was +confused with St Cunigund, the wife of the emperor Henry II. In the +_Karlamagnus-saga_ the innocent wife is Oliva, sister of Charlemagne and +wife of King Hugo, and in the French Carolingian cycle the emperor's +wife Sibille (_La Reine Sibille_) or Blanchefleur (_Macaire_). Other +forms of the legend are to be found in the story of Doolin's mother in +_Doon de Mayence_, the English romance of _Sir Triamour_, in the story +of the mother of Octavian in _Octavian the Emperor_, in the German folk +book _Historie von der geduldigen Königin Crescentia_, based on a +12th-century poem to be found in the _Kaiserchronik_; and the English +_Erl of Toulouse_ (c. 1400). In the last-named romance it has been +suggested that the story gives the relations between Bernard I. count of +Toulouse, son of the Guillaume d'Orange of the Carolingian romances, and +the empress Judith, second wife of Louis the Pious. + + See F.J. Child, _English and Scottish Popular Ballads_, vol. ii. + (1886), art. "Sir Aldingar"; S. Grundtvig, _Danske Kaempeviser_ + (Copenhagen, 1867); "Sir Triamore," in _Bishop Percy's Folio MS._, ed. + Hales and Furnivall, vol. ii. (London, 1868); _The Romance of + Octavian_, ed. E.M. Goldsmid (Aungervyle Soc., Edinburgh, 1882); _The + Erl of Toulous and the Emperes of Almayn_, ed. G. Lüdtke (Berlin, + 1881); B. Seuffert, _Die Legende von der Pfalzgräfin Genovefa_ + (Würzburg, 1877); B. Golz, _Pfalzgräfin Genovefa in der deutschen + Dichtung_ (Leipzig, 1897); R. Köhler, "Die deutschen Volksbücher von + der Pfalzgräfin Genovefa," in _Zeitschr. für deutsche Philologie_ + (1874). + + + + +GENGA, GIROLAMO (c. 1476-1551), Italian painter and architect, was born +in Urbino about 1476. At the age of ten he was apprenticed to the +woollen trade, but showed so much inclination for drawing that he was +sent to study under an obscure painter, and at thirteen under Luca +Signorelli, with whom he remained a considerable while, frequently +painting the accessories of his pictures. He was afterwards for three +years with Pietro Perugino, in company with Raphael. He next worked in +Florence and Siena, along with Timoteo della Vite; and in the latter +city he painted various compositions for Pandolfo Petrucci, the leading +local statesman. Returning to Urbino, he was employed by Duke Guidobaldo +in the decorations of his palace, and showed extraordinary aptitude for +theatrical adornments. Thence he went to Rome; and in the church of S. +Caterina da Siena, in that capital, is one of his most distinguished +works, "The Resurrection," remarkable both for design and for colouring. +He studied the Roman antiquities with zeal, and measured a number of +edifices; this practice, combining with his previous mastery of +perspective, qualified him to shine as an architect. Francesco Maria +della Rovere, the reigning duke of Urbino, recalled Genga, and +commissioned him to execute works in connexion with his +marriage-festivities. This prince being soon afterwards expelled by Pope +Leo X., Genga followed him to Mantua, whence he went for a time to +Pesaro. The duke of Urbino was eventually restored to his dominions; he +took Genga with him, and appointed him the ducal architect. As he neared +the close of his career, Genga retired to a house in the vicinity of +Urbino, continuing still to produce designs in pencil; one, of the +"Conversion of St Paul," was particularly admired. Here he died on the +11th of July 1551. Genga was a sculptor and musician as well as painter +and architect. He was jovial, an excellent talker, and kindly to his +friends. His principal pupil was Francesco Menzocchi. His own son +Bartolommeo (1518-1558) became an architect of celebrity. In Genga's +paintings there is a great deal of freedom, and a certain peculiarity of +character consonant with his versatile, lively and social temperament. +One of his leading works is in the church of S. Agostino in Cesena--a +triptych in oil-colours, representing the "Annunciation," "God the +Father in Glory," and the "Madonna and Child." Among his architectural +labours are the church of San Giovanni Battista in Pesaro; the bishop's +palace at Sinigaglia; the façade of the cathedral of Mantua, ranking +high among the productions of the 16th century; and a new palace for the +duke of Urbino, built on the Monte Imperiale. He was also concerned in +the fortifications of Pesaro. + + + + +GENISTA, in botany, a genus of about eighty species of shrubs belonging +to the natural order Leguminosae, and natives of Europe, western Asia +and North Africa. Three are native in Britain. _G. anglica_ is the +needle-furze or petty whin, found on heaths and moist moors, a spinous +plant with slender spreading branches 1 to 2 ft. long, very small leaves +and short racemes of small yellow papilionaceous flowers. The pollen is +emitted in a shower when an insect alights on it. _G. tinctoria_, dyer's +green-weed, the flowers of which yield a yellow dye, has no spines. +Other species are grown on rock-work or as greenhouse plants. + + + + +GENIUS (from Lat. _genere_, _gignere_), a term which originally meant, +in Roman mythology, a generative and protecting spirit, who has no exact +parallel in Greek religion, and at least in his earlier aspect is of +purely Italian origin as one of the deities of family or household. +Every man has his genius, who is not his creator, but only comes into +being with him and is allotted to him at his birth. As a creative +principle the genius is restricted to man, his place being taken by a +Juno (cp. Juno Lucina, the goddess of childbirth) in the case of women. +The male and female spirit may thus be distinguished respectively as the +protector of generation and of parturition (_tutela generandi, +pariendi_), although the female appears less prominent. It is the genius +of the _paterfamilias_ that keeps the marriage bed, named after him +_lectus genialis_ and dedicated to him, under his special protection. +The genius of a man, as his higher intellectual self, accompanies him +from the cradle to the grave. In many ways he exercises a decisive +influence on the man's character and mode of life (Horace, _Epistles_, +ii. 2. 187). The responsibility for happiness or unhappiness, good or +bad fortune, lay with the genius; but this does not suppose the +existence of two genii for man, the one good and the other bad ([Greek: +agathodaimôn], [Greek: kakodaimôn]), an idea borrowed from the Greek +philosophers. The Roman genius, representing man's natural optimism, +always endeavoured to guide him to happiness; that man was intended to +enjoy life is shown by the fact that the Roman spoke of indulging or +cheating his genius of his due according as he enjoyed himself or failed +to do so, when he had the opportunity. A man's birthday was naturally a +suitable occasion for honouring his genius, and on that occasion +offerings of incense, wine, garlands, and cakes were made (Tibullus ii. +2; Ovid, _Tristia_, iii. 13. 18). As the representative of a man's +higher self and participating in a divine nature, the genius could be +sworn by, and a person could take an oath by his own or some one else's +genius. When under Greek influence the Roman idea of the gods became +more and more anthropomorphized, a genius was assigned to them, not +however as a distinct personality. Thus we hear of the genius of Jupiter +(Jovis Genio, _C.I.L._ i. 603), Mars, Juno, Pluto, Priapus. In a more +extended sense the genius is also the generator and preserver of human +society, as manifested in the family, corporate unions, the city, and +the state generally. Thus, the genius publicus Populi Romani--probably +distinct from the genius Urbis Romae, to whom an old shield on the +Capitol was dedicated, with an inscription expressing doubt as to the +sex (_Genio ... sive mas sive femina_)--stood in the forum near the +temple of Concord, in the form of a bearded man, crowned with a diadem, +and carrying a cornu copiae and sceptre. It frequently appears on the +coins of Trajan and Hadrian. Sacrifice, not confined to bloodless +offerings like those of the genius of the house, was offered to him +annually on the 8th of October. There were genii of cities, colonies, +and even of provinces; of artists, business people and craftsmen; of +cooks, gladiators, standard-bearers, a legion, a century, and of the +army generally (_genius sanctus castrorum peregrinorum totiusque +exercitus_). In imperial times the genius of Augustus and of the +reigning emperor, as part of the sacra of the imperial family, were +publicly worshipped. It was a common practice (often compulsory) to +swear by the genius of the emperor, and any one who swore falsely was +flogged. Localities also, such as theatres, baths, stables, streets, and +markets, had their own genius. The word thus gradually lost its original +meaning; the nameless local genii became an expression for the +universality of the _divinum numen_ and were sometimes identified with +the higher gods. The local genius was usually represented by a snake, +the symbol of the fruitfulness of the earth and of perpetual youth. +Hence snakes were usually kept in houses (Virgil, _Aen._ v. 95; Persius +i. 113), their death in which was considered a bad omen. The personal +genius usually appeared as a handsome youth in a toga, with head +sometimes veiled and sometimes bare, carrying a drinking cup and cornu +copiae, frequently in the position of one offering sacrifice. + + See W.H. Roscher, _Lexikon der Mythologie_, and article by J.A. Hild + in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire des antiquités_, where full + references to ancient and modern authorities are given; L. Preller, + _Römische Mythologie_, 3rd ed., by H. Jordan; G. Wissowa, _Religion + und Kultur der Römer_. + +Apart from the Latin use of the term, the plural "genii" (with a +singular "genie") is used in English, as equivalent to the Arabic +_jinn_, for a class of spirits, good or bad, such as are described, for +instance, in _The Arabian Nights_. But "genius" itself has become the +regular English word for the highest conceivable form of original +ability, something altogether extraordinary and beyond even supreme +educational prowess, and differing, in kind apparently, from "talent," +which is usually distinguished as marked intellectual capacity short +only of the inexplicable and unique endowment to which the term "genius" +is confined. The attempt, however, to define either quality, or to +discriminate accurately between them, has given rise to continual +controversy, and there is no agreement as to the nature of either; and +the commonly quoted definitions of genius--such as Carlyle's +"transcendant capacity of taking trouble, first of all,"[1] in which the +last three words are usually forgotten--are either admittedly incomplete +or are of the nature of epigrams. Nor can it be said that any +substantial light has been thrown on the matter by the modern +physiological school, Lombroso and others, who regard the eccentricity +of genius as its prime factor, and study it as a form of mental +derangement. The error here is partly in ignoring the history of the +word, and partly in misrepresenting the nature of the fact. There are +many cases, no doubt, in which persons really insane, of one type or +another, or with a history of physical degeneration or epilepsy, have +shown remarkable originality, which may be described as genius, but +there are at least just as many in whom no such physical abnormality can +be observed. The word "genius" itself however has only gradually been +used in English to express the degree of original greatness which is +beyond ordinary powers of explanation, i.e. far beyond the capacity of +the normal human being in creative work; and it is a convenient term +(like Nietzsche's "superman") for application to those rare individuals +who in the course of evolution reveal from time to time the heights to +which humanity may develop, in literature, art, science, or +administrative life. The English usage was originally derived, naturally +enough, from the Roman ideas contained in the term (with the analogy of +the Greek [Greek: daimôn]), and in the 16th and 17th centuries we find +it equivalent simply to "distinctive character or spirit," a meaning +still commonly given to the word. The more modern sense is not even +mentioned in Johnson's _Dictionary_, and represents an 18th-century +development, primarily due to the influence of German writers; the +meaning of "distinctive natural capacity or endowment" had gradually +been applied specially to creative minds such as those of poets and +artists, by contrast with those whose mental ability was due to the +results of education and study, and the antithesis has extended since, +through constant discussions over the attempt to differentiate between +the real nature of genius and that of "talent," until we now speak of +the exceptional person not merely as having genius but as "a genius." +This phraseology appears to indicate some reversion to the original +Roman usage, and the identification of the great man with a generative +spirit. + + Modern theories on the nature of "genius" should be studied with + considerable detachment, but there is much that is interesting and + thought-provoking in such works as J.F. Nisbet's _Insanity of Genius_ + (1891), Sir Francis Galton's _Hereditary Genius_ (new ed., 1892), and + C. Lombroso's _Man of Genius_ (Eng. trans., 1891). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] _Frederick the Great_, iv. iii. 1407. + + + + +GENUS, STÉPHANIE-FÉLICITÉ DU CREST DE SAINT-AUBIN, COMTESSE DE +(1746-1830), French writer and educator, was born of a noble but +impoverished Burgundian family, at Champcéry, near Autun, on the 25th of +January 1746. When six years of age she was received as a canoness into +the noble chapter of Alix, near Lyons, with the title of Madame la +Comtesse de Lancy, taken from the town of Bourbon-Lancy. Her entire +education, however, was conducted at home. In 1758, in Paris, her skill +as a harpist and her vivacious wit speedily attracted admiration. In her +sixteenth year she was married to Charles Brûlart de Genlis, a colonel +of grenadiers, who afterwards became marquis de Sillery, but this was +not allowed to interfere with her determination to remedy her incomplete +education, and to satisfy a taste for acquiring and imparting knowledge. +Some years later, through the influence of her aunt, Madame de +Montesson, who had been clandestinely married to the duke of Orleans, +she entered the Palais Royal as lady-in-waiting to the duchess of +Chartres (1770). She acted with great energy and zeal as governess to +the daughters of the family, and was in 1781 appointed by the duke of +Chartres to the responsible office of _gouverneur_ of his sons, a bold +step which led to the resignation of all the tutors as well as to much +social scandal, though there is no reason to suppose that the +intellectual interests of her pupils suffered on that account. The +better to carry out her ingenious theories of education, she wrote +several works for their use, the best known of which are the _Théâtre +d'éducation_ (4 vols., 1779-1780), a collection of short comedies for +young people, _Les Annales de la vertu_ (2 vols., 1781) and _Adèle et +Théodore_ (3 vols., 1782). Sainte-Beuve tells how she anticipated many +modern methods of teaching. History was taught with the help of magic +lantern slides and her pupils learnt botany from a practical botanist +during their walks. In 1789 Madame de Genlis showed herself favourable +to the Revolution, but the fall of the Girondins in 1793 compelled her +to take refuge in Switzerland along with her pupil Mademoiselle +d'Orléans. In this year her husband, the marquis de Sillery, from whom +she had been separated since 1782, was guillotined. An "adopted" +daughter, Pamela,[1] had been married to Lord Edward Fitzgerald (q.v.) +in the preceding December. + +In 1794 Madame de Genlis fixed her residence at Berlin, but, having been +expelled by the orders of King Frederick William, she afterwards settled +in Hamburg, where she supported herself for some years by writing and +painting. After the revolution of 18th Brumaire (1799) she was permitted +to return to France, and was received with favour by Napoleon, who gave +her apartments at the arsenal, and afterwards assigned her a pension of +6000 francs. During this period she wrote largely, and produced, in +addition to some historical novels, her best romance, _Mademoiselle de +Clermont_ (1802). Madame de Genlis had lost her influence over her old +pupil Louis Philippe, who visited her but seldom, although he allowed +her a small pension. Her government pension was discontinued by Louis +XVIII., and she supported herself largely by her pen. Her later years +were occupied largely with literary quarrels, notably with that which +arose out of the publication of the _Dîners du Baron d'Holbach_ (1822), +a volume in which she set forth with a good deal of sarcastic cleverness +the intolerance, the fanaticism, and the eccentricities of the +"philosophes" of the 18th century. She survived until the 31st of +December 1830, and saw her former pupil, Louis Philippe, seated on the +throne of France. + + The numerous works of Madame de Genlis (which considerably exceed + eighty), comprising prose and poetical compositions on a vast variety + of subjects and of various degrees of merit, owed much of their + success to adventitious causes which have long ceased to operate. They + are useful, however (especially the voluminous _Mémoires inédits sur + le XVIII^e siècle_, 10 vols., 1825), as furnishing material for + history. Most of her writings were translated into English almost as + soon as they were published. A list of her writings with useful notes + is given by Quérard in _La France littéraire_. Startling light was + thrown on her relations with the duc de Chartres by the publication + (1904) of her correspondence with him in _L'Idylle d'un "gouverneur"_ + by G. Maugras. See also Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, vol. iii.; + H. Austin Dobson, _Four Frenchwomen_ (1890); L. Chabaud, _Les + Précurseurs du féminisme_ (1901); W. de Chabreul, _Gouverneur de + princes, 1737-1830_ (1900); and _Lettres inédites à ... Casimir + Baecker, 1802-1830_ (1902), edited by Henry Lapauze. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] See Gerald Campbell, _Edward and Pamela Fitzgerald_ (1905). + + + + +GENNA, a word of obscure origin borrowed from the Assamese, and used +technically by anthropologists to describe a class of social and +religious ordinances based on sanctions which derive their validity from +a vague sense of mysterious danger which results from disobedience to +them. These prohibitions--or system of things forbidden--affect the +relations, permanent and temporary, of individuals (either as members of +a tribe, village, clan or household, or as occupying an official +position in the village or clan) towards other persons or groups of +persons and towards material objects which possess intrinsic sanctity. +The term is extended to the communal rites performed by the village, +clan or household, either as magical ceremonies or as prophylactics on +special occasions when the social, commensal, conjugal and alimentary +relations of the group affected are subjected to temporary +modifications. These practices and beliefs are observed among the hill +tribes of Assam from the Abors and Mishmis on the north to the Lusheis +on the south, all linguistically members of the Tibeto-Burman group, +and among the Khasis, members of the Mon-Khmer group. Genna and taboo +(q.v.) are products of an identical level of culture and similar +psychological processes, and provide the mechanism of the social and +religious systems. + +_Permanent Gennas._--The only universal _genna_ is that which forbids +the intermarriage of members of the same clan. In some cases in Manipur +animals are _genna_ to the tribe--i.e. they must not be killed or +eaten--but tribal differentiation is, in practice, based on dialectical +distinctions rather than on tribal _gennas_. The village as such +possesses no permanent _gennas_, but the clans, as the units of marriage +under the law of exogamy, have distinct elementary _gennas_, especially +the clan to which the priest-chief belongs. The most important +individual _gennas_ are those which protect the priest-chief from +impurity or contact with "sacred" substances such as the flesh of +animals used in sacrifices. He may neither eat in a strange house, nor +utter words of abuse, nor take an oath in a dispute, except in his +representative capacity on behalf of his village. The first-fruits are +_genna_ to the village until he eats, thus establishing an opposition +between him and his co-villagers. Married and unmarried women are +subject to alimentary _gennas_; thus unmarried girls are forbidden the +flesh of any male animal or of any female animal dying gravid. + +_Ritual Gennas._--Ritual _gennas_ are held annually to foster the rice +crops, all other industries and activities being _genna_ (forbidden) +during the cultivating season, to secure good hunting, to avert +sickness, especially epidemics, to take omens, and to lay finally to +rest the ghosts of all that have died within the year. The village gates +are closed, men and women eat apart, and conjugal relations are +suspended. Special village _gennas_ are held when rain is needed, when a +villager dies in any manner out of the ordinary, as women in childbirth, +when an animal gives birth to still-born offspring, and when any +permanent genna has been violated. Clan _gennas_ are held for all +ordinary cases of death. Household _gennas_ are held on the occasions of +birth (when the aliment and conduct of the father are specially +regulated), naming, ear-piercing, the first hair-cutting, sickness, and, +in certain areas, tattooing. Individuals are subjected to temporary +_gennas_ as warriors both before and after a head-hunting raid, pregnant +women, married persons at the beginning of their married life, the wives +of the priest-chief, and those who from ambition or pride of wealth seek +to perpetuate their names by erecting a stone monument, an act which +confers the right to wear the distinctive clothes of the priest-chief +which otherwise are _genna_ to the whole village. Ritual _gennas_ are of +varying duration. Some last for a month while others are complete in two +days. As religious or magical rites, they prevent danger or establish +and restore normal relations with powers which are potentially harmful +or require placation. + + AUTHORITIES.--Official records of the government of India, Nos. 23 + (1855), 27 (1859), 68 (1870); Colonel T.H. Lewin, _Hill Tracts of + Chittagong; Report on the Census of Assam_ (1891), vol. i. Report, + note by A.W. Davis, p. 237 seq.; Major P.R.T. Gurdon, _The Khasis_ + (1907); T.C. Hodson, _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, + vol. xxxvi. (1906). (T. C. H.) + + + + +GENNADIUS II. [as layman GEORGIOS SCHOLARIOS] (d. c. 1468), patriarch of +Constantinople from 1454 to 1456, philosopher and theologian, was one of +the last representatives of Byzantine learning. Extremely little is +known of his life, but he appears to have been born at Constantinople +about 1400 and to have entered the service of the emperor John VII. +Paleologus as imperial judge or counsellor. Georgios first appears +conspicuously in history as present at the great council held in 1438 at +Ferrara and Florence with the object of bringing about a union between +the Greek and Latin Churches. At the same council was present the +celebrated Platonist, Gemistus Pletho, the most powerful opponent of the +then dominant Aristotelianism, and consequently the special object of +reprobation to Georgios. In church matters, as in philosophy, the two +were opposed,--Pletho maintaining strongly the principles of the Greek +Church, and being unwilling to accept union through compromise, while +Georgios, more politic and cautious, pressed the necessity for union and +was instrumental in drawing up a form which from its vagueness and +ambiguity might be accepted by both parties. He was at a disadvantage +because, being a layman, he could not directly take part in the +discussions of the council. But on his return to Greece his views +changed, and he violently and obstinately opposed the union he had +previously urged. In 1448 he became a monk at Pantokrator and took the +name Gennadius. In 1453, after the capture of Constantinople by the +Turks, Mahommed II., finding that the patriarchal chair had been vacant +for some time, resolved to elect some one to the office, and the choice +fell on Gennadius. While holding the episcopal office Gennadius drew up, +apparently for the use of Mahommed, a lucid confession or exposition of +the Christian faith, which was translated into Turkish by Ahmed, judge +of Beroea, and first printed by A. Brassicanus at Vienna in 1530. After +a couple of years Gennadius found the position of patriarch under a +Turkish sultan so irksome that he retired to the monastery of John the +Baptist near Serrae in Macedonia, where he died about 1468. About one +hundred of his alleged writings exist, the majority in manuscript and of +doubtful authenticity. + + The fullest account of his writings is given in Gass, _Gennadius and + Pletho_ (Berlin, 1844), the second part of which contains Pletho's + _Contra Gennadium_. See also F. Schultze, _Gesch. der Phil. d. + Renaissance_, i. (1874). A list of the known writings of Gennadius is + given in Fabricius, _Bibliotheca Graeca_, ed. Harles, vol. xi., and + what has been printed is to be found in Migne, _Patrol. Gr._ vol. clx. + + + + +GENOA (anc. _Genua_, Ital. _Genova_, Fr. _Gênes_), the chief port of +Liguria, Italy, and capital of the province of Genoa, 119 m. N.W. of +Leghorn by rail. Pop. (1906) 255,294 (town); 267,248 (commune). The town +is situated on the Gulf of Genoa, and is the chief port and commercial +town of Italy, the seat of an archbishop and a university, the +headquarters of the IV. Italian army corps, and a strong fortress. The +city, as seen from the sea, is "built nobly," and deserves the title it +has acquired or assumed of the Superb. Finding only a small space of +level ground along the shore, it has been obliged to climb the lower +hills of the Ligurian Alps, which afford many a coign of vantage for the +effective display of its architectural magnificence. The original +nucleus of the city is that portion which lies to the east of the port +in the neighbourhood of the old pier (Molo Vecchio). In the 10th century +it began to feel a lack of room within the limits of its fortifications; +and accordingly, in the middle of the 12th century, it was found +necessary to extend the line of circumvallation. Even this second +circuit, however, was of small compass, and it was not till 1320-1330 +that a third line took in the greater part of the modern site of the +city proper. This presented about 3 m. of rampart towards the land side, +and can still be easily traced from point to point through the city, +though large portions, especially towards the east, have been +dismantled. The present line of circumvallation dates from 1626-1632, +the period when the independence of Genoa was threatened by the dukes of +Savoy. From the mouth of the Bisagno in the east, and from the +lighthouse point in the west, it stretches inland over hill and dale to +the great fort of Sperone, i.e. the Spur, on the summits of Monte +Peraldo at a height of 1650 ft.,--the circuit being little less than 12 +m., and all the important points along the line being defended by forts +or batteries. + +A portion of the enclosed area is open country, dotted only here and +there with houses and gardens. There are eight gates, the more important +being Porta Pila and Porta Romana towards the east, and the Porta +Lanterna or Lighthouse Gate to the west. The main architectural features +of Genoa are its medieval churches, with striped façades of black and +white marble, and its magnificent 16th-century palaces. The earlier +churches of Genoa show a mixture of French Romanesque and the Pisan +style--they are mostly basilicas with transepts, and as a rule a small +dome; the pillars are sometimes ancient columns, and sometimes formed of +alternate layers of black and white marble. The façades are simple, +without galleries, having only pilasters projecting from the wall, and +are also alternately black and white. This style continued in Gothic +times also. The oldest is S. Maria di Castello (11th century), the +columns and capitals of which are almost all antique. S. Cosma, S. +Donato (with remains of the 10th-century building) and others belong to +the 12th century, and S. Giovanni di Prè, S. Agostino (with a fine +campanile), S. Stefano, S. Matteo and others to the 13th. The famous +painting of the martyrdom of S. Stephen, by Giulio Romano, carried off +by Napoleon in 1811, was restored to S. Stefano in 1815. S. Matteo, the +church of the D'Oria or Doria family, was founded in 1126 by Martino +Doria. The façade dates from 1278, and the interior of the edifice dates +in the main from 1543. In the crypt is the tomb of Andrea Doria by +Montorsoli, and above the main altar hangs the dagger presented to the +doge by Pope Paul III. To the left of the church is an exquisite +cloister of 1308 with double columns, in which a number of inscriptions +relating to the Doria family and also the statue of Andrea Doria by +Montorsoli are preserved. The little square in front of the church is +surrounded by Gothic palaces of the Doria family. Of the churches the +principal is the comparatively small cathedral of S. Lorenzo. Tradition +makes its first foundation contemporary with St Lawrence himself; and a +document of 987 implies that it was even then the metropolitan church. +Reconstructed about the end of the 11th and beginning of the 12th +century, it was formally consecrated by Pope Gelasius II. on the 18th of +October 1118; and since then it has undergone a large number of +extensive though partial renovations. The façade, with its three +elaborate doorways, belongs to the 14th century and is a copy of French +models of the 13th. The two side portals with Romanesque sculptures +belong to the 12th-14th centuries. Some pagan reliefs are built into the +tower. The interior was rebuilt in 1307, the old columns being used. The +belfry, which rises above the right-hand doorway, was erected about 1520 +by the doge, Ottaviano da Campofragoso, and the cupola was erected after +the designs of the architect Galeazzo Alessi in 1567. The fine Early +Renaissance (1448) sculptural decorations of the chapel of S. John the +Baptist were due to Domenico Gagini of Bissone on the Lake of Lugano, +who later transferred his activities to Naples and Palermo, and other +Lombard masters. An edict of Innocent VIII. forbids women to enter the +chapel except on one day in the year. In the treasury of the cathedral +is a magnificent silver monstrance dating from 1553, and an octagonal +bowl, the Sacro Catino, brought from Caesarea in 1101, which corresponds +to the descriptions given of the Holy Grail, and was long regarded as an +emerald of matchless value, but was found when broken at Paris, whither +it had been carried by Napoleon I., to be only a remarkable piece of +ancient glass. The choir-stalls are a very fine work of the 15th century +and later, with intarsias. Near the cathedral is a small 12th-century +(?) cloister. + +Of older date than the cathedral is the church of S. Ambrose and S. +Andrew, if its first foundation be correctly assigned to the Milanese +bishop Honoratus of the 6th century; but the present edifice is due to +the Society of Jesus, who obtained possession of the church in 1587. The +interior is richly decorated and contains the "Circumcision" and "St +Ignatius" by Rubens, and the "Assumption" of Guido Reni. The Annunziata +del Guastato is one of the largest churches in the city, erected in +1587. It is a cruciform structure, with a dome, and the central nave is +supported by fourteen Corinthian columns of white marble. To the +otherwise unfinished brick façade a portal borne by marble columns was +added in 1843. The interior is covered with gilding and frescoes of the +17th century, and is somewhat overloaded with rich decoration, while a +range of white marble columns supports the nave. Santa Maria delle Vigne +probably dates from the 9th century, but the present structure was +erected in 1586. The campanile, however, is a remarkable work of the +13th century. Adjoining the church is a ruined cloister of the 11th +century. San Siro, originally the "Church of the Apostles" and the +cathedral of Genoa, was rebuilt by the Benedictines in the 11th century, +and restored and enlarged by the Theatines in 1576, the façade being +added in 1830; in this church in 1339 Simone Boccanera was elected first +doge of Genoa. Santa Maria di Carignano, or more correctly Santa Maria +Assunta e SS. Fabiano e Sebastiano, belongs mainly to the 16th century, +and was designed by Galeazzo Alessi, in imitation of Bramante's plan for +S. Peter's at Rome, as it was then being executed by Michelangelo. The +interior is fine, harmonious and restrained, painted in white and grey, +while the colouring of the exterior is less pleasing. From the highest +gallery of the dome--368 ft. above the sea-level, and 194 ft. above the +ground--a magnificent view is obtained of the city and the neighbouring +coast. + +Buildings of the 15th century do not occupy an important place in Genoa, +but there are some small private houses and remains of sculptural +decoration of the Early Renaissance to be seen in the older portions of +the town. The palaces of the Genoese patricians, famous for their +sumptuous architecture, their general effectiveness (though the +architectural details are often faulty if closely examined), and their +artistic collections, were many of them built in the latter part of the +16th century by Galeazzo Alessi, a pupil of Michelangelo, whose style is +of an imposing and uniform character and displays marvellous ingenuity +in using a limited or unfavourable site to the greatest advantage. +Several of the villas in the vicinity of the city are also his work. The +Via Garibaldi is flanked by a succession of magnificent palaces, chief +among which is the Palazzo Rosso, so called from its red colour. +Formerly the palace of the Brignole-Sale family, it was presented by the +duchess of Galliera to the city in 1874, along with its valuable +contents, its library and picture gallery, which includes fine examples +of Van Dyck and Paris Bordone. The Palazzo Municipale, built by Rocco +Lurago at the end of the 16th century, once the property of the dukes of +Turin, has a beautiful entrance court and a hanging terraced garden +fronting a noble staircase of marble which leads to the spacious council +chamber. In an adjoining room are preserved a bronze tablet dating from +117 B.C. (see below), two autograph letters of Columbus, and the violin +of Paganini, also a native of Genoa. Opposite the Palazzo Rosso is the +Palazzo Bianco, a palace full of art treasures bequeathed to the city by +the duchess of Galliera upon her death in 1889, and subsequently +converted into a museum. The Roman antiquities here preserved belong to +other places--Luna, Libarna, &c. The Adorno, Giorgio Doria (both +containing small but choice picture-galleries), Parodi and Serra and +other palaces in this street are worthy of mention. The Via Balbi again +contains a number of palaces. The Durazzo Pallavicini palace has a noble +façade and staircase and a rich picture-gallery. The street takes its +name, however, from the Palazzo Balbi-Senarega, which has Doric +colonnades and a fine orangery. The Palazzo dell' Università has an +extremely fine court and staircase of the early 17th century. The +Palazzo Reale is also handsome but somewhat later. The Palazzo Doria in +the Piazza del Principe, presented to Andrea Doria by the Genoese in +1522, is on the other hand earlier; it was remodelled in 1529 by +Montorsoli and decorated with fine frescoes by Perino del Vaga. The old +palace of the doges, originally a building of the 13th century, to which +the tower alone belongs, the rest of the building having been remodelled +in the 16th century and modernized after a fire in 1777, stands in the +Piazza Umberto Primo near the cathedral, and now contains the telegraph +and other government offices. Another very fine building is the Gothic +Palazzo di S. Giorgio, near the harbour, dating from about 1260, +occupied from 1408 to 1797 by the Banca di S. Giorgio, and now converted +into a produce exchange. The Campo Santo or Cimitero di Staglieno, about +1½ m. from the city on the banks of the Bisagno, is one of the chief +features of Genoa; its situation is of great natural beauty and it is +remarkable for its sepulchral monuments, many of which have been +executed by the foremost sculptors of modern Italy. The university, +founded in 1471, is a flourishing institution with faculties in law, +medicine, natural science, engineering and philosophy. Attached to it +are a library, an observatory, a botanical garden, and a physical and +natural history museum. Genoa is also well supplied with technical +schools and other institutions for higher education, while ample +provision is made for primary education. The hospitals and the asylum +for the poor are among the finest institutions of their kind in Italy. +Mention must also be made of the Academy of Fine Arts, the municipal +library, the great Teatro Carlo Felice and the Verdi Institute of Music. + + +The irregular relief of its site and its long confinement within the +limits of fortifications, which it had outgrown, have both contributed +to render Genoa a picturesque confusion of narrow streets, lanes and +alleys, varied with stairways climbing the steeper slopes and bridges +spanning the deeper valleys. Large portions of the town are inaccessible +to ordinary carriages, and many of the important streets have very +little room for traffic. In modern times, however, a number of fine +streets and squares with beautiful gardens have been laid out. The +Piazza Ferrari, a large irregular space, is the chief focus of traffic +and the centre of the Genoese tramway system; it is embellished with a +fine equestrian statue of Garibaldi, unveiled in 1893, which stands in +front of the Teatro Carlo Felice. Leading from this piazza is the Via +Venti Settembre, a broad, handsome street laid out since 1887, leading +south-east to the Ponte Pila, the central bridge over the Bisagno. The +street is itself spanned by an elegant bridge carrying the Corso Andrea +Podesta, a modern avenue on the heights above. Adjoining the church of +the Madonna della Consolazione is the new market, a building of no +little beauty. The Via Roma, another important centre of traffic which +gives on to the Via Carlo Felice near the Piazza Ferrari, leads to the +Piazza Corvetto, in the centre of which stands the colossal equestrian +statue of Victor Emmanuel II. To the left is the Villetta Dinegro, a +beautiful park belonging to the city, decorated with cascades and a +number of statues and busts of prominent statesmen and citizens. To the +right is another park, the Acquasola, laid out in 1837 on the site of +the old ramparts. In the west of the city, in front of the principal +station, is the Piazza Acquaverde. On the north side, embowered in palm +trees, is a great statue of Columbus, at whose feet kneels the figure of +America. Opposite is the Palazzo Faraggiana, with scenes from the life +of Columbus in relief on its marble pediment. Among other modern +thoroughfares, the Via di Circonvallazione a Monte, laid out since 1876 +on the hills at the back of the town, leads by many curves from the +Piazza Manin along the hill-tops westward, and finally descends into the +Piazza Acquaverde; its entire length is traversed by an electric +tramway, and it commands magnificent views of the town. A similar road, +the Via di Circonvallazione a Mare, was laid out in 1893-1895 on the +site of the outer ramparts, and skirts the sea-front from the Piazza +Cavour to the mouth of the Bisagno, thence ascending the right bank to +the Ponte Pila. Genoa is remarkably well served with electric tramways, +which are found in all the wider streets, and run, often through +tunnels, into the suburbs and to the surrounding country on the east as +far as Nervi and to Pegli oh the west. Three funicular railways from +different points of the city give access to the highest parts of the +hills behind the town. + + Though its existence as a maritime power was originally due to its + port, it is only since 1870 that Genoa has provided the conveniences + necessary for the modern development of its trade, the duke of + Galliera's gift of £800,000 to the city in 1875 being devoted to this + purpose. A further enlargement of the harbour was necessitated upon + the opening of the St Gotthard tunnel in 1882, which extended the + commercial range of the port through Switzerland into Germany. The old + harbour is semi-circular in shape, 232 acres in area, with numerous + quays, and protected by moles from southern and south-westerly winds. + An outer harbour, 247 acres in area, has been constructed in front of + this by extending the Molo Nuovo by the Molo Duca di Galliera, and + another basin, the Vittorio Emanuele III., for coal vessels, with an + area of 96 acres, is in course of construction to the west of this, + between it and the lofty lighthouse which rises on the promontory at + the south-west extremity of the harbour. This basin is to be entered + from both the east and the west, and allows for a future extension in + front of San Pier d'Arena as far as the mouth of the river Polcevera. + The port administration was placed under an autonomous harbour board + (_consorzio_) in 1903. The largest ships can enter the harbour, which + has a minimum depth of 30 ft.; it has two dry docks, a graving dock + and a floating dry dock. Very large warehouses have been constructed. + The exports are olive oil, hemp, flax, rice, fruit, wine, hats, + cheese, steel, velvets, gloves, flour, paper, soap and marble, while + the main imports are coal, cotton, grain, machinery, &c. Genoa has a + large emigrant traffic with America, and a large general passenger + steamer traffic both for America and for the East. + + The development of industry has kept pace with that of the harbour. + The Ansaldo shipbuilding yards construct armoured cruisers both for + the Italian navy and for foreign governments, The Odero yards, for + the construction of merchant and passenger steamers, have been + similarly extended, and the Foce yard is also important. A number of + foundries and metallurgical works supply material for repairs and + shipbuilding. The sugar-refining industry has been introduced by two + important companies, and most of the capital employed in + sugar-refining in other parts of Italy has been subscribed at Genoa, + where the administrative offices of the principal companies and + individual refiners are situated. The old industries of macaroni and + cognate products maintain their superiority. Tanneries and + cotton-spinning and weaving mills have considerably extended + throughout the province. Cement works have acquired an extension + previously unknown, more than thirty firms being now engaged in that + branch of industry. The manufactures of crystallized fruits and of + filigree silver-work may also be mentioned. The trade of the port + increased from well under 1,000,000 tons in 1876 to 6,164,873 metric + tons in 1906 (the latter figure, however, includes home trade in a + proportion of about 12%). Of this large total 5,365,544 tons are + imports and only 799,319 tons are exports, and, comparing 1906 with + 1905, we have a decrease of 34,355 tons on the exports, and an + increase of 436,123 tons on the imports. The effect upon the railway + problem is of course very great, inasmuch as, while the supply of + trucks required per day in 1906 was from 1000 to 1200, about 80% of + these had to be sent down empty to the harbour. Of the four main lines + which centre on Genoa--(1) to Novi, which is the junction for + Alessandria, where lines diverge to Turin and France via the Mont + Cenis, and to Novara and Switzerland and France via the Simplon, and + for Milan; (2) to Acqui and Piedmont; (3) to Savona, Ventimiglia and + the French Riviera, along the coast; (4) to Spezia and Pisa--the first + line has to take no less than 78% of the traffic. It has indeed two + alternative double lines for the passage over the Apennines, but one + of them has a maximum gradient of 1 : 18 and a tunnel over 2 m. long, + and the other has a maximum gradient of 1 : 62, and a tunnel over 5 m. + long. A marshalling station costing some £800,000, connected directly + with the harbour by tunnels, with 31 m. of rails, capable of taking + 2000 trucks, was constructed at Campasso in 1906 north of San Pier + d'Arena (through which till then the traffic of the first three lines, + representing 95% of the total, had to pass). It is computed that some + 40% of the total commerce of Italy passes through Genoa; it is indeed + the most important harbour in the western Mediterranean, with the + exception of Marseilles, with which it carries on a keen rivalry. + Genoa has in the past been somewhat handicapped in the race by the + insufficiency of railway communication, which, owing to the mountains + which encircle it, is difficult to secure, many tunnels being + necessary. The general condition of the Italian railways has also + affected it, and the increased traffic has not always found the + necessary facilities in the way of a proper amount of trucks to + receive the goods discharged, leading to considerable encumbrance of + the port and consequent diversion of a certain amount of trade + elsewhere, and besides this to serious temporary deficiencies in the + coal supply of northern Italy. + + The imports of Genoa are divided into four main classes: about 50% of + the total weight is coal, grain about 12%, cotton about 6%, and + miscellaneous about 34%. Of the coal imports the great bulk is from + British ports: about half comes from Cardiff and Barry, one-tenth from + other Welsh ports, one-fifth from the Tyne ports. The amount shows an + almost continued increase from 617,798 tons in 1881 to 2,737,919 in + 1906. The total of shipping entered in 1906 was 6586 vessels with a + tonnage of 6,867,442, while that cleared was 6611 vessels with a + tonnage of 6,682,104. + +_History._--Genoa, being a natural harbour of the first rank, must have +been in use as a seaport as early as navigation began in the Tyrrhenian +Sea. We hear nothing from ancient authorities of its having been visited +or occupied by the Greeks, but the discovery of a Greek cemetery of the +4th century B.C.[1] proves it. The construction of the Via Venti +Settembre gave occasion for the discovery of a number of tombs, 85 in +all, the bulk of which dated from the end of the 5th and the 4th +centuries B.C. The bodies had in all cases been cremated, and were +buried in small shaft graves, the interment itself being covered by a +slab of limestone. The vases were of the last red figure style, and were +mostly imported from Greece or Magna Graecia, while the bronze objects +came from Etruria, and the brooches (_fibulae_) from Gaul. This +illustrates the early importance of Genoa as a trading port, and the +penetration of Greek customs, inhumation being the usual practice of the +Ligurians. Genoa is believed to derive its name from the fact that the +shape of this portion of the coast resembles that of a knee (_genu_). + +We hear of the Romans touching here in 216 B.C., and of its destruction +by the Carthaginians in 209 B.C. and immediate restoration by the +Romans, who made it and Placentia their headquarters against the +Ligurians. It was reached from Rome by the Via Aurelia, which ran along +the north-west coast, and its prolongation, which later acquired the +name of the Via Aemilia (Scauri); for the latter was only constructed in +109 B.C., and there must have been a coast-road long before, at least as +early as 148 B.C., when the Via Postumia was built from Genua through +Libarna (mod. Serravalle, where remains of an amphitheatre and +inscriptions have been found), Dertona, Iria, Placentia, Cremona, and +thence eastwards. We also have an inscription of 117 B.C. (now preserved +in the Palazzo Municipale at Genoa) giving the text of the decision +given by the _patroni_, Q. and M. Minucius, of Genua, in accordance with +a decree of the Roman senate, in a controversy between the people of +Genua and the Langenses or Langates (also known as the Viturii), the +inhabitants of a neighbouring hill-town, which was included in the +territory of Genua. But none of the other inscriptions found in Genoa or +existing there at the present day, which are practically all sepulchral, +can be demonstrated to have belonged to the ancient city; it is equally +easy to suppose that they were brought from elsewhere by sea (Mommsen in +_Corp. Inscr. Lat._ v. p. 884). It is only from inscriptions of other +places that we know that it had municipal rights, and we do not know at +what period it obtained them. Classical authors tell us but little of +it. Strabo (iv. 6. 2, p. 202) states that it exported wood, skins and +honey, and imported olive oil and wine, though Pliny speaks of the wine +of the district as the best of Liguria (_H.N._ xiv. 67.) + +The history of Genoa during the dark ages, throughout the Lombard and +Carolingian periods, is but the repetition of the general history of the +Italian communes, which succeeded in snatching from contending princes +and barons the first charters of their freedom. The patriotic spirit and +naval prowess of the Genoese, developed in their defensive wars against +the Saracens, led to the foundation of a popular constitution, and to +the rapid growth of a powerful marine. From the necessity of leaguing +together against the common Saracen foe, Genoa united with Pisa early in +the 11th century in expelling the Moslems from the island of Sardinia, +but the Sardinian territory thus acquired soon furnished occasions of +jealousy to the conquering allies, and there commenced between the two +republics the long naval wars destined to terminate so fatally for Pisa. +With not less adroitness than Venice, Genoa saw and secured all the +advantages of the great carrying trade which the crusades created +between Western Europe and the East. The seaports wrested at the same +period from the Saracens along the Spanish and Barbary coasts became +important Genoese colonies, whilst in the Levant, on the shores of the +Black Sea, and along the banks of the Euphrates were erected Genoese +fortresses of great strength. No wonder if these conquests generated in +the minds of the Venetians and the Pisans fresh jealousy against Genoa, +and provoked fresh wars; but the struggle between Genoa and Pisa was +brought to a disastrous conclusion for the latter state by the battle of +Meloria in 1284. + +The commercial and naval successes of the Genoese during the middle ages +were the more remarkable because, unlike their rivals, the Venetians, +they were the unceasing prey to intestine discord--the Genoese commons +and nobles fighting against each other, rival factions amongst the +nobles themselves striving to grasp the supreme power in the state, +nobles and commons alike invoking the arbitration and rule of some +foreign captain as the sole means of obtaining a temporary truce. From +these contests of rival nobles, in which the names of Spinola and Doria +stand forth with greatest prominence, Genoa was soon drawn into the +great vortex of the Guelph and Ghibelline factions; but its recognition +of foreign authority--successively German, Neapolitan and Milanese--gave +way to a state of greater independence in 1339, when the government +assumed a more permanent form with the appointment of the first doge, an +office held at Genoa for life, in the person of Simone Boccanera. +Alternate victories and defeats of the Venetians and Genoese--the most +terrible being the defeat sustained by the Venetians at Chioggia in +1380--ended by establishing the great relative inferiority of the +Genoese rulers, who fell under the power now of France, now of the +Visconti of Milan. The Banca di S. Giorgio, with its large possessions, +mainly in Corsica, formed during this period the most stable element in +the state, until in 1528 the national spirit appeared to regain its +ancient vigour when Andrea Doria succeeded in throwing off the French +domination and restoring the old form of government. It was at this very +period--the close of the 15th and commencement of the 16th century--that +the genius and daring of a Genoese mariner, Christopher Columbus, gave +to Spain that new world, which might have become the possession of his +native state, had Genoa been able to supply him with the ships and +seamen which he so earnestly entreated her to furnish. The government as +restored by Andrea Doria, with certain modifications tending to impart +to it a more conservative character, remained unchanged until the +outbreak of the French Revolution and the creation of the Ligurian +republic. During this long period of nearly three centuries, in which +the most dramatic incident is the conspiracy of Fieschi, the Genoese +found no small compensation for their lost traffic in the East in the +vast profits which they made as the bankers of the Spanish crown and +outfitters of the Spanish armies and fleets both in the old world and +the new, and Genoa, more fortunate than many of the other cities of +Italy, was comparatively immune from foreign domination. + +At the end of the 17th century the city was bombarded by the French, and +in 1746, after the defeat of Piacenza, surrendered to the Austrians, who +were, however, soon driven out. A revolt in Corsica, which began in +1729, was suppressed with the help of the French, who in 1768 took +possession of the island for themselves (see CORSICA: _History_). + +The short-lived Ligurian republic was soon swallowed up in the French +empire, not, however, until Genoa had been made to experience, by the +terrible privations of the siege when Masséna held the city against the +Austrians (1800), all that was meant by a participation in the +vicissitudes of the French Revolution. In 1814 Genoa rose against the +French, on the assurance given by Lord William Bentinck that the allies +would restore to the republic its independence. It had, however, been +determined by a secret clause of the treaty of Paris that Genoa should +be incorporated with the dominions of the king of Sardinia. The +discontent created at the time by the provision of the treaty of Paris +as confirmed by the congress of Vienna had doubtless no slight share in +keeping alive in Genoa the republican spirit which, through the +influence of a young Genoese citizen, Joseph Mazzini, assumed forms of +permanent menace not only to the Sardinian monarchy but to all the +established governments of the peninsula. Even the material benefits +accruing from the union with Sardinia and the constitutional liberty +accorded to all his subjects by King Charles Albert were unable to +prevent the republican outbreak of 1848, when, after a short and sharp +struggle, the city, momentarily seized by the republican party, was +recovered by General Alfonzo La Marmora. + + Among the earlier Genoese historians the most important are + Bartolommeo Fazio and Jacopo Bracelli, both of the 15th century, and + Paolo Partenopeo, Jacopo Bonfadio, Oberto Foglietta and Agostino + Giustiniano of the 16th. Paganetti wrote the ecclesiastical history of + the city; and Accinelli and Gaggero collected material for the + ecclesiastical archaeology. The memoirs of local writers and artists + were treated by Soprani and Ratti. Among more general works are + Bréquigny, _Histoire des révolutions de Gênes jusqu'en 1748_; Serra, + _La Storia dell' antica Liguria e di Genova_ (Turin, 1834); Varesi, + _Storia della repubblica di Genova sino al 1814_ (Genoa, 1835-1839); + Canale, _Storia dei Genovesi_ (Genoa, 1844-1854), _Nuova istoria della + repubblica di Genova_ (Florence, 1858), and _Storia della rep. di + Genova dall' anno 1528 al 1550_ (Genoa, 1874); Blumenthal, _Zur + Verfassungs- und Verwaltungsgeschichte Genua's im 12ten Jahrhundert_ + (Kalbe an der Saale, 1872); Malleson, _Studies from Genoese History_ + (London, 1875). The _Liber jurium reipublicae Genuensis_ was edited by + Ricotti in the 7th, 8th and 9th volumes of the _Monumenta historiae + patriae_ (Turin, 1854-1857). A great variety of interesting matter + will be found in the _Atti della Società Ligure di storia patria_ + (1861 sqq.), and in the _Giornale Ligustico di archeologia, storia, e + belle arti_. The history of the university has been written by Lorenzo + Isnardi, and continued by Em. Celesia (2 vols., Genoa). (T. As.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] See _Notizie degli scavi_ (1898), 395 (A. d'Andrade), 464 (G. + Ghirardini). + + + + +GENOVESI, ANTONIO (1712-1769), Italian writer on philosophy and +political economy, was born at Castiglione, near Salerno, on the 1st of +November 1712. He was educated for the church, and, after some +hesitation, took orders in 1736 at Salerno, where he was appointed +professor of eloquence at the theological seminary. During this period +of his life he began the study of philosophy, being especially attracted +by Locke. Dissatisfied with ecclesiastical life, Genovesi resigned his +post, and qualified as an advocate at Rome. Finding law as distasteful +as theology, he devoted himself entirely to philosophy, of which he was +appointed extraordinary professor in the university of Naples. His first +works were _Elementa Metaphysicae_ (1743 et seq.) and _Logica_ (1745). +The former is divided into four parts, Ontosophy, Cosmosophy, Theosophy, +Psychosophy, supplemented by a treatise on ethics and a dissertation on +first causes. The _Logic_, an eminently practical work, written from the +point of view of Locke, is in five parts, dealing with (1) the nature of +the human mind, its faculties and operations; (2) ideas and their kinds; +(3) the true and the false, and the various degrees of knowledge; (4) +reasoning and argumentation; (5) method and the ordering of our +thoughts. If Genovesi does not take a high rank in philosophy, he +deserves the credit of having introduced the new order of ideas into +Italy, at the same time preserving a just mean between the two extremes +of sensualism and idealism. Although bitterly opposed by the partisans +of scholastic routine, Genovesi found influential patrons, amongst them +Bartolomeo Intieri, a Florentine, who in 1754 founded the first Italian +or European chair of political economy (commerce and mechanics), on +condition that Genovesi should be the first professor, and that it +should never be held by an ecclesiastic. The fruit of Genovesi's +professorial labours was the _Lezioni di Commercio_, the first complete +and systematic work in Italian on economics. On the whole he belongs to +the "Mercantile" school, though he does not regard money as the only +form of wealth. Specially noteworthy in the _Lezioni_ are the sections +on human wants as the foundation of economical theory, on labour as the +source of wealth, on personal services as economic factors, and on the +united working of the great industrial functions. He advocated freedom +of the corn trade, reduction of the number of religious communities, and +deprecated regulation of the interest on loans. In the spirit of his age +he denounced the relics of medieval institutions, such as entails and +tenures in mortmain. Gioja's more important treatise owes much to +Genovesi's lectures. Genovesi died on the 22nd of September 1769. + + See C. Ugoni, _Della letteratura italiana nella seconda metà del + secolo XVIII_ (1820-1822); A. Fabroni, _Vitae Italorum doctrina + excellentium_ (1778-1799); R. Bobba, _Commemorazione di A. Genovesi_ + (Benevento, 1867). + + + + +GENSONNÉ, ARMAND (1758-1793), French politician, the son of a military +surgeon, was born at Bordeaux on the 10th of August 1758. He studied +law, and at the outbreak of the Revolution was an advocate of the +parlement of Bordeaux. In 1790 he became _procureur_ of the Commune, and +in July 1791 was elected by the newly created department of the Gironde +a member of the court of appeal. In the same year he was elected deputy +for the department to the Legislative Assembly. As reporter of the +diplomatic committee, in which he supported the policy of Brissot, he +proposed two of the most revolutionary measures passed by the Assembly: +the decree of accusation against the king's brothers (January 1, 1792), +and the declaration of war against the king of Bohemia and Hungary +(April 20, 1792). He was vigorous in his denunciations of the intrigues +of the court and of the "Austrian committee"; but the violence of the +extreme democrats, culminating in the events of the 10th of August, +alarmed him; and when he was returned to the National Convention, he +attacked the Commune of Paris (October 24 and 25). At the trial of Louis +XVI. he supported an appeal to the people, but voted for the death +sentence. As a member of the Committee of General Defence, and as +president of the Convention (March 7-21, 1793), he shared in the bitter +attacks of the Girondists on the Mountain; and on the fatal day of the +2nd of June his name was among the first of those inscribed on the +prosecution list. He was tried by the Revolutionary Tribunal on the 24th +of October 1793, condemned to death and guillotined on the 31st of the +month, displaying on the scaffold a stoic fortitude. Gensonné was +accounted one of the most brilliant of the little band of brilliant +orators from the Gironde, though his eloquence was somewhat cold and he +always read his speeches. + + + + +GENTIAN, botanically _Gentiana_, a large genus of herbaceous plants +belonging to the natural order Gentianaceae. The genus comprises about +300 species,--most of them perennial plants with tufted growth, growing +in hilly or mountainous districts, chiefly in the northern hemisphere, +some of the blue-flowered species ascending to a height of 16,000 ft. in +the Himalaya Mountains. The leaves are opposite, entire and smooth, and +often strongly ribbed. The flowers have a persistent 4- to 5-lobed calyx +and a 4- to 5-lobed tubular corolla; the stamens are equal in number to +the lobes of the corolla. The ovary is one-celled, with two stigmas, +either separate and rolled back or contiguous and funnel-shaped. The +fruit when ripe separates into two valves, and contains numerous small +seeds. The majority of the genus are remarkable for the deep or +brilliant blue colour of their blossoms, comparatively few having +yellow, white, or more rarely red flowers; the last are almost +exclusively found in the Andes. + +Only a few species occur in Britain. _G. amarella_ (felwort) and _G. +campestris_ are small annual species growing on chalky or calcareous +hills, and bear in autumn somewhat tubular pale purple flowers; the +latter is most easily distinguished by having two of the lobes of the +calyx larger than the other two, while the former has the parts of the +calyx in fives, and equal in size. Some intermediate forms between these +two species occur, although rarely, in England; one of these, _G. +germanica_, has larger flowers of a bluer tint, spreading branches, and +a stouter stem. Some of these forms flower in spring. _G. pneumonanthe_, +the Calathian violet, is a rather rare perennial species, growing in +moist heathy places from Cumberland to Dorsetshire. Its average height +is from 6 to 9 in. It has linear leaves, and a bright blue corolla 1½ +in. long, marked externally with five greenish bands, is without hairs +in its throat, and is found in perfection about the end of August. It is +the handsomest of the British species; two varieties of it are known in +cultivation, one with spotted and the other with white flowers. _G. +verna_ and _G. nivalis_ are small species with brilliant blue flowers +and small leaves. The former is a rare and local perennial, occurring, +however, in Teesdale and the county of Clare in Ireland in tolerable +abundance. It has a tufted habit of growth, and each stem bears only one +flower. It is sometimes cultivated as an edging for flower borders. _G. +nivalis_ in Britain occurs only on a few of the loftiest Scottish +mountains. It differs from the last in being an annual, and having a +more isolated habit of growth, and in the stem bearing several flowers. +On the Swiss mountains these beautiful little plants are very abundant; +and the splendid blue colour of masses of gentian in flower is a sight +which, when once seen, can never be forgotten. For ornamental purposes +several species are cultivated. The great difficulty of growing them +successfully renders them, however, less common than would otherwise be +the case; although very hardy when once established, they are very +impatient of removal, and rarely flower well until the third year after +planting. Of the ornamental species found in British gardens some of the +prettiest are _G. acaulis_, _G. verna_, _G. pyrenaica_, _G. bavarica_, +_G. septemfida_ and _G. gelida_. Perhaps the handsomest and most easily +grown is the first named, often called _Gentianella_, which produces its +large intensely blue flowers early in the spring. + +All the species of the genus are remarkable for possessing an intense +but pure bitter taste and tonic properties. About forty species are used +in medicine in different parts of the world. The name of felwort given +to _G. amarella_, but occasionally applied to the whole genus, is stated +by Dr Prior to be given in allusion to these properties--_fel_ meaning +gall, and _wort_ a plant. In the same way the Chinese call _G. +asclepiadea_, and the Japanese _G. Buergeri_, "dragon's gall plants," in +common with several other very bitter plants whose roots they use in +medicine. _G. campestris_ is sometimes used in Sweden and other northern +countries as a substitute for hops. + +By far the most important of the species used in medicine is _G. lutea_, +a large handsome plant 3 or 4 ft. high, growing in open grassy places on +the Alps, Apennines and Pyrenees, as well as on some of the mountainous +ranges of France and Germany, extending as far east as Bosnia and the +Danubian principalities. It has large oval strongly-ribbed leaves and +dense whorls of conspicuous yellow flowers. Its use in medicine is of +very ancient date. Pliny and Dioscorides mention that the plant was +noticed by Gentius, a king of the Illyrians, living 180-167 B.C., from +whom the name _Gentiana_ is supposed to be derived. During the middle +ages it was much employed in the cure of disease, and as an ingredient +in counter-poisons. In 1552 Hieronymus Bock (Tragus) (1498-1554), a +German priest, physician and botanist, mentions the use of the root as a +means of dilating wounds. + +The root, which is the part used in medicine, is tough and flexible, +scarcely branched, and of a brownish colour and spongy texture. It has a +pure bitter taste and faint distinctive odour. The bitter principle, +known as _gentianin_, is a glucoside, soluble in water and alcohol. It +can be decomposed into glucose and gentiopicrin by the action of dilute +mineral acids. It is not precipitated by tannin or subacetate of lead. A +solution of caustic potash or soda forms with gentianin a yellow +solution, and the tincture of the root to which either of these alkalis +has been added loses its bitterness in a few days. Gentian root also +contains _gentianic acid_ (C14H10O5), which is inert and tasteless. It +forms pale yellow silky crystals, very slightly soluble in water or +ether, but soluble in hot strong alcohol and in aqueous alkaline +solutions. This substance is also called _gentianin_, _gentisin_ and +_gentisic acid_. + +The root also contains 12 to 15% of an uncrystallizable sugar called +gentianose, of which fact advantage has long been taken in Switzerland +and Bavaria for the production of a bitter cordial spirit called +_Enzianbranntwein_. The use of this spirit, especially in Switzerland, +has sometimes been followed by poisonous symptoms, which have been +doubtfully attributed to inherent narcotic properties possessed by some +species of gentian, the roots of which may have been indiscriminately +collected with it; but it is quite possible that it may be due to the +contamination of the root with that of _Veratrum album_, a poisonous +plant growing at the same altitude, and having leaves extremely similar +in appearance and size to those of _G. lutea_. + +Gentian is one of the most efficient of the class of substances which +act upon the stomach so as to invigorate digestion and thereby increase +the general nutrition, without exerting any direct influence upon any +other portion of the body than the alimentary canal. Having a pleasant +taste and being non-astringent (owing to the absence of tannic acid), it +is the most widely used of all bitter tonics. The British Pharmacopoeia +contains an aqueous extract (dose, 2-8 grains), a compound infusion with +orange and lemon peel (dose, ½-1 ounce), and a compound tincture with +orange peel and cardamoms (dose ½-1 drachm). It is used in dyspepsia, +chlorosis, anaemia and various other diseases, in which the tone of the +stomach and alimentary canal is deficient, and is sometimes added to +purgative medicines to increase and improve their action. In veterinary +medicine it is also used as a tonic, and enters into a well-known +compound called _diapente_ as a chief ingredient. + + + + +GENTIANACEAE (the gentian family), in botany, an order of Dicotyledons +belonging to the sub-class Sympetalae or Gamopetalae, and containing +about 750 species in 64 genera. It has a world-wide distribution, and +representatives adapted to very various conditions, including, for +instance, alpine plants, like the true gentians (_Gentiana_), meadow +plants such as the British _Chlora perfoliata_ (yellow-wort) or +_Erythraea Centaurium_ (centaury), marsh plants such as _Menyanthes +trifoliata_ (bog-bean), floating water plants such as _Limnanthemum_, or +steppe and sea-coast plants such as _Cicendia_. They are annual or +perennial herbs, rarely becoming shrubby, and generally growing erect, +with a characteristic forked manner of branching; the Asiatic genus +_Crawfurdia_ has a climbing stem; they are often low-growing and +caespitose, as in the alpine gentians. + + The leaves are in decussating pairs (that is, each pair is in a plane + at right angles to the previous or succeeding pair), except in + _Menyanthes_ and a few allied aquatic or marsh genera, where they are + alternate or radical. Several genera, chiefly American, are + saprophytes, forming slender low-growing herbs, containing little or + no chlorophyll and with leaves reduced to scales; such are _Voyria_ + and _Leiphaimos_, mainly tropical American. The inflorescence is + generally cymose, often dichasial, recalling that of Caryophyllaceae, + the lateral branches often becoming monochasial; it is sometimes + reduced to a few flowers or one only, as in some gentians. The flowers + are hermaphrodite, and regular with parts in 4's and 5's, with + reduction to 2 in the pistil; in _Chlora_ there are 6 to 8 members in + each whorl. The calyx generally forms a tube with teeth or segments + which usually overlap in the bud. The corolla shows great variety in + form; thus among the British genera it is rotate in _Chlora_, + funnel-shaped in _Erythraea_, and cylindrical, bell-shaped, + funnel-shaped or salver-shaped in _Gentiana_; the segments are + generally twisted to the right in the bud; the throat is often + fimbriate or bears scales. The stamens, as many as, and alternating + with, the corolla-segments, are inserted at very different heights on + the corolla-tube; the filaments are slender, the anthers are usually + attached dorsally, are versatile, and dehisce by two longitudinal + slits; after escape of the pollen they sometimes become spirally + twisted as in _Erythraea_. Dimorphic flowers are frequent, as in the + bog-bean (_Menyanthes_). There is considerable variation in the size, + shape and external markings of the pollen grains, and a division of + the order into tribes and subtribes based primarily on pollen + characters has been proposed. The form of the honey-secreting + developments of the disk at the base of the ovary also shows + considerable variety. The superior ovary is generally one-chambered, + with two variously developed parietal placentas, which occasionally + meet, forming two chambers; the ovules are generally very numerous and + anatropous or half-anatropous in form. The style, which varies much in + length, is simple, with an undivided or bilobed or bipartite stigma. + The fruit is generally a membranous or leathery capsule, splitting + septicidally into two valves; the seeds are small and numerous, and + contain a small embryo in a copious endosperm. + + [Illustration: Central figure and figs. 1-4 after Curtis, _Flora + Londinensis_. + + _Gentiana Amarella._ + + 1, A small form, natural size. + 2, Calyx and protruding style. + 3, Corolla, laid open. + 4, Capsule, bursting into two valves, and showing the seeds attached + to their margins. + 5, Floral diagram.] + + The brilliant colour of the flowers, often occurring in large numbers + (as in the alpine gentians), the presence of honey-glands and the + frequency of dimorphy and dichogamy, are adaptations for pollination + by insect visitors. In the true gentians (_Gentiana_) the flowers of + different species are adapted for widely differing types of insect + visitors. Thus _Gentiana lutea_, with a rotate yellow corolla and + freely exposed honey, is adapted to short-tongued insect visitors; _G. + Pneumonanthe_, with a long-tubed, bright blue corolla, is visited by + bumble bees; and _G. verna_, with a still longer narrower tube, is + visited by Lepidoptera. + + _Gentiana_, the largest genus, contains nearly three hundred species, + distributed over Europe (including arctic), five being British, the + mountains of Asia, south-east Australia and New Zealand, the whole of + North America and along the Andes to Cape Horn; it does not occur in + Africa. Bitter principles are general in the vegetative parts, + especially in the rhizomes and roots, and have given a medicinal value + to many species, e.g. _Gentiana lutea_ and others. + + + + +GENTILE, in the English Bible, the term generally applied to those who +were not of the Jewish race. It is an adaptation of the Lat. _gentilis_, +of or belonging to the same _gens_, the clan or family; as defined in +Paulus ex Festo "gentilis dicitur et ex eodem genere ortus et is qui +simili nomine; ut ait Cincius, gentiles mihi sunt, qui meo nomine +appellantur." In post-Augustan Latin _gentilis_ became wider in meaning, +following the usage of _gens_, in the sense of race, nation, and meant +"national," belonging to the same race. Later still the word came to +mean "foreign," i.e. other than Roman, and was so used in the Vulgate, +with _gentes_, to translate the Hebrew _goyyim_, nations, LXX. [Greek: +ethnê], the non-Israelitish peoples (see further JEWS). + + + + +GENTILE DA FABRIANO (c. 1370-c. 1450), Italian painter, was born at +Fabriano about 1370. He is said to have been a pupil of Allegretto di +Nuzio, and has been supposed to have received most of his early +instruction from Fra Angelico, to whose manner his bears in some +respects a close similarity. About 1411 he went to Venice, where by +order of the doge and senate he was engaged to adorn the great hall of +the ducal palace with frescoes from the life of Barbarossa. He executed +this work so entirely to the satisfaction of his employers that they +granted him a pension for life, and accorded him the privilege of +wearing the habit of a Venetian noble. About 1422 he went to Florence, +where in 1423 he painted an "Adoration of the Magi" for the church of +Santa Trinita, which is preserved in the Florence Accademia; this +painting is considered his best work now extant. To the same period +belongs a "Madonna and Child," which is now in the Berlin Museum. He had +by this time attained a wide reputation, and was engaged to paint +pictures for various churches, more particularly Siena, Perugia, Gubbio +and Fabriano. About 1426 he was called to Rome by Martin V. to adorn the +church of St John Lateran with frescoes from the life of John the +Baptist. He also executed a portrait of the pope attended by ten +cardinals, and in the church of St Francesco Romano a painting of the +"Virgin and Child attended by St Benedict and St Joseph," which was much +esteemed by Michelangelo, but is no longer in existence. Gentile da +Fabriano died about 1450. Michelangelo said of him that his works +resembled his name, meaning noble or refined. They are full of a quiet +and serene joyousness, and he has a naïve and innocent delight in +splendour and in gold ornaments, with which, however, his pictures are +not overloaded. + + + + +GENTILESCHI, ARTEMISIA and ORAZIO DE', Italian painters. + +ORAZIO (c. 1565-1646) is generally named Orazio Lomi de' Gentileschi; it +appears that De' Gentileschi was his correct surname, Lomi being the +surname which his mother had borne during her first marriage. He was +born at Pisa, and studied under his half-brother Aurelio Lomi, whom in +course of time he surpassed. He afterwards went to Rome, and was +associated with the landscape-painter Agostino Tasi, executing the +figures for the landscape backgrounds of this artist in the Palazzo +Rospigliosi, and it is said in the great hall of the Quirinal Palace, +although by some authorities the figures in the last-named building are +ascribed to Lanfranco. His best works are "Saints Cecilia and Valerian," +in the Palazzo Borghese, Rome; "David after the death of Goliath," in +the Palazzo Doria, Genoa; and some works in the royal palace, Turin, +noticeable for vivid and uncommon colouring. At an advanced age +Gentileschi went to England at the invitation of Charles I., and he was +employed in the palace at Greenwich. Vandyck included him in his +portraits of a hundred illustrious men. His works generally are strong +in shadow and positive in colour. He died in England in 1646. + +ARTEMISIA (1590-1642), Orazio's daughter, studied first under Guido, +acquired much renown for portrait-painting, and considerably excelled +her father's fame. She was a beautiful and elegant woman; her likeness, +limned by her own hand, is to be seen in Hampton Court. Her most +celebrated composition is "Judith and Holofernes," in the Uffizi +Gallery; certainly a work of singular energy, and giving ample proof of +executive faculty, but repulsive and unwomanly in its physical horror. +She accompanied her father to England, but did not remain there long; +the best picture which she produced for Charles I. was "David with the +head of Goliath." Artemisia refused an offer of marriage from Agostino +Tasi, and bestowed her hand on Pier Antonio Schiattesi, continuing, +however, to use her own surname. She settled in Naples, whither she +returned after her English sojourn; she lived there in no little +splendour, and there she died in 1642. She had a daughter and perhaps +other children. + + + + +GENTILI, ALBERICO (1552-1608), Italian jurist, who has great claims to +be considered the founder of the science of international law, second +son of Matteo Gentili, a physician of noble family and scientific +eminence, was born on the 14th of January 1552 at Sanginesio, a small +town of the march of Ancona which looks down from the slopes of the +Apennines upon the distant Adriatic. After taking the degree of doctor +of civil law at the university of Perugia, and holding a judicial office +at Ascoli, he returned to his native city, and was entrusted with the +task of recasting its statutes, but, sharing the Protestant opinions of +his father, shared also, together with a brother, Scipio, afterwards a +famous professor at Altdorf, his flight to Carniola, where in 1579 +Matteo was appointed physician to the duchy. The Inquisition condemned +the fugitives as contumacious, and they soon received orders to quit the +dominions of Austria. + +Alberico set out for England, travelling by way of Tübingen and +Heidelberg, and everywhere meeting with the reception to which his +already high reputation entitled him. He arrived at Oxford in the autumn +of 1580, with a commendatory letter from the earl of Leicester, at that +time chancellor of the university, and was shortly afterwards qualified +to teach by being admitted to the same degree which he had taken at +Perugia. His lectures on Roman law soon became famous, and the +dialogues, disputations and commentaries, which he published henceforth +in rapid succession, established his position as an accomplished +civilian, of the older and severer type, and secured his appointment in +1587 to the regius professorship of civil law. It was, however, rather +by an application of the old learning to the new questions suggested by +the modern relations of states that his labours have produced their most +lasting result. In 1584 he was consulted by government as to the proper +course to be pursued with Mendoza, the Spanish ambassador, who had been +detected in plotting against Elizabeth. He chose the topic to which his +attention had thus been directed as a subject for a disputation when +Leicester and Sir Philip Sidney visited the schools at Oxford in the +same year; and this was six months later expanded into a book, the _De +legationibus libri tres_. In 1588 Alberico selected the law of war as +the subject of the law disputations at the annual "Act" which took place +in July; and in the autumn published in London the _De Jure Belli +commentatio prima_. A second and a third _Commentatio_ followed, and the +whole matter, with large additions and improvements, appeared at Hanau, +in 1598, as the _De Jure Belli libri tres_. It was doubtless in +consequence of the reputation gained by these works that Gentili became +henceforth more and more engaged in forensic practice, and resided +chiefly in London, leaving his Oxford work to be partly discharged by a +deputy. In 1600 he was admitted to be a member of Gray's Inn, and in +1605 was appointed standing counsel to the king of Spain. He died on the +19th of June 1608, and was buried, by the side of Dr Matteo Gentili, who +had followed his son to England, in the churchyard of St Helen's, +Bishopsgate. By his wife, Hester de Peigni, he left two sons, Robert and +Matthew, and a daughter, Anna, who married Sir John Colt. His notes of +the cases in which he was engaged for the Spaniards were posthumously +published in 1613 at Hanau, as _Hispanicae advocationis libri duo_. This +was in accordance with his last wishes; but his direction that the +remainder of his MSS. should be burnt was not complied with, since +fifteen volumes of them found their way, at the beginning of the 19th +century, from Amsterdam to the Bodleian library. + +The true history of Gentili and of his principal writings has only been +ascertained in recent years, in consequence of a revived appreciation of +the services which he rendered to international law. The movement to do +him honour originated in 1875 in England, as the result of the inaugural +lecture of Prof. T.E. Holland, and was warmly taken up in Italy. In +spreading through Europe it encountered two curious cross-currents of +opinion,--one the ultra-Catholic, which three centuries before had +ordered his name to be erased from all public documents and placed his +works in the _Index_; another the narrowly-Dutch, which is, it seems, +needlessly careful of the supremacy of Grotius. These two currents +resulted respectively in a bust of Garcia Moreno being placed in the +Vatican, and in the unveiling in 1886, with much international oratory, +of a fine statue of Grotius at Delft. The English committee, under the +honorary presidency of Prince Leopold, in 1877 erected a monument to the +memory of Gentili in St Helen's church, and saw to the publication of a +new edition of the _De Jure Belli_. The Italian committee, of which +Prince (afterwards King) Humbert was honorary president, was less +successful. It was only in 1908, the tercentenary of the death of +Alberico, that the statue of the great heretic was at length unveiled in +his native city by the minister of public instruction, in the presence +of numerous deputations from Italian cities and universities. Preceding +writers had dealt with various international questions, but they dealt +with them singly, and with a servile submission to the decisions of the +church. It was left to Gentili to grasp as a whole the relations of +states one to another, to distinguish international questions from +questions with which they are more or less intimately connected, and to +attempt their solution by principles entirely independent of the +authority of Rome. He uses the reasonings of the civil and even the +canon law, but he proclaims as his real guide the _Jus Naturae_, the +highest common sense of mankind, by which historical precedents are to +be criticized and, if necessary, set aside. + +His faults are not few. His style is prolix, obscure, and to the modern +reader pedantic enough; but a comparison of his greatest work with what +had been written upon the same subject by, for instance, Belli, or Soto, +or even Ayala, will show that he greatly improved upon his predecessors, +not only by the fulness with which he has worked out points of detail, +but also by clearly separating the law of war from martial law, and by +placing the subject once for all upon a non-theological basis. If, on +the other hand, the same work be compared with the _De Jure Belli et +Pacis_ of Grotius, it is at once evident that the later writer is +indebted to the earlier, not only for a large portion of his +illustrative erudition, but also for all that is commendable in the +method and arrangement of the treatise. + + The following is probably a complete list of the writings of Gentili, + with the places and dates of their first publication: _De juris + interpretibus dialogi sex_ (London, 1582); _Lectionum et epist. quae + ad jus civile pertinent libri tres_ (London, 1583-1584); _De + legationibus libri tres_ (London, 1585); _Legal. comitiorum Oxon. + actio_ (London, 1585-1586); _De divers. temp. appellationibus_ (Hanau, + 1586); _De nascendi tempore disputatio_ (Witteb., 1586); + _Disputationum decas prima_ (London, 1587); _Conditionum liber + singularis_ (London, 1587); _De jure belli comm. prima_ (London, + 1588); _secunda, ib._ (1588-1589); _tertia_ (1589); _De injustitia + bellica Romanorum_ (Oxon, 1590); _Ad tit. de Malef, et Math, de Prof. + et Med._ (Hanau, 1593); _De jure belli libri tres_ (Hanau, 1598); _De + armis Romanis, &c._ (Hanau, 1599); _De actoribus et de abusu mendacii_ + (Hanau, 1599); _De ludis scenicis epist. duae_ (Middleburg, 1600); _Ad + I. Maccabaeorum et de linguarum mistura disp._ (Frankfurt, 1600); + _Lectiones Virgilianae_ (Hanau, 1600); _De nuptiis libri septem_ + (1601); _In tit. si quis principi, et ad leg. Jul. maiest._ (Hanau, + 1604); _De latin, vet. Bibl._ (Hanau, 1604); _De libro Pyano_ (Oxon, + 1604); _Laudes Acad. Perus. et Oxon._ (Hanau, 1605); _De unione + Angliae et Scotiae_ (London, 1605); _Disputationes tres, de libris + jur. can., de libris jur. civ., de latinitate vet. vers._ (Hanau, + 1605); _Regales disput. tres, de pot. regis absoluta, de unione + regnorum, de vi civium_ (London, 1605); _Hispanicae advocationis libri + duo_ (Hanau, 1613); _In tit. de verb. signif._ (Hanau, 1614); _De + legatis in test._ (Amsterdam, 1661). An edition of the _Opera omnia_, + commenced at Naples in 1770, was cut short by the death of the + publisher, Gravier, after the second volume. Of his numerous + unpublished writings, Gentili complained that four volumes were lost + "pessimo pontificiorum facinore," meaning probably that they were left + behind in his flight to Carniola. + + AUTHORITIES.--Several tracts by the Abate Benigni in Colucci, + _Antichità Picene_ (1790); a dissertation by W. Reiger annexed to the + _Program of the Groningen Gymnasium_ for 1867; an inaugural lecture + delivered in 1874 by T.E. Holland, translated into Italian, with + additions by the author, by A. Saffi (1884); the preface to a new + edition of the _De jure belli_ (1877) and _Studies in International + Law_ (1898) (which see, for details as to the family and MSS. of + Gentili), by the same; works by Valdarnini and Foglietti (1875), + Speranza and De Giorgi (1876), Fiorini (a translation of the _De jure + belli_, with essay, 1877), A. Saffi (1878), L. Marson (1885), M. Thamm + (1896), B. Brugi (1898), T.A. Walker (an analysis of the principal + works of Gentili) in his _History of the Law of Nations_, vol. + i.(1899); H. Nézarel, in Pillet's _Fondateurs de droit international_ + (1904); E. Agabiti (1908). See also E. Comba, in the _Rivista + Christiana_ (1876-1877); Sir T. Twiss, in the _Law Review_ (1878); + articles in the _Revue de droit international_ (1875-1878, 1883, 1886, + 1908); O. Scalvanti, in the _Annali dell' Univ. di Perugia_, N.S., + vol. viii. (1898). (T. E. H.) + + + + +GENTLE (through the Fr. _gentil_, from Lat. _gentilis_, belonging to the +same _gens_, or family), properly an epithet of one born of a "good +family"; the Latin _generosus_, "well born" (see GENTLEMAN), contrasted +with "noble" on the one side and "simple" on the other. The word +followed the wider application of the word "gentleman"; implying the +manners, character and breeding proper to one to whom that name could be +applied, courteous, polite; hence, with no reference to its original +meaning, free from violence or roughness, mild, soft, kind or tender. +With a physical meaning of soft to the touch, the word is used +substantively of the maggot of the bluebottle fly, used as a bait by +fishermen. At the end of the 16th century the French _gentil_ was again +adapted into English in the form "gentile," later changed to "genteel." +The word was common in the 17th and 18th centuries as applied to +behaviour, manner of living, dress, &c., suitable or proper to persons +living in a position in society above the ordinary, hence polite, +elegant. From the early part of the 19th century it has also been used +in an ironical sense, and applied chiefly to those who pay an excessive +and absurd importance to the outward marks of respectability as evidence +of being in a higher rank in society than that to which they properly +belong. + + + + +GENTLEMAN (from Lat. _gentilis_, "belonging to a race or _gens_," and +"man"; Fr. _gentilhomme_, Span, _gentil hombre_, Ital. _gentil huomo_), +in its original and strict signification, a term denoting a man of good +family, the Lat. _generosus_ (its invariable translation in +English-Latin documents). In this sense it is the equivalent of the Fr. +_gentilhomme_, "nobleman," which latter term has in Great Britain been +long confined to the peerage (see NOBILITY); and the term "gentry" +("gentrice" from O. Fr. _genterise_ for _gentelise_) has much of the +significance of the Fr. _noblesse_ or the Ger. _Adel_. This was what was +meant by the rebels under John Ball in the 14th century when they +repeated: + + "When Adam delved and Eve span, + Who was then the gentleman?" + +Selden (_Titles of Honor_, 1672), discussing the title "gentleman," +speaks of "our English use of it" as "convertible with _nobilis_," and +describes in connexion with it the forms of ennobling in various +European countries. William Harrison, writing a century earlier, says +"gentlemen be those whom their race and blood, or at the least their +virtues, do make noble and known." But for the complete gentleman the +possession of a coat of arms was in his time considered necessary; and +Harrison gives the following account of how gentlemen were made in +Shakespeare's day: + + "... gentlemen whose ancestors are not known to come in with William + duke of Normandy (for of the Saxon races yet remaining we now make + none accompt, much less of the British issue) do take their beginning + in England after this manner in our times. Who soever studieth the + laws of the realm, who so abideth in the university, giving his mind + to his book, or professeth physic and the liberal sciences, or beside + his service in the room of a captain in the wars, or good counsel + given at home, whereby his commonwealth is benefited, can live without + manual labour, and thereto is able and will bear the port, charge and + countenance of a gentleman, he shall for money have a coat and arms + bestowed upon him by heralds (who in the charter of the same do of + custom pretend antiquity and service, and many gay things) and + thereunto being made so good cheap be called master, which is the + title that men give to esquires and gentlemen, and reputed for a + gentleman ever after. Which is so much the less to be disallowed of, + for that the prince doth lose nothing by it, the gentleman being so + much subject to taxes and public payments as is the yeoman or + husbandman, which he likewise doth bear the gladlier for the saving of + his reputation. Being called also to the wars (for with the government + of the commonwealth he medleth little) what soever it cost him, he + will both array and arm himself accordingly, and show the more manly + courage, and all the tokens of the person which he representeth. No + man hath hurt by it but himself, who peradventure will go in wider + buskins than his legs will bear, or as our proverb saith, now and then + bear a bigger sail than his boat is able to sustain."[1] + +In this way Shakespeare himself was turned, by the grant of his coat of +arms, from a "vagabond" into a gentleman. + +The fundamental idea of "gentry," symbolized in this grant of +coat-armour, had come to be that of the essential superiority of the +fighting man; and, as Selden points out (p. 707), the fiction was +usually maintained in the granting of arms "to an ennobled person though +of the long Robe wherein he hath little use of them as they mean a +shield." At the last the wearing of a sword on all occasions was the +outward and visible sign of a "gentleman"; and the custom survives in +the sword worn with "court dress." This idea that a gentleman must have +a coat of arms, and that no one is a "gentleman" without one is, +however, of comparatively late growth, the outcome of the natural desire +of the heralds to magnify their office and collect fees for registering +coats; and the same is true of the conception of "gentlemen" as a +separate class. That a distinct order of "gentry" existed in England +very early has, indeed, been often assumed, and is supported by weighty +authorities. Thus, the late Professor Freeman (_Ency. Brit._ xvii. p. +540 b, 9th ed.) said: "Early in the 11th century the order of +'gentlemen' as a separate class seems to be forming as something new. By +the time of the conquest of England the distinction seems to have been +fully established." Stubbs (_Const. Hist._, ed. 1878, iii. 544, 548) +takes the same view. Sir George Sitwell, however, has conclusively +proved that this opinion is based on a wrong conception of the +conditions of medieval society, and that it is wholly opposed to the +documentary evidence. The fundamental social cleavage in the middle ages +was between the _nobiles_, i.e. the tenants in chivalry, whether earls, +barons, knights, esquires or franklins, and the _ignobiles_, i.e. the +villeins, citizens and burgesses;[2] and between the most powerful noble +and the humblest franklin there was, until the 15th century, no +"separate class of gentlemen." Even so late as 1400 the word "gentleman" +still only had the sense of _generosus_, and could not be used as a +personal description denoting rank or quality, or as the title of a +class. Yet after 1413 we find it increasingly so used; and the list of +landowners in 1431, printed in _Feudal Aids_, contains, besides knights, +esquires, yeomen and husbandmen (i.e. householders), a fair number who +are classed as "gentilman." + +Sir George Sitwell gives a lucid explanation of this development, the +incidents of which are instructive and occasionally amusing. The +immediate cause was the statute I Henry V. cap. v. of 1413, which laid +down that in all original writs of action, personal appeals and +indictments, in which process of outlawry lies, the "estate degree or +mystery" of the defendant must be stated, as well as his present or +former domicile. Now the Black Death (1349) had put the traditional +social organization out of gear. Before that the younger sons of the +_nobiles_ had received their share of the farm stock, bought or hired +land, and settled down as agriculturists in their native villages. Under +the new conditions this became increasingly impossible, and they were +forced to seek their fortunes abroad in the French wars, or at home as +hangers-on of the great nobles. These men, under the old system, had no +definite status; but they were _generosi_, men of birth, and, being now +forced to describe themselves, they disdained to be classed with +franklins (now sinking in the social scale), still more with yeomen or +husbandmen; they chose, therefore, to be described as "gentlemen." On +the character of these earliest "gentlemen" the records throw a lurid +light. According to Sir George Sitwell (p. 76), "the premier gentleman +of England, as the matter now stands, is 'Robert Erdeswyke of Stafford, +gentilman,'" who had served among the men-at-arms of Lord Talbot at +Agincourt (ib. note). He is typical of his class. "Fortunately--for the +gentle reader will no doubt be anxious to follow in his footsteps--some +particulars of his life may be gleaned from the public records. He was +charged at the Staffordshire Assizes with housebreaking, wounding with +intent to kill, and procuring the murder of one Thomas Page, who was cut +to pieces while on his knees begging for his life." If any earlier +claimant to the title of "gentleman" be discovered, Sir George Sitwell +predicts that it will be within the same year (1414) and in connexion +with some similar disreputable proceedings.[3] + +From these unpromising beginnings the separate order of "gentlemen" was +very slowly evolved. The first "gentleman" commemorated on an existing +monument was John Daundelyon of Margate (d. c. 1445); the first +gentleman to enter the House of Commons, hitherto composed mainly of +"valets," was "William Weston, gentylman"; but even in the latter half +of the 15th century the order was not clearly established. As to the +connexion of "gentilesse" with the official grant or recognition of +coat-armour, that is a profitable fiction invented and upheld by the +heralds; for coat-armour was but the badge assumed by gentlemen to +distinguish them in battle, and many gentlemen of long descent never had +occasion to assume it, and never did. This fiction, however, had its +effect; and by the 16th century, as has been already pointed out, the +official view had become clearly established that "gentlemen" +constituted a distinct order, and that the badge of this distinction was +the heralds' recognition of the right to bear arms. It is unfortunate +that this view, which is quite unhistorical and contradicted by the +present practice of many undoubtedly "gentle" families of long descent, +has of late years been given a wide currency in popular manuals of +heraldry. + +In this narrow sense, however, the word "gentleman" has long since +become obsolete. The idea of "gentry" in the continental sense of +_noblesse_ is extinct in England, and is likely to remain so, in spite +of the efforts of certain enthusiasts to revive it (see A.C. Fox-Davies, +_Armorial Families_, Edinburgh, 1895). That it once existed has been +sufficiently shown; but the whole spirit and tendency of English +constitutional and social development tended to its early destruction. +The comparative good order of England was not favourable to the +continuance of a class, developed during the foreign and civil wars of +the 14th and 15th centuries, for whom fighting was the sole honourable +occupation. The younger sons of noble families became apprentices in the +cities, and there grew up a new aristocracy of trade. Merchants are +still "citizens" to William Harrison; but he adds "they often change +estate with gentlemen, as gentlemen do with them, by a mutual conversion +of the one into the other." A frontier line between classes so +indefinite could not be maintained, especially as in England there was +never a "nobiliary prefix" to stamp a person as a gentleman by his +surname, as in France or Germany.[4] The process was hastened, moreover, +by the corruption of the Heralds' College and by the ease with which +coats of arms could be assumed without a shadow of claim; which tended +to bring the "science of armory" into contempt. The word "gentleman" as +an index of rank had already become of doubtful value before the great +political and social changes of the 19th century gave to it a wider and +essentially higher significance. The change is well illustrated in the +definitions given in the successive editions of the _Encyclopaedia +Britannica_. In the 5th edition (1815) "a gentleman is one, who without +any title, bears a coat of arms, or whose ancestors have been freemen." +In the 7th edition (1845) it still implies a definite social status: +"All above the rank of yeomen." In the 8th edition (1856) this is still +its "most extended sense"; "in a more limited sense" it is defined in +the same words as those quoted above from the 5th edition; but the +writer adds, "By courtesy this title is generally accorded to all +persons above the rank of common tradesmen when their manners are +indicative of a certain amount of refinement and intelligence." The +Reform Bill of 1832 has done its work; the "middle classes" have come +into their own; and the word "gentleman" has come in common use to +signify not a distinction of blood, but a distinction of position, +education and manners. The test is no longer good birth, or the right to +bear arms, but the capacity to mingle on equal terms in good society. In +its best use, moreover, "gentleman" involves a certain superior standard +of conduct, due, to quote the 8th edition once more, to "that +self-respect and intellectual refinement which manifest themselves in +unrestrained yet delicate manners." The word "gentle," originally +implying a certain social status, had very early come to be associated +with the standard of manners expected from that status. Thus by a sort +of punning process the "gentleman" becomes a "gentle-man." Chaucer in +the _Meliboeus_ (c. 1386) says: "Certes he sholde not be called a gentil +man, that ... ne dooth his diligence and bisynesse, to kepen his good +name"; and in the _Wife of Bath's Tale_: + + "Loke who that is most vertuous alway + Prive and apert, and most entendeth ay + To do the gentil dedes that he can + And take him for the gretest gentilman," + +and In the _Romance of the Rose_ (c. 1400) we find "he is gentil bycause +he doth as longeth to a gentilman." This use develops through the +centuries, until in 1714 we have Steele, in the _Tatler_ (No. 207), +laying down that "the appellation of Gentleman is never to be affixed to +a man's circumstances, but to his Behaviour in them," a limitation +over-narrow even for the present day. In this connexion, too, may be +quoted the old story, told by some--very improbably--of James II., of +the monarch who replied to a lady petitioning him to make her son a +gentleman, "I could make him a nobleman, but God Almighty could not make +him a gentleman." Selden, however, in referring to similar stories "that +no Charter can make a Gentleman, which is cited as out of the mouth of +some great Princes that have said it," adds that "they without question +understood Gentleman for _Generosus_ in the antient sense, or as if it +came from _Gentilis_ in that sense, as _Gentilis_ denotes one of a noble +Family, or indeed for a Gentleman by birth." For "no creation could make +a man of another blood than he is." The word "gentleman," used in the +wide sense with which birth and circumstances have nothing to do, is +necessarily incapable of strict definition. For "to behave like a +gentleman" may mean little or much, according to the person by whom the +phrase is used; "to spend money like a gentleman" may even be no great +praise; but "to conduct a business like a gentleman" implies a standard +at least as high as that involved in the phrase "noblesse oblige." In +this sense of a person of culture, character and good manners the word +"gentleman" has supplied a gap in more than one foreign language. + +The evolution of this meaning of "gentleman" reflects very accurately +that of English society; and there are not wanting signs that the +process of evolution, in the one as in the other, is not complete. The +indefinableness of the word mirrors the indefinite character of +"society" in England; and the use by "the masses" of "gentleman" as a +mere synonym for "man" has spread _pari passu_ with the growth of +democracy. It is a protest against implied inferiority, and is cherished +as the modern French _bourgeois_ cherishes his right of duelling with +swords, under the _ancien régime_ a prerogative of the _noblesse_. Nor +is there much justification for the denunciation by purists of the +"vulgarization" and "abuse" of the "grand old name of gentleman." Its +strict meaning has now fallen completely obsolete. Its current meaning +varies with every class of society that uses it. But it always implies +some sort of excellency of manners or morals. It may by courtesy be +over-loosely applied by one common man to another; but the common man +would understand the reproach conveyed in "You're no gentleman." + + AUTHORITIES.--Selden, _Titles of Honor_ (London, 1672); William + Harrison, _Description of England_, ed. G.F.J. Furnivall for the New + Shakspere Soc. (London, 1877-1878); Sir George Sitwell, "The English + Gentleman," in the _Ancestor_, No. 1 (Westminster, April 1902); + _Peacham's Compleat Gentleman_ (1634), with an introduction by G.S. + Gordon (Oxford, 1906); A. Smythe-Palmer, D.D., _The Ideal of a + Gentleman, or a Mirror for Gentlefolk: A Portrayal in Literature from + the Earliest Times_ (London, 1908), a very exhaustive collection of + extracts from authors so wide apart as Ptah-hotep (3300 B.C.) and + William Watson, arranged under headings: "The Historical Idea of a + Gentleman," "The Herald's Gentleman," "The Poet's Gentleman," &c. + (W. A. P.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Description of England_, bk. ii. ch. v. p. 128. Henry Peacham, + in his _Compleat Gentleman_ (1634), takes this matter more seriously. + "Neither must we honour or esteem," he writes, "those ennobled, or + made gentle in blood, who by mechanic and base means have raked up a + mass of wealth ... or have purchased an ill coat (of arms) at a good + rate; no more than a player upon the stage, for wearing a lord's cast + suit: since nobility hangeth not upon the airy esteem of vulgar + opinion, but is indeed of itself essential and absolute" (Reprint, p. + 3). Elsewhere (p. 161) he deplores the abuse of heraldry, which had + even in his day produced "all the world over such a medley of coats" + that, but for the commendable activity of the earls marshals, he + feared that yeomen would soon be "as rare in _England_ as they are in + _France_." See also an amusing instance from the time of Henry VIII., + given in "The Gentility of Richard Barker," by Oswald Barron, in the + _Ancestor_, vol. ii. (July 1902). + + [2] Even this classification would seem to need modifying. For + certain of the great patrician families of the cities were certainly + _nobiles_. + + [3] The designation "gentilman" is, indeed, found some two centuries + earlier. In the _Inquisitio maneriorum Ecclesiae S. Pauli Londin._ of + A.D. 1222 (W.A. Hale, _Domesday of St Paul's_, Camden Soc., 1858, p. + 80) occurs the entry: _Adam gentilma dim acra, p' iii. d._ This is + probably the earliest record of the "grand old name of gentleman"; + but Adam, who held half an acre at a rent of three pence--less by + half than that held by "Ralph the bondsman" (Rad' le bunde) in the + same list--was certainly not a "gentleman." "Gentilman" here was a + nickname, perhaps suggested by Adam's name, and thus in some sort + anticipating the wit of the famous couplet repeated by John Ball's + rebels. + + [4] The prefix "de" attached to some English names is in no sense + "nobiliary." In Latin documents _de_ was the equivalent of the + English "of," as _de la_ of "at" (so de la Pole for Atte Poole, cf. + such names as Attwood, Attwater). In English this "of" was in the + 15th century dropped; e.g. the grandson of Johannes de Stoke (John of + Stoke) in a 14th-century document becomes John Stoke. In modern + times, under the influence of romanticism, the prefix "de" has been + in some cases "revived" under a misconception, e.g. "de Trafford," + "de Hoghton." Very rarely it is correctly retained as derived from a + foreign place-name, e.g. de Grey. + + + + +GENTZ, FRIEDRICH VON (1764-1832), German publicist and statesman, was +born at Breslau on the 2nd of May 1764. His father was an official, his +mother an Ancillon, distantly related to the Prussian minister of that +name. On his father's transference to Berlin, as director of the mint, +the boy was sent to the Joachimsthal gymnasium there; his brilliant +talents, however, did not develop until later, when at the university of +Königsberg he fell under the influence of Kant. But though his intellect +was sharpened and his zeal for learning quickened by the great thinker's +influence, Kant's "categorical imperative" did not prevent him from +yielding to the taste for wine, women and high play which pursued him +through life. When in 1785 he returned to Berlin, he received the +appointment of secret secretary to the royal _Generaldirectorium_, his +talents soon gaining him promotion to the rank of councillor for war +(_Kriegsrath_). During an illness, which kept him virtuous by confining +him to his room, he studied French and English, gaining a mastery of +these languages which, at that time exceedingly rare, opened up for him +opportunities for a diplomatic career. + +His interest in public affairs was, however, first aroused by the +outbreak of the French Revolution. Like most quick-witted young men, he +greeted this at first with enthusiasm; but its subsequent developments +cooled his ardour and he was converted to more conservative counsels by +Burke's _Essay on the French Revolution_, a translation of which into +German (1794) was his first literary venture. This was followed, next +year, by translations of works on the Revolution by Mallet du Pan and +Mounier, and at this time he also founded and edited a monthly journal, +the _Neue deutsche Monatsschrift_, in which for five years he wrote, +mainly on historical and political questions, maintaining the principles +of British constitutionalism against those of revolutionary France. The +knowledge he displayed of the principles and practice of finance was +especially remarkable. In 1797, at the instance of English statesmen, he +published a translation of a history of French finance by François +d'Ivernois (1757-1842), an eminent Genevese exile naturalized and +knighted in England, extracts from which he had previously given in his +journal. His literary output at this time, all inspired by a moderate +Liberalism, was astounding, and included an essay on the results of the +discovery of America, and another, written in French, on the English +financial system (_Essai sur l'état de l'administration des finances de +la Grande-Bretagne_, London, 1800). Especially noteworthy, however, was +the _Denkschrift_ or _Missive_ addressed by him to King Frederick +William III. on his accession (1797), in which, _inter alia_, he urged +upon the king the necessity for granting freedom to the press and to +commerce. For a Prussian official to venture to give uncalled-for advice +to his sovereign was a breach of propriety not calculated to increase +his chances of favour; but it gave Gentz a conspicuous position in the +public eye, which his brilliant talents and literary style enabled him +to maintain. Moreover, he was from the first aware of the probable +developments of the Revolution and of the consequences to Prussia of the +weakness and vacillations of her policy. Opposition to France was the +inspiring principle of the _Historisches Journal_ founded by him in +1799-1800, which once more held up English institutions as the model, +and became in Germany the mouthpiece of British policy towards the +revolutionary aggressions of the French republic. In 1801 he ceased the +publication of the _Journal_, because he disliked the regularity of +journalism, and issued instead, under the title _Beiträge zur +Geschichte_, &c., a series of essays on contemporary politics. The first +of these was _Über den Ursprung und Charakter des Krieges gegen die +französische Revolution_ (1801), by many regarded as Gentz's +masterpiece; another important brochure, _Von dem politischen Zustande +von Europa vor und nach der Revolution_, a criticism of Hauterive's _De +l'état de la France à la fin de l'an VIII_, appeared the same year. + +This activity gained him recognition abroad and gifts of money from the +British and Austrian governments; but it made his position as an +official in Berlin impossible, for the Prussian government had no mind +to abandon its attitude of cautious neutrality. Private affairs also +combined to urge Gentz to leave the Prussian service; for, mainly +through his own fault, a separation with his wife was arranged. In May +1802, accordingly, he took leave of his wife and left with his friend +Adam Müller for Vienna. In Berlin he had been intimate with the Austrian +ambassador, Count Stadion, whose good offices procured him an +introduction to the emperor Francis. The immediate result was the title +of imperial councillor, with a yearly salary of 4000 gulden (December +6th, 1802); but it was not till 1809 that he was actively employed. +Before returning to Berlin to make arrangements for transferring himself +finally to Vienna, Gentz paid a visit to London, where he made the +acquaintance of Pitt and Granville, who were so impressed with his +talents that, in addition to large money presents, he was guaranteed an +annual pension by the British government in recognition of the value of +the services of his pen against Bonaparte. From this time forward he was +engaged in a ceaseless polemic against every fresh advance of the +Napoleonic power and pretensions; with matchless sarcasm he lashed "the +nerveless policy of the courts, which suffer indignity with +resignation"; he denounced the recognition of Napoleon's imperial title, +and drew up a manifesto of Louis XVIII. against it. The formation of the +coalition and the outbreak of war for a while raised his hopes, in spite +of his lively distrust of the competence of Austrian ministers; but the +hopes were speedily dashed by Austerlitz and its results. Gentz used his +enforced leisure to write a brilliant essay on "The relations between +England and Spain before the outbreak of war between the two powers" +(Leipzig, 1806); and shortly afterwards appeared _Fragmente aus der +neuesten Geschichte des politischen Gleichgewichts in Europa_ +(translated _s.t. Fragments on the Balance of Power in Europe_, London, +1806). This latter, the last of Gentz's works as an independent +publicist, was a masterly exposé of the actual political situation, and +at the same time prophetic in its suggestions as to how this should be +retrieved: "Through Germany Europe has perished, through Germany it must +rise again." He realized that the dominance of France could only be +broken by the union of Austria and Prussia, acting in concert with Great +Britain. He watched with interest the Prussian military preparations, +and, at the invitation of Count Haugwitz, he went at the outset of the +campaign to the Prussian headquarters at Erfurt, where he drafted the +king's proclamation and his letter to Napoleon. The writer was known, +and it was in this connexion that Napoleon referred to him as "a +wretched scribe named Gentz, one of those men without honour who sell +themselves for money." In this mission Gentz had no official mandate +from the Austrian government, and whatever hopes he may have cherished +of privately influencing the situation in the direction of an alliance +between the two German powers were speedily dashed by the campaign of +Jena. + +The downfall of Prussia left Austria the sole hope of Germany and of +Europe. Gentz, who from the winter of 1806 onwards divided his time +between Prague and the Bohemian watering-places, seemed to devote +himself wholly to the pleasures of society, his fascinating personality +gaining him a ready reception in those exalted circles which were to +prove of use to him later on in Vienna. But, though he published +nothing, his pen was not idle, and he was occupied with a series of +essays on the future of Austria and the best means of liberating Germany +and redressing the balance of Europe; though he himself confessed to his +friend Adam Müller (August 4th, 1806) that, in the miserable +circumstances of the time, his essay on "the principles of a general +pacification" must be taken as a "political poem." + +In 1809, on the outbreak of war between Austria and France, Gentz was +for the first time actively employed by the Austrian government under +Stadion; he drafted the proclamation announcing the declaration of war +(15th of April), and during the continuance of hostilities his pen was +ceaselessly employed. But the peace of 1810 and the fall of Stadion once +more dashed his hopes, and, disillusioned and "hellishly blasé," he once +more retired to comparative inactivity at Prague. Of Metternich, +Stadion's successor, he had at the outset no high opinion, and it was +not till 1812 that there sprang up between the two men the close +relations that were to ripen into life-long friendship. But when Gentz +returned to Vienna as Metternich's adviser and henchman, he was no +longer the fiery patriot who had sympathized and corresponded with Stein +in the darkest days of German depression and in fiery periods called +upon all Europe to free itself from foreign rule. Disillusioned and +cynical, though clear-sighted as ever, he was henceforth before all +things an Austrian, more Austrian on occasion even than Metternich; as, +e.g., when, during the final stages of the campaign of 1814, he +expressed the hope that Metternich would substitute "Austria" for +"Europe" in his diplomacy and--strange advice from the old hater of +Napoleon and of France--secure an Austro-French alliance by maintaining +the husband of Marie Louise on the throne of France. + +For ten years, from 1812 onward, Gentz was in closest touch with all the +great affairs of European history, the assistant, confidant, and adviser +of Metternich. He accompanied the chancellor on all his journeys; was +present at all the conferences that preceded and followed the war; no +political secrets were hidden from him; and his hand drafted all +important diplomatic documents. He was secretary to the congress of +Vienna (1814-1815) and to all the congresses and conferences that +followed, up to that of Verona (1822), and in all his vast knowledge of +men and affairs made him a power. He was under no illusion as to their +achievements; his memoir on the work of the congress of Vienna is at +once an incisive piece of criticism and a monument of his own +disillusionment. But the Liberalism of his early years was gone for +ever, and he had become reconciled to Metternich's view that, in an age +of decay, the sole function of a statesman was to "prop up mouldering +institutions." It was the hand of the author of that offensive _Missive_ +to Frederick William III., on the liberty of the press, that drafted the +Carlsbad decrees; it was he who inspired the policy of repressing the +freedom of the universities; and he noted in his diary as "a day more +important than that of Leipzig" the session of the Vienna conference of +1819, in which it was decided to make the convocation of representative +assemblies in the German states impossible, by enforcing the letter of +Article XIII. of the Act of Confederation. + +As to Gentz's private life there is not much to be said. He remained to +the last a man of the world, though tormented with an exaggerated terror +of death. His wife he had never seen again since their parting at +Berlin, and his relations with other women, mostly of the highest rank, +were too numerous to record. But passion tormented him to the end, and +his infatuation for Fanny Elssler, the celebrated _danseuse_, forms the +subject of some remarkable letters to his friend Rahel, the wife of +Varnhagen von Ense (1830-1831). He died on the 9th of June 1832. + +Gentz has been very aptly described as a mercenary of the pen, and +assuredly no other such mercenary has ever carved out for himself a more +remarkable career. To have done so would have been impossible, in spite +of his brilliant gifts, had he been no more than the "wretched scribe" +sneered at by Napoleon. Though by birth belonging to the middle class in +a country of hide-bound aristocracy, he lived to move on equal terms in +the society of princes and statesmen; which would never have been the +case had he been notoriously "bought and sold." Yet that he was in the +habit of receiving gifts from all and sundry who hoped for his backing +is beyond dispute. He notes that at the congress of Vienna he received +22,000 florins through Talleyrand from Louis XVIII., while Castlereagh +gave him £600, accompanied by _les plus folles promesses_; and his diary +is full of such entries. Yet he never made any secret of these gifts; +Metternich was aware of them, and he never suspected Gentz of writing or +acting in consequence against his convictions. As a matter of fact, no +man was more free or outspoken in his criticism of the policy of his +employers than this apparently venal writer. These gifts and pensions +were rather in the nature of subsidies than bribes; they were the +recognition by various powers of the value of an ally whose pen had +proved itself so potent a weapon in their cause. + +It is, indeed, the very impartiality and objectivity of his attitude +that make the writings of Gentz such illuminating documents for the +period of history which they cover. Allowance must of course be made for +his point of view, but less so perhaps than in the case of any other +writer so intimately concerned with the policies which he criticizes. +And, apart from their value as historical documents, Gentz's writings +are literary monuments, classical examples of nervous and luminous +German prose, or of French which is a model for diplomatic style. + + A selection of Gentz's works (_Ausgewählte Schriften_) was published + by Weick in 5 vols. (1836-1838); his lesser works (Mannheim, + 1838-1840) in 5 vols. and _Mémoires et lettres inédites_ (Stuttgart, + 1841) were edited by G. Schlesier. Subsequently there have appeared + _Briefe an Chr. Garve_ (Breslau, 1857); correspondence + (_Briefwechsel_) with Adam Müller (Stuttgart, 1857); _Briefe an Pilat_ + (2 vols., Leipzig, 1868); _Aus dem Nachlass Friedrichs von Gentz_ (2 + vols.), edited by Count Anton Prokesch-Osten (Vienna, 1867); _Aus der + alten Registratur der Staats-Kanzlei: Briefe politischen Inhalts von + und an Friedrich von Gentz_, edited by C. von Klinkowström (Vienna, + 1870); _Dépêches inédites du chev. de Gentz aux Hospodars de Valachie + 1813-1828_ (a correspondence on current affairs commissioned by the + Austrian government), edited by Count Anton von Prokesch-Osten the + younger (3 vols., Paris, 1876), incomplete, but partly supplemented in + _Österreichs Teilnahme an den Befreiungskriegen_ (Vienna, 1887), a + collection of documents of the greatest value; _Zur Geschichte der + orientalischen Frage: Briefe aus dem Nachlass Friedrichs von Gentz_ + (Vienna, 1877), edited by Count Prokesch-Osten the younger. Finally + Gentz's diaries, from 1800 to 1828, an invaluable mine of authentic + material, were edited by Varnhagen von Ense and published after his + death under the title _Tagebücher_, &c. (Leipzig, 1861; new ed., 4 + vols., _ib._ 1873). Several lives of Gentz exist. The latest is by E. + Guglia, _Friedrich von Gentz_ (Vienna, 1901). (W. A. P.) + + + + +GEOCENTRIC, referred to the centre of the earth (Gr. [Greek: gê]) as an +origin; a term designating especially the co-ordinates of a heavenly +body referred to this origin. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 11, Slice 5, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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